An l¡'ne;'uaa¡r soc¡ety tor hilo¡,ticuilturra[ scle¡nce se¡münai;.

[Montreafl , eulebec, ea¡nada

----------r
 I

Gneenhouse Tomato $eminar

Am e rica n s o c,.,ii,'?lií"fi 3'íil r't u ra !
3-4 August 1995
Radisson Gouverneurs Hotel,
Montreal, Quebec, Canada

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Exhibiting Companies....... ,.,....,.."...2

Greenhouse Tomatoes-The Basics of Successfu! Production ...,.........."........ 3

Richard G. Snyde

Designing the Greenhouse to Fit the Needs of the Plant ..¡r¡.¡¡¡...,r.."..,7

Gene A. Giacomelli

lnert Growing Media for GreenhouseTomatoes ........'.., ....... 13

W.A. Straver

Cooling and Heating the Greenhouse for Control of Plant Environment ......16
Gene A. Glacomelli

Greenhouse Tomato Disease ldentification and Management .........21

Frank Kitlebrew

Management of Greenhouse Tomato Pests: An lntegrated Approach .........." 26

Gillian Ferguson

Nutrition of GreenhouseTomatoes on lnert Substrates in Northern Latitude ....3'!

W.A. Straver :

Challenges for Growing Tomatoes in Warm Climates ........ ...,...,.......34

George Hochmuth and Bob Hochmuth

GreenhouseTomato Nutrition and Fertilization for Southern Latitudes........37

George Hochmuth

Greenhouse Tomato Seminar

 -

Green house Tomato Serni nar

sponsored by the
Ameriean Society for Horticultural Science
3-4 August 1995
Radisson Gouvemeurs Hotel,
Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Exhibiting Companies

API (Agricultural Products lnc.)

3857 W. Lk. Hamilton Drive, Winter Haven, FL 33881
ATTN: Del MurPhY
Phone: +813.294.1900
Fax +813.299.6421

Apl is a manufacturer of low{lowlmicroirrigation products-Spin Clean Filters (plastic 314"-9 gpm to 2.-100
gpm) (steel 2"-100 gpm to 12"-2800 gpm); vinyl tubing 1/8" to 1"; and poly tubi,ng 1/8' to 6' Flatube; air vents;
tor 112", 314",
- Ritings for making connections from PVC, layflat, or Flatube to the various drip tapes; fittings
and 1' poly tubing and many other accessories to complete the system between the pump and emission
device.

GropKing, lnc.
' ::'*
a,:

P.O, Box 310, Medina, OH 44258

ATTN: Dan Brentlinger
Phone: +216.725.5656
Fax:. +216.722.3958
CropKing specializes in comrnercial hydroponic tomato, cucumber, and lettuce production systems.Techni-
cal training and grower support are both important parts of the complete production package. This package
also includes the greenhouse, production system, environmental modification equipment, and controls. Grow-
ers also have marketing assistance available for their products.

Spectrum Technologies, lnc.

'r ¡!¡^!r !.r .r n-:..- nl^i-¡:^lJ. ll
^ -..- u IJllvti, rldll¡llrr¡u, ll-
D^E Á /l
l¿u lu D. flgf Lrvi.r'+'t
ATTN: Susan Remus
Phone: +800.248.8873 or +81 5.436.4¿140
Fax: +815.436.4460
Nutrient management tools, including Cardy meters for NO. nitrate, K* potassium, conductivity, pH, Na*,
Agri-LAB reflectoquant analysis for nitrale, ammonium, potassium, calcium, zinc, pH; dataloggers fortem-
perature, relative humidity, light intensi§ with PC software.

L
1 Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
Greenhouse Tomatoes*The Basies
of Successful Produetion
Richard G. Snyderl
Mississippi State University, P.O. Box 231, Crystal Springs, MS 39059

he greenhouse vegetable industry in the ln Canada, the biggest concentration is in the prov-
United States is a mixture of many relatively ince of Ontario, with about 300 acres of greenhouse
small, often family-run businesses and a small tomatoes, cucumbers, and peppers, mostly grown
number of large, multi-acre facilities. The smaller in soil or rockwool.The town of Leamington, in south-
ones are often in the 2,500 to 10,000 ft2 range, while ern Ontario, is likelythe most densely occupied town
the larger ones are mostly 10 or more acres in size. in North America with glass- and plastic-covered
One of the main differences is that the larger green- greenhouses. Quebec Province follows with about
house ranges are usually using waste heat from a 225 acres total, and then British Columbia with 140
power plant or other source in cogeneration, though acres, Calgary with 35 acres (mostly cucumbers),
this is not always the case. and Alberta with about 10 acres of tomatoes.
ln some areas, including Mississippi, this industry ln Mexico, there is an estimated 250 acres of
over the years can best be described as one that greenhouse vegetables in production, about half to-
has faded in and out of populariiy, much like a fad. matoes and half cucumbers.
New growers looking for better ways to make a liv- The trend in some pafts of the United States has
ing have been stimulated by greenhouse supply com- been away from the smaller, family-run operations
panies looking for prospective customers. Often, ru- and towards the multi-acre industrial facilities, often
mors of incredíbly high yields, consistently high de- using waste heat from cogeneration. ln Ohio, which
mand and price, and minimal problems with pests used to be the leading state in greenhouse veg-
and culture have encouraged novice growers to start etables in the LJnited States, acreáge has dropped
in such a big way as to make it impossible to pay off from more than 600 acres of smallto mid-sized grow-
their debts. ln fact, overextending into financial debt ers in the mid-1970s to fewer than 40 acres today.
is probably the rnain reason for some growers even- On the other hand, there is now one business in
tually goiñg out of business. Colorado that accounts for 65 acres, one in Penn-
ln the past 6 years, however, the greenhouse to-
mato indtrstry in Mississippihas grown from a hand- Table 1. Leading greenhouse vegetable sfafes ín the
ful of small operations to a thriving alternative agri- United Sfafes.
cultural enterprise. As of the most recent survey Arizona 25 acres of tomatoes
(June, 1995), Mississippí has 109 businesses, en-
California 8 acres of tomatoes
compassing 284 free-standing greenhouses or gut-
20 acres of cúcumbers
ter-connected bays, and occupying 15 acres. While
15 acres may not seem significant when compared Colorado 69 acres of tomatoes
to field crops, it is substantial enough to place Missis- Florida 10 acres of tomatoes
sippi within the top 10 states in the United States in 20 acres of cucumbers
greenhouse vegetable acreage. These growers add 14 acres of peppers
about S2.4 million to the state's horticultural sales. Mississippi 15 acres of tomatoes
The greenhouse vegetable acreage in the United New York 35 acres of tomatoes
States is concentrated mostly in a few states (see North Carolina 10 acres of tomaloes
Table 1). Leading states include Colorado, Pennsyl-
Ohio 15 acres of tomatoes
vania, Florida, California, and Arizona.The estimated
20 acres of other crops
total greenhouse vegetable production in the United
Statesis4S0acres. Of this,the majoritywould be green- Pennsylvania 49 acres of tomatoes
house tomatoes, estimated at 85,000,000 lb annually. 5 acres of cucumbers
7 acres of peppers
1
Vegetable Specialist.

Greenhouse Tomato Seminar


Tabte 2. Estimates of greenhouse vegetable acreage
in varíous countries.'
Canada 710 acres
3,000 acres
EnglandMales
Holland 11,400 acres
Spain 30,000 acres
United States 450 acres
,These figures do not include bedding plants or floriculture crops.
sylvania that comprises 30 acres, and a new facílity
in Arizona with 25 acres so far, with plans to reach
100 to 200 acres in the future.
ln Mississippi and most of the other states, how-
ever, the opposite trend is apparent. All of the busi-
nesses in Mississippi are small, and most are fam-
ily- run. The average size is two to four gutter-con-
nected bays, <10,000 ft2 each-only two grower's
ranges have attained 1 acre in size.
A High-value/High-qual¡ty CroP
What makes greenhouse tomatoes a good crop
to consider growing? There are several traits of this
crop that make it outstanding, including the following:
'high quality
"high yield
"good taste
nuniform size, shape, and color
"exceptional disease resistance
Much of the flavor and quality is attributed to green-
house tomatoes being a "vine-ripe" fruit' They are
not harvested green, but show some red color be-
fore being picked, graded, and packed. The degree
of ripeness at harvest is determined by the distance
to the market, but these fruit are never picked green.
Because of these traits, greenhouse tomatoes are
considered to be a high-value crop. The cultural re-
quirements needed to grow tomatoes in a green-
house are so unique that they may be thought of as
totally different from "field" or "garden" tomatoes.
Why grow tomatoes in a greenhouse rather than
outside? The purpose of growing tomatoes in a
greenhouse is very sPecific:
To control the environment to enable production
during a time of year when field crops of high
quality are not available.
Every part of this sentence is significant. The
greenhouse structure is needed only to be able to
control the environment-temperature, light, relative
humidity, etc. This environmental control allows us
to grow tomatoes at a time of year when we would
I
not otherwise be able to do so. Fuñhermore, it pro-
vides us with a way to get high-qualitytomaioes dur-
ing that time of year- namely', the u;inter months.
There are field tomatoes available during the win-
ter from southem Florida and Califomia, Mexico, Cen-
tralAmerica, South America, and other areas. How-
ever, they are mostly shipped green and gassed with
ethylene to induce ripening later. Such tomatoes
never develop the full flavor of a vine-ripened tomato,
even though the appearance and color may be ac-
ceptable. Greenhouse tomatoes are picked afterthey
show some red color. At this stage, the flavor com-
ponents have developed enough so that they are
good-tasting tomatoes when fully ripe.
Essential Equipment
ln order to profitably grow a crop of greenhouse
tomatoes, a grower needs at leastthe following:
.pH meter
"EC meter
.pollinator, or other means of pollinating
The pH meter is needed to ensure that the nutri-
ent solution pH is in the range of 5.6 to 5.8 (for aggre-
gate media). The electroconductivity (EC) meter is
used to measure how much fertilizer is dissolved in
the water. The most useful units are millimhos (usu-
ally in the range oi 1.0 to 3.0) or micromhos (in the
fange of 1000 to 3000). ln some European coun-
t:ies, the units milliSiemens (mS) or microSiemens
(¡rS) are used. ln this case, the conversion is simple
because 1 millisienren equals 1 millimho. Each time
a new batch of nutrient solution is mixed, the EC
and pH should be checked to detect mistakes be-
fore the plants do. l(eeping track of pH and EC is the
first step in managing the greenhouse tomato nutri-
tion program.
Pollination
The best ways to achieve good pollination of
greenhouse tomatoes are either with an electric pol-
linator or with the assistance of bumblebees. Polli-
nators cost around $95 and are available from green-
house suppliers. Pollinate every other day or 3 days
per week, preferably around mid-day, when the rela-
tive humidity is likely to be lowest. There are other
means of pollinating (leaf blower, electric toothbrush,
hitting strings or support with sticks, etc.), but none
' are as.effective as a good electric pollinator or
bumblebees. Rechargeable batteries are recom-
mended forthe pollinator, sínce these can be charged
after each use and are ready when needed. Bumble-
bees have been shown to be very effective pollina-
lors, and are recommended for growers with at least
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
10,000 ft2 under one roof.
Start pollinating as soon as there is any yeliow
color in the greenhouse; i.e., when the first few flow-
ers open. Pollinate every cluster on each plant that
has open flowers. Touch the pollinator wand to the
top of the peduncle (flowerclusterstalk), NOTto each
individual blossom. Touching the blossom will likely
damage the young ovary, causing fruit with holes in
the sides and other deformations.
Varieties
The best recommendation on choice of variety is
to choose the best available, because the whole crop
potential will be limited by choosing an inferior vari-
ety in the beginning. Selection of variety is based on
fruit color (red or pink), size, disease resistance, and
potential for physiological disorders (catfacing, blos-
som-end rot, zipper or anther scar, etc.). The Dutch
hybrid varieties have shown the most promise for
production in North America.
The varieties Garuso and Trust (both .from De
Ruiter Seeds) have shown the most reliable perfor-
mance for Míssissippi growers over the past 5 years
or so, with the lowest occurrence of problems. The
newer varieties Switch and Match have been excel-
lent performers in the past couple of years, and
should be considered as well.
Use of outdoor (field or garden) varieties by com-
mercialgreenhouse growers is a mistake. Such vari-
eties may be excellent in the garden or the hobby
greenhouse, but they will not perfcrm as well in the
greenhouse as varieties that have been bred for this
purpose. Also, older greenhouse varieties, such as
'Tropíc'and'Jumbo', are a poor choice for commer-
cial production. 'Laura', which is otherwise a very
good variety, should not be used due to its lack of
complete resistance to Cladosporium Leaf Mold (it
has C2 and not C5 designation). Likewise, the vari-
ety Trend should be avoided due to problems with
an extended, hard core.
Any growerwho has experienced Fusarium Crown
and Root Rot (FR) in the greenhouse should definitely
switch to a variety with FR resistance. This is a dev-
astating fungal disease that has only been in Missis-
sippi since 1990, but has existed in other parts of the
country for many years.Varietíes possessing this trait
at this printing include 'Trusf, 'Trend', 'switch', and
'Match' (from De Ruiter), and'Medallion' (from Bruinsma/
Asgrow).'Trust' is preferred to'Trend'.
Pests
A greenhouse is not a sterile environment. Green-
house crops eventually have problems with insects
and diseases, and some means need to be taken to
keep them under control. These can be chemícal,
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
mechanical (e.9., fly barriers, sticky yellow traps),
sanitation, biological control, etc.
The worst insect pests in most areas are whiteflies
and/or leafminers, but there are dozens of other in-
sects that can be a problem. ln many parts of the norlh-
ern United States, Canada, and Europe, biological
control is the norm, while in the southern United States
chemical controls for insects and diseases still pre-
dominate. This is due largely to substantially higher
pressure from various pests-very high relative hu-
midity promotes rapid establishment and spread of
many diseases, and mild winters allow rnany pests
to survive outside on other crops and weed hosts.
For those using chemical means of control, the
most reliable route recommended by entomologists
and plant pathologists is to spray or fog at weekly
intervals with recommended insecticides and fungi-
cides. lf a problem begins to get out of hand, the
interval will have to be shortened, possibly even to
every other day, until the problem subsides. This is
especially true with leafminers and whiteflies.
On a small scale, hand-held pump-up sprayers
can be used. For greenhouses with more than two,
or even one bay, the minimum sprayer wculd be a
backpack type with a hand pump. Larger green-
houses require either a PTO-powered sprayer with
a long hose, a fogger, smoke bombs, or a gasoline-
powered backpack sprayer.
The recommended labeled chemical controls for
insect pests on greenhouse tomatoes in the United
States at the time of this printing are Dibrom, Malathi-
on, Thiodan, Vapona, Azatin, Pyrellin, Pyrenone, M-
Pede, Phosdrin, and various types of B.t.For fungus
diseases, Exotherm Termil (chlorothalonil), Botran,
and Mancozeb (Dithane) are labeled and effective.
There are no cures for virus diseases.
Biologicalcontrols are available from some green-
house suppliers. These can be very effective, espe-
cially for insects such as whiteflies, but proper re-
lease intervals and numbers need to be used.
Production System in Mississippi
ln several years of research with growing media
in Mississippi, it has been shown that yields from
plants grown in pine bark fines (tess than 3/8 inch
diameter, composted) were either equal to or supe-
rior to yields and quality from using other media
(coarse sand, composted rice hulls, or rock wool).
Fuñhermore, adding various amendments to the pine
bark fines (sand, chicken manure, lime + gypsum,
peatmoss, etc.) had no effect on improving yield or
quality of tomatoes. Production was also superior with
pine bark when compared to calcite clay.
This is an imporlant finding for Mississippi growers
because pine bark is a readily available and very inex-
 Americon Societq lbr Hor¡icu/tttro{ Sc-ience Ser,inor Seríes
pensive grow¡ng medíum in the state. Growers can save
money by using a product that is easily found locally
anci is less expensive than other commerciai media.
About half the growers in Mississippi are using bulk
tank systems for fertigation, while the others are us-
ing various types of injectors. Of the injector rrsers,
perhaps '15 use Anderson@ lnjectors, with most of
the remainder using Dosmatid, Dosatron@, and Blue
and White@. Those with Anderson@ lnjectors are us-
ing five or six pumpheads, some with a separate acid
(P1 head) if needed.
One of the most common growing systems in the
state now is the use of lay{lat plastic bags filled with
pine bark fines. These are now available commer-
cially from a local supplier in Mississippi in prefilled
2-ft3 bags. Four plants are grown in each bag.
The primary limitations to increased yield in Missis-
sippi, as well as across the southern United States,
are high temperature and high humidity. The high
temperature limits the length of the growing season
in late spring, and causes various maladies, includ-
ing flower abodion, poor pollination, small fruit, split
skins, etc. With high humidity, evaporative cooling,
whetherfrom a pad-and fan-cooling systems or with
misting (fogging), is not very effective when compared
to drier climates. ln addition, as mentioned earlier,
disease development is rampant. Rapid growth of
insect populations is also favored in this climate.
lmportant Points for Growers
.Greenhouse tomatoes are not an easy crop to grow.
They are one of the most difficult and technical horticul-
turalcrops to produce, and need constant attention.
.To determine how many plants can be grown in a
greenhouse, multiply the greenhouse length times
the width and divide by 4. This is because each
tomato plant needs 4 ft2 to grow well. Planting at a
higher density will not give more yield per green-
house, because the yield per plant will be lower.
Do not include floor space that is used for work
benches, bulk fertilizer tanks, work areas, sales
areas, etc., in this calculation. Subtract such areas
from the square footage before dividing by 4.
.There should be no smoking in or near the green-
house. Tobacco carries tobacco mosaic virus
(TMV), which can be transmitted on the hands of
smokers, chewers, snuffers, etc.
"Learn as much as possible before starting a green-
house business. Also, once in business, there is
still a lot to learn. Continue attending short courses
and reading educational materials. The more you
know, the more you are able to learn.
.Ke€p good records. The following information about
the crop should be recorded in a notebook: planting
Oates; harvest dates; spray dates; spray materials;
amount of each fertilizer applied and when changes
are made; daiiy pH anci EC; dates crop is seeded,
transplanted, topped, and terminated; numbers and
release dates of biological control insects; observa-
tions of anything unusual with the crop--deficiency
symptoms, diseases, occurrence of insects, etc.
.Artificial lighting is not economically feasible with
greenhouse tomatoes (except for the single-clus-
ter, high-density, benchtoptype system). The cosi
. of the high-intensity lamps and the electrícity to
power them would not be balanced by substantially
higher yield to pay for the extra expense.
.There is no magíc to growing a good crop. The key
is good management. Management is making the
correct decisions at the right time.
Advice for New Growers
1) Visit as many growers as possible.
2) Setl the fruit before you sow the seeds.
3) Read all you can find.
4) Attend Greenhouse Short Courses.
5) Sfarl small.
As mentioned earlier, the biggest reason for finan-
cial failure is starting too big. There are so many
things to learn about growing greenhouse tomatoes
that it is best to start with one greenhouse to learn
with first. Later, a grower can always expand to as
large as desired. But making "new grower mistakes"
on severalbays at once is too costly, and may make
it impossible to make payments on a sizable loan.
Attending short courses that are geared specifi-
cally for greenhouse tomato production is an excel-
lent way to learn a lot about this crop in a short time.
The American Greenhouse Vegetable Growers Assn.
holds conferences every 2 years in various parts of
the country.The next one willbe in Atlantic City, New
Jersey on 14-18 June 1996. Also, there is a 2-day
intensive G.reenhouseTomato Short Course in Jack-
son, Miss., held each March. Other states that hold
short courses include Texas, New Jersey, Florida,
and North Carolina. It is well worth the expense to
travel to a short course or two in other states to learn
as much as possible about production lechniques
and potential problems.
Because it is impossible to give a new grower one
source for all the information necessary, lt is best to
attend short courses, read extension materials and
books, and visit current growers as much as pos-
sible before starting a new business.
Once in business, your Extension Specialist and
County Agent should be contacted for assistance with
questions and problems.
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
DesiEning the Greenhouse to F¡t
the Needs of the Plant
Gene A. Giacomelli
Department of Bioresource Engineering, Cook College, Rutgers University, New
Brunswick, NJ 08903-0231
tf he specific greenhouse structure, the crop pro-
I duction system, the environmentalcontrol, and
I tn" laboúmanagement procedures affect di-
rectly the ability of the greenhouse manager to suc-
cessfully produce high-quali§ crops within the green-
house.The greenhouse design requires the selection of
many individual component systems within the three
primary areas related to automation, culture, and envi-
ronment.
The complexíty of the dynamic greenhouse sys-
tem requires that problem-solving and planning should
not occur with the daily management decisions, but
during the design stage of the greenhouse, prior to
implementation. A logical procedure of design steps
is required to avoid the trial-and-error methodologies
typically used, the success or faílure of which de-
pends totally on the past experiences of the designer,
with too little input from the Erower. Although a de-
iailed design procedure does not exist at present,
the basis for its development is considered here.
Plant and Grower Needs
The greenhouse designer must first determine the
expectations and needs of the grower. The grower
must then describe what crop(s) will be grown, how
they will be managed, and within what basic type of
growing system they will be produced. These fac-
tors are based on grower/manager experiences. With
this basic information, aworkab[e desígn can be com-
pleted and then modified by the financial realities of
the required investment.
lnformation obtained from the grower should ín-
clude initial planning ideas, "forward thinking" for the
future, and even some philosophy about the green-
house operation. Grower and designer dialogue
might begin as follows:
1) What are your expectations for this endeavor?
Where do you want the business to be in the future?
How much expansion can occur? What is a comfort-
able size, or production capacity, for you? What are
the land or other resource limitations?
New Jersey Agr. Expt. Sta. Publ. Number P-03130-13-
95. Supported by State and Hatch Act Funds.
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
2) What greenhouse systems are of most interest
to you? Which are an absolute necessity in any de-
sign for you? For example, the type of crop produc-
tion system that is based on your plant growing ex-
periences should not be compromised. However, with
limited capital available, try to obtain the most cost-
effective return that will successfully produce the
crop, even if the design is initially not the most opti-
mal. Do not block future design improvements and
expansion relating to new crops, mechanization, au-
tomation, and/or environmental restrictions.
3) With the amount of money available for the ini-
tial capital investment and the $/ft2 greenhouse costs,
determine the amount of greenhouse area possible
based on your initial size requirements. lnclude the
most necessary systems and components, especially
those that cannot be added later easily. Design all
the systems with these future improvements in mind.
4) Selection (or elirnination) of specific systems
should be based on whether it is an irnmediate ne-
cessity or a desirable "tool." With insufficient capital,
it is important to select the additions to the overall
system with the most return for the investment. For
example, an energy blanket is typically a very cost-
effective investment- The cost is about $z/tf, $21¡
m2), and energy savíngs can approach 35% peryear.
With large yearly heating energy costs, this invest-
ment is good. However, it could be installed at a later
date if the greenhouse structure is designed prop-
erly. Another example is the structural foundation,
which should be considered initially because later it
would be a much greater expense. This might in-
clude a poured concrete footing, with an 8-inch (20-
cm) -high concrete knee-wall that extends below soil
grade, and a 3-ft (90-cm) "splash pad" around the
entire exterior perimeter of the foundation. This re-
duces dirt splash onto sidewall glaz!ng, keeps weeds
away from sidewali, and is agood barrier to rodents.
Ventilation is an absolute requirement, but the com-
plexity of a multi-staged fan and inlet window sys-
tem could be simplified to a single-stage system to re-
duce initial costs. An upgrade to a more-optimum air
temperature control system could occur in the future.
 frmerica n Socíetg for.Horfir-ukui ro[ S cience Seminnr §eries
It is important to compromise at this point to ob-
tain a workable, but not the most optimal, greenhouse
system. However, the initiai design should not pre-
vent future upgrading.
Application of Design Requirements
Assume a reasonable greenhouse layout, given
the land area that is available. Begin with a small,
but complete, unit with a plan for successive addi-
tions to this small unit, or with modular blocks of larger
greenhouses. Consider the location and size of a
subsequent headhouse work area and office space.
Build in units no largerthan 1-acre (0.45-ha) blocks.
The location must be a suitable site for a green-
house. The land should be reasonably well-drained
and level, with access to transporl of materials and
product. Utilities such as fuel, electrical power, and
telephone should be readily available. Sufficient quan-
tity of good-quality water (be aware of pH, hardness,
salinity, dissolved minerals, etc.) is a necessi§.
The structural integrity of the greenhouse must be
sufficient for the weather conditions (winds, snow) of
the location. The greenhouse structure must not only
be of sufficient overallsize, but also of unit proporüon,
primarily to fit the modular síze (row spacing or bench
width) of the crop production system. High productiv-
ity is, in part, based on the optimum use of green-
house space. For example, if multitruss greenhouse
tomatoes are to be produced within a double-row and
aisle replicate growing system, one possible design
consists of a pair of tomato rows within an 1B-inch (45-
crn)-wide bed, and adjacentto a30-inch (76-cm) aisle.
The replicate unit space requirement of the growing
system would be 48 inches (122 cm). Therefore, the
unit width of the greenhouse bay should be a multiple
of 4 ft (1.2 m). Commonly available sizes would be 20
ar 24 ft (6.1 or 7.3 m) from gutter to gutter.
An impofiant consideration for long-term expan-
sion is whether a groundto-ground (quonset style)
or gutter-connected structure should be selected.The
quonset can initially be less expensive. However, its
maximum width is limited to 28 to 30 ft (8.5 to 9.2
m), and it cannot be expanded easily. The next
quonset unit would have to be built adjacent to the
first. with a separate entrance and environmental
control system. The land space between each unit
is not usable easily, and requires maintenance. The
gutter-connected design allows for easy future ex-
pansion by moving the sidewall and adding more
bays in between. The entire module is under one
roof, which provides for common access and the
'capability of sharing mechanization
and environmen-
tal control systems. There can also be a significant
economy of scale, not only in long-term capital in-
vestment, but also in yearly operational costs. For
example, within New Jeisey climate conditions, sav-
ings in heating costs alone justify the use of one large
guiier-connecteci greenhouse instead of five sepa-
rated 20-ft (6.1-m) units. Labor management and crop
culture, although hard to quantify, seem readily im-
proved within one large facility, as compared to man-
agement of numerous smaller units.
Multiple, separate structures can potentially offer
isolation for disease and insect control, which seems
less possible within guüer-eonnected facilitíes. How-
ever, pest control practices are more difficutt and time-
consuming in separated, smaller structures. Practical
isolation is difficult because of the labor tasks requir-
ing regular and intimate plant contact.The realities of
the situation are analogous to successfully creating a
non-smoking section on an airplane!
Greenhouse Orientation
Greenhouse orientation, as determined by the direc-
tion of the ridge or gutters relative to the movement of
the sun, is of major concern and continuous debate.
There may be no optimal compass orientation, but
there are costs/lcenefits to be considered among them.
The primary concern is for the maximum quantity,
duration, and uniform availability of solar radiation for
plant groMh. At geographic locations greaterthan 30"
from the equator, the natural seasonal reduction of
solar radiation is the most limiting factor in greenhouse
plant growth and development. lt also can be the most
difficult and expensive to overcome. For example, the
yield,and quality of greenhouse vegetables, such as
tomatoes, are directly affected by light availability. For
latitudes near 50o, experience has shown from 1% to
1 .5% loss in tomato yield for each 1% reduction of
light received at the plant canopy.
ln general, the free-standing quonset greenhouse
will provide more solar ¡adiation to the plants than a
gutter-connected greenhouse with similar orientation.
For gutter-connected greenhouses in a N-S ridge
orientation, the most total yearly amount of light will
be received. Much of this light, however, is received
in the summer. Considering only winter (that is, the
lowest líght intensity and shortest daylength period
of the year), an E-W ridge orientation will gain more
total light than a N-S orientation. lt is important to
determine what crops will be grown, their light re-
quirements, and when the crops will be grown prior
to selecting and orienting the greenhouse structure.
For uniformity of light distribution at the plant
canopy, the N-S-oriented greenhouse is always bet-
ter than the E-W The shadow patterns at the plant
canopy caused by the N-S gutters constantly move
across the crops (from west to east) as the sun trav-
els from sunrise in the east to sunset in the west.
This is especially important during the light-limiting
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
season, so that all plants receive similar daily
amounts of light. ln an E-W greenhouse, the shadow
of the gutter moves toward the south as the sun rises
in the morning, and toward the north after noon, as
the sun begins setting. The distance of this shadow
movement becomes quite short during the low sun
angles of winter. Thus, several rows of plants within
each bay will be in continual shadoq and subse-
quently will have reduced growth rates.This assumes
clear sky (direct beam radiation) conditions. With
cloudy, diffuse sky conditions, the shadow effect is
diminished, but not totally eliminated.
For a tall crop of multi-truss tomatoes, the most
optimum orientation for year-round production is with
the greenhouse oriented N-S, and with the rows of
plants oriented parallelto the gutters-that is, N-S as
well.This, again, is based on the above described im-
portance of light distribution uniformity, but also on the
fact that the plants in N-S rows would. receive morn-
ing light on their east side and afternoon light on their
west side. The portions of the entire plant would be in
direct light at some time during the day, whereas, with
an E-W orientation, the entire norlh side of the plant
and much of the lowerporli,tns of the south side would
continually be in shadow during much of the winter.
For a short crop, such as lettuce, an E-W orienta-
tion of the growing system would be acceptable be-
cause plant-to-plant shading is minimal. However,
E-W rows within a N-S greenhouse causes some
difficulties in the layout and operation cf the growing
system and the environmental control r;ystem.
Environmental Control
Environmental controlfor heating and cooling uni-
formity is a very important design consideration.The
process of sizing the heating and cooling systems
will control the selection of equipment that can pro-
vide sufficient cooling or heating. However, it cannot
be assumed that a uniform environment will occur
for each plant within the greenhouse. Non-uniform
environments cause differential plant growth rates,
potential disease problems, unpredictable results with
nutrition or hormonal application, and generally a
more difficult plant production system to manage.
For the most-effective and uniform cooling with
fan ventilation, the rows of tall plants should be ar-
ranged in the direction parallel with the ridge or gut-
ters of the greenhouse structure. This is less critical
for naturalventilation systems, and for production of
short plants such as lettuce. This assumes that the
ventilation system (fans and air inlets) would be lo-
cated on the fixed endwalls, not on the sidewalls,
which extend parallel to the gutters. Future expan-
sion of the greenhouse could occur readily without
the need to move the existing fans and air inlets by
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
moving the sidewalls outward and adding more bays
in between. This design allows for the air to move
through each aisle between the rows as it travels from
inlet to fan. Should the plant rows run perpendicular
to the ridge or gutters, uniform airflow would be sig-
nificantly reduced within a tall crop.The rows of plants
adjacent to the inlets would block the airflow as it en-
tered the greenhouse, and cause the air to channel
around the plant rows and into the open pathway(s).
The pathways within this layout would have to run par-
allel to the guüers at one or both ends of the plant rows.
They provide the access to each row of plants for labor
tasks. However, they would also provide the easiest,
. and most direct, channel for the incoming ventilation
air to reach the exhaust fans without passíng within
the plantcanopy. Plantcooling uniformitywould be poor.
Should aidlow be made restricted and non-uniform,
for whatever reason, then the ventilation system can
not effectively cool the plant nor provide for sufficient
air exchange for disease control and CO, availability.
The operational efficiency of the cooling ánd heating
systems is therefore reduced, and operation costs will
increase. The evaporative cooling system, whether
pad-and-fan or high-pressure fog, is depends highly
upon effectlve and uniform ventilation. Air heating sys-
tems that are depend highly upon unrestricted air
movement to each plant will also be less efficient. Fuel
and electrical costs would increase. The rate of plant
growth would vary in proportion to the temperature
variations at different locations within the growing area.
Lessthan-optimal air temperature and humidity may
cause an increase in plant pathological disorders, and
make efforts to reduce pest and disease pressure
more difficult by restricting the dispersion of pesticides.
A hot water heating system is affected less by plant
row direction within a greenhouse than a hot air sys-
tem for distributing the heat to the plants. The heat-
ing pipe network is spaced throughout the entire
greenhouse area uniformly, and typically distributes
the heat more uniformly. In some cases, it is desired
to place the hot water pipe system near the base of
the plant or within the aisle. The air at the floor is
heated and rises through the plant canopy, provid-
ing a highly desirable plant microclimate. Forthis situ-
ation, the plumbing of the pipe network could be more
difficult and potentially expensive when the plant rows
are not parallel to the direction of the greenhouse
roof ridge or gutters (which is typically the longest
direction of the greenhouse).
The design should also consider energy consump-
tion for heating or cooling. Should the long-term ex-
pectations be for a production facility that is larger in
growing area than a few freestanding structures can
provide, then it is more energy efficient to construct
one larger gutter-connected module. The heating
 Ameri¿¡n Socíetg for Horficu{f¿trol Science Seminor Series
energy savings is gained by the reduced proportion
of the sidewalls relative to the floor area within a
gutter-connected greenhouse.
For improved climate uniformity, a taller greenhouse
is better.ln gutter-connected greenhouses, a minimum
of 10 ft (3 m) from floor surface to gutter height, which
also provides an additional 3 or 4 ft (0.9 to 1 .2 m) from
the gutter up to the ridge, is desirable. Many recent
construciions have gutter heights of 14 ft (4.3 m).
These designs provide a large internal air volume,
which helps to modulate the natural fluctuations of
the environmental conditions. The larger volume is
pañicularly helpful in maintaining desired airtempera-
tures during the warm seasons. The solar-heated air
accumulates in the high spaces, allowing the cooler
air to remain at the plant location. The added height
for a tall greenhouse does not significantly increase
the energy required for heating, pafiicularly on a gut-
ter-connected greenhouse. For example, when the
gutter height is increased 20"/",'from 10 to 12 ft (3 to
3.7 m) within a 36 x 100-ft (9.1 x 30-m), three-bay,
guüer-connected greenhouse, the surface area in-
creases by only B%. Note that the surface area, not
the volume of the greenhouse, determines the design
size and operational costs of the heating system. For
larger greenhouses with greater floor areas, the wall
surface area is proportionally even less significant.
In addition to better climate control within a tall
greenhouse, veñical space may be required for other
greenhouse systems such as: an energy blanket or
shade cloth, supplemental lights, benches (which
reduce the available height to the overhead systems),
tallcrops such as tomatoes, irrigation boom or over-
head misting systems (not fortomato production), or
future hanging basket plants. The ridge height and
volume of interior space within a quonset-s§le green-
house is typically less than a gutter-connected green-
house with similar floor areas.
The most common energy conservation technique
related directly to the design of the structure is the
internal energy blanket. This system could also be
used as a shading device with proper selection of
blanket material. ln all greenhouse structure designs,
a space for the energy blanket should be provided.
Within a gutter-connected greenhouse, the blanket
can be located at the height of the gutter. When not
in use, it can be packed tightly beneath the gutter to
minimize additional shading and loss of light to the
plants during the day. The energy blanket can be
installed within quonset-style greenhouses,'but with
more difficulty and more shading of the crop. ln all
cases where the winter season requires significant
amounts of supplemental heating, the energy blan-
ket provides a cost-effective means of energy con-
servation. For example, the design size of the heater
required for a greenhouse with an energy blanket
can be reduced by 30"/" to 357", as compared to the
same structure withoui an energy blanket. An en-
ergy blanket system can cost $21ft2 ($211m2).
Management and Labor
Management and labor for crop production is gen-
erally the major expense for a greenhouse operation.
Any means within greenhouse design to increase la-
bor productivity or improve labor management is ben-
eficial. Generally, a larger facility under one roof, such
as with gutter-connected greenhouse designs, can im-
prove the labor management situation. Employees are
confined to a single locatíon, and not dispersed among
numerous smaller structu res. The preparation and work
areas for specific tasks can be centralized for more-
efficient labor productivity. Supplies and raw materi-
als can be readily available from centralstorage.
The structured conditions of a greenhouse have
an advantage over other forms of production agricul-
ture. The work conditions can be modified and im-
proved as a result of the mechanization, automation,
or environmental control systems. The labor demand
is quite regular, which helps to maintain a skilled, de-
pendable workforce.The regulari§ and repetitiveness
of the work tasks allows for analysis and improvements
of work conditions and procedures, which ultimately
lead to increased productivity and safe§ for the worker.
These attributes should be used to the advantage of
the greenhouse designer and the greenhouse man-
ager. Even relatively simple improvements can greatly
increase worker productivity. For example, a wheeled
cart that rides on the heating pipes located within the
aisles between the tomato rows improves harvest
rates and potentially reduces fruit damage.
Materials and Product Flow, lnternal
Transport, and Space Utilization
The layout of a greenhouse production area af-
fects the productivity of both the greenhouse and the
workers. One indication of greenhouse productivity
is measured by the percentage of space utilization.
Labor productivity is influenced by the sequence of
tasks to be performed within the greenhouse, and
the management strategy.
The flow of materials and salable product can be in-
fluenced directly by the greenhouse structure and the
layout of the internal systems.The greenhouse consists
of specific locations for plant production, internaltrans-
port, and preparation tasks for input or output. These
locations need to be considered in advance of the struc-
tural layout to best meet the production demands.
The plant production space within the greenhouse
bays account for the largest of these locations. The
type of growing system, its physical layout, and its
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
 :: i_i:{.é.:.:.i. ilr:ir_T=,e ?:_ i

growth period Oo
ptanrtransport. Howeve¡
the worker must t¡1vel
T:.1?gu,re
that transport of thecrop
i. tñ,i ül^ii'ii," tosicat
then
put and outpur or?L1pn:,."il
O"-..,ffii..ilno for in_
be retativety ,ni":]figl"g rh"i;;;ss "u.y
to the ptant
tion s. rhis
fu
¡s espe,,c3ly,
th; il;;lnur"" opera_
regular "hands_on matntenance ;;;' :',ops req ui ri n s
ip";i;;i
faqkc
rhe importance gr
is direcily proportionatt" lecÁ;;;;;:;d
automation
an" r*"lrtl,fnanOf
maintenance one¡3li9n. r"qriü,i"I,n" ing anO
crucial considerations crop. Two
grg *É.t.r. ii" requires
regutar (daity)rrrl:!:19r,¡ng
it. ó,";rh"ropperiod, and
whether the operations can
,,iráiñ'*iitrin the green-
house.growing area or wf,etfrei
travet to a work area, outsídá
if,ey'must include
general rule of internal transpori
ir"' ;i"üffi ull!:";
i.,
quired, than move.the largesigr";;it'tiun*port is re_
of
crop over the shortest possiOte"Oisünc*.materials or
tf efficient transportátion ¡.-,
ñ"li'át t" green-
house design, there are ttren sevliaioptions
cating the work area.(i.e., tfre aieá for lo_
wfr"ere hands_on
maintenance operations wiil be
ó"iioir"o on the
crop). lt could be near the produción-ur"u,
ptetely removed from the or com_
broou"iián área*for ex_
ample withir:-an adjacent sfreO. fireie
would also be
the option for a mobile work area, *f.,¡.'Á
could move
throughout the main pathways ét tf,u
gr""nhouse.
This essentially requires móunting the
necessary
equipment or machinery onto a mo"vable
platform.
.theMachinery and hand equipment thái can ,mprove
capability of the worke:s io pertoim iheir
tasks, or
improve the working concJithns while
compteting their
tasks, should be considered in the design.
bonuáÁ*iy,
certain greenhouse layouts and crofi culture
tech_
niques shourd be avoíded to prevent Jifficurt
rabor
conditions. Any design that requires regular,
extremely
strenuous or exhaustive labcrious worñshould
be con_
sidered for redesign. Although machinery
and equip_
ment can reduce the difficulty of a labor
tásk, it is'bet_
ter to avoid the added expense if an alternative
de_
sign can eliminate the need to mechanize.
l"t*:*ff""L.n:ation, and Labor Aids Automation wiihin a production system
can have
many attributes. lt afso has an inveátment
cost that
must outweigh the costs of a manual operation.
Au_
tomated machinery or manual labor aiOs
increase
rne unttormity and consistency of the product
and
the work force. Mechanization of an tfieration
can
provide mechanical power, speed,
r"peiitior, safety,
and potential for consistency anO quátity
controi.
Automation includes.these attrÍbutes, üui
witfr greater
flexibility and potentially some OecÉiónruking.
The
financial value of increased quality ofteruO
;ilff mation or mechanization may be'O¡ficuft
by auto_

tHfl i{d¡ fl*j-#iffi r¿' ffi mine, but an increase of quañtíty or production
pacity can be readily calculated.' '
to deter_
ca_
 Amerícan Socícfg for Horficu[f¿trol Science Seminor Series
Plant Culture System
The plant culture system is usually the easiest of all
systems for the grower to understand and deslgn, pri-
marily because plant production is the basís of his or
her profession. The final system selection is usually
based on the groweis past crop production experi-
ences. lt is not recommended forany new and/or large
facility io change the crop production system dramati-
cally from the previous experience of the grower/man-
ager of the facility. For example, a grower experienced
in multi-truss tomato production within soilless media
should not establish a facility of hydroponically grown,
single-iruss tomatoes. A small test trial would be the
best approach.
The plant culture system consists of the root zone
and aerial environments. These include the root
growing media, the water/nutrient distribution sys-
tem, and the crop physical support system. Both the
root and the aerial zones of the plant are directly
affected by the characteristics and limitations of the
culture system. The culture system is primarily de-
scribed by the type of hydroponic, soilless culture or
water delivery mechanism employed. Because wa-
tering is fundamental and crucial to the quality of the
plant, water and nutrient delivery are vitally impor-
tant.There are many specific types of water delivery
systems (NFT, ebb-and-flood, drip irrigation, etc.),
and numerous variations within each type. The gen-
eral requirements that are common to most of the
successful crop production systems can be described
by their type of: 1) plant support, 2) root zone con-
tainment, 3) nutrienlwater distribution, 4) root zone
aeration, and 5) environmental conditions. Once the
type of plant growing system is selected, the design
efforts must focus on the specifics of a water deliv-
ery system. The root zone media and the crop water
requirements determine the parameters of design of
the water distribution system.
Many of the biological processes required for the
culture systems are inherently served by the spe-
cific procedure in which water and nutrients are de-
livered to the plants. Processes such as transpira-
tion, respiration, nutrient uptake, gas exchange, and
organic waste product removal are enhanced or in-
hibited as a direct result of rool zone watering. The
characteristics of the water delivery system influence
the coniroiiing parameiers oÍ each oÍ iirese processes,
and therefore modulate their relative activity and af-
fect indirectly the growth and development of the plant
as well. Several important characteristics of the wa-
tering system include: 1) the nutrient solution trans-
porUflow pattern within the root zone,2) the buffering
capaci§ of the root zone, 3) whether the nutrient so-
[ution is recirculated or "drained to waste," and 4) the
frequency and duration of application.
Frequency and duration of nutrient solution flow
t2
depends on the characteristics of the culture system
and the physiological age and the general water de-
mand of the plantspecies underproduction. Flow pat-
terns and buffering capacity atthe root zone, and whether
an open (non-recirculation) or closed (recirculation) water-
ing procedure is employed, all directly influence man-
agement procedures. All of the above are further modi-
fied by the environmental conditions supplied to the plant.
Plant culture includes the fundamental parameters
that influence the growth and development of the plant.
The basic needs particular to the plant to be grown must
be determined first. Then the interacüon of culture pro-
cedures with the controlled envrronrnent and the materi-
als handling system will affect the final plant product.
Fleconsideration of the Design
Given a crop and its necessary culture require-
ments, the crop production system with its particular
water/nutrient delivery system can be selected. Once
labor needs and environmental controls are deter-
mined, then a greenhouse structure can be con-
structed for all of the internal systems. This is the
basic procedure envisioned and described here.
However, if the initial design seems too unproven, or
has ioo many uncommon components, than a rede-
sign may be necessary, and usually is necessary.
The designer should review the entire design pro-
cess, but should focus on the sections of this paper
beginning with management and labor, and then pro-
ceed to the end. Design is an iterative process, and
a good design is a long, iterative process. People
are finicky aibout their real needs, and will change
priorities. Greenhouse growers are no exception.
lntegration of the crop production and the environ-
mental control systems within the system of automa-
tion is an impoftant aspect of greenhouse design.
Culture systems capable of suppoñing plant growth
must be compatible with the materials handling and
automation systems, as well as the labor experlise
and demands required to operate the system.
Design and operation of a greenhouse for plant
production are daunting tasks, even for the most
experienced persons. They are a highly complex
system of individual biological and mechanical sub-
systems. These subsystems are deeply interrelated
and must function together to provide successful crop
._.-- _r---r:-.- l¡r:¡r- t-.__t_.--_,_r_t -.__t_.--r--_¡:__ _..^t
pfuuuuuufr. YYlLll luilual IlEIrtar unuer§tdr rurilg ar ru cl
^
desire to develop integrated crop production systems,
the design of future greenhouses may become less
guesswork or determinations by "experience" and
more methodical and reliant on information databases.
Reference
Giacomelli, G.A. and K.C. Ting. 1994. Greenhouse sys-
tems: Automation, culture and environment. NRAES,
Cornell Univ., lthaca, N.Y. Northeast Regional Agricul-
tural Engineering Service Publ. NRAES-72.
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
 Inert Growing Media for Greenhouse
Tomatoes
W.A. Straverl
Horticultural Research lnstitute of Ontario, Vinetand Station, ON LlR 2E0, Canada

raditionally, soil has been the growing medium water drained freely from the base. The latter proce-
for greenhouse tomatoes in Ontario. ln the late dure was repeated four times. The results are sum-
1970s, a few growers looked for different pro- marized in Table 1.
duction systems because rooting zone problems lim- ln 1991, the cultivar Trend was used. The spring
ited yields. lnitially, peat bags were used success- trial was seeded on 27 Nov. 1990 and planted 25
fully. The nutrient film technique (NFT) was also in- Jan. 1991. Harvesting began on 28 Mar. and ended
troduced and evaluated at that time. Since then, a on 27 July. The fall crop was seeded June, planted
number of tomato producers have selected this op- in the greenhouse on 25 July, and harvested from
tion. Flesearch on using inert substrates as growing 16 Sept. to 25 Nov. Grading was done following the
media was initiated in 1981. Since the late 1980s, guidelines of the Farm Products Grades and Sales
rockwool has becorne the growing medium used Act. Differences in yield, fruit size, and external quality
most commonly. More than 50% of Ontario green- between the two growing media were small and in-
house tomatoes are produced in rockwool, and this significant (Table 2),
trend is expected to increase. NFT comprises 12.5% ln 1992, the cultivar Trust was used in the tests.
of the production area. ln other provinces (British Co- The spring trial was seeded 6 Dec. 1gg1 , and planted
lumbia, Alberta), sawdust is used commonly. 27 Jan.1992. Harvesting started 30 Mar. and contin-
Growers in Ontario can select from different types ued until 20 July. Seeding and planting dates of the
of rockwool produced by three manufacturers. Al- fall test were 26 June and 24 July, respectively, with
though rockwoolis the medium used most commonly, harvesting taking place from 25 Sept. until2T Nov. As
it is not without challenges. The material is norrnally in the previous year, the results showed that there were
used for 1 or 2 years, after which it is disposed of. A no significant differences (P = 0.9S) in plant perfor-
significant cost is associated with the disposal of used mance between the two types of rockwool (Table 3).
rockwool. The environmental impact of the waste is ln Spring 1994, a comparison was made between
also a concern. For these reasons, alternative and Cultilene and Grodan rockwool. Determination of
more durable media have been considered and tested physicalcharacteristics showed that Cultilene was a
at the Horticultural Research lnstitute of Ontario. Re- drier medrum than Grodan (Table 1). The cultivars
sults of these trials are summarized below Trust and Match were seeded 20 Dec. 19g3 and
planted 14 Feb. 1994. Harvesting began on 15 Apr.
Rockwool Evaluations and continued until4 Aug.Yield differences between
Standard-clensity Grodan and Pargro rockwool
were compared in 1991 and 1992 and Cultilene was Table 1. Physical characteristic of different sources
tested in 1994. Standard-density tomato slabs, with of rockwool.
90 x 15 x 7.5-cm dimensions, were used for a spring Bulk density Vqlumetric water conient (%)
and a fall crop. Two plants were set on each slab. Rockwool (kg.m-3) Saturation Rewetting
Bulk density and volumetric water content of the 1 991
different types of rockwool were measured. Water Grodan 61 93 46
content at saturation was determined by submerg- Pargro 70 90 59
ing 2O-cm-long samples in water and allowing them 1992
to drain on a concrete floor for 10 min. Water con- Grodan 68 93 60
tent after rewetting was determined by allowing the Pargro 70 B9 62
material to drain to 30% fo 4O% water content fol-
1 994
lowed by rewetting with a drip irrigation system until
Grodan 64 93 7A
!
G reenhouse Crops Specialist. Cultilene 69 91 55

Greenhouse Tomafo Seminar

l3
 frmerícon Socierg for Hort:ícuhurol Science Seminor Senes

Table 2. The etfect of rockwool source on the performance of greenhouse tomatoes, 1991 .

Spring trial Falltrial

Marketable Avg. fruit Grade I Marketable ¡rvg. ll urr \ftauv
^-^l^
I
¡

Rockwool yield wt (%) wt (s) (%)

Grodan 30.1 187 90 12.O 225 92
Pargro 30.0 187 91 11.3 215 90

Tabte 3.The eÍfect of rockwool source on the pertormance of greenhouse tomatoes, 1992.
Spring trial Falltrial
Marketable Avg. fruit Grade I Marketable Avg. fruit Grade I

Rockwool wt (% ield ( Wt (%)

Grodan 25.9 183 9'1 13.0 204 77
Pargro 26.9 183 ol 13.0 213 7B

Table .The effect of roclotvool source on the perfor'
mance of tomatoes, 1994.
Marketable Avg. fruit
Rockwool yield (kg.m+) wt (g) XL size'(%)
Cultilene 30.2 204
Grodan 31.0 211
'XL size: frult diameter >7.3 cm.
the media were small and statistically not significant
(Table 4). Plants on Grodan tended to produce larger
fruit throughout the season.This can probably be at-
tributed to the higher water-holding capacity of Grodan.
The irrigation strategy was identical for both media.
Durable Media
Polyurethane (PU) foam and light expanded clay
aggregates have also been evaluated as growing
media for tomatoes. Both media are very durable
and can be used for more than 10 years.
PU foam slabs (Aggrofoam, with dimensions of
100 x 20 x 5 cm) were compared to rockwool in 1 991 .
PU foam is a drier medium than rockwool, although
bulk density is higher. The irrigation strategy was
identical for both media. There were no differences
in marketable yield and externalquali§ in the spring
and fall trials. Average fruit weight tended to be
smaller for the PU foam treatment compared to
rockwool (Table 5).
Clay aggregate (Lecadan, 4 to B mm in diameter)
was evaluated in 1992.The material was put in plastic
Table 5.The effect of growing media on the performance of tomatoes, 1991.
Spring trial
Marketable fruit Grade
Avg.
trays (130 x 15 x 7.5 cm) with a drainage hole 1 cm
from the bottom. Each tray supported three plants.
Maximum water content of a tray with clay aggregate
is 1.7 liters. To meet the specific needs of this treat-
63 ment, the irrigation strategy was changed by increas-
67 ing the frequency and shortening the length of the
irrigation cycle. The spring trial was seeded 6 Dec.
and planted 27 Jan. Harvest started on 30 Mar. and
continued until 20 July. Compared to rockwool, plants
in Lecadan produced a larger early yield (Table 6).
Total marketable yield was larger on rockwool. This
can be attributed to better fruit size. Differences in the
fall trial were not statistically significant (P= 0.95).
lrrigation
lrrigation of greenhouse vegetable crops grown in
limited volumes of inert material is different than that
of crops grown in soil. Typically, each plant is pro-
vided with one low-volume emitter with a capacity of
2liters/h.The amount of nutrient solution applied per
irrigation cycle is small, and ranges from 75 to 125
ml/plant. The total number of irrigations per day de-
pends on plant uptake.This, in turn, is related to solar
radiation, heat input, plant size, and other environ-
mental conditions. Water uptake can vary from 0 to
6 liters/m2 per day.
The amount of drainage from the medium that
should be obtained is a point of much discussion.
Excess nutrient solution must be applied to allow for
variability in emitter output and plant uptake. Also,
leaching is required to avoid build-up of unwanted
Falltrial
I Marketable Avg. fruit Grade I

Medium yield (kg+n+) wt (g) (%) yield {kg.m-'?) v* (g) $t

Rockwool 30.1 187 91 11.7 224 91

PU foam 29.3 183 90 11.7 215 92

14 Greenhouse Tomato Seminar

Table 6.The effect of growing media on the performance of tomatoes,1992.
Spring trial
Markg!eqgJ!e!q{!g:lx-') Avg.
¡¡eo¡um ffi w1(g)
Flockwool 2.8 27.1 a' 184 a
PU foam 3.2 25.0 b 178b
'Means followed by different letters within a column are significantly different, P= 0.95.
ions, which are a result of either poor water qualíty
or an imbalance between nutrient uptake and appli-
cation. ln practice, the amount of leachate varies from
10% lo 50% of the total amount of solution applied.
lrrigation strategy is a term used to describe fre-
quency and duration of inigation cycles and the pe-
riod during which irrigation takes place. lt has become
a very important aspect of growing in substrate. The
strategy has a large effect on water and air content of
the rooting medium. Production problems can often
be traced back to inappropriate irrigation practices.
This could cause. water-logging and rooting zones
starved of oxygen. Several factors must be consid-
ered when developing an irrigation strategy. These
include season, growing medium, and volume..
Season. During the winter, when water uptake by
the plants is low, irrigation cycles may be longer and
less frequent. On the other hand, during the sum-
mer, when water uptake is larger, best results have
been obtained by reducing the length of the irriga-
tion cycle and increasing the frequency. Watering 40
times per day during the surnmer months is not un-
usual.
Rooting medium and volume. Water-holding ca-
pacity, as well as volume of medium per plant, must
be considered. Materials with low water retention re-
quire more-frequent irrigation for shofter durations. ln
cases where the rooting volumes are greatly reduced,
e.9., when tomatoes are grown in a V-system with
four instead of two plants per rockwool slab, the irri-
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
Falltrial
fruit Grade I Marketable Avg. fruit Grade I
(z) y¡el¿ (r<g.m-) ú (g) (z)
89 12.7 199 79
89 11.7 206 86
gation strategy must be adjusted to ensure optimum
water availability and to avoid excessive leaching.
lrrigation períod. When plants are grown in rock-
wool, irrigation is normally applied during the day only.
lrrigation equipment is programmed to operalefrom
1 or 2 hours after sunrise to several hours before
sunset. Dry growing media or small rooting volumes
require longer irrigation periods and may need wa-
tering during the night.
The optimum irrigation strategy depends on sev-
eral factors, including greenhouse type, crop condi-
tion, medium, and the irrigation equipment..Total
yield, quality, and plant health are affected strongly
by growing medium conditions. Growers must there-
fore pay close attention, all the time, to the water :
air ratio in the rooting medium. Adjustments must be
made to ensure conditions that promote optimum
plant growth and pedormance.
Summary
Variousiypes of rockwool andother inert growing
media for greenhouse tomatoe:;. /yere evaluated.
There were no differences in plant performance be-
tween the various rockwooltypes and polyurethané
foam. Plants in trays with clay aggregate produced
a lower yield than those in rockwool.
lrrigation is a very important part of growing plants
in limited volumes of inert media. The proper strat-
egy must be followed to ensure optimum conditions
in the rooting medium.
15
 Bmerícon SocieÍg for Harticttlrttrol Scíence Semínor Series
Cooling and Heating the Greenhouse
for Control of Plant Environment
Gene A. Giacomelli
Department of Bioresource Engineering, Cook College, Rutgers University,
New Brunswick, NJ 089A3-0231
he name "controlled environment plant pro-
duction systems" implies that plants are grown
under CEA conditions, and within specifically
designed growing systems. Modification of the green-
house air temperature is a necessity for most days
of the year to maintain a climate for optimum plant
growth. Good environmental control requires moni-
toring of environmental parameters such as air tem-
perature, root zone temperature, humidity, light in-
tensi§, and carbon dioxide. These parameters must
be measured continually and accurately in order to
activate the appropriate control system, while mini-
mizing energy expenses.
The plant aerialand root zone environments influ-
ence plant growth and development directly, such as
with temperature and carbon dioxide concentration,
but they also affect the plant indirectly, such as through
' nutrient uptake and disease abatement practices.
The environment is controlled directly by the envi-
ronmenlalcontrol systems, which may consist of one
or more sensors, a controller, and various actuators.
However, the capabilities of this system are directly
affected by the design of the greenhouse structure
(e.g., size, shape, orientation) and the design of the
plant culture system (e.9., root zone media, row lay-
out within the structure), as well as the management
techniques of the oPerator.
lntegration of environmental control systems and
operational techniques must always be considered
with the type of plant culture systems and the opera-
tional needs. lf this is ignored, there is the potential
for limiting the capabilities of the environmental con-
trol systems and, ultimately, being unable to provide
the desired plant response. The focus of this paper
is on environmental control and its relationship to
the plant culture sYstems.
Ventilation and Cooling
Ventilation and cooling are related directly, and
New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station Publication
Number P-03130-14-95. Supported by State and Hatch
Act funds.
generally associated with the movement and ex-
change of the greenhouse atmosphere with outside
air. These may be the most difficult tasks of environ-
mental control. The primary objective is to reduce
the air temperature uniformly throughout the plant
canopy of the entire crop. Because air temperature
affects the rate of growth and maturation of the crop
directly, uniform cooling is critical for uniform plant
development and harvest.
Cooling during the summer season is difficult be-
cause of the generally large demand imposed by
solar radiation, and because of the higher air tem-
peratures outside the greenhouse that must be uti-
lized for cooling the inside. ln addition to distributing
the air uniformly, there may be a need to create the
cooled air. This is accomplished with evaporattve
cooling techniqutts.
Ventilation and cooling during the winter season
is primarily a challenge of preventing over-cooling
while attempting to maintain air temperature unifor-
mity between the inlet of the cold air and the outlet
of the warm greenhouse air.
The expectations of ventilation for greenhouse air
exchange are: air temperature and moisture reduc-
tion, prevention of atmospheric carbon dioxide deple-
tion, air movement within the plant microclimate for
photosynthetic oxygen/carbon dioxide exchange,
condensation water removal, and, in part, to provide
a tolerabie working climate for the labor. The tech-
niques for venting and cooling include: natural venti-
lation, mechanical (fan) ventilation, evaporative cool-
ing, and shading.
Natural Ventilation
Naturalventilation has traditionally been used for
glasshouses, but has recently been developed for
plastic film greenhouses. The process depends on
the air temperature difference from inside the green-
house to the outside ambient. That is, the lower the
outside air temperature, and the warmer the inside
air temperature, then the greater the potential for air
exchange and cooling of the greenhouse. Continu-
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
ous openings at or near the ridge of the greenhouse
provide forthe exchange.The air exchange is caused
by the warm, rising greenhouse air, being replaced
with the cool, falfing outside air. A naturally ventilated
greenhouse will always have a higher inside air tem-
perature than the outside air temperature during pe-
riods of ventilation. The process depends highly on
the direction and speed of the winds, which can be
used to enhance aír exchange with prevailing winds.
The size of the inleVoutlet openings should be 30%
of the floor area of the greenhouse. The system can
have minimum operating costs as there is no need
for electrical power for fans. However, in locations of
high cooling demand and high ambient air tempera-
ture, the natural cooling process may become inef-
fective to cool the greenhouse air to temperatures
desired for plant growth.
Mechanical Venti lation
Mechanical, orforced-air, ventilation has been used
traditionally for plastic film-covered greenhouses. lts
cooling effectiveness depends much less on the in-
side/outside air temperature difference. However, it
does have a similar dependency on the outside air
temperature, as natural ventilation for achieving the
minimum greenhouse air temperature. The system is
only capable of cooling to an air temperature value
that is a few degrees above the outside air tempera-
ture. The amount of temperature reduction is based
on the fan system's capacity of air exchange.
Fan ventilation is more responsive to cooling needs
by providing a designed rate of air exchange, desig-
nated by CFM (cubic feet per minute) or volume air
change per minute. lt has the advantage to be com-
bined readily with evaporative cooling methods, which
require active movement of the air to function prop-
erly. The design fan capacity is estimated as 7 to B
CFM/ft'?(2.1-2.4 m3lmin per m2) of greenhouse floor
area.The inlet opening size should be matched to the
capacity of the fan so as to maintain a retatively high
velocíty air jet (700 fVmin, 3.5 m/s) through the inlet.
This helps provide uniformly distributed air tempera-
ture throughout the greenhouse, and also prevents
serious chilling near the inlet during the winter sea-
son. The design rule is 1 .4 ft2 (0.13 m2) of inlet open-
ing for each 1000 CFM (0.5 m%) of fan capacity.
The inlet opening location within the greenhouse
is more critical than the fan locations. The fans cre-
ate a suction on the greenhouse, and the air enters
through the inlets. Care must be taken to assure that
only the inlet vents are open during ventilation. Air
entering from open doors, or other unexpected open-
ings in the glazing, can diminish the cooling capabil-
ity of the fan system. Generally, the inlets are
mounted on the opposite wall from the fans, which
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
are recommended to be no more than 100 ft (30 m)
away for a freestanding greenhouse, or 200 ft (61
m) for a multi-span greenhouse.This restriction helps
to minimize the air temperature rise that occurs as
the ventilation air travels from inlet to fan.
The inlet opening may be motorized shutters,
which are square openings with louvered shutters,
or an inlet window, which is a long opening spanning
the entire length of ihe wall. The motorized window
provides a continuous opening and a line source of
cool air that enters uniformly along the entire end
wall of the greenhouse. The shutters, located in
equally spaced positions along the wall, provide point
sources of cool air, and less uniformly distributed
cooling, particularly within a smaller greenhouse.
Fan staging, or sequencing the operation of sev-
eral smailer capacity fans instead of one larger fan, is
one procedure to reduce ventilation costs. This capa-
bility can provide the small volume of air exchange
necessary during cold weather, and help to prevent
over-cooling. The inlet openings should be controlled
to ensure the proper opening area to match the ca-
pacity of the number of fans in operatíon.
Operational costs will depend on the local climate,
the crop needs, and the local electrical utility charges.
For example, it would cost about $2000 per acre per
season ($SOOO per ha), assuming operation of '150
days, B h/day, and $0.10 per kW-h for the design
requirement of 23 fan hp/acre (42 kW/ha). For a 30
x 96-foot (9.1 x 29-m) free-standing greenhouse, the
cost would be $130 for its 1.5 fan hp (1.1 kW) re-
quirement.
Evaporative Cooling
Evaporative cooling in conjunction with ventilation
can reduce the inlet air below outside air tempera-
ture. This is an improvement over fan ventilation.
Evaporative cooling introduces water into the warm
air as it enters the greenhouse at the inlet window,
or, alternatively, nozzles rnay be distributed through-
out the greenhouse between the inlet and fan. As
the water evaporates, energy is consumed and the
air is cooled, which results in air with high humidity.
The amount of evaporation, and subsequently the
amount of cooling, depends on the ability of the am-
bient air to evaporate water. Therefore, cooling ef-
fectiveness is related directly to the air moisture con-
dition, or relative humidity. Ventilation must continue
during evaporative cooling to replace the saturated
air with dryer ambient air-otherwise, cooling will
cease. The quality of the water used for cooling is
very important. High levels of salt, minerals, organic
materials, and other particles can diminish the use-
ful life and the cooling capacity of an evaporative
cooling system.
t7
 Americon Socíetq for Hortiut(furol Science Seminar Scries
The types of evaporative cooling systems include:
pad-and-fan, mist, and fog cooling.
The pad-and-fan is the most traditional system.
Air enters the greenhouse through a wetted pad lo-
cated at the inlet by action of the ventilation fans.
The pad is sized to mínimize the air flow pressure
losses caused by high airflow rates. This also de-
pends on the material and thickness of the pad. For
example, an air flow of 250 fUmin (76 m/min) is rec-
ommended for a 4-inch (1O-cm) pad. Water distrib-
uted at 0.5 gpm per foot (6.2 liters/min per m) length
of pad willmaintain a moist Pad.
Air temperature reductions vary depending on the
wet bulb depression (the difference between the wet
and dry bulb temperatures) of the outside environ-
ment. An effectiveness of B0% can be reached'That
is, if the dry bulb-wet bulb temperature difference is
'10"F (5.5"C), then a cooling of 8"F (4.4"C) can oc-
cur. Air temperature will rise as the cooled air flows
from the pad to the fans, and thus the greenhouse
temperature uniformity can be a problem, as de-
scribed for fan ventilation systems.The maintenance
of the pad to ensure proper wetting and to reduce
salt or algae accumulatioñs is required.
Application of a water mist for cooling is rarely
used, primarily because it requires wetting the plants
directly. However, misting is a direct and quick means
to cool the leaves. Low pressure (50 psi, 350 kPa)
and high volume (4 gph, 15 liters/h) mist nozzles dis-
tribute the mist from an overhead pipe system. The
relatively large droplets wet the crop and cool by
contact evaporation. The uniformity of air tempera-
ture throughout the greenhouse is improved greatly,
as compared to pad-and-fan. Misting above a partial
shade cloth located above the crop can provide ef-
fective and uniform cooling without weiting the plants
if light reduction is tolerable. This cooling technique
is similar to mist propagation systems used for root-
ing plant cuttings.
Fog cooling is a more elaborate and potentially
the most effective cooling system for the greenhouse.
High-pressure (>500 psi,3500 kPa), low-volume (1.2
gph, 4.6 liters/h) nozzles within an overhead pipe
network (50 ft'? per nozzle,4.7 m2 per nozzle) distrib-
r ¡te the water throuohout the oreenhouse. The foq is
a mass of tiny water droplets that evaporate quickly
and do not wet the crop below when designed prop-
erly. Air temperature uniformi§ th roughout the green-
house is excellent. Pumping requirements can be
17 gpm per acre (160 liters/min per ha). High water
quali§ is imperative. Water filtering and conditioning
are required. Maintenance of the nozzles for block-
age is necessary, and frequently required without
proper water quality treatment.
Shading to reduce the solar radiation load, and
t8
thus the amount of cooling required, is considered
an alternative cooling method. Air temperature re-
duciions of 3 to 4'F (1.6 io 2.2'C) have been docu-
mented. Leaf temperature will be reduced, but also
the photosynthesis and growth potentialof high-light-
requiring plants can be diminished. Fixed shading,
such as paint or polypropylene netting, can be ap-
plied to the outer surface of the glazing, Movable
shading, which can double as the inside energy blan-
ket, is commonly used. Movable outside shade net-
ting is available commercially. The movable systems
provide more flexible management opportunities than
the fixed shading systems.
Heating
Heating of the greenhouse air requires an energy
source, such as combustion of fuel, or from waste or
reject heat supplied from another process.Tradition-
ally, fuels within a furnace or boiler have warmed air
or water. These were distributed in the form of hot
air, water, or steam throughout the greenhouse. Both
the aerial porlion of plants (via overhead air convec-
tion tubes or water pipes) and the plant root zone
(via floor and bench heating systems) can be heated
independently.
There are two basic types of heating systems,
based on the heat transfer media used: hot air or hot
wateristeam. The heat transfer process determines
that smaller heat distribution units (less pipes or air
ducts) can be used with higher-tempe,rature air or
water, but they must be placed farther from the tar-
get plants to be heated. Lower-temperature heat
sources require larger heat transfer sudaces (more
pipes and air ducts) operating over a longer time
period and placed closer to the plant. Operation of
each system or combination of systems must be
considered carefully and understood prior to design
and implementation.
Regardless of the means to provide the heat to
the plant, the design requirement procedure is simi-
lar. The total energy that is lost directly through the
glazing (by convection and radiation), and by infiltra-
tion (unwanted air exchange through cracks, doors,
vents), and, indirectly, by plant evapotranspiration,
must be provided by the heating system. To size the
heating system-that is, to estimate the maximum
heating load that the heater must provide-several
factors must be known. These include: the type of
glazing, the surface area of the glazing, and the
maximum air temperature difference between inside
air and the outside environment.The maximum tem-
perature difference is determined by comparing the
minimum expected outside air temperature and the
minimum desired night time setpoint air temperature
of the greenhouse. By multiplying these three fac-
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
tors, the maximum required capacity of the heater (or
the maximum expected heat loss from greenhouse,
Q) can be determined from the following equation.
O=UxSAxlT. .)
\ m-Tout,mtn,
where the surface area (SA, ft2 or m2) of the green-
house is the total area of glazing exposed to the en-
vironment. This includes both the roof and the wall
areas.
The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, (U, BTU/h-
ft', oF, orWm2, oK), is primarily related to type of the
greenhouse covering, and whether energy conser-
vation systems are used. For example, the glazing
may be single or double layer, flexible film or rigid,
glass or plastic, and installed on a single or multi-
span structure, and used with or without an energy
conservation blanket. For design purposes, the co-
efficient is as follows:
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U)
BTU/h-ft2. "F W/m2, oK
Single-layer glass 1.2 6.8
Singte-layer P.E. 1.2 6.8
Double-layer P.E. 0.8 4.5
Structured double-
walled plastic
(acrylic, polycarbonate) 0.6 3.4
Note that these overall heat transfer values include
consideration for infiltration losses, but not for an
energy conservatir¡n blanket system.
The maximum expected temperature difference
\ ¡n- T^oul.mtn/
(T,^ . _,-) is determined by the minimum outside
air temperature for the winter season, and the mini-
mum inside air setpoint temperature that is desired
or required for plants in production.
The actual operating costs (fuel costs) will be de-
termined by the demand imposed by the climate con-
ditions throughout the year. Thus, the actual operat-
ing time of the heater will vary daily and hourly. En-
ergy conservation for reducing fuel consumption can
be achieved by properly sizing the greenhouse struc-
ture for the required plant production capacity, selec-
tion of the covering, locating the facility within a pro-
tected environment, reducing desired inside air tem-
perature, and/or addíng insulation systems. Refer to
references by Aldrich and Bartok (1989), NRAES-3
(1985), and Rc¡berts and Mears (1984) for detailed
discussions about energy conservation systems.
The simplest and least expensive heating is with
a hot air system. lt responds rapidly to heating needs,
but it may not be able to provide uniform tempera-
tures to all the crop. lt is also more difficult to warm
the root zone with air heat than wíth a hot water heat-
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
ing system. The hot air heating units may be direct-
fired and located within the greenhouse growing area.
This means that combustion of the fuel occurs within
the greenhouse. Care musttaken to properly exhaust
the combustion gases and to have sufficient inlets
for oxygen. The heat can be distributed by pressur-
ized tube and fan with ducts throughout the green-
house. With proper design, this heating systern could
also be used as the first stage of ventilation.
A heat exchanger replacing these direct-fired units
could distribute hot air in the same manner, except
the heat source would be hot water generated by a
remotely located boiler.This increases cost and com-
plexity, but eliminates the concern for combustion
within the greenhouse while providing a centralized
boiler. An alternative design uses hot air furnaces
located within housing attached to the greenhouse.
The furnace can be ventilated easily for the com-
bustion process, while its warmed air can be ducted
into the greenhouse.
Hot water and steam are alternative heating sys-
tems to hot air. They can provide the heat to the
greenhouse by: a steel pipe loop distribution sys-
tem, a water to air heat exchanger (described above),
or a root zone or floor heating system with reduced
water temperature.
Hot water/steam pipe networks within the green-
house production space are very common.The pipes
may be located overhead nearthe gutters of the struc-
ture, or at the floor beneath benches cr adjacent to
the rows of the crop, or sometimes in bc'th-locations.
Generally steam is used for distribution within large
facilities, and is converted within local zones to hot
water (180'F, B2'C) for heat distribution.
Root zone heating can provide microenvironmen-
tal control of the plant with more precise manage-
ment of soil media and root zone temperatures.
These can be controlled independently from the
greenhouse air temperature. These techniques may
range from pipe loops located under each row of
plants, or within their beds, to an entire underfloor
heating system. Bottom heating should provide root
zones no greater than 75 or 80"F (24 to ZB"C), which
requires pipe water temperatures of 90 to 100'F (32
to 37"C). Design of floor and bench heating systems
are described in the publication by Roberts and
Mears (1984).
The goal of these systems is to provide a lowtem-
perature source of heat throughout the root zone,
and to encourage root development and nutrient
uptake within a uniform root zone and local air tem-
perature environment. They are particularly benefi-
cial in conjunction with hot air heating systems, which
distribute a significant porlion of their heat above the
plant canopy, and which cannot provide sufficient
heat near the base of the plant. Disease and insect
cont¡'ol for the roots and the aerial portions of the
plant can be improved by modifying the root zone
iemperature. Small hot water heaters can be placed
iá"rffy within the greenhouse for remote heating of
the róot zone. ln larger systems, high{emperature
water from the boiler can be mixed to achieve a lower
temperature, and then distributed throughout the root
zone heating sYstem.
Horizontal aú flow fans have become popular for
continually circulating the greenhouse air' They en-
gas
courage uniformly distributed air temperatures,
exchalrge with the plant, and a perception of mois-
ture red''uction. These fans can help modify the de-
sign flaws of some heating systems. They are espe-
ciálly useful with air heating systems that tend to heat
it'," ipp"t portions of the greenhouse, unless the air
plant'
distribution ducts are placed near the base of the
Control SYstems
For the basic operation of environmental control
systems, a data acquisition and control device must
b'e incorporated into the greenhouse' All systems'
regardless of complexity, must provide: 1) a sensor
to-measure the environmental parameter of concern,
á¡ , ,"rnt to make comparison ollh." measured
válue to a setpoint value, and finally 3) the capability
to respond to a another system that will correct the
environmental situation. These attributes are in all
control systems, ranging from thermostats to com-
pirter-based devices.
As capability and flexibility of these systems in-
cr"ases, so does the costs. The well-known and
dependable thermostat, which can be quite inaccu-
raü, brt with high dependability and low cost, may
more than iustify the variation from setpoint tempera-
tures that it will-provide. The complexity and cost of
the computer-based system can be justified readily
where more elaborate controlstrategies are desired'
or a large number of crop zones are required, or vari-
ous typis of sensors are employed' Justification for
e*pen'ditrres on more elaborate control systems in-
clude: 'l) improved accuracy and consistent calibra-
tion; 2) mutiipte types and nu,1,!ers,3'_t".i::ltj 3
remote communlcatlons capaolllty, +, IEuuut'u vvrr-
ing for sensors; 5) multiple zoned control; 6) alarms
foiwarning system; 7) internal clock; 8)flexible con-
trolstrategly;-g) custom design for sensors, data col-
20
lection, and storage; 10) multi-parameter control
áecisions; 1 1) data processing and presentation; 12)
no "conflicting" output commands (prevents simuita-
neous heating and venting); and 13) energy savings'
Regardlesá of the system selected, it is criticalto
locate the sensors used to measure the environment
properly. They must always be placed within a rep-
'resLntátive
location within the environment that is to
be controlled. This §pically is never near the device
that is to be controlled, but preferably adjacent to
the plant canopy. The sensor should be protected
from direct radiation from the sun, water, and pesti-
cide applications, and, if possible, be aspirated' A
thermoitat can function much better when placed
inside a white wooden box adjacent to the crop, with
a small fan attached to draw the air from near the
box across the sensor. This provides a larger sam-
pling region for the sensor, and helps it to respond
morá quict<ly to changes in environmental conditions'
SummarY
The deáign and operation of the greenhouse re-
quires that integrated decisions be made about the
iñter-related systems within its complex environment'
Seemingly opposing environmental systems, such as
cooling ánd heating, are physically and environmen-
tally rélated, and affect each of their capabilities to
p"áot* as desired. Understanding these systems will
produce a desirable environmental control design,
bnce the goals of the gro-wer/manager relating to ihe
needs of t-he crop to be iroduced are determined'
References
Roberts, W.J. and D.R. Mears. 1984' Healing and-venti-
lating greenhouses. Bioresource Engineering Dept''
CooÉ óoltege, Rutgers Univ., New Brunswick, N'J'
Rutgers Univ. Cooperative Extension Publ' #E-046'
Roberís, W.J. and D.R. Mea,s. 1984' Floor and bench
heatiág"Cookfor greenhouses.
-Golle
Bioresource Engineering
ge, niv', ew B runswick'
D ept., Rutgers
-U
.N
Publ' #E-A47 '
N.j. iutgers Óooperative Extension
Univ.
Aldrich, R."and J.W. Bariok, Jr. 1989' Greenhouse engi-
N'Y' Northeast
n""ling. NRAES, Cornell Univ., lthaca,
Regioñat Agricultural Engineering Service Publ'
NRAES.33.
Robierts,
-
W.J., J.W. Bartok, Jr., M- Fabian, and J'C'
si*pi¡n". ísas. Energy curlsei-vaiion Íor comme¡'cial
lthaca, N'Y' North-
tráénnouses. NRAES, ÓornellUniv',
Éuii n"gional Agricultural Engineering Service Publ'
NRAES-3.
Greenhouse Tomato Semin¿
 Greenhouse Tsmato Disease
ldentification and Management
Frank Killebrewl
Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Mississippi State University,
Mississippi State, MS 29762
nlike many insect pests that often can be con-
trolled after detection, curative treatment to
rid a greenhouse tomato crop of diseases
caused by infectious fungal, bacter¡al, or viral patho-
gens is generally not possible. Thus, growers who
attempt to initiate a management program after dis-
eases have become widespread are rarely success-
ful, and suffer varying degrees of reduced crop yield
and quality.
Greenhouse tomato diseases can be managed,
and those growers who are most successful in mini-
mizing disease impact routinelyfollow integrated pest
management (lPM) practices. Their management
program is aimed at protecting the crop from dis-
'eases through use of biological, cultural, sanitary,
and chemical techniques. This integrated approach
_to management of diseases does not involve hasty,
and largely ineffectual, application of fungicides and
other chemicals in an attempt to "cure" disease.
An important first step for growers who plan to es-
tablish an IPM program should be aimed at increas-
-ing their overall knowledge of greenhouse tomato
diseases. Growers who become familiar with the
important diseases that affect the crop, and condi-
tions under which they are likely to cause problems,
are more likely to implement successful strategies
for management of greenhouse tomato diseases.
Disease ldentif ication
Diseases that occur on greenhouse tomatoes
cause symptoms on roots, stems, leaves, and fruit.
While some symptoms are common to several dis-
eases, it is generally possible to identify the more
common fungal and bacterial disorders. However,
the identity of some virus diseases may be more dif-
ficult to establish.
The "key symptom" approach to disease identifi-
cation works well for most growers. Rather than try-
ing to remember all symptoms that may be produced
1
Extension Plant Pathologist.
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
by a given disease, daily scouting of plants for those
diagnostic features characteristic for a given disease
will allow early detection, improve the accuracy of
disease determinations, and initiation of subsequent
managernent procedures in a timely fashion.
'lKey symptoms" described for each of the follow-
ing diseases should help in identification of diseases
that could occur in the crop.
Fungus Diseases
.Botrytis gray mold is the most common and
troublesome disease in greenhouse tomatoes for
several reasonsr First, gray mold-resistant varieties
are not available. Second, Botrytis cinerea, the fun-
gus that causes gray mold disease, is present in all
greenhouses. Gray rn"old spores occur as carryover
fror,r previous crops, and spores are also pulled into
greenhouses via the fan system. Another factor con-
tributing to gray mold problems ís frequent extended
periods of relative humidity levels exceeding g0%.
High relative humidity and falling greenhouse tem-
peratures in the early evening lead to the formation
of free moisture on susceptible tissues and ideal
conditions for B. cinereaspore germination and plant
infection. Under conditions favorable for Botrytis de-
velopment, the cycle of spore germination, plant in-
fection, and production of another crop of spores for
disease "recycling" can repeat itself every 30 hours.
While B. cinerea can invade any aerial part of the
greenhouse tomato plant, the fungus does not at-
tack healthy green tissues such as leaves and stems
unless a) an injured or dead area is present, or b) it
grows directly from a food base, such as a fallen
petal or leaf. The fungus will first colonize the food
base and then attack healthy tissues.
Although B. cinerea is capable of growth within a
wide range of temperatures, from about 28" to g0'F,
growth is slow at the extremes. Optimum tempera-
ture range for growth is 68" lo 77"F. The gray mold
fungus is particularly troublesome under conditions
of cool to moderate temperatures and high relative
2t
 humidi§ (90% or greater). Moisture is more often a
limiting factor in plant infection than temperature. Free
moisture is necessary íor growth wiihin pianitissues,
and low humidity may result in arrested growth of
the fungus. However, growth can resume when mois-
ture agaín becomes available.
The key symptom for gray mold is the brown to
gray "tuzzt/'mass of fungus growth that appears over
the point of invasion. When infected tissue is exam-
ined under a hand lens, spore-bearing structures re-
sembling bunches of grapes are discernible. Leaves
injured by pesticide burn or stressed from low fertil-
ity are particularly vulnerable to gray mold invasion.
Clouds of spores can be shaken from fungal growth
after periods of high humidity. Spores are produced in
tremendous numbers and are spread over the house
to serue as secondary inoculum. Because the period
of time from initial plant infection and production and
dispersal of spores can occur in less than 2 days, a
large number of plants may be infected in the green-
house within a short period of time.
Senescent petals are quite susceptible to gray
mold fungus invasion. The fungus may grow from
the infected petals into the sepals before the petals
dehisce, and from there it may grow into the devel-
oping fruít. Also, infected petals may remain attached
to the fruit, and the fungus then grows into the fruit
directly. As a result, the disease often occurs at the
stem end of fruit.
The production of halos, called ghost spots, on
the fruit is an unusual symptom of this disease. This
phase of gray mold occurs after spores gerrninate
on the surface of the fruit, germ tubes penetrate it,
and the infection is aborted. This results in the for-
mation of the white halo or ghost spot.
.Leaf mold, caused by the fungus Fulvia fulva (=
Cladosporium fulvum), was once a common and se-
vere problem in the early 1970s because resistant
varieties were not generally available. Today, most
varieties have complete resistance (CS) to all races
of the leaf mold fungus. Varieties with incomplete re-
sistance (C2) are often affected by leaf mold under
humid conditions. These varieties should be scouted
frequently for early symptoms of this disease.
lnfection of susceptible tissue by the leaf mold fun-
gus occurs when relative humidity remains high (90%
or greater) for several hours. This disease is favored
by the same conditions that encourage gray mold
development. Leaf mold symptoms begin on lower,
senescent leaves, but appear progressi'rely on
younger foliage. Key symptoms: Look for pale-green
or yellowish areas with irregular margins on upper
leaf surfaces. Beneath the yellow spots, tufts of light
grayish green aerial fungus growth are visible. ln-
fected leaves become yellowish brown and drop pre-
maturely. Defoliation progresses up the plant.
.Early blight is afungus (Alternaria solani) disease
that occasionally causes problems in greenhouse to-
matoes. Symptoms appearon leaves, stems, and fruit.
Key symptoms Look for characteristic circular brown
leaf spots, up to one-half ínch in diameter. Spots con-
tain dark concentric rings that take on a'target board"
appearance. Like most fungus diseases, early blight
is favored by humid conditions.
.Pythium root rot (Pythium spp.) is becoming an
increasingly severe problem in greenhouse tomato
production. lnoculum tor Pythium spp. is easily intro-
duced into the greenhouse environment via soil cling-
inE to shoes, tools, and other sources. A common route
of entry is contaminated growth medium; e.g., river
sand or other media piled on bare ground, where it
becomes contaminated from underlying soil under wet
conditions.
Pythium root rot shows up when plants are grown
in the contaminated growth medium underexcessively
wet conditions (for example, when bags or other con-
tainers don't drain welt).This leads to fungus invasion
of .iuvenile roots and eventually the main root mass.
Key symptoms Look for extensive areas of choco-
late brown to black roots (the entire root mass is often
discolored) on wilted, stunted plants with yellowish
unthrifty appearing foliage. Also, the outer layer of root
tissue tends to slough off, exposing the inner core of
tissue (this sometimes produces a'Wirestem" appear-
ance). Although Pythium root rot-affected plants some-
times recover, they seldom produce normalyields.
.Fusarium crown and root rot (FR) is caused by
Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. radicis-lycopersici. This
disease is almost impossible to control without the
use of resistant varieties; thus, growers should be-
come familiar with symptoms of the disease and re-
alize the need for proper variety selection for use in
those greenhouses where Fusarium crown and root
rot has been detected.
The Fusarium crown and root rot fungus, after ini-
tially infecting secondary roots, moves into larger
roots and eventually invades the plant's vascular sys-
tem. Symptoms of FR include stunted growth and
wilting on sunny days, especially if plants have heavy
fruit loads. lnfected plants mav eventually ctie a.fter
repeated wilting. FR can be distinguished from
Pythium root rot if the base of the lower stem and
upper main root system is cut longitudinally. Key
symptom: Look for chocolate- to reddish-brown
discoloration of the vascular tissues.
Bacterial Diseases
.Bacterialwilt is caused by Pseudomonas solana-
cearum.lnfected plants rapidly wilt and die without
exhibiting yelfowing or leaf necrosis. When a wilted
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
plant ¡s removed from the growth container, the roots
mav appear to be healthy. However, if secondary roots
are examined (check those about the size of a pencil
lead), chocolate-brown lesions are often visible. ln
advanced stages of wilt, look for dark discoloration of
crown and upper tap root tissue. These symptoms
are not definitive, however, and may be confused with
those caused by Fusarium crown and root rot, a fun-
gus disease that causes similar tissue discoloration.
The best way to identify bacterial wilt is to carry out
a simple.procedure that is highly diagnostic for the
disease.The test can be carried out in a few minutes.
Follow these steps and look for the key symptom:
1) Cut a 2-inch-long section from the base of the
stem. A secondary root of about the same length will
work equaily well.
2) Fill a small, clean glass container (baby food
jar, etc.) with taP water.
3) Suspend the stem or root tissue using a wire
hanger, such as a straightened paper clip, about one-
half inch into the water.
4) Key symptom: look for a thin, milky stream of
bacterial growth to appear about 2 to 5 minutes after
stem insertion into the water.
5)The streaming is best observed in a darkened
room with the aid of a flashlight. Shine the flashlight
through the container from behind to give a "back-
lighted" effect.
.Pith necrosis (Pseudomonas corrugata) is sorne-
times referred to as bacterial hollow stem. Affected
plants occasionally wilt'and show a slight yellowing
of lowerfoliage. Key symptom: On lower stems look
for brown, sunken, necrotic stem cankers. Longitu-
dinal cuts through cankers reveal paftially hollowed
stems with chambered pith, a characteristic symp-
tom of the disease. Brown discoloration of the pith
or complete pith collapse often extends a consider-
able distance beyond the vascular browning.
Virus Diseases
.Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) = Tomato Mosaic
Virus (ToMV) was an important disease until the
introduction of resistant varieties in the early 1980s.
Most modern varieties are resistant toTMV and this
disease is no longer a major threat to production.
However, some growers use susceptible varieties
and should become familiar with disease symptoms
in the event ToMV shows up and plant removal be-
comes necessary. ToMV diagnosis may be difficult.
Symptoms of ToMV vary with.variety, age of plant at
time of infection, and environmental conditions. ln-
fected plants become stunted, leaves may exhibit
mild to severe yellow-green mottling, crinkling, cor-
rugation, stringing, or curling. Stems may develop
necrotic streaks. Generally, fruit show no symptoms,
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
although severe straíns may cause internal brown-
ing, necrotic pitting, or severe mottling.
Because of the wide array of possible symptoms,
no key symptoms are given. Considering the conta-
gious nature of ToMV and the ease by which the
virus can be spread through pruning, fruit harvest-
ing, and other routine activity, disease confirmation
should be obtained when the disease is suspected.
Submit specimens to a disease clinic for serological
testing or microscopic examination of tissues for pres-
ence of virus inclusion bodies. Remove diseased
plants promptly.
.Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) is not cur-
rently a widespread problem in greenhouse toma-
toes. Like TMV diagnosis of TSWV in greenhouse
tomatoes can be difficult. Symptoms can be many
and varied. TSWV symptoms can be confused with
those caused by other viruses, fungal or bacterial
pathogens, or nutritional disorders. Although TSWV
is not widespread, one of the chief vectors of the
vi¡,us, the Western flower thrips (several other thrips
species are also known to transmit the virus), is wide-
spread. Tomato spotted wilt virus could increase in
significance as an important disease of greenhouse
tomatoes. Key symptoms are small (pinhead size,
or slightly larger),dark-brown leaf spots, which may
be arranged in a "ringspot" pattern, dark streaking in
petioles and stems, stunted growth terminals, and
brown to black lesions on distorted fruit.
M iscellaneous Diseases
Depending on locale, other diseases may cause
problems. For example, Sclerotinia stem rot is an
infrequent, but potentially damaging, disease in many
areas. This is also true for Cucumber Mosaic Virus
(CMV), Cercospora leaf spot, bacterial spot, speck,
and canker.
DISEASE MANAGEMENT
Diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, and viruses
can quickly destroy a crop of greenhouse tomatoes
when conditions are favorable for their development.
However, diseases can be managed, provided grow-
ers use a combination of recommended practices. A
combination of biological, cultural, sanitary, and chemi-
cal techniques is necessary because no single prac-
tice will effectively control all diseases affecting the crop.
Biological Practices
Biological management is the most economical
and effective method of handling several important
diseases. This refers primarily to use of varieties with
disease resistance. Compared to the 1970s, qhen
the commonly grown varieties lacked adequate lev-
els of resistance, most modern greenhouse tomato
 varieties are resistant to one or more diseases that
previously were limiting factors in production (Table
1).
Cultural Practices
Cultural management refers to the use of prac-
tices associated with the production of the crop aimed
at creating conditions unfavorable for disease de-
velopment.
.Relative humidity management within the green-
house is critical because moisture is the prirnary fac-
tor influencing plant infection by the fungi respon-
sible for gray mold and leaf mold. Relative humidity
must be >90'/" for spore germination and infection
'to occur. Most bacteríal diseases are also favored
by high relative humidity.
Control of relative humídity is particularly impor-
tant when greenhouses are sealed tíghfly to conserve
energy. During warm fall and spring days, the air in-
side the greenhouse picks up moisture because
warm air holds more moisture than cool air. As the
aír cools during the evening, the moisture-holding
capacity drops until the dew point is reached and
moisture begins to condense on surfaces. Use rec-
ommended relative humidity management practices,
such as greenhouse ventilation and air circulation,
within the greenhouse to keep relaiive humidity lev-
els <90%.
.Temperature control is also important. For ex-
ample, greenhouse temperatures no lower than 70.F
limit development of gray mold. Fusarium crown and
root rot and Pythium root rot are favored by cooler
temperatures as well.
.Pith necrosis appears to be most severe when
plants are over-fertilized with nitrogen, and gray mold
is generally more severe on plants deficient in po-
tassium or other essential nutrients.
Table l. Disease resistance
oÍ some modern green-
house tomato varieties.
Varietv Disease resistance.
Caruso TMV C5
Capello TMV CS
Dombello TMV C5
Perfecto TMV C5
Laura TMV C2
Dombito TMV, CE
Jumbo
C2
Match TMV, C5, FR
Switch TMV C5, FR
Trust TMV, C5, FR
'TMV = Tobacco Mosaic Virus; C2 = Leaf Mold Races A and B;
C5 = Leaf Mold Races A,B,C,D, and E, FR = Fusarium Crown
and Root Flot.
.Stay within recommended plant populations, be-
cause overcrowding leads to inadequate air move-
ment between plants. Proper spacing of plants will
help provide good ventilation to help reduce mois-
ture formation on planttissues, thereby reducing the
chances of infection by B. cinerea, C. fulvum, A.
solani, other fi.rngal pathogens, as well as p corru-
gata, which tends to be more of a problem under
high humidity conditions.
.Pruning method may predispose.stems to B.
cinereainfection because fewer stem lesions develop
when petioles are cut or broken close to the stem
than when removed 1 or 2 inches from the stem.
Removal of lower, senescentfoliage that is no longer
contributing to food manufacture is recommended
to reduce the number of B. cinerea colonization sites.
Sanitation
Sanitation is recognized by most growers as a in-
tegral part of effective disease management. Unfor-
tunately, not.all growers carry out a strict program in
this area.
Before beginning a new crop:
.Rid the greenhouse of debris that could serve as
future sources of fungal, bacterial, or viral inocu-
lum.
"lf diseases were a problem in the previous crop,
think twice about reusing old growth containers. Do
not reuse growth containers (rockwool slabs, poly
bags, etc.) or growth medium from which diseased
plants were removed.
.Before beginning a new crop, disinfect the green-
house by spraying ail surfaces with a 10% solution
of sodium hypochlorite (household bleach). This
treatment is effective for most greenhouse disease
microorganisms, but it must be used in combina-
tion with an overall program of good sanitation.
Note: a i 0% bleach solution consists of 1 part so-
dium hypochlorite to g parts water (i.e., 1 gal. to g
gai.)
.lf you produce your own transplants, use disease-
free seed and sterile growth medium and contain-
ers. Remove and destroy transplants that do not
appear normal.
After crop installatíon:
.Have a "clean-up" room; disinfect hands, clean
shoes, etc.-in short, any practice should be car-
ried out to prevent introduction of disease organ-
isms into the greenhouse.
.Restrict use of tobacco products if a TMV-suscep-
tible variety is being grown.
.Tools and other equipment should be disinfected
frequently with 10% bleach solution. Dip for S to 10
seconds, drain, and use without rinsing.
.Keep a "clean strip" around the perimeter of the

24 Greenhouse Tomato Seminar

 greenhouse to reduce populations of thrips, aphids,
and other insects that could be sources of virus in-
troduction.
.Consider using insect barriers to cut down on move-
ment of thrips, aphids, and other potentially virulif-
erous insects into the greenhouse.
.Observe plants constantly for any evidence of dis-
ease development. Badly diseased plants should
be removed promptly. Likewise, remove foliage that
may be seriously diseased or is no longer contrib-
uting to plant growth. Diseased plants, or plant parls,
should be destroyed or carried far enough away
from the greenhouse so as not to be a source of
,inoculum for reintroduction into the greenhouse.
Crop scouting is very important if diseases are to
be detected at levels where management procedures
can be initiated. For example, unless greenhouses
are monitored daily, gray mold can become estab-
lished and cause tremendous damage within a short
time. Fungus spores are spread easily over the
greenhouse to infect many more plants when rela-
tive humidity is high. Trying to "cure" plants after dis-
ease has become widespread is difficult, if not
impossible, to achieve. For this reason, there is an..
obvious need-to-know what is happening with the
crop on a daily basis. This is especially true for crops
carried over from the fall, which are more suscep-
tible to disease invasion.
Fungrc¡des
The need for week-to-week fungicide application
is minimized, provided sanitation and culturaldisease
management practices are carried out as part of an
IPM program. Growers who want extra insurance
should consider using Exotherm Termil.This is a rec-
ommended approach when climatic conditions have
made it difficult to maintain relative humidity levels
below 90% (i.e., during extended periods of over-
cast, cool weather), or when the crop has been in-
jured in some way (i.e., by insecticide burn), and is
thus more susceptible to invasion by B. cinerea.
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
The active ingredient in Exotherm Termil is chloro-
thalonil. This fungicide, used in the form of a smoke
bomb, is effective for gray mold and leaf mold con-
trol when used on a preventive basis. Exotherm
Termilacts as a protectant, and has little or no effect
after infection has occurred. Thus, growers should
scout the crop daily for initial symptoms of disease
and start an Exotherm Termil application program at
the earliest indication of disease. Note: Use one 3.5-
oz. can of Exotherm Termil per 1000 ft2 of green-
house area. Repeat weekly. Be sure all plant sur-
faces are dry. Close all doors, windows, and ventila-
tors, post warning signs, and take other precautions
as noted on the product label. DO NOf apply when
the temperature in the greenhouse is above 75"F.
Botran 75W is an effective preventive fungicide
for the stem canker phase of Botrytis gray mold and
Sclerotinia white mold when applied at the rate of 1
lb per 100 gal of water. For small-volume applica-
tion, 3/4 tablespoonful of product per 1 gal of water
is equivalent to the 1-lb rate.
For control of Botrytis stem canker on greenhouse
tomatoes, spray plant stems from ground level up to
a height of 18 to 24 inches. Repeat weekly or as
necessary. Seedlings or newly set transplants may
be injured by drenching.
Suggested References
Jarvis, W.R. 1992. Managing diseases in greenhouse
crops. APS Press, St. Paul, Minn.
Jones, J.L1. 1993. Compendium of tomato diseases. J.B.
Jones, J.B., J.P Jones, R.E. Stall, and T.A. Zitter, eds.
APS Press, St. Paul, Minn.
Killebrew, E P. Harris, and H. Willcutt. 1995. Greenhouse
tomatoes-pest management in Mississippi. Mississippi
Coop. Ext. Serv. Publ. 1861.
Sherf, A.F., and A.A. Macnab. 1986. Vegetable diseases
and their control. Wiley, New York.
Simone, G., F. Johnson, and B. Dunn. 1990. Handbook
for Florida greenhouse vegetable producers. Vol. lV.
Pest control in the greenhouse. Florida Coop. Ext. Serv.
Circ. SSVEC-43.
)t
 American Societg for Hartiutlturol Sciencc Seminar Series
Management of Greenhouse Tomato
Pests: An lntegrated Approach
Gillian Ferguson
Ontario Ministry of Agricutture, Food & Rurat Affairs, Harrow, Ontario, Canada
anagement of greenhouse tomato pests is
best done by adopting an integrated ap-
proach, which requires close monitoring of
crops and making use of all available control tech_
niques. Pest management techniques may be cat_
egorized into cultural, physical, biologicat, and chemi-
cal controls. Generally, it is simpler and more effec-
tive to adopt practices that prevent, or at least delay,
pest incidence. The biology of important pests, in-
cluding the greenhouse whitefly, Ieafminers, two-
spotted spider mites, aphids, and fungus gnats, and
their biological and chemical controls (registered in
Ontario)are described. ln addition, culturalánd physi-
cal control strategies, and general monitoring [ro-
cedures, are discussed briefly.
Greenhouse Whitefly
Life History. Adult greenhouse whiteflies are small,
white, moth-like insects. Females can lay a total of
150 to 400 eggs during their lifetime. Eggs are usu-
ally laid on the undersides of the young leaves at the
top of the plant. The first larval stages hatch after
about 8 days aI 21" to 24"C. The newly hatched
nymphs crawl around for a short while in search of a
suitable feeding spot. Thereafter, they insert their
mouth parts into the plant tissue, lose their legs, and
remain in the same spot for the rest of their lives.
There are four larval stages, commonly referred to
as "scales," followed by a pupa-like stage. Adults
emerge from the pupa in about 6 days and can start
laying eggs within 1 to 4 days. On average, the white_
fly completes its life cycle in 35 days at 1goC, and 1g
days at 30"C. Adult whiteflies usually live for 10 to
20 days on tomatoes. Whiteflies have no special
overwintering stage, and can usually survive as long
as there are plants with foliage present.
Damage. Both ímmature and adult whiteflies cause
1) They deprive the plants of nutrients and mois_
ture by sucking juices from the tissues, thereby caus_
ing a reduction of plant vigor.
2) They excrete honey dew onto the leaves and
fruits. Sooty mold that develops on the leaves re-
duces photosynthetic activity by the plants. Affected
fruits can be downgraded, particularly when sooty
mold develops on the honey dew
Biological control. The parasitic wasp, Encarsia
formosa, has been used for controlling the green-
house whitefly for many years. The aáult párasite
finds whiteflies by tracking the scent from honey dew
or the whitefly itself . Encarsla kills whiteflies mainly
by laying eggs into the immature stages (mosily 3rá
and 4th larval stages) of the whitefly. Encarsia can
also kill by feeding on the fluids that ooze out of punc-
tures made by its ovipositor (egg-laying structure). lf
eggs are laid into the younger whitefly scales, the
scales are killed, but the Encarsiaeggs are not likely
to survive. lt is in the older scales that Encars ia can
reproduce and build up numbers in the greenhouse.
A whitefly scale turns black within 10 to 14 days af-
ter being parasitized. On average, another 2 weeks
are needed before the adult wasp emerges. When
fully developed, the wasp exits from a small, round
hole cut out from the top of the black scale. Adult
Encarsiacan live for a few days to a month, depend-
ing on temperature, and females can lay 50 to 350
eggs in their lifetime.
To increase chances of success in using Encarsia:
1) Avoid using pesticides with long residual effects
for at least a month prior to releasing Encarsia.
2) Avoid using Encarsra during winter months be_
fore February, unless light and temperature condi-
tions are adjusted to suit the parasite. Low tempera-
tures and humidities and cloudy conditions reduce
the effectiveness of this parasitoid. Temperatures of
at least 18"C are needed for reasonable activitu The
critical temperature for good control is 23"C.
3) Introduce Encarsiaat the first sign of whitefties,
or preventively before whiteflies are seen. If whíte-
flies are present prior to release ol Encarsia, knock
back populations with a low-residue pesticide, such
as insecticidal soap. Sticky traps, placed one per
plant in "hot spots," also contribute to reduction in
the numbers of adult whiteflies.
4) Distribute Encarsia in shaded parts of the plant
where the parasite is protected from direct suniight.
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
 5) Distribute cards relatively evenly, placing more
in areas where whiteflies have been spotted. More
distribution points may be obtained by purchasing
those cards with less parasitized scales per card.
6) ln pruning off lower leaves, parasitized scales
may be removed. Either leave the pruned-off foliage
in the rows for about a week to allow emergence of
the adult Encarsia, or make extra releases of the
parasitoid to compensate for this loss. This slows
down buildup of Encarsra numbers, and this loss
needs to be compensated for.
7) Monitor the crop regularly at all stages of crop
production for trends in the whitefly population and
percent parasitism.
Release rates for Encarsia formosa. Preventive
release rates, or rates used before any whiteflies are
observed, are on the low end (one parasitoid per
every two to four plants on a weekly basis). When
whiteflies are first seen, either on the plant or on a
sticky card, rates can be increased to one to two
parasitoids per plant. lndication of good whitefly con-
trol is given by the percentage (at least 80%) of para-
sitized scales, and a reduction in the adult popula-
tion. At this time, one can either stop further releases
of the wasp, or continue releases using the low pre-
ventive rates. The latter method usually gives more
reliable control, especially when the monitoring ex-
ercise is not maintained strictly.
Chemical control. Pesticides registered for white-
fly control in Canada include the following:
1) lnsecticidal soap at 1 liter/100 liters of water-
soap can be used to knock back adult populations.
A good soaking is necessary to achieve kill. Note
that the soap will kill adult parasitoids as well. How-
ever, all insecticidal properties of soap are lost as
soon as the solution dries up. This low resídual ac-
tivi§ makes soap compatlble with the use of biologi-
cal control agents.
2) Arnbush 50 EC at 20 ml/100 liters of water-
this pesticide is not used frequently in Ontario be-
cause of the success in using biological controls.
Ambush is not considered compatible with the use
at Encarsia because of its long residual activity, and
also because of resistance that built up shortly after
it was in regular use.
3) Dibrom EC at 10 ml/100 m3 vaporized from
heating pipes-another chemical that is not often
used during crop production becaulse of potential
damage to flowers and reduction in fruit set.
4) Thiodan 4 EC at 150 rnl/'!00 liters of water-a
broad-spectrum pesticide that may reduce whitefly
populations. lt is not considered compatible with use
of Encarsia.
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
Vegetable Leafminer
Biology. Leafminers can be important pests where
soil is not sterilized because the pupae can survirre
in the ground between crops. Crops grown in soil-
less media are particularly susceptible to this pest
because the soil is covered with a plastic sheeting,
and cleanup of the floor usually entails only removal
of excess coarse debris. The adult vegetable
leafminer, Liriomyza sativae, resembles a small black
fly with a yellow spot on the back between the wings.
Females puncture leaf tissue and feed on the exu-
date from these wounds, commonly referred to as
"stipples." Eggs are laid in a proportion of these
stipples. Feeding stipples are round, whereas egg
stipples are oval. Females may produce up to 400
viable eggs at the optimaltemperature of 30"C. Op-
timal temperatures for feeding and oviposition range
between 21" and 32'C. Eggs hatch after 3 to 7 days,
and the tiny larvae feed on the tissue betweén the
upper and lower leaf surfaces. Each larva forms a
pale white tunnel, or "mine." Depending on tempera-
ture, larvae reach maturity in 4 to 7 days, molting
three times. As they become larger, the mine also
becomes longer and broader.The mature larvae cut
a small opening in the leaf and drop to the soil to
pupate. Pupation may occur in the soil, or on plastic
sheeting where it is used. Pupation can also take
place on the leaves. The pupal stage may last 4 to 7
days during the summer, and up to 90 days during
periods of low temperature and scarce food supplyr.
Mating takes place almost immediately after emer-
gence, and egg laying 12lo 24 hours aftenruards.
Mating and oviposition occur during daylight, gener-
ally in the morning. Development from egg to adult
takes about 14 days at 30oC, and 64 days at 14"C.
Adults live for 2 to 3 weeks and are capable of breed-
ing throughout the year in heated greenhouses.
Damage. Feeding by leafminers indirectly aÍfects
yield by reducing the plant's photosynthetic area and
by damaging water-conducting vessels, which results
in leaf desiccation and leaf drop.
Biological control. Two commercially available
parasitoids are Dacnusa sibiricaand Diglyphus isaea.
Adult Dacnusaare small, black wasps with long, flex-
ible antennae. A female locates mines with its an-
tennae, and inserls an egg through the leaf mine into
the leafminer's body. Each female lives for about 2
weeks, during which time she may lay up to 90 eggs.
Eggs hatch within 4 days, and the larvae take about
2 weeks to mature within the leafminer pupae. De-
velopment time from egg to adult is about 2 weeks
at22'C. Because all development takes place within
the body of the leafminer, Dacnusa is known as an
endoparasitoid-this makes assessment of parasít-
ism difficult.
27
 Diglypttus isaea, unlike Dacnusa, is an ectoparasi-
toid because all developmental stages exist outside
the leafmíner's body.The aduii is a small, blackwasp
with a rnetallic green sheen. lt also differs from
Dacnusa by having shorter antennae. After locating
a leaf mine, the female first paralyzes the leafminer
with her ovipositor, then inserts an egg through the
leaf, placing it adjacent to the leafminer. Up to five
eggs rnay be deposited in this manner. The larva
hatches within 2 days, and is initially colorless, then
yellow brown, and finally turquoise.The larva moults
three times within 6 days and turns into a pale tur-
quoise pupa.The larva characteristically builds frass-
columns within the mine, apparently to prevent dam-
age to the pupa by keeping apart the two leaf sur-
faces. The pupa turns dark brown and the adult
emerges after about 6 to g days. The frass-columns
remain in the mine and are a useful indication of
parasitism. Development time from egg to adult is
about 11 days at 25'C. Diglyphus spp. are able to
parasítize leafminers already parasitized by Dacnusa
and become the dominant species during summer
when the warm conditions favor Diglyphus. Adult
Diglyphus also feed on leafminer larvae to obtain
protein needed for egg production. Presence of short
mines is an indication of activity by Diglyphus be-
cause the paralyzed leafminer larvae stop feeding
immediately.
Release rates for Dacnusa and Diglyphus. The
parasitoids are generalty sold together as adults in
bottles in the ratio 9:1 (Dacnusa:Diglyphus).Íhis
mixture could be used during the winter months be-
cause Dacnusa is generally more effective than
Diglyphus under cool conditions.The parasitoids can
be released preventively every week using low rates.
Release rates range from 250 to 2000 per acre per
week, and introductions are stopped when about g0%
parasitism is achieved. Although cool, dull weather
conditions reduce act¡vity of Diglyphus, their activity
is reported to be improved by boosting temperatures
by 2" or 3'C to a favorable 21"C for a few hours
each day. From about March onward, it may be more
effective to release only Diglyphus.
Chemical control.
1) Ambush 50 EC using rates similar to those for
whiteflies.
2) Malathion 25 WP al4 kgl1000 liters, repeated
at 4-day intervals.
Two-spotted spider mites (TSSM)
Adults are tiny, spider-like creatures with eight legs
and two dark spots in the rounded portion of their
bodies. They may be yellow, dark-green, or blackish
in color in summer, and bright orange in fall and win-
ter. The two-spotted spider mite, or spider mite, as ít
is commonly called, has five developmental stages-
the egg, three immature stages that resemble adults,
and ihe adult. Females usuaily mate immediately
after attaining maturity, and can start laying translu-
cent, round eggs on the undersides of leaves within
36 hours. At 20'C and 36% RH, females will lay about
seven eggs per day, while at high humidíties (95%
RH), they lay about five eggs per day. Development
time from egg to adult is about 4 days at 32'C, and
15 days at 21"C. When daylengths are about 12
hours and less, temperatures are decreasing, and
food quality is deteriorating, spider mites will go into
a sort of hibernation called diapause. During dia-
pause, spider mites can tolerate very low tempera=
tures of about -28"C for a few days. A short spell of
heating is not sufficient to break diapause.
Damage. Spider mites feed on cell sap, which re-
sults in numerous, yellow speckles on leaves. Con-
tinued feeding by increasing numbers of the spider
mites results in yellowing of the entire leaf ,which
eventually becomes brown and desiccated.
Biological control. Biological control of spider mites
in tomatoes using Ph¡ioseiulus persimilisis variable,
especially under conditions of high temperatures and
low relative humidity. lmmediately after spotting an
infestation of spider mites, it is best to suppress their
numbers with Vendex or insecticidal soap (see chemi-
cal control). This precaution suppresses buildup of
the spider mites during the wait for thepredators from
the supplier. Better control may be experienced if
the "tomato strain" ot P. persimlr's is used. Predators
are best placed on leaves where mites are actually
seen, and on surrounding plants. Spider mites usu-
ally do not disperse to other areas until they have
exhausted the food source in their imr¡ediate loca-
tion. Two or three weekly releases may be neces-
sary to achieve control.
Chemical control. Fenbutatin oxide orVendex may
be applied at 500 g/1000 liters.This acaricide is com-
patible with P persimilis and with most other biologi-
cal control agents. A spreader-sticker may be mixed
with Vendex for better results if predators are not
being used. lf predators are being used, do not in-
clude a spreader-sticker, which is usually harmfulto
them.
Aphids
The two species of aphid most commonly found
in greenhouse crops are the green peach aphid
(Myzus persicae) andthe potato aphid (Macrosiphum
sp.). Because of favorable conditions in the green-
house, the life-cycle of aphids is simple. Adults give
birth to young, called nymphs, which resemble adults
except for their smaller size. All individuals are fe-
male, and only female young are produced. Aphids
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
generally produce three to 10 young per day, and
each newly born nymph becomes an adult in about
7 to 10 days.
Biological control. Generally, aphids develop on
tomatoes relatively slowly, which is an advantage
when using the biological control agents Aphidius
spp. and Aphidoletes aphidimyza. Aphidiusspp. may
be released at a rate of 1000 to 2000 per acre at
least three times, or 500 per acre at weekly intervals
startin g f rom arou nd March. Aph i d oletes is ntroduced
i ene aids in pest mortality and debris decomposition
at two to.four per plant for about three releases, or
until establishment of the predator is observed.
Chemical control.
1)Thiodan 4EC at 125 mll100 liters.
2) lnsecticidal soap a|2.5 liters/100 liters.
3) Nicotine smoke using 1 can/300 m3.
Fungus Gnats
When fungus gnat populations are high, they can
be a problem in soil and rockwool systems. Fungus
gnats have been implicated in the spread of Fusarium
crown and root rot in tomatoes, and of Verticillium in
other greenhouse crops. The small, white larvae,
which have black, shiny heads, damage plants by
feeding on young roots. Such feeding not only re-
duces the ability of plants to take up water and nutri-
ents, but it also makes the plants more prone to
Pythium root rot. Adults live about 10 days and lay
about '150 e.ggs in the upper few millimeters of the
growing medium. The entire life cycle is completed
in about 3 weeks al24'C.
Biological control.
1) Hypoasprb:-This is a predatory mite that should
be introduced early because their numbers build up
slowly. Hypoaspis is effective when fungus gnat popu-
lations are low. All stages are predatory and they feed
on fungus gnat larvae, springtails, thrips pupae,
nematodes, and larvae of various flies and beetles.
2) Ste i n e rn e m a c arp ocap s e or f e lti ae-When f u n-
gus gnat populations are high, use of the insect-feed-
ing nematodes is recommended. The nematodes
generally enter the larvae though natural openings,
e.9., mouth, anus, spiracles, or wounds, into the body
cavity.The nematodes then release bacteria that kill
the host by septicemia within 24 hours. The nema-
todes are not likely capable of reproducing within the
bodies of the small larvae, and repeated applications
are necessary. They can be applied through the drip
system or with a knapsack sprayer for about 2 to 3
consecutive weeks at weekly intervais. Application
rates depend on concentration of nematodes in the
product
General Cultural Control Measures
Sanitation. One should practice good hygiene at
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
allstages of crop production;i.e., before, during, and
after each crop. Cleanup should immediately follow
harvest. When pest levels are high, application of a
pesticide before removal of the crop reduces dis-
persal of pests. Remove all plant debris and weeds
from the greenhouse and immediately dispose of
these as far as possible from the growing area. De-
bris should be burned, buried, or covered with poly-
ethylene to reduce survival of pests. The polyethyl-
by keeping temperature and moisture high.
During summer conditions, keeping the green-
house free of any plant material and closed for sev-
eral days helps to reduce further any remaining pest
populations. The high temperatures achieved dur-
ing the day (about 40'C) accelerate development of
insect and mite pests, which are subsequently killed
by starvation and/or dehydration.
Weed control. Weed-free conditions inside and in
the immediate surroundings of the greenhouse re-
duce carryover of pest populations. This is particu-
larly important in the interval between crops, because
weeds can harbor disease organisms as well. A con-
tact herbicide (i.e., Spectrum) can be used for weed
control in and around greenhouses. Care has to be
taken in avoiding contact with any non-weed plants.
General Physical Control Measures
1) lnsect barriers'. This is the use of insect barri-
ers over vents a¡d doorways to exclude insecl popu-
lations. Severa' iactors to consider in selecting
screens are pore size and shape, airflow, mainte-
nance, and cost.
2) Sticky fraps:Yellow sticky tapes and boards are
used commonly to trap out adult pests that are at-
tracted to the color of these traps; e.9., adult white-
flies, leafminers and fungus gnats, and winged
aphids.
3) Hand-removalof pests and vacuumrng of "hot
spots" are other methods of physical control.
General Procedure for Monitoring
Monitoring serves to reveal trends in populations
of pests and their biological control agents, identify
problem areas or "hot spots," facilitates timely imple-
mentation of control measures, and reflects the ef-
fectiveness of control measures taken. Yellow sticky
cards are used for monitoring adult whiteflies,
leafminers, winged aphids, fungus gnats, and shore
flies. The cards are placed about 5 cm above the
growing points of plants and distributed relatively
uniformly throughout the house. Some of the cards
should be placed along walls and neardoorways and
CO, burners because infestations are likely to start
in these areas. About one card per 100 m2can be
 frmerican Socierg for Hartículturol Scícnce §eminor Series
used, but ít is best to use an arnount that will able to
be monitored comfortably. Generally, having more
cards wili give more-accuraie information, particu-
larly under low pest population densities. However,
having less cards that will be monitored regularly is
better than no monitoring at all. Cards should be
raised as the crop grows and checked weekly.
lnspection of plants during routine cultural opera-
tions also has a big role to play in the detection and
monitoring of insect and mite populations. Yellow
sticky cards can only trap flying insects; therefore,
the plants themselves have to monitored to detect
spider mites, early aphid infestations, mines and
feeding spots of leafminers, and activity of biological
control agents. lnformation gathered from monitor-
ing should be used to mark "hot spots" and for record-
keeping using simple maps and/or tables.
30
References
Hussey, N.W. and N. Scopes. /985. Biological pest con-
t¡'ol. The glasshouse experience. Cornell Univ. Press,
Ithaca, N.Y.
Malais, M. and W. Ravensberg. 1991. Knowing and rec-
oEnizing. Koppert 8.V., The Netherlands.
Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food.1993. Pest man-
agement recommendations for Ontario greenhouse
crops. Publ.365.
Pledrahita, O. 1 985.Two serpentine leafminers aüacking
vegetables and ornamentals. Ontario Ministry of Agri-
culture and Food, Factsheet no. 85-006.
Steinier, M.Y. and D.P. Elliott. 1987. Biological pest man.
agement for interior plantscapes. Alberta Environmen-
tal Centre, Vegreville., Ont.
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
Nutrition of Greenhouse Tomatoes Gn
lnert Substrates in Northern Latitudes
W.A. Straverr
Harticultural Research Institute of Ontario,Vineland Station, ON L1R 2E0, Canada

ockwool is, at present, the most commonly
used inert growing medium for greenhouse
tomatoes in Ontario. More than 50% of the
tomatoes are grown in rockwool, and this percent-
age is expected to increase. Other inert substrates
have been tested, but currently have no commercial
significance.
Nutrition must be monitored carefully when plants
are grown on inert media, which lack any chemical
buffer. Plants growing in such media have a small
rooting volume. This dictates greater attention to
nutritional requirements of the plants.
Much of the technology used by hydroponic green-
to calculate the make-up of fertilizer stock solutions.
The concentration of bicarbonate must be deter-
mined so that the acid requirement to reduce the pH
of the nutrient solution can be calculated. Most of
the bicarbonate must be neutraiized. About 0.5
mmol.literl should remain to act as a buffer and pre-
vent rapid fluctuations of pH.Watersources that lack
bicarbonate must have some added to provide a
buffer. Depending on the source, water may contain
considerable amounts of calcium, magnesium, sul-
fate, and certain minor elements. These concentra-
tions must be taken into account when calculating
the composition of ferlilizer stock solutions. :.

house vegetable producers is imported from Europe.

Nutrient solutions developed by researchers at the
Greenhouse Crop Research Station at Naaldwijk, the
Netherlands, have been adopted for use in Ontario
successfully. However, many growers have obtained
similar success with nutrient solutions that differ sig-
nificantly in terms of nitrogen and polassium com-
pared to the above solution.This confirms the belief
that, in plant nutrition, there is a certain "window" of
target values within to operate. As long as the actual
values are within this window or optimal range, nu-
trition will not be a limiting factor.
ln North America, nutrient concentration in the so-
lutions are usuaily expressed in pads per million (ppm).
When calculating the composition of a nutrient solu-
tion, it is necessary to maintain a balance between
anions and cations for maintaining electroneutrality.
Working in terms of ppm makes this more cumber-
some and prone to errors. Therefore, it is easier to
use the millimole (mmol) unit and milliequivalent (meq)
unit.The numbers will be smaller and the task of main-
taining an ionic balance is made easier when modify-
ing a nutrient solution. For this reason, concentrations
of elements, ions, and fertilizers wÍll be expressed in
The Nutrient Solution
The composition of the "standard" nutrient solution
used for greenhouse tomatoes grown in rockwool at
the Horticultural Research Institute of Ontario (HRIO)
is presented in Table 1. This fornlula has been modi-
fied to meet the specific requirements of the cultivar
Trust, currently used mostcommonly in North America.
The electrical conductivity (EC) of the solution
(Table 1) was 2.5 S/cm. For much of the growing
period, this will be close to the desired value. lf a
substantially higher or lower EC is desired, the con-
centration of all major nutrients except NHo will be
increased proportionally. The NHo concentration
should remain constant because of its effect on pH.
The concentrations of the rninor elements should be
fairly constant and should not vary much with EC.
Table 1 . Composition of nutrient solution used for green-
house tomatoes grown ín an inerf substrate at HRIO.
Concn Concn
Nutrient (mmol.literr) Nutrient (¡rmolJiterl)
N03-N 15.75 Fe 18.0

mmoliliter or meq/liter.
NH4-N 1.2 Mn 10.0
P 1.5 Zn 5.0
Water Quality K 7.5 B 33.0
A reliable supply of good quality water is essential Ca 5.65 Cu 0.8
for growing crops hydroponically. A chemical analysis Mg ó.u Mo 0.5
ís necessaryto determine its suitability. lt is also needed Son 3.5
r
G reenhouse C rops Specialist. 1.8

Greenhouse Tomato Seminar 31

 Americon Societg fbr Horticttlt¿ral Scícnce Seminor Scrics

Adjustments to the Nutrient Solution A hypotheticalscenario is presented below. ln this

Depending on the stage of plant development, example, thefollowing assumptions have been made:
changes to the "standard" feed solution are often need- Line 1 : Target values (feed) fortomatoes (fromTable 1 ).
ed. During the vegetative phase, extra calcium and Line 2: Adjustments for applying high EC (2.9 vs.2.6
magnesium is taken up by the plant. During periods mS.cm-l).
with heavy fruit load, extra potassium is needed. The Line 3: Modifications for water quatity. ln this example,
recommended adjustments to the standard nutrient domestic water is used and allowances are made
solution to satisfy these demands are listed in Table 2. for HCO., Ca, Mg, and SOo.
The solution in the growing medium should be ana- Line 4: Adjustment for the vegetative development
lyzed on a regular basis to verify the presence of all phase.
required nutrients at optimum concentrations. Target Line 5: The results of the media analysis showed
values and ranges are listed in Table 3. lf the actual that the NO, concentration was higher than the ac-
EC of the media solution varies from the targeted EC, ceptable rañge presented in Table 3. The amount
all values must be recalculated to the iarget EC of 3.6 of NO, in the feed solution is therefore reduced.
S/cm. lf the readings are outside the range, an ad- Line 6:The sum of lines 1 to 5.
justment to the feed solution should be made. The Line 7: A correction to maintain the ionic balance be-
magnitude of the changes, in mmol.literl, are: NO. cause the modification of line 5 involved an anion
1.5; B 0.25; K, 1.5; Ca, 0.75; Mg, 0.5; SOo, 0.5. The only.
changes to the minor nutrients are 25"/o.The duration
of these adjustments must be limited to 4 to 7 days. Table 3. Target values and ranges for nutrient con-
centrations of the media solution lor tomatoes in in-
pH Control ert substrate.
It is important to maintain the desired pH in both Target Range
the irrigation system and the media. lf the pH of the EC (mS.cm¡) 3.7' 2.5-5.0
feed solution is higher than 6.2, precipitation of cal- pH 5.5 5.1-6.2
cium compounds in the solution may cause blockage Macron utrients(mmol.literl )
of the emitters. lf the pH is lower than 4, damage to
N03-N 16.0 12.0-19.0
the rockwool slabs and plant roots may occur.
NH4-N <0.5 0.1-0.5
The optimum pH range for the growing medium
solution should be between 5.2 to 6.2. The pH of the P 1.0 0.7-2.0
medium can be adjusted by changing the pH of the K 8.0 6.5-10.0
feed. lf this change does not provide the desired re- Ca 10.0 8.0-12.0
sult, the NHo content of the feed solution may be Mg 4.5 2.7-4.5
altered; i.e. increase it to achieve a drop in medium Soo 6.8 4.0-9.0
pH, or decrease it to obtain a rise in pH. The maxi- CI 9.0 6.0-12.0
murn allowable increase in NHo is 0.5 mmol.literl. HCO3 <1.0 0.1-1.0
Micronutrients (pmol.literl)
Calculating the Nutrient Solution Fe 25.0 9.0-35.0
Composition Mn 5.0 3.0*10.0
Employing a spreadsheet type format, the macro-
Zn 7.4 5.0-10.0
nutrient content of the solution can be calculated with
B 50.0 35.0-65.0
relative ease. Any modifications and their associated
effects are easily verifiable. Maintaining an ionic bal- Cu 0.7 0.5-1.5
ance can also be performed quickly. Mo 0.5 0.H.8

Table 2. Adjustments to the standard nutrient solution for greenhouse to- The lower part of the nutrient so-
matoes during different phases of plant development. lution calculation shows howthe de-
Development Change to standard solution (mmol.literl) sired concentrations of major nutri-
phase NO. NH, K Ca Mg SO, ents can be achieved. lt is important
Saturation of slabs +1.25 +1.0 +1.0
to follow the order of fertilizers as
-1.5 -0.5 -3.5
shown in the example in this ex-
Planting to first cluster -1.2 +0.3 +0.3
ample.
Third to fifth cluster +1.0 o.25 4.25
Sixth to 1Oth cluster +2.0 -0.5 -{.5 Stock Solutions
1 1th to 12th cluster +1.0 4.25 -0.25 The number of stock solution

i2 Grtenhouse Tomato Seminar

Table 4. Greenhouse tomato nutrient solution calculation.
lonic balance
Concn. of major nutrients (mmol.literl) (meq/lite0
NO Mg Anion Cation
1) Target values, std. 15.75 1.5 3.5 1.75 1.2 7.5 5.65 3.0 26.0 26.0
2) Adjustments, EG 2.9 1.82 a.17 0.40 0.20 0.0 0.91 0.67 0.37 3.0 3.0
3) Adjustments, raw
water -0.25 1.50 4.75 4.25 -0.50 -0.50
4) Adjustments,
development -1.2A 0.30 0.30
5) Adjustments, media
analysis -1.50 -1.5
6) Total 16.07 t.o/ 3.65 1.95 1 .50 1.20 7.21 s.88 3.42 27.0 28.5
7) Total, balanced 17.O2 1.67 3.87 2.07 1.50 1.20 7.21 5.88 3.42 28.5 28.5

Concn.
Fertilizer (mmol.literl)
H3PO4 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50
HN03 0.0
KH2P04 o.17 o.17 0.17 o.17 0.17
KCI 2.47 2.07 2.07
Ca(NO.), 5.88 12.93 1.70 5.88 12.93 12.93
KH4NO3 o.o3 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03
KN03 4.47 4.07 4.07 4.07 4.O7
K2S04 4.45 0.45 0.90 0.90 0.90
MgSOo 3.42 3.42 3.42 6.84 6.84
MG(NO3) o.o
Tcial 17.02 1.67 3.87 2.07 1 .50 1.20 7.21 5.88 3.42 28.5 28.5

tanks needed and the concentrat¡on of the stock so-
lutions depend on the equipment used.The simplest
system is to use two stock tanks and a 100x con-
centration. One tank wíll hold calcium and ammo-
nium nitrate, iron chelate, and part of the potassium
nitrate requiremeni. The second tank is used to dis-
solve all the remainder of the potassium nitrate, all
phosphate, and sulfate-based fertilizers and the other
microelement sources. By using a 100x concentra-
tion, the amount of fertilizer to be dissolved can be
easily converted from mmol-literl in the final solu-
tion to kg/tank in the stock solution. A commonly used
stock solution tank size is 1000 liters. Diluting the
stock solutions at a ratio of 1 in 100 will result in the
desired EC.
lf pH control is available, all or part of the nitric
acíd can be put in the acid tank. This will allow for
quick adjustments of pH of the nutrient solution.
Summary
-Nutrition of greenhouse tomatoes grown in lím-
ited volumes of inert substrate must be monitored.
The raw water used for irrigation must be analyzed
so that the composition of the fertilizer stock solu-
tions can be calculated. Adjustments to these stock
solutions are required depending on the stage of plant
development.The media solution must be monitored
and, depending on the results of the anaiyses, addi-
tionaltemporary modifications may be needed. Em-
ploying a spread sheet-type format is helpful in cal-
culating the composition of stock solutions.
References
Blom,7.J., W.A. Stnver, W.W. Braun and J Hughes. 1987.\Na-
ter quality for greenhouse crops. Ontario Ministry of Agri-
culture, Food and Rural Affairs Factsheet Agdex 290115.
Papadopoulos, A.P. 1991. Growing greenhouse tomatoes
in soil and in soilless media. Agriculture Canada Publ.
186s/E.
Sonneveld, C. 1985. A method for'calculating the composi-
tion of nutrient solutíons for soilless cultures. No. 10,
Seríes: Voedingsoplossingen glastuinbouw. Glasshouse
Crops Research Station, Naaldwijk, the Netherlands.
Voogt, W. and C. Bloemhard. l994.Voedingsoplossingen
voor de teelt van tomaten in gesloten systemen (Nutri-
ent solutions for tomatoes in closed systems). No. 17,
Serie: Voedingsoplossingen glastuinbouw. Glasshouse
Crops Research Station, Naaldwijk, the Netherlands.

Greenhouse Tomato Seminar

 Americon Socierg for Hor¡icul¡ural Science Seminsr Series
Challenges for Growing Tomatoes
in Warm Climates
George Hochmuth
Horticultural Sciences Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611
Suwannee Valley AREC, University of Florida, Live Oak, FL 32AOA
omatoes are grown in vast quantities in south-
ern growing regions in the United States to
supply the demand during winter and spring.
The climate is conducive to growing tomatoes out of
doors during the winter and spring months. For ex-
ample, Florida produces about 50,000 acres of toma-
toes, shipping about 70 million 25-lb cañons of toma-
toes. Although Florida is the leading fresh-market to-
mato state, it also is a leading greenhouse tomato state,
growing tomatoes under40 acres of greenhouses. Pro-
tected tomato culture in Florida has certain advantages
compared to field culture. Tomatoes can be grown in
northern Florida during the winter when field culture
is not possible due to cooltemperatures. Greenhouses
protectthe crop from damage from wind and rain.The
sarne characteristics of greenhouse culture that pro-
vide advantages can also be challenges to green-
house tomato culture in a subtropical region such as
Florida. High temperatures can be a challenge during
a parl of the season, just as it can be a benefit during
another part of the season. We point out here a few of
the challenges to growing tomatoes in greenhouses
in warm climates and present production techniques
that growers can use to manage these challenges.
Hígh- Temperature. Greenhouses are basically
used to produce horticultural crops because they can
increase temperature under the cover, allowing crop
growth under otherwise unfavorable conditions. ln
warm climates, the greenhouse effect can be a chal-
lenge because temperatures in the greenhouse rise
l^ ^.,^^^^:.,^
tv E^ug§D¡vE
l^. ,^l^
19vglJ.
lñ
lr¡ El^r;/.¡^
¡ rv¡tuq, ^"annl¡nr
vrvgrrrrvusv
tures are ideal during Decembe¡ January, and Feb-
ruary. Because our typical tomato season starts in
August and ends in June (for most of the northern
and central pañ of the state), we battle high tempera-
ture in the greenhouse for nearly 75% of the season.
Ventilation is a major requirement for greenhouse
culture (Jarvis, 1993). Even on a relatively cool win-
ter day, most growers need to ventilate to keep the
greenhouse temperature moderated. The need for
ventilation is based on the intense sunlight during
Bob Hochmuth
the winter months in Florida. Ventilation is most com-
monly accomplished by fan and evaporation pad sys-
tems, especially for northern Florida.The design and
operation of the mechanical ventilation system is
based on recommendations for Florida (Jones,
1991). Mechanical ventilation with evaporatlon pads
is most effective during periods of relatively low hu-
midity, yet high cooling demand. Therefore, pad and
fan systems are most useful in Florida during the
winter. For more humid, tropical environments, such
as southern Florida and some coastal sites, cooling
can be accomplished with naturalventilation in saw-
tooth houses or roll-up side walls.
High Humidify. High relqtive humidi§ combines
with high temperature to provide Florida greenhouse
tomato orgducers with one of their biggest chal-
lenges-disease and insect control. Just as green-
houses provide protection from the weather for the
crop, so do they afford protection and an ideal de-
velopment climate for diseases and insects. Florida
growers have very few pesticides labeled for use in
greenhouses to cornbat diseases and insects.There-
fore, the management of the environment plays a
large role in pest control. Even with ideal environ-
mental management, some diseases and insects are
troublesome. Selection of disease-resistant cultivars
of tomatoes, ventilation to cooland reduce humidity,
and attention to crop growth are the keys to minimiz-
ing pest problems in the southern greenhouse.
Díseases and lnsects.An example of the pest chal-
ron lamnara-
rvr¡¡yvrs lanna io rr¡ith tha r{icaaca nrarr rnnlrl /Rntn¡tic\ Grarr
mold can be a devastating disease in Florida in the late
winter and spring production periods. Labeled fungi-
cides offer little control of this fungus. Our research in
Florida shows that temperature and humidity control,
along with sanitation, offer the most returns for efforts
against gray mold.We recommend that growers start
a gray mold control program in December, as the tem-
peratures fall, and increase theirvigilance into spring,
as humidi§ increases. The program includes:
1) Ventilation to reduce humidity, especially on
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
cloudy days and at night. cation and with rotation of chemicals to minimize
2) Heating on a timely basis in winter to reduce buildup of resistance to pesticides within the insect
relative humidity. population. We have researched the use of biologi-
3) Use horizontal air-flow fans to circulate air within cal insect management programs aimed at the sweet-
the greenhouse. potato whitefly. Using currently available biological
4) Employ anti-condensate films to minimize con- control agents, control of the whitefly can be achieved
densate dripping onto plants. under Florida conditions. However, the cost of the
S) Employ a labeled fungicide during humid peri- large volume of agents needed might be prohibitive
ods to protect young fruits from infection. at current prices. Biologicalcontrol, however, appears
6) Optimize nitrogen use to reduce heavy vegeta- to hold promise and warrants furlher development
tive growth, which reduces air movement within the for use on greenhouse tomatoes in southern climates.
plant canopy. Nutrient Management. Successful tomato culture
7) Employ proper plant leaf and side branch prun- in southern climates requires a modified approach to
ing techniques to minimize areas for fungal coloni- nutrient management from what is recommended for
zation and disease organism spread. northern climates. Too often, growers buy into advice
B) Practice a carefulsanitation program to remove from noñhern consultants who have little experience
infected plant and fruit infections. or research data for southern regions to back up their
Gray mold is probably the worst foliar fungal dis- advice. One of our first research programs during the
ease in Florida. Other foliar diseases can be man- early 1980s for our fledgling greenhouse industry fo-
aged effectively through similar programs. With the cused on nutrient management. Research atthe Univ.
paucity of labeled pesticides for Florida greenhouse of Florida showed that northern fertilization programs
use, it becomes paramount for Florida growers to learn based on extremely high rates of nitrogen and potas-
as much about environmentalcontrol as possible. sium would not work for Florída crops. Under sub-
lnsect management will be a severe challenge for tropicai conditions of high light and temperature, hig[
greenhouse culture in warm climates. Without a true nitrogen and potassium led to excessive vegetative
winter to destroy insect populations, Florida is a con- growth (bullish plants) that terminated growth early in
stant breeding ground for insect pests. One of the September. Early fruit was extremely cat-faced. Re-
most trying insects for greenhouse tomato produc- search that focused on reduced fedilization for the
tion is the sweetpotato whitefly. At present, the only early fall crop establishment pinpointed the problem
economical control measure is through insecticidal as excessive nitrogen concentrations in the nutrient
application. Although only a few insecticicles are la- solution. Our work resulted in the development of a
beled for greenhouse use on vegetables, qrowers "step-formula"feftilizationrecipethatsuppliesnutrients
can control the whitefly with proper timing of appli- in concentrations more in line with crop demand (Table
Tabte 1. Nutrient solutian recommendations for tomatoes grown in Florida in rocktwool, perlite,

1
Transplant to First cluster to Second cluster to -Third cluster to Fifth cluster to
Nutrient first cluster second cluster third cluster fifth cluster termination
Finaldelivered nutrient solution concn (ppm)
N 70.0 80.0 100.0 QA.O 150.0
P 50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0
K 120.0 120.0 't50.0 150.0 200.0
Ca 150.0 150.0 150.0 1s0.0 150.0
Mg 40.0 40.0 40.0 50.0 50.0
b 50.0 50.0 50.0 60.0 60.0
Fe 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8
Cu 4.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Mn 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
Zn 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
B 0.7 o.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
Mo 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

Ca, Mg, and S concentrations may vary depending on Ca and Mg concentrations in well water and amount of
sulfuric acid used for acidifícation (adapted from Hochmuth, 1990, 1991).

Greenhouse Tomato Seminar 35

 Amerícan Societg for Horticultural Sciente Seminor Series

1). This recipe has replaced the northern programs, Table 3. Yíelds of greenhouse tomato eultivars in
which were based on nitrogen and potassium concen- northe rn F I ori da, 1 992-1 993.
trations of 250 and 400 ppm, respectively. Total market yield
Cultivars. One of the biggest challenges for green- Early market yield' per plant (lb)
house tomato producers has been to find a consis- Cultivar per plant (lb) Iarge' J61ái-
tent, successful tomato cultivar. The early industry Trust 3.6 abv 10.9 a-c 18.7 a
during the late 1970s and early 1980s was based Match 3.7 ab 9.9 a-d 17.2 ab
largely on'Jumbo', a large-fruited, green-shouldered, Bounty 3.2 b 't
1.5 ab 16.0 a-c
dísease-susceptible cultivar.'Jumbo', however, pro- Panther 3.6 ab 1 1.8 a 15.7 b-d
duced large, smooth fruits of exceptionally high qual- Caruso 3.6 ab 8.8 c-e 15.1 b--e
ity. The major problem with 'Jumbo', however, was B-1627192 3.2b 7.4 d-t 14.7 Á
its very poor productivity during winter months and Correct 4.4 a 6.8 ef 13.6 cd
its susceptibility to yellow shoulder (solar yellows) Apollo 3.0 b 6.1 f 13.1 cd
under high temperatures in the spring. During the Medallion 3.6 ab 9.1 b--e 12.8 d
late 1980s and early '1990s, several new tomato cul- Jumbo
tivars were introduced and were included in the Univ.
2.9 b 7.7 d-f 12.7 d

of Florida cultivar trials at the Suwannee Valley Agr.

B-518/91 3.0 b 7.3 d-f 12.6 d

Res. and Educ. Center at Live Oak, in northern 'Early yields, first six harvests. Season was 29 Jan.-28 June.
vSmall (< 3-5 oz.), medium (3.5-9.0 oz.), large (> 9.0 oz.).
Florida (Hochmuth et al., 1991 ; 1 992; 1993). Some *Means within column with same letter are not significantly dif-
of these new cultivars looked promising in our trials, ferent by Duncan's multiple range test (P 0.05).'
but never survived in commercial production due to (Data from Hochmuth et al., 1993).
one or more severe problems. 'Caruso' was a culti-
only by determined growers armed with proper tech-
var that, despite its susceptibility to yellow-shoulders
nology and horticultural knowledge. Lack of knowledge,
under high spring temperatures, was used as a re-
technology, and determination has resultéd in the fail-
placement for 'Jumbo'. 'Caruso' generally out-pro-
ure of countless hydroponic (both corporate and fam-
duced'Jumbo' by a large margin (Table 2).'Trend'
ily) operaüons in the southern United States overthe past
was a variety of exceptionally high yields of large
20 years. These failures have been held up as proof
fruit, but, under Florida conditions, it expressed its
that greenhouse tomato production will not work in
susceptibility to rough skin (russetting), hard inter-
southern climates. There is no doubt that profitable to-
nal core, and a unique susceptibility to gray leaf spot
mato productíon in warm, humid climates is a challenge
(Stemphyllium). Recently,'Trust' and'Match' have
but there is a demand for greenhouse tomatoes, anci
gained wide acceptance due to high yields and ac-
successful production is possible, even under today's
ceptable fruit quality (Table 3). Both are "non-green-
high pest pressure. The successful southern tomato
back" §pes and do not exhibit the yellow-shoulders
grower will be the one who plans to meet these chal-
trait under high temperatures.
Ienges and never rests on his or her accomplishments.
Summary. Successfultomato production in warm,
humid areas ís a severe challenge met successfully
Literature Cited
Table 2. Yields of greenhouse tomato cultivars in Hochmuth, G. 1990. Nutrient solution formulation for hy-
northern Florida, 1 989-1 990. droponic (rockwooland NFT)tomatoes in Florida. Fla.
Coop. Ext. Serv. Spec. Ser. SS-VEC-44.
Total market yield Hochmuth, G. 1991 . Fedilizer management for greenhouse
Early market yield, per plant (lb) vegetables. p. 13-31. ln: G. Hochmuth (ed.). Greenhouse
Cultivar per plant (lb) Iárgre--e,-To-táI- vegetable production handbook. vol. 3. Greenhouse Veg-
Trend o.2bv 7.4 a 17.6 a etable Crop Production Guide. FIa. Coop. Ext. SP-48.
Contento 1.0 ab 6.8 ab 17.3 a Hochmuth, R.C., G. Hochmuth, and C. Morrison. 1991.
trva,l'ra.tion of seven greenhorlse toma,to c¡_lltir¡a_rs for'
oapetlo 1.3 a 4.9 b 16.4 ab
production and quality in North Florida in the 1989 to
Caruso 1.8 a 6.3 ab 15.5 ab 1990 season. Fla. Coop. Ext. Serv. SVAREC 92-15.
Topaz 1.5 a 2.6 c 15.'l ab Hochmuth, R.C., G.J. Hochmuth, M.E. Donley, and M.C.
Laura 1.2 a 5.8 ab 14.3 ab Ross. 1992. Evaluation of ten greenhouse tomato culti-
Jumbo 1.1 a 4.9 b 13.2 b vars for production and quality In Nofih Florida in the 1991
to'1992 season. Fla. Coop. Ext. Serv. SVAREC 92-22.
'Early yields, first six harvests. Season was 29 Jan.-28 June. Hochmuth, R.C. G. Hochmuth, and M.C. Ross. 1993. Evalua-
vSmall (< 3.5 oz.), medium (3.5-9.0 oz.), large (> 9.0 oz.). tion of greenhouse tomato cultivars for producüon and quali-
'Means within column with same letter are not significantly dif- ty in North Florida. FIa. Coop. Ext. Serv. SVAREC 93-2.
ferent by Duncan's multiple range test (P 0.05). Jarvis, W.R. 1993. Managing diseases in greenhouse
(Data from Hochmuth et al., 1991).
crops. 2nd ed. Amer. Phytopath. Soc., St. Paul, Minn.

36 Greenhouse lbmato Seminar

Greenhouse Tormato Nutrition and
Fertilization for SoutherR Latitudes
George Hochmuth
Horticultural Sciences Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611
lants require 16 elements for normal growth
and reproduction. The object of a sound fer-
tilizer management program is to supply these
required nutrients in ample, but not excessive,
amounts for optimum crop production. This chapter
presents general information on plant nutrition that will
be useful irrespective of the particular cultural system
(e.9., rockwool, bag, or NFT hydroponics) used by a
grower. Fertilizer programs are detailed later in this
chapter. The inforrnation was developed for Florida,
but should have some application to other humid, sub-
tropical growing environments.
General Plant Nutrition
The '16 elements required by all plants are carbon
(C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), phosphorus (P), potassi-
um (K), nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), calcium (Ca), magnesi-
um (Mg), iron (Fe), boron (B), manganese (Mn), copper
(Cu), zinc (Zn), molybdenum (Mo), and chlorine (Cl).
The elements C, H, and O are supplied largely
from air [carbon dioxide (COr) and oxygen], and water
(HrO).The remaining 13 elements, usually referred
to as mineral nutrients, are supplied from several
sources. Small amounts of these nutrients can be
derived from the growing media; e.9., peat in a bag
or trough culture or the water in hydroponics. Well
water in Florida contains substantial amounts of Ca
and S, and smaller amounts of Mg and Fe. Most of
the needed amounts of the 13 mineralelements, how-
ever, are supplied by the grower from fertilizers.
The nutrients N, P, K, S, Ca, and Mg are referred
to as the macronutrients because they are required
in larger quantities by the plant compared to the re-
maining elements. The other seven elements are
referred to as micronutrients because they are re-
quired in small amounts, usually a few parts per mil-
lion (ppm) in the plant tissue.
Roles of Elements in Plant Grcwth
Carbon is "fixed" from CO, from the atmosphere
by photosynthesizing plants. Carbon is a component
of all organic compounds, such as sugars, proteins,
and organic acids. These compounds are used in
structural components, enzymatic reactions, and
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
genetic material, among others.The process of res-
piration degrades organic compounds to provide
energy for various plant processes.
The normal level of CO, in the atmosphere is about
350 ppm. Research on many crops has shown that,
if the ambient level of CO, is increased to 800 to
1000 ppm, increased plant growth and yield will re-
sult. lnjection of CO, is a standard practice in winter
greenhouse vegetable production in northern cli-
mates. ln these climates, high CO, levels can be
maintained because the greenhouses are closed
during the winter. ln Florida, CO, injection is not as
efficient as in northern climates because of the large
amount of ventilation required, even in winter.
lf CO, injection is practiced, the grower should only
apply CO, when the ventilation system is off. Further-
more, CO, should only be injected during daylight be-
cause this is when the CO, can be used by the plant.
Levels of CO, can be incre,-ased by burning natu-
ral gas or liquid propane in specialCO, burners, or it
can be introduced into the house as CO, gas. Burn-
ers need some means to distribute the CO, in the
house.This is usually accomplished by blowers.The
CO, gas is injected through tubing, usually polyeth-
ylene, with emitters spaced along the tubing.
Injection of CO, will be most effective if the injec-
tion is done within the plant canopy, where CO, can
readily enter the plant leaves. Growers using CO,
injection should invest in a CO, monitoring unit so
that levels of CO, do not rise to wasteful levels. Moni-
toring and controlof CO, injection can be computer-
ized and automated.
Hydrogen also is a component of the organic com-
pounds where we find C. Hydrogen ions are involved
in electrochemical reactions to maintain charge bal-
ances across cell membranes.
Oxygen is the third element in typical organic mol-
ecules such as simple sugars. The presence of O is
impoftant for many plant biochemical reactions.
Phosphorus is used in several energy transfer
compounds in the plants. A very important function
for P is its role in nucleic acids, the building blocks
for the genetic code material in plant cells.
Potassium is used as an activator in many enzy-
 mat¡c reactions in the plant. Another role for K in plants
occurs in special leaf cells, called guard cells, found
around the stomata. Guard cell turgor (or lack of tur-
gor) controls the degree of opening of the stomata
and thus the level of gas and water vapor exchange
through the stomata. Turgor is largely controlled by
K movement in and out of the guard cells.
Nitrogen is a very important element for plant
growth, and is found in many compounds. These in-
clude chlorophyll (the green pigment in plants), amino
acids, proteins, nucleic acids, and organic acids.
Sulfur is a component of sulfur-containing amino
acids such as methionine. Sulfur also is contained in
the sulfhydryl group of certain enzymes.
Calcium is required for calcium pectate for cell wall
development. ln addition, Ca is used as a co-factor of
certain enzymatic reactions. Recently, it has been de-
termined that Ca is involved in the intimate regulation
of cell processes mediated by a molecule called
calmodulin.
Magnesium plays an important role in plant cells
because it appears in the center of the chlorophyll
moiecule. Certain enzymatic reactions require Mg
as a cofactor.
lron is used in the biochemical reactions that form
chlorophyll and is a part of one of the enzymes that
is responsible for the reduction of nitrate nitrogen to
ammoniacal nitrogen. Other enzyme systems, such
as catalase and peroxidase, also require Fe.
Boron functions in the plant are not well-under-
stood. Boron seems to be important for normal mer-
istem development in young parts such as root tips.
Manganese functions in several enzymatic reac-
tions that involve the energy compound adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). Manganese also activates sev-
eral enzymes and is involved with the processes in
the electron transport system in photosynthesis.
Copper is a component of several enzymes in
plants and is a part of a protein in the electron trans-
port system in photosynthesis.
Zinc is involved in the activation of several en-
zymes in the plant and is required for the synthesis
of indoleacetic acid, a growth regufator.
Molybdenum is a constituent of two enzymes in-
vrclved in nitrogen metabolism. The most important
«.¡f [ilese is rriirate reciuciase.
Chlorine plays a possible role in photosynthesis
and might function as a counter ion in K fluxes in-
volved in turgor.
Nutrient Deficiencies
Phosphorus is absorbed as HrPOf or HpOr2 by
an active (energy-requiring) process. P is very mo-
bile in the plant. Deficíencies therefore show up on
the older leaves of the plant because P is translo-
-?8
cated out of these leaves to satisfy needs in the new
growth. P deficiency shows up as stunting and a red-
dish coloration resulting from enhanced levels of
anthocyanin pigments.
Deficient leaves will have only about 0.1% P by
dry matter. Normal most-recently matured leaves of
most vegetables will contain O.25% to 0.6% P on a
dry-weight basis. Excess P in the root zone can re-
sult in reduced plant growth, probably as a result of
P retarding the uptake of Zn, Fe, and Cu.
P uptake can be reduced by high pH in the root
media or by cold media temperatures. lt is important
to try to maintaín hydroponic solution pH at 5.6 to
6.0 to favor P uptake. Acidification can be arcom-
plished by use of several acids, such as sulfuric, ni-
tric, or phosphoric. lt is important not to overlime peat
media in trough culture. Maintain pH at 5.S to 6.5.
Check the temperature of hydroponic solutior¡s and
of peat bags or other solid media. Media tempera-
tures should not fall below 60'F for extended peri-
ods, especially during seedling development. Cool
media will reduce P uptake by plant roots.
Sometimes petioles and plant leaf midribs on young
Ieaves of full-grown plants show minor purpling. This
often occurs in late fall when temperatures are re-
duced. This is probably not related to P deficiency
because it occurs on young leaves. lt is probably more
related to increased levels of anthocyanin expressed
in the leaves under cooltemperatures.
Potassium is absorbed in large quantities by an
active uptake p,'ocess. Once in the plant, K is very
mobile and is transported to young tissues rapidly.
Deficiency symptoms for K show up first on lower
leaves as a marginalflecking or mottling. Prolonged
deficiency results in necrosis along the leaf margins,
and the plants can become slightly wiited. Deficient
plant leaves usually contain <1.5"h K. Deficiencies
of K lead to blotchy ripening of tomatoes, where the
fruits failto produce normal red color in areas on the
fruit. Excess levels of K in the media, especially hy-
droponics and rockwool, could inhibit the uptake of
other cations such as Mg or Ca.
Nitrogen can be absorbed by the plant in either
the nitrate (NOrlor ammonium (NH) forms.The NO.
form is usually the preferred form in which to supply
N to greenhouse crops. Tne NHo form seems to be
absorbed easier than NO, at cool temperatures
(<55"F). Uptake of NH.-N is best at a media pH near
neutrality, with uptake reduced as pH is dropped.
Uptake of NO.-N is best at more-acid pH levels. Hígh-
est N uptake by plants usually occurs when both
forms of N are present in the media. Presence of
NH4-N in the media with NO3-N resulted in greatest
growth rates in some tests. The forms in which N is
absorbed has an effect on the media pH.
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
 As NH.-N is absorbed, the plant releases H* ¡ons
to maintaín electrical balance, and, therefore, the pH
drops. As NOr-N is absorbed, the pH increases due
to presence of increased amounts of OH ions. Up-
take of N, therefore, can explain some of the fluctua-
tions sometimes seen in the pH of the growth media.
Nitrogen is a very mobile element in the plant, and
deficiency symptoms therefore show up first on the
lower teaves. Symptoms consist of a generalyellow-
ing (chlorosis)of the leaves. Ontomatoes, there might
be some red coloration to the petioles and leaf veins.
lf the problem persists, leaves will drop from the plant'
Normal plant leaves contain between 2.0"/o and
5.0% N on a dry-weightbasis. Deficiencies of N show
up most often where errors are made in fertilizer man-
agement that result in insufficient N supply to the
crops. More often, there ís a problem from excess N
application. Plants receiving excess N usually are
lush and tender with larger and darker-than-normal
leaves. Excess N (especially under warm and sunny
conditions) can lead to "bullish"tomato plants. These
plants produce thick, leathery leaves that curl under
in dramaiic fashion, producing compact growth.
Sutfur is absorbed mainly in the form of sulfate
(SOr). Sulfur is not very mobile in the plant, so defi-
ciency generally begins in the new growth. Deficiency
symptoms consist of a general yellowing of the
leaves. Deficiencies of N and S appear similar, but
N deficiency occurs on the lower leaves; S deficiency
occurs on the upper leaves.
Plant leaves usually contain between 0.2"/" and
0.5% S on a dry-weight basis. This range is similar
to that for P. Plants can generally tolerate quite high
levels of S in the growing media, and this is one rea-
son for the wide use of S-containing materials to
supply the nutrients such as Mg and the micronutri-
ents. For this reason, S deficiency is not very com-
mon in greenhouse vegetable crops.
Calcium, unlike most elements, is absorbed and
transported by a passive mechanisrn. The transpira-
tion process of the plants is a large factor in the up-
take of Ca. Once in the plant, calcium moves toward
areas of high transpiration rate, such as the rapidly
expanding leaves.
Most of the uptake of Ca occurs in a region on the
root just beyond the root tip. This has practical impor-
tance for greenhouse vegetable culture because it
means that growers must keep healthy root systems
with plenty of actively growing root tips. Root diseases
will severely limit calcium uptake by the plant.
Calcium is immobile in the plant; therefore, defi-
ciency symptoms show up first on new growth. Defi-
ciencies of Ca cause necrosis of the new leaves or
lead to curled, contorled growth. Examples of this are
tipburn of lettuce and cole crops. Blossom-end-rot of
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
tomato also is a calcium deficiency-related disorder.
Cells of the tomato fruit deprived of Ca break down,
causing the well-known dark area on the tomato fruit
blossom-end. Sometimes this breakdown can occur
just inside the skin, so that small darkened hard spots
form on the inside of the tomato while the outside
appears normal. Sometimes the lesion on the outside
of the fruit can be sunken or simply consist of darken-
ing of the tissue around the blossom area.
Because Ca movement in the plant is related to
transpiration, it follows that environmental conditions
that affect transpiration also affect Ca movement. Pe-
riods of high humidity can lead to tipburn of lettuce
because the leaves are not transpiring rapidly enough
to move adequate Ca to the leaf extremities.
Calcium concentrations in normal, most-recently
matured leaves will be from 1.0% to 5.0%. Deficien-
cies, however, can occur temporarily under certain
environmental conditions, as discussed above.
Therefore, it is important to consider irrigation and
greenhouse environment control in the overall Ca
fertilization program. ln addition, uptake of Ca can
be affected by other ions, such as NHo, Mg, and K.
These cations can compete with Ca for uptake by
the root. These competing nutrients should not be
supplied in excess of what is needed by the plant.
Magnesium is absorbed by'the plant in lower
quantities than Ca. The absorption of Mg is also
highly affected by competing ions such as K, Ca, or
NHr. Untike Ca, Mg is highly mobile in the plant and
deficiencies appear first on the lower leaves.
Deficiency consists of an interveinal chlorosis,
which can lead to necrosis of the affected areas. On
tomato leaves, advanced Mg deficiency leads to a
mild purpling of the affected areas.
Mg is usuallyfound in concentrations of 0.2% to 0.8%
in normal leaves. Conditions that lead to deficiency in-
clude poorly designed fertilizer programs that supplytoo
Iittle Mg or ones that supply excess K, Ca, or NH.-N.
lron can be absorbed by an active process as Fe2*
or as iron chelates, which are organic molecules con-
taining iron sequestered within the molecule. Uptake
of iron is highly dependent on the iron form, and ad-
equate uptake depends on the ability of the root to re-
duce Fe3'to Fez* for uptake. lron chelates are soluble,
and aid in keeping Fe in solution for uptake. The up-
take of the whole chelate molecule is low, and usually
Fe is removed from the chelate prior to uptake.
lron is not mobile in plants and symptoms appear
on the new leaves first. Symptoms consist of inter-
veinal chlorosis that may progress to a bleaching and
necrosis of the affected leaves. Normal leaves con-
tain 80 to 120 ppm Fe on a dry-weight basis.
Conditions that lead to Fe deficiency are inad-
equate concentrations of Fe in the nutrient solution,
39

Amerícon Societg for Horticul¡urul Scíenc.e Semínor Series
cold media, or alkal¡ne cond¡tions (pH above 7.0).
Fe deficiency is corrected by adding Fe to the fertil-
izer solution or by foliar sprays of Fe. Usually, one or
two sprays of a 0.5 ppm Fe solution (chelated iron
product) will correct a temporary Fe deficiency.
Manganese is absorbed as Mn2'ions and the up-
take is affected by other cations such as Ca and Mg.
Manganese is relatively immobile in the plant and
symptoms of deficiency show up on the upper leaves.
Deficiency of Mn resembles that of Mg; however,
Mg appears on the lower leaves of the plant. Mn defici-
ency consists of interveinal chlorosis; however, the
chlorosis is more speckled in appearance compareci
to magnesium deficiency. Normal concentrations of
Mn in leaves ranges from 30to 125 ppm formost plants.
High concentrations of Mn can be toxic to plants.Tox-
icity consists of marginal leaf necrosis in many plants.
Concentrations of Mn on the order of 800 to 1000 ppm
can lead to toxicity in many crops. Excess Mn in the
nutrient solution reduces uptake of Fe.
Situations that lead to deficiency are mostly related
to inadequate Mn supply in the solution or to competi-
tion effects of other ions. Toxicity can occur from ex-
cess Mn supply or from an acidic media that contains
some soil-based materialthat carries Mn. Solubility of
Mn is increased in these soíl-based media by low pH.
Zinc uptake is thought to be by an active process
and can be affected by concentration of P in the me-
dia. Zn is not highly mobile in plants. Deficiency of
Zn results in leaves with interveinalchlorosis. Some-
times Zn deficiency will lead to plants v,,ith shortened
internodes.
Normal leaves contain about 25 to S0 ppm Zn.
High concentrations of Zn can lead to toxicity, where
root growth is reduced and leaves are small and chlo-
rotic. Zinc deficiency can be increased by cold, wet
growing media or by media with a very high pH.
Copper is absorbed by plants in very small quanti-
ties. The uptake process appears to be an active pro-
cess and it is strongly affected by Zn and pH. Copper
(Cu) is not highly mobi[e in plants, but some Cu can be
translocated from older to newer leaves. The normal
level of Cu in plants is on the order of 5 to 20 ppm.
Copper deficiency of young leaves leads to chlo-
rosis and some elongation of the leaves. Excess
copper, especiallyr !n acidic rnedia, can be toxlc.
Molybdenum is absorbed as molybdate MoO*1
and the uptake can be suppressed by sulfate. Tis-
sue contents of Mo are usually <1 ppm.
A deficiency of Mo first appears in the mid leaves
and the older leaves. The leaves become chlorotic
and the margins roll. Unlike other micronutrients, Mo
deficiency occurs mostly under acidic conditions.
Boron uptake by plants is not well-understood.
Boron (B) is not mobile in the plant, and seems to
I
have many uptake and transport features in com-
mon with Ca.
Boron deficiency affects the young growing points
first, e.9., buds, leaf tips, and margins. Buds develop
necrotic areas and leaf tips become chlorotic and even-
tually die. Tomato leaves and stems become britfle.
Normal leaves contain 20 to 40 ppm, B while high lev-
els may lead to toxicity. Only small amounts of B are
needed by plants, and supplying excessive B from feftil-
izer solutions or from foliar sprays leads to toxici§.
Sources of Nutrients
Materials used to supply nutrients for greenhouse
vegetable productíon are chosen based on several
factors, including cost per unit of nutrients, solubility
in water, ability to supply multiple nutrients, freedom
f rom contaminants, and ease of handling. The most
commonly used fertilizer materials for greenhouses
are listed inTable l.These materials are used mostly
to formulate the liquid fertílizer nutrient solution. -
Premixed fertilizer materials are very popular with
many greenhouse operators because they are easy
to use. However, they are relatively expensive com-
pared to individualingredients, and the premixed ma-
terials leave little room for making changes in -con-
centrations of individual nutrients.
Premixed fertilizers, should be purchased from a
reputable source that can supply high-quality mate-
rials.There is no need to be concerned with the brand
names or whether or not the material is a "tomato
,pecial" or a "lettuce special." Often, these are brand ',
names and reaily do not mean anything as far as the
plant is concerned. For example, tomatoes probably
will grow as well on a 4-18-30 "tomato special" as
on a generic 4-16-32.They are too close for one to
have superiority over the other.
Crop Nutrient Requirements
Productíve greenhouse vegetable crops need the
required amounts of each nutrient-the crop nutri-
ent requirement (CNR)-during the season. plant
growth rate determines, to a large degree, the amount
of nutrients needed in the nutrient solutíon during
the groMh cycle. Generally, it is best to start with
moderate amounts of nutrients early ín the season
and increasc thc ccncenti'ations to ihose in the for-
mulations in Table 3 as the crop grows. This sched-
uling is most appropriate for crops grown in some
type of solid media, such as peat, where significant
amounts of nutrients can be held by the media. Sup-
plying plants with small amounts of nutrients on a
continual basis can be as satisfactory as supplying
large amounts in less frequent additions.
This technique of scheduling has not been worked
out for greenhouse vegetables in all production sys-
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
 I

Tabte 1. Sources of nutrients used to formulate vari' based cultural systems, water makes up a large por-
ous nutrient solutions for greenhouse vegetables. tion of the growth media. lt is very logical, therefore,
Nutrients Nutrient Nutrient content that the quality of the product¡on media, the water,
suoolied source of source (%) be known. This is quite analogous to testing soil for
Nitrogen (N) Ammonium nitrate 33.5 nutrient-supplyihg capacity in field situations. With-
Calcium nitrate 15.5 out an accurate water test, a grower cannot claim to
Calcium nitrate' 7.O have a good fertilizer management program.
Potassium nitrate 13.0 When locating a greenhouse operation, growers
Nitric acid Varies should consider both quanti§ and quality of the water
phosphate source. Greenhouse crops require as much as 2 qt of
Phosphorus (P) Monopotassium 23.O
acid Varies water per plant per day. Maximum requirements will
Phosphoric
occur when the plants are full-grown and there is high
Potassium (K) Potassium chloride 50.0
36.5
solar radiation and high temperatures. The irrigation
Potassium nitrate
system should have the capacity to deliver adequate
sulfate 18.3
Potassium magnesium
amounts of water to all parts of the greenhouse. The
Monopotassiumphosphate 28.0 pump and irrigation delivery system must be designed
Potassium sulfate 43.0
so that enough water can be delivered to each plant
Calcium (Ca)Calcium nitrate 19.0
in the house during peak consumptive periods.
Calcium chloride 36.0
Water quality is determined by the amounts of par-
Calcium nitratez 11.0
ticulate matter (sand,limestone, organic matter, etc.),
Magnesium (Mg) Magnesium sulfate
'10'0
amounts of dissolved materials (nutrients and non-
Potassium magnesium sulfate 11.0 nutritional chemicals), and the water pH. These as-
Sulfur (S) Magnesium sulfate 14'0 pects must be determined by a good waier analysis,
,, Potassium magnesium sulfate 22-O such as that conducted by the Univ. of Florida Exten-
Sulfuric acid Varies sion SoilTesting Labs or á competent commercial lab.
Potassium sulfate 18.0 ln most Florida situations, the lab should check
Boron (B) Sodium borate 20.0 the electrical conductivity (EC), hydrogen ion con-
Boric acid 17.0 centration (pH), sulfate (SO/ concentration, water
Copper (Cu) Cupric chloride 17.0 hardness, sodium (Na) concentration, chloride (Cl)
"Copper sulfate 25.0 concentration, iron (Fe) concentration, and bicarbon-
eopPer nitratez 17.0 ate (HCO.)concentration. Hardness is;elative to the
Zinc (Zn) Zinc sulfate 36.0 Ca and Mg concentrations in the water, and deter-
Zinc nitrate 17.0 mination of these two nutrients will help the grower
lron (Fe) Chelated iron (EDTA, DTPA) 5.0-12.0 in calculating the Ca and Mg fertilizer program.
Manganese (Mn)Manganese chloride 44.0 Electrical conductivity, measured as decisiemens
per meter (dS.mr) is an estimate of the total soluble
Manganese sulfate 28.0
Manganese nitrate' 15.0 salt (solids) content of the water. Water with an EC
54.0
value greater than 1.5 dS.mi [same as 1.5 mmhos
Molybdenum (Mo)Ammonium molybdate
per centimeter (mmhos.cm¡)l is considered to be
Sodium molYbdate 39.0
poor quality for most greenhouse crops. Specific salts
Chloride (Cl) Potassium chloride 52.O
present in the poor-quality water could accumulate
Calcium chloride 64.0
in the growing media and reduce the growth of the
'Liquid formulation. crop. High soluble salt concentrations can reduce
tems for Florida. Therefore, the grower should try to growth because the ions contributing to high EC could
stay close to the formulations presented in Table 3' compete with ferlilizer nutrients for plant uptake. ln
Grower should keep in mind that these formulas are addition, high EC conditions reduce the ease with
good starting points and that they may need to be which the plant obtains waterfrom the salty solution.
modified somewhat, depending on specific site wa- lf the grower has the water tested for N, P, or K,
ter analyses. The water analyses will affect most of- and the analysis shows concentrations of each
ten the Ca, S, and acid amounts added to the feñil- greater than 5 ppm, this is an indication of possible
izer. See section under pH control. contaminated water supply, but poses no problem
for plant growth. Calcium concentrations of 50 ppm
Water Quality for Greenhouse Vegetables Ca or higher are quite common in Florida wellwater.
ln NFT production systems, water is the produc- Magnesium concentrations are not as high, usually
tion media in which the plants grow. For most solid- less than a few ppm. Very high concentrations of Ca

Greenhouse Tomato Seminar

 American Societg for Hortícukurol Scíence Semínatr Serics
and Mg and high bicarbonates could lead to precipi-
tation of calcium and magnesium carbonates and
clogging of irrigation system emitters.
lron concentrations in some Florida wells are rela-
tively high (0.5 ppm or more). Concentrations higher
than 0.5 ppm could lead to iron precipitates, result-
ing in plugging of irrigation emitters.
High concentrations of S in well water are gener-
ally not harmful from a plant nutrition point of view.
However, high S concentration can lead to buildup
of sulfur-bacteria in the irrigation lines, which could
clog the emitters.
Bicarbonate (HCOfl concentrations are often in
excess of desirable levels. High concentrations
(above 30 to 60 ppm) are related to increased pH
values. Over time, high HCO,Jcan lead to increasing
pH values in the growth media.Also, high HCO.{can
lead to the precipitation of carbonates of Ca and Mg.
Because of the potential problems associated with
high HCOj levels, it is recommended that water with
high HCO.J amounts be acidified to pH 5.6 to 6.0
with nitric, phosphoric, or sulfuric acids.
Media Reaction, pH
The pH of the media refers to the concentration of
hydrogen ions (H.) in the media solution. The con-
centration is determined by a pH electrode or can be
approximated by a pH color-strip paper dipped into
the solution. The pH of the media solution is impor-
tant because certain plant nutrition aspects are in-
fluenced by pH, such as solubility of essential ete-
nients. Most elements are absorbed best from a
media with a pH of 5.5 to 6.5.
Media pH above 7.0 results in reduced micronutri-
ent and phosphorus solubility. Extremely acidic pH can
Iead to micronutrienttoxicities, especially on soil-based
media if manganese and aluminum are present.
Media pH values can change with time, depend-
ing on uptake of certain macronutrients. For example,
uptake of nitrate (NOJ can lead to an increase in
solution pH. This is because the plant attempts to
maintain an electricalcharge balance across mem-
branes; therefore, a hydroxyl (Of¡-,¡ ion is exuded
upon NOf uptake.
Absorption of K* has the opposite effect because
H* !s exchanged, r'esultlng in acidification of the rne-
dia. This rapid changing of media pH is most preva-
lent in hydroponics and rockwoolcompared to solid
media culture because there is no buffering capacity
in the former. Therefore, nutrient solutions need to
be replaced periodically or acids or bases need to
be added to restore proper pH levels.
Most wellwater in Florida has a relatively high pH
value, due usually to high bicarbonate (HCO.I lev-
els. Water analyses should determine the leüels of
bicarbonate so that amounts of an acid to use to re-
duce the pH can be determined. [See the section on
water quality.l
Formulating and Mixing Stock Nutrient
Solutions
Nutrient solutions are only as good as the prod-
ucts that make them and the time put into the formu-
Iations. Fertilizer materials should be of high quality
and purchased from a reputable source. lf the grower
is using mixed fertilizer, it is important to make sure
the fertilizer blend has a tag that shows the analysis
of the fertilizer, the sources used, anóthe company's
name.The blend should be registered in the state of
Florida so that the grower has recourse in case of
problems with the fertilizer.
An accurate set of scales must be used to weigh
out each material because different materials have
different densities. Therefore, the volume method will
not be accurate unless the measuring scoop is cali-
brated. for each fertilizer material.
When mixing the fertilizer solutions, hot water will
speed up the time for dissolution of the fertilizer in
water. For small batches, mechanical stirring is sat-
isfactory. For large batches, it might be better to in-
vest in an electrical agitator, or make up one from an
old variable-speed drill and a paddle welded onto a
long-shank bit.
It is best to work in small batches (volumes), mix-
ing them first, and then dumping each into a larger
stock tank. For most small greenhouse operations
(one to two houses), stock tanks of 25 to,50 gal are
satisfactory. Heplenishment of stock tanks for rockwool
will depend on time of year and groMh rate of the
crop, and will vary from a few days to once every 10
days, depending on tank size. ln NFT systems, re-
placement is more regularthrough the season due to
the need for routine flushing of the sump tank.
ln most production systems, at least two stock
tanks are needed. This is because certain fertilizer
sources, when mixed together in concentrated form,
will lead to insoluble precipítates. The most common
of these are calcium phosphate (from mixing calcium
nitrate and phosphorous materials) and calcium sul-
fate (from mixing calcium nitrate and magnesium
¡r ¡lfata\
our¡qre/t fir^^+
rytvoL y¡
^É^i,,^+i^6
vuuvuul ^;+',^+i^^^ tD uat
I i)truqUUt -^+ L.,
^^^ I glrt ..,:!L
uy vvll,l I
two stocks-one containíng potassium nitrate, cal-
cium nitrate, and iron chelate, and the other contain-
ing the phosphorous source, magnesium sulfate,
micronutrients, and potassium chloride, or it might
contain some of the potassium nitrate as well.
Once the small batches are added to the stock, the
total volurne of the stock tank is brou§ht to the de-
sired level and stirred. After the stocks have setiled
for a while (a few hours), the solution wil[ become clear,
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
 but a sludge will often form in the bottom of the cal-
ciumlpotassium nitrate tank. This sludge is from cer-
tain additives in the feftilizer materialto prevent cak-
ing and dust.These materials are not soluble and will
settle to the bottom of the tank. Therefore, the stock
tanks will need to be rinsed periodically to remove
this sludge. This problem can be alleviated by using
technical-grade fertilizer salts or clear (decanted) fer-
tilizer solutions, such as liquid calcium nitrate.
Accurate calculations of the amounts of fertilizer
materials to dissolve to achieve the desired concen-
trations of individual nutrients in the final growth nu-
trient solution are criticalto the success of a feftilizer
program. Using premixed materials is satisfactory for
the beginner, but experienced growers will find that
they can be more efficient, thrifty, and knowledge-
able about their crop if they learn to calculate their
own formulations.
The calculations are not difficult, and, once com-
pleted, do not require re-working very often.To prop-
erly calculate the nutrient concentrations, the volume
of the stock and sump tanks, and the analysis of the
fertilizer (Table 1) and a few equivalences (Table 2)
must be known.
The following example is for a final nutrient solu-
tion applied to the plants that contains 150 ppm Ca,
150 ppm N, and 150 ppm K.The following calcula-
tions are used to illustrate a method to derive the
amounts of the various ferlilizer materials [potassium
nitrate (KNO3), calcium nitrate Ca(NO.), and potas-
sium sulfate (KrSO/lto be used to make up the de-
sired final nutrient solution that is applied to the plants.
A 25-gal stock tank will be used.
A)This example is for a 1:100 ratio proportioner or
- injector in a rockwool system or for a NFT system
'- using 1 gat of stock for each 100 gal of water in the
sump tank.
'1.
Start with calcium nitrate, because that willbe our
only fertilizer source containing Ca:
150 ppm Ca = 150 mg Call L nutr. solution
150 mg Ca|1 Lnutr. solution + 19.0% Ca in Ca(NOr),
= 790 mg Ca(NO r\11 t nutr. solution
790 mg Ca(NOr)r/1 L nutr. solution x 100 (dilution
factor) = 79,000 mg Ca(NO.)r/1 L stock
79,000 mg Ca(NOr)Jl t stock + 1000 mg per g
79.0 g Ca(NO.)rr1 L stock
79.0 g Ca(NOr)ri 1 L stock + 454 g per lb = 0.174 lb
Ca(NO.)r/1 L stock
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
Table 2. Conversion values useful for completing fer-
tilizer calculations.
1.0 pound (lb) = 454 grams (g)
2.21b= 1 kilogram (kg)
1.0 g - 1000 milligrams (mg)
1.0 gallon (gat) = 3.8liters (L)
1.0 L = 1000 milliliters (ml)
1.0 mg per L = 1 part per million (ppm)
1.0 lb = 16 ounces (oz)
1.0 gal water = 8.3 lb
1.0 quart (9t) = 0.9S t
1.0 gal = 128 oz
1.0 gal= 378G ml
K = 0.93 KrO .
P = 0.43 PzOs
O.174lb Ca(NO.)r/1 L stock x 3.8 L per gal = 0.66 lb
Ca(NOr)rll galstock
0.66 lb Ca(NO.)r/1 gal-stock x 25 gal in tank = 16.5
lb Ga(NO.),
16.5 lb Ca(NOr), to weigh out and dissolve in 25-gal
tank.
Note: Some Ca might be supplied from the well
water, and this should be determined by a water
analysis. The amount of well water can be subtracted
from the 150-ppm desired levelso that less Ca needs
tote derived from Ca(NOr)r. lf this is the case, then
the lost N witl need to be made up from another N
source, such as ammonium nitrate.
Ca(NOr), also supplies N because 15.5% of
Ca(NO.), is N.
Theréfbre, if we are dissolving 16.5lb of Ca(NO.),
in our stock tank, we-are also providing:
16.5 lb Ca(NOr)r12S gal stock x 454,000 mg per lb/
3.78 L per gal =7,491,000 mg Ca(NOr)r19S L stock
7,491,000 mg Ca(NO3)rigs L stock x 15.5% N in
Ca(NOr), = 1,161,105 mg N/95 L stock
1,161,105 mg N/95 L= 12,22Q ppm in the stock
12,21Appm N + 100 (dilution factor = 122ppm N in
the final nutrient solution.
:
- Because 150 ppm N is desired, an additional 28
ppm N from another source, such as KNO, is
needed..
2. Using KNO. (13% N and44/" KrO) and similar
 Americon Socíetg for Horlic¿tlturol Science Senínor Series
calculations, 4.5 lb KNO3 is required in the stock tank
to achieve the desired N concentration. However,
KNO, also supplies K because it is 44/" KrO. K is
expressed
?r_ frO,
and to convert from Kp to K,
multiply by 0.83.
If 4.5 lb of KNO, is added, then:
4.5 lb x 44"A K.O in KNO' x 0.83 = 1.641b K in 25
gal of stock.
This 4.5 lb of KNO, supplies 79 ppm K in final
nutrient solution. (The reader should try these calcu-
Iations.)
3. Because 150 ppm K is needed in the final solu-
tion and 79 ppm K is coming from KNO., the differ-
ence (71 ppm) can be made up from K2Sb4, which is
50% KrO (Table 1).
71 ppm K=71m9 l(1 L stock
71 mg l(/1 L stock + 50"/" KrO in K2SO4 - 142 mg
KrOl1 L stock
142m9[O/1 Lstock+ 0.83 - 171 mg tqSO4/1 L stock
171 mg K2SO4/1 L stock + 454 g per lb = 0.038 lb
K2SO4/1 L stock
0.038 lb K2SO4/1 L stock x 3.8 L per gal == 0.143 lb
K2SO4/1 gal stock
0.143 l?.Kr-S_Oo x 25 gal in tank = 3.6 lb KrSOo dis-
solved in 25-gal 1 gal stock.
4. Summary. To get 150 ppm of N, K, and Ca in
the final nutrient soluüor, 16.5 lb Ca(NO.)r, 4.5 lb
KNO3, and 3.6 lb K2SO4 are dissolved in 25-gal
stocks.The stocks willbe diluted 1 partfertilizer stock
to 100 parts incoming water to provide the desired
nutrient solution for the plants. The KrSOu needs to
go into a different stock tank from the-Ca(NOr). and
KNO3 stock tank to prevent precipitation of théba +
SOn as calcium sulfate.
B. ln another example, the grower is going to be
using fert¡tizer from these stocks to add to the sump,
(recirculating) Nff tank, which is 500 gal in volume.
To achieve the desired final concentration, 5 gal of
each stock needs to be added to the sump tank. The
above stocks were formulated for a 1:100 dilution in
order to achieve the 150-ppm desired concentrations.
Therefore, 1 gal each stock is needed for every 100
gal of fínal solution. So, 5 gal of each nutrient solu-
tion is needed in the sump tank.
Although only N, Ca, and K examptes were used
here, sirnilar calculations can be made with other
fertilizer materials.The reader can also see that simi-
lar calculaiions can be made for the situaiion where
mixed materials are used. The problem is that, once
one of the nutrients (N, B or K) is selected to fix the
fertilizer calculations on, the other two nutrients are
fixed by default. Using premixed materials often re-
sults in sacrifices in desired nutrient concentrations
for the convenience of use of the material.
Measuring Solution Nutrient Concentration
Growers often desire to monitor the nutrient level
in the fertilizer solution. This is an excellent practice,
but care must be exercised in the methodology used
to measure nutrients.
One common, quick, and easy (but fault-prone)
method is to measure the soluble salt or electrical
conductance (EC) level. Conductivity meters are
used forthis, and the measurement is easy and fast.
However, this procedure only tells the grower the
relative amount of total "satts" in the solution, and it
tells the person nothing about each specific nutrient
in the solution.
This methodology can get one in trouble if the user
is not familiar with, and using, other methods to cal-
culate and measure the individual nutrients. For ex-
ample, suppose the growerwas accustomed to main-
taining an EC of 2.0 dS.m-lin the nutrient solution
when using a high analysis mixed fertilizer. The
grower then switches to a lower analysis fertilizer,
but keeps the EC at 2.0. ln this case, the grower,s
conductivity meter was misleading relative to the true
concentration of nutrients, such as N, B or K, and
the solution may even be in a deficiency situation,
even though the EC is the same as before.
The use of EC measurements are only helpful in
checking total salt concentrations in the solution of a
feñilizer program that has been accurately tested and
proven. ln an NFT system, EC monitoring helps keep
the nutrient levels high, but the concentrations of in-
dividual nutrients willvary considerably from the de-
sired ppm. For this reason, the nutrient solution is
discarded periodically (at least weekfy in Florida) and
a new solution made. Soluble salt readings also can
be helpful in determining probability of sált damaqe
to pfants growing in solid media. Raising and lower-
ing of fertilizer solution concentrations based on EC
results ín across-the-board increases and decreases
in nutrients when a change in only one nutrient may
be warranted. This practice can lead to deficiencies
or toxicities, particularly with regard to micronutrients.
The best method to use to monitor solution con-
centrations is by direct nutrient analyses for specific
nutrients. Concentrations of nutrients for the nutri-
ent solution should be calculated in terms of ppm
Greenhouse Tomato Seminar
and the nutrient solu- in terms of the final growing concentrations.
Tabte 3. Nutrient solution formulas given
tion formulated to Formula l.Tomato, open and closed systems (J.8. Jones, 1983)
achieve these con- AB
centrat¡ons. These Seedling to first fruit First fruit to termination-
concentrations should Fertilizer (s/100 L) ' (9/100 L)
then be maintained Magnesium sulfate 50 50
as long as the calcu- Monopotassium phosphate 27 27
lations were correct, Potassium nitrate 20 2A
the weighing and mix- Potassium sulfate' 10 10
ing was accurate, Calcium nitrate 50 68
and the injection or lron (Fe 330) 2.5 2.5
mixing from the stock 15 ml 15 ml
Micronutrient stockv
tanks was accurate.
Final nutrient concn. (PPm)
Needed changes in CaMgSFeBCu Mn Zn Mo
concentrations of spe-
cific nutrients are 105 (133) 62 199. 95 (130) 50 7A 2.5 0.44 0.05 0.62 0.09 0.3

made by an adjust- 'Potassium sulfate is optional.

ment of one fertilizer vsee micronutrient formula below.
salt that supplies that Micronutríent formula
spec¡f¡c nutrient. Fertilizer g/Packet'
Boric acid (H3BO3) 7.50
Fertigation Manganous chloride (MnCl, x 4HrO) 6.75
Equipment Cupric chloride (CuCl, x 2HrO) 0.37
ln large operations Molybdenum trioxide lttloO.) 0.15
(more than fourto six Zinc sulfate (ZnSOo x THrO) 1.'18
houses), automation 't
of the fertilizer pro- 'One packet (15.95 g) pluswaterto make a 450-ml stock solution (heat to dissolve). Use 5 ml for each
100 L of final nutrlent solution (or 1425 ml in the concentrated 25-gal nutrient A-stock tank).
gram will save sub-
stantial time and
money. Many NF'r Formula 2. Cucumber, open and closed systems (J.B. Jones,1983)
growers add fertilizet A _B
Seedling to first fruit First fruit to termination
stock to the sump (s/100 L) (s/100 L)
Fertilizer
tank by hand; how-
Magnesium sulfate 50 50
ever, this addition
can be automated by Monopotassium phosphate 27 27
pumps and control- Potassium nitrate 20 20
lers to deliver a pre- Calcium nitrate 68 136
set volume of fertil- Chelated iron (Fe 330) 2.5 2.5
izer. Research is Micronutrient stock' 15 ml 15 ml
continuing into auto- Final nutrient concn. (ppm)
mated systems that CaMgSFeBCU Mn Zn Mo
monitor pH and nutri- 0.44 0.05 0.62 0.09
133 (240) 62 150 130 (260) 50 70 2.5 0.03
ent concentrations in
the sump and add 'Use micronutrient formula above.
only the needed ele-
ment, acid, or base to for¡ñüta 3. Leafy vegetables (J.8. Jones, 1983)
maintain program- Fertilizer g/100 L
med concentrations Magnesium sulfate 50
of each nutrient. Monopotassium phosphate 27
Solid-media grow- Polassium nitrate 20
ers also can auto- Calcium nitrate 110
mate to varying de- Chelated iron (Fe 330) 2.5
grees. The simplest 15 ml
Micronutrient stocl(
system is one con-
sisting of a time clock Table 3 continued on next page

Greenhouse Tomato Seminar 45

 Americs¡t Societg for Horliculturol Scíence Seminsr Series

that controls a sole- Table 3 continued.

noid to water and fer- Final nutrient concn. (ppm)
tilize on preset lnter- Ca MgSFeB Cu Mn Zn Mo
vals. More sophistica- 200 62 150 210 50 70 2.5 0.44 0.05 a.62 0.09 0.03
tion can be achieved
with one of various 'Use micronutrient formula above.
digital controllers or
computers to control Formula 4.Tomatoes (rockwool and NFT-PVC) (Hochmuth, 1990)
fertigation time, fre- ABCB
quency, and amount Transplant to 1st cluster to 2nd cluster to 3rd cluster to Sth cluster to
according to some Feñilizer 1st cluster 2nd cluster 3rd cluster Sth cluster termination
parameter (e.9., sun- A STOCK-amounts per 100 L of final solution
light, temperature, Phosphoric acid 14 ml 14 ml 14 ml 14 ml 14 ml
etc.). Automation of (13 lb/gal, 54/" P2Os)
this type could extend 24g )4. a 249 249 249
to the control of the
Potassium chloride -,:,
Magnesium sulfate 40g 4og 4og 489 48g
injectors that would Potassium nitrate 0 0 8g 8g 24g
add certain fertilizers Ammonium nitrate 0 0 0 4g
^
or acid materials. Micronutrient stock 1L 1L 1L 1L 1L
Automation is well (see below)
within the reach of
B STOCK-amount per 100 L of final solution
most growers cost-
I

wise.There are many

Calcium nitrate 42g 48g 55g 67g 67g
lron chelate (10% Fe) 2.8 g 2.8 g 2.8 g 2.8 g 2.8 g
different systems avail-
able to automate Final nutrient concentration (ppm)
greenhouse opera- Approx.
tions. lt is suggested
Stage pH N P K Ca' Mg' Sz Fe B Cu Mn Zfi Mo E.C.
that the grower con- A 5.5 65 50 120 80 40 56 2.8 0.7 0.2 0.8 0.2 0.05 0.8
sult with several B 5.5 75 50 120 92 40 56 2.8 0.7 0.2 0.8 0.2 0.05 1.0
sources priorto decid- c 5.5 95 50 150 104 40 56 2.8 0.7 o.2 '..-O.a
0.8 0.2 0.05 1.4
ing on a specific sys- D 5.5 114 50 150 127 48 66 2.8 0.7 0.2 0.2 0.05 1.6
tem. E 5.5 '148 50 208 127 48 66 2.8 0.7 o.2 0.8 0.2 0.05 2.0
'Calcium, magnesium, and sulfur concentrations may vary depending on Ca ard Mg in the waler
Soluble Salt source and amount of sulfuric acid used for acidification.
Effects
Excessive amounts Formula S.Tomatoes (rockwool and NFT-PVC) (Hochmuth, 1990)
of fertilizer in the me-
dia can lead to soluble
ABCDE
Transplani to 1st cluster to 2nd cluster to 3rd cluster to Sth cluster to
salt burn, especially Fertilizer 1st cluster 2nd cluster 3rd cluster Sth cluster termination
on young plants or A STOCK-amounts per 100 L of final solution
seedlings. Salt burn is Monopotassium
the result of damage phosphate
to the roots by desic-
22 g 22g 22g 22g 229
cation. High salt con-
Potassium nitrate 16 g 169 20g 20g 32g
centrations in the me-
Magnesium sulfate 40 g 40g 409 48g 48g
Potassiurn chloride 0 l1 Á.n 49 49
dia recluce the capa-
bility of the roots to Micronutrient stock 1 L IL 1L 1L 1L
take up water. Re- B STOCK-amount per 100 L of final solution
duced water uptake is Calcium nítrate 3og 429 51 g 639 639
due to the tendency lron chelate 2.8 g 2.8 g 2.8 g 2.8 g 2.8 g
for water to move Table 3 continued on next page
away from the root toward the higher osmotic poten- High soluble salt contents are especially danger-
tial (salty) area in the media. Tomatoes generally tol- ous in the earlyfalland late spring, because high tem-
erate higher salt conditions than cucumbers, pep- peratures and high solar radiation lead to increased
pers, or lettuce. water demand by the plants. ln general, growers in

46 Greenhouse Tomato Seminar

 Table 3 continued. handheld meters in
Final nutrient concn. (ppm) common use require
Approx. regular calibration to
Staqe pH N P Ca' Mg' Sz Fe B Cu Mn Zn Mo E.C. remain accurate.These
A 5.s 68 50 121 58 40 56 2.8 o.7 0.2 0.8 0.2 0.05 0.7 meters are not error- or
B 5.5 86 50 122 8'1 4ó 56 2.8 0.7 0.2 0.8 0.2 0.05 0.9 maintenance-free, and
c 5.5 105 50 155 98 40 56 2.8 a.7 0.2 0.8 0.2 0.05 1.3 inaccurate measure-
121 48 66 o.7 0.8 't.5 ments will result if they
D 5.5 124 50 155 2.8 0.2 0.2 0.05
are not checked once
E 5.5 140 50 199 121 48 66 2.8 o.7 0.2 0.8 0.2 0.05 1.8
every week or two.
.Calcium, magnesium, and sulfur concentrations may vary depending on Ca and Mg in the water
'source and amount of sulfuric acid used for acidification. Flushing Hydro-
Micronutrient stock pon¡c Sump Tanks
'Fertilizer g/100 L of micronutrient stock'
Varying amounts of
Manganese sulfate (25% Mn) 32.0 nutrients are absorbed
Solubor (20'/" B) 35.0 by plants, so the con-
Copper sulfate (25% Cu) 7.0 centrations of nutrients
Zinc sulfate (23%Zn) 8.0 in the nutrient solution
Sodium molybdate (39% Mo)
10
t.u change. The recom-
mended procedure is
.Multiply by 95 if 1 L of this micronutrient stock is to be used to make up a 25-gal concentrated stock
*4" mix. for growers to deter-
tank of the above mine the required nu-
Florida should not try to explicitly follow feftilizer pro- trient solution concentrations based on the part per
grams used in northern climates. Noñhern fertilizer million (ppm) method.The EC can be measured and
programs tend to rely on levels of fertilizer that often maintained by daily additions of equal amounts of
prove to be excessive under Florida conditions. the two fertilizer stock solutions. However, even though
Damage to roots and plant stems caused by soluble the EC might be maintained, the concentrations of
salt burn leads to secondary invasion by pathogenic specific nutrients cannot be determined. Therefore, it
fungiand resulting rot. Evaporation of water can leave is recommended that the sump tank be flushed once
behind dríed salt deposits that can clog emitters. per we,)k and new solution formulated so that the origi-
Control of soluble salt damage begins with cor- nal nutrient concentrations can be restored. ln addi-
recl formulation of the nutrient solution. The grower tion, the weekly flush re:noves organic matter and
should monitor the EC of the nutrient solution as it is sloughed-off plant debris.
delivered to the plant. This will serve as an indicator Prior to flushing, the tank volume should be al-
that the nutrient solution was likely formulated cor- lowed to be drawn down to 100 to 200 gal to mini-
rectly. AIso, ihe EC of the growing media should be mize the volume of solution discarded. At the end of
checked to ensure that EC is not building to damag- the day, the remaining solution can be pumped out
ing levels.ln NFT, the nutrient solution EC should be and disposed of properly.The sump tank is then filled
kept relatively constant between flush periods by with water adjusted to pH 5.8 to 6.0 containing 25 to
adding fertilizer solution. 50 ppm Ca and circulated on the same ON-OFF
In rockwool, the EC in the slabs should not vary cycle through the night. The Ca is added to keep
more that 0.3 EC units dS.m-1 above or below the EC root tips healthy during the flush period. During the
of the applied nutrient solution. lf the EC is greater early morning, the tank is emptied and refilled with
than 0.3 dS.m-1 below, then too much nutrient solu- the complete nutrient solution formulated from the
tion is being added at any one ferligation event, lf the fertilizer stocks. Growers need to be sure that all
EC is 0.3 dS.m-1 higher in the slab compared to the valves and clocks are checked for proper position
incoming nutrient solution, then there is not enough and adjustment.
nutrient solution being applied at any one application.
Once it is determined that the nutrient solution EC Tissue Analysis
is too high, the only recourse is to flush the system The most helpful manner in which to determine
and apply a new nutrient solution of correct EC and the effectiveness of the fertilizer program is to ana-
nutrient content. Flushing should be done with wa- lyze the plants for nutrient contents. This is done
ter or a weak nutrient solution. through nutrient analyses of the plant leaves. lt is a
The EC meter should be carefully calibrated us- good practice to get into the habit of periodically
ing a high-quality conductivity standard. The small checking the nutrient concentrations in the plant

Greenhouse Tomato Seminar 47

 leaves.Tissueanalysescanhelpdetectdeficiencies some nutrients (e.9., micronutrients), toxicity might
and toxicities. easily occur. For other nutrients, it would simply be a
Most information used to interpret tissue analysis waste of money. Using mixed fertilizers to raise (or
is based on the most-recently matured whole leaf lower) specific nutrients could cause an unwanted
This leaf is the leaf down from the tip of the plant that change in another nutrient. For example, one would
ís nearly fully expanded. For tomatoes, this leaf is not increase the amount of 4-16-36 fertílizer just to
usually the Sth or 6th leaf from the top. increase the P. An unwanted increase in N or K might
When sampling leaves for analysis, several con- result. If changes in specific nutrients are required,
siderations must be made in addition to the correct then individual-ingredient fertilizer materials should
leaf to take. Leaves should be collected at random be used.
within the house, making sure enough are taken. Tissue nutrient values in Tables 4 through 6 have
Usually 15 to 20 leaves will be enough. Collect the been summarized from various sources. lt should
whole leaf, including the petiole ("leaf stem"), which be evident that there is quite a range for acceptable
connects the leaf to the main stem of the plant. Clean values for tissue nutrient concentrations. The objec-
leaves that are free of pesticide residues should be tive of the f erlilizer program is to keep the plants within
taken. The leaves are packaged in a paper bag and the range and not above or below the range.
sent to the laboratory promptly. lt might be advanta-
geous to pre-dry the sample before mailing. Leaves Foliar Sprays
can be dried on a screen placed in a non-drafty area Many growers ask about the usefulness of foliar
in the greenhouse. sprays of nutrients or other chemicals such as anti-
When attempting to diagnose a particular sus- transpirants. ln general, these products do not have
pected nutrient deficíency, leaves should be collected a place in a well-managed greenhouse.
from "good" and "bad" plants. This will help deter- Fertilizer programs are designed to supply nutri-
mine the cause of the problem. ents to the plant via the root systems. Roots aie very
Diagnosing nutrient problems can not be done ef- well-adapted to absorbing nutrients and leaves are
fectively without accurate and complete fertilizer not. Leaves will absorb a ceftain amount of nutri-
records. Everything done with regard to ferlilizer man- ents, but, for most elements, the uptake is inad-
agement should be recorded. Records on fertilizer equate. The leaf is covered by a waxy covering (the
stock formulations, amounts of nutrients applied, fre- cuticle), and this structure makes it difficult for nutri-
quency of flushes, volumes of stock and sump tanks, ents and other chemicals to enter the leaf in large
and fertilizer tags should be recorded. This infornla- amounts. lf one stops to consider the amount of nu-
tion will be most useful in the diagnostic procedures. trients that could enter the leaf compared to the
Nutrient sufficiency values and ranges have been amount that enters via the root, it would be clearer
established for most vegetable crops. Most of the that the emphasis on fertilizer management should
information is for fíeld vegetables, but some can be be directed to the root.
found for greenhouse vegetables. Nutrient concen- Often special miracle products are touted by sales
trations should stay slightly above the critical or suf- people for use to prevent "stress" and that ioutine
ficiency values. There is no need to have tissue con- sprays will improve yield and quality. plants under
centrations rise high above the sufficiency range. For stress are most likely to have probiems related to
Table 4. Common sufficiency nutrient ranges for greenhouse tomatoes (dried whole leaves).

Source of
sampling N P values
Prior to fruiting 4.0-5.0 0.5-0.8 3.5-4.s 0.9-'t .8 0.5-0.8 0.4-o.B (J.8. Jones, 19aq
G.J.l-{ochmuth, 1988)
lJr¡rinafn¡liin^ etr-/r't ñA
v.T ^e
v,u rtQ n^ l/\ ó^ <^ f tñ r---- .^^^-
--,.'.V 1,v 1.v ¡.v*4rv V.r-t.v
^t U,t-W.()
^^ ^d trJ.D. Lrúúes, lyoó;
G.J.l-lochmuth, 1988)

of
Tirne Miqlqrqtrients (ppm). Source of
gqmpling vatues
Priortofruiting 35-60 8-20 50-2oo 50-125 25-@
G.J. Hochmuth, 1988)
During fruiiing 35-60 B-20 50-200 so-12s 2s-60 (J.8. Jones, 1983;
. G.J. Hochmuth, ig8g)
'Toxic levels of B, Mn, andZn are '150, 500, and 3oO, respectively (Gerber, 1985). Sufficiency range for Mo is 1-5 ppm (Gerber, 19g5).

48 Greenhouse Tomato Seminar

Table 5. Common sufticiency rages for greenhouse cucumbers (dried whole leaves).
Time of It¡acronutrients ('¡) Source of
sampling values
During season 3.8-5.0 0.4-0.8 4.0-6.0 '1.0-2.0 0.5-1.0 (J.B. Jones, 1983)
During season 2.5-5.0 0.5-1.0 3.0-6.0 2.0-8.0 0.4-0.8 0.4-0.8 (Gerber, 1985)

Time of Micronutrients (ppm)' Source of

sampling Cu Fe Mn Zn values
During season 40-60 5-'10 60-250 50-200 25-75 (J.B. Jones, 1983)
During season 40-100 4-10 90-1 50 50-300 50-1 50 (Gerber, 1985)

'Toxicity levels for B, Mn, and Zn are 200, 550, and 650 ppm, respectively (Gerber, 1985). Sufficiency range for Mo is'l-3 ppm
(Gerber,1985).
Table 6. Common nutrient sufficiency ranges for greenhouse lettuce (dried whole leaves).
Time of Macronutrients (%) Source of
sampling values
During season 2.1-5.6 0.5-0.9 4.0-10.0 0.9-2.0 0.4-0.8 0.2-0.5 (Gerber, 1985)

Time of Micronutrients (ppm)' Source of

sampling Cu Fe values
During season 25-65 5-1 I 25-200 (Gerber, 1985)

'Toxicity levels for B, Mn, and Zn are 300,250, and 350 ppm, respectively; sufficiency range for Mo is 0.5-3.0 (Gerber, 1985).
temperature or light rather than fertilizer.These plants
will not respond to "quick pick-me-up nutrient snacks," will not response to extra stimulus from foliar chemi-
as some sales people call their products. ln many cals. Growers could waste money and might even
research trials with field vegetables, it has
shown that routine shotgun foliar sprays do not in-
crease yield or enhance quality. ln fact, many stud-
ies show decreases in yield from these foliar sprays.
There is a big difference beiween shotgun sprays
and a foliar nutrient spray to treat a specif¡c deficiency. Gerber, J.M. 1985. Plant growth and nutrient formulas, p.
One situation where a foliar nutrient spray might be
recommended is iron deficiency. Sometimes, the
upper leaves of a tomato plant may turn yellow, es-
pecially after a large number of tomatoes have been
set on the plant. Foliar sprays of a solution of 0.5 to
1 .0 ml of a 5"/" Fe solution in 1 gal of water will usu-
ally clear up the problem. Repeated sprays might be
needed. Foliar sprays of micronutrients must be done
on a diagnosed basis and care must be exercised to
apply the correct amount. Foliar burn can easily oc-
cur where care is not exerc¡sed.
Other foliar sprays, such as growth regulators and
antitranspirants, have not produced consistently posi-
tive results in field vegetables. Healthy plants that
are performing normally probably will not respond to
a miracle product. ln the case of antitranspirants, it
is unlikely that they will have a deSired effect in a
greenhouse. Desiccation is not a problem in most
poly-covered greenhouses because they are usu-
ally very humid inside and water loss is not a great
prob[em. ln addition, forgreenhouse s¡tuations where
CO, is being injected, then antitranspirants might
have a negative effect.
ln summary, normal-performing plants probably
been
damage their crop from shotgun foliar products.
Related Literature
Bauerle, W.L. 1984. Bag culture production of greenhouse
tomatoes. Ohio State Univ. Spec. Circ. 108.
-
'
58-69. ln: A.J. Savage (ed.). Hydroponics worldwide:
State of the art in soilless crop production. lntl. Ctr. for
Special Studies, Honolulu.
Hochmuth, G. 1990. Nutrient solution formation for hy*
droponic (rockwool and NFT) tomatoes in Florida. Univ.
of FIa. Coop. Ext. Misc. Publ. SSVEC-44.
Johnson, H., G.J. Hochmuth, and D.N. Maynard. 1985.
Soilless culture of greenhouse vegetables. Univ. of Fla.
Coop. Ext. Bul. 218.
Jones, J.B. 1983. A guide for the hydroponic and soilless
culture grower, Timber Press, Portland, Ore.
Savage, A.J. (ed.). 7985. Hydroponics worldwide: State
of the art in soilless crop production. lntl. Ctr. for Spe-
cial Studies, Honolulu.
Smith, D.L. 1987. Rockwoolin horticulture. Grower Books,
London.
Van Eysinga, J.P. N.L. Roorda, and K.W. Smilde. 1981.
Nutritional disorders in glasshouse tomatoes, cucum-
bers, and lettuce. Ctr. for Agr. Publ. and Documenta-
Winsor, G and P. Adams.1987-Diagnosis of mineral dis-
orders in plants. vol.3. Glasshouse crops. Her Majesty's
Stationery Office, London.
Wittwer, S.H. and S. Honma. 1979. Greenhouse toma-
toes, lettuce, and cucumbers. Michigan State Univ.
Press, East Lansing.

Greenhouse Tomato Seminar 49

 I

Amerir.ttn Sor.iefq for Horfículrural Science Se¡ninar Scries

Seminar Attendees

Agustin Agraz Mary Donnell

Basic Vegetable Prod.-Amer. Foods 609 Wallace Ave., Bowling Green, OH 43402
9301 Lacey Blvd., Hanford, CA 93230-4765
Cheryl Donnelly
SabryAlsharkawi Five Elms
6068 Old Bust Head Rd., Broad Run, VA 22014 Box 97, RR 1, Fox Creek, New Brunswick EOA 1R0,
Canada
Butch Bard
CropKing, lnc. Gillian Ferguson
P.O. Box 310, Medina, OH 44258 Harrow Research Center, Harrow, Ontarío NOFi 1G0,
Canada
Jeff Baulduff
CropKing, lnc. Jean-Pierre Fortin
P.O. Box 310, Medina, OH 44258 Fafard Et Freres Ltee
771 Rue Principal, St. Bonaventure, Quebec JOC
James W. Boodley 1C0, Canada
Smithers Oasis
P.O. Box 118, Kent, OH 44240 Ronald Gaore
Bay Produce
Norm Breau 39 N. 25th St. E., Superior Wl 54880
5625 Enrerald, Apt.306, Montreal, Quebec H4W 2S6,
Canada Debra Gergen
Bay Produce
Jim Brown 39 N.25th St. E., Superior, WI 54880
CropKing, lnc.
P.O. Box 310, Medina, OH 44258 Guy Gosselin
Five Elms
Courtney Cloidt Box 97, RR 1, Fox Creek, New Brunswick EOA 1R0,
956 Reuez Station Lane, Lafayette, CA 94549 Canada

George H. Glough Vernon Grubinger

HermistonAFIEC University of Vermont
P.O. Box l05, Hermiston, OR 97838 157 Old Guilford Rd., Brattleboro, VT 05301

Peggy Compton George J. Hochmuth

The Land, Epcot Center Univ. of Florida
Walt Disney Word, Lake Buena Vista, FL 32830-2000 Vegetable Crops Dept., '1253 Fifield Hall, Gainesville,
FL 3261 1
Edward Costa
Tomatoes By Costa L. Raymond Humphreys, Jr.
57 Miller St., Norfolk, MA 02056 Meadowview G reenhouses
7ñ lJtrmnhrar¡o Ar¡a
, rvv,,
Dannor¡illa
¡ vr.¡ t9vrr¡v, Nl I ñañ7nv
¡ ru vvv,
,e
Ralph S. Costa
Tomatoes By Costa Byoung-Ryoung Jeong
57 Miller St., Norfolk, MA 02056 Gyeongsang National Universi§
Dept. of Horticulture, Chinju 660-701, Korea
Juan Carlos Diaz
Clad-Culiacan Tom Kendall
Pascual Prozco y Topolobampo, Culiacan, Sinaloa Star Gulch Farm
80010, Mexico 290 Star Gulch Rd., Jacksonville, OR 97530

50 Greenhouse Tomato Seminar