Energy: University of Khartoum

08/08/2015
University of Khartoum
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical & Electronic Engineering Dept.
M.Sc. #9
PE609
Electro-Mechanical Energy Conversion
Lecture 1
General Introduction
08/08/2015 Dr. Kamal Ramadan; UofK, 2015 1
 Syllabus:
1. Design and performance of the transformers
2. Characteristics of synchronous machines, linear
synchronous reactance, reactance theory
3. Synchronizing generators and parallel operation of
machines.
4. Characteristics of synchronous machines
5. Machine as circuit elements
6. Steady state and dynamic performance of
alternating current machines.
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08/08/2015
Grading
Component Percentage
Final exam 70
Evaluation Course Works

Test 1 10
Test 2 10 30
Assignments 10
 Instructor: Dr. Kamal Ramadan

 Email: kamalramadan@uofk.edu
 Office hours: Sat 11:00 - 12:00 pm
 Textbook:
 Electrical Machinery
Fundamental
By: Stephen J. Chapman
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References: 1."Electric Machinery". ‫المراجع‬

Mc Graw, Fetzgerald.
2."Electrical Technology".
Edward Hughes
3. “Theory & Performance of
Electrical M/C” J. B. Gupta
4. Introduction to Electric
Energy Devices By: F. R.
Bergseth, S. S. Venkata
‫ ص‬09:10 08/08/2015 Dr. kamal Ramadan UofK; 2014 5
Basic concept of electrical machines

fundamentals:
Rotational Motion, Newton’s Law and
Power Relationship
Almost all electric machines rotate about an
axis, called the shaft of the machines. It is
important to have a basic understanding of
rotational motion.
 Angular position,  :
 is the angle at which it is oriented, measured from
some arbitrary reference point.
Its measurement units are in radians (rad) or in
degrees.
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 Angular Velocity,  -
Defined as the velocity at which the measured
point is moving.
Similar to the concept of standard velocity where:
dr
v
dt
where:
r – distance traverse by the body
t – time taken to travel the distance r
 For a rotating body, angular velocity is
formulated as:
d
 (rad/s)
dt
d

where: dt
- Angular position/ angular distance traversed by
the rotating body
t – time taken for the rotating body to traverse the
specified distance,
Angular acceleration,  -
is defined as the rate of change in angular
velocity with respect to time. Its formulation is
as shown:
d
 (rad/s2)
dt
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 Torque, 
In the concept of rotation, when an object is
rotating, its angular velocity is constant unless a
torque is present on it. Greater the torque,
more rapid the angular velocity changes.
Definition of Torque: (Nm)
‘Product of force applied to the object and the
smallest distance between the line of action of
the force and the object’s axis of rotation’
  Force  perpendicular distance
 F  r sin 
  Force  perpendicular distance

 F  r sin 
 Work, W
is defined as the application of
Force through a distance.
Therefore, work may be
defined as
W   Fdr
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Assuming that the direction of F is collinear (in

the same direction) with the direction of motion
and constant in magnitude, hence
W  Fr
Applying the same concept for rotating bodies
W    d
Assuming that  is constant then
W   (Joules)
 Power, P
is defined as rate of doing work. Hence
dW
P (watts)
dt
d
Applying this for rotating bodies P  
dt
d

dt
 
This equation can describe the mechanical
power on the shaft of a motor or generator
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 Newton’s Law of Rotation

Newton’s law for objects moving in a straight
line gives a relationship between the force
applied to the object and the acceleration
experience by the object as the result of force
applied to it.
In general F  ma
where:
F – Force applied; m – mass a – resultant acceleration
Applying these concept for rotating bodies,
  J
where:
 - Torque; J – moment of inertia;  - angular acceleration
Example 1:
A flywheel with a moment of inertia of 2 kg ⋅
m 2 is initially at rest. If a torque of 5 N ⋅ m
(counter clockwise) is suddenly applied to the
flywheel, what will be the speed of the
flywheel after 5 sec?
• Express the speed in both radians per
second and revolutions per minute.
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SOLUTION
The speed in radians per second is:
  J

  t  t
J
5 N m
 (5 sec)  12.5 rad / sec
2 kg  m 2
The speed in revolutions per minute is:
1 rev 60sec
n  12.5    119.4 rev / min
2 rad 1min
 Example 2
A force of 5 N is applied to a cylinder, as shown in
Figure.
1. What are the magnitude and direction of the
torque produced on the cylinder?
2. What is the angular acceleration α of the
cylinder?
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SOLUTION
The magnitude and the
direction of the torque on
this cylinder is:
 ind  r F sin  , CCW
 ind  0.25  10sin 30  1.25 N .m , CCW
The resulting angular acceleration is:
 1.25 N  m
   0.25 rad / sec2
J 5 kg  m 2
The Magnetic Field

First, we are going to look at the basic principle:
– A current-carrying wire produces a magnetic
field in the area around it.
Production of a Magnetic Field
Ampere’s Law – the basic law governing the
production of a magnetic field by a current:
 H dl  I net
where H is the magnetic field intensity produced by the

current Inet and dl is a differential element of length along
the path of integration. H is measured in Ampere-turns
per meter
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Consider a current currying conductor is

wrapped around a ferromagnetic core as shown
 H dl  I net
Hlc  Ni
Ni
H 
lc
but B  H
B = magnetic flux density (webers per square meter, Tesla (T))
µ= magnetic permeability of material (Henrys per meter)
H = magnetic field intensity (ampere-turns per meter)
 In a core such as in the figure

 Ni
B  H 
lc
Now, to measure the total flux flowing in the
ferromagnetic core, consideration has to be
made in terms of its cross sectional area (CSA).
Therefore
   BdA   BA
 NiA
A
So; 
lc
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 Example3
A two-legged core is shown in Figure. The winding
on the left leg of the core (N1) has 400 turns, and
the winding on the right (N2) has 300 turns. The
coils are wound in the directions shown in the
figure. If the dimensions are as shown, then what
flux would be produced by currents i1= 0.5 A and i2
= 0.75 A?
Assume
µr = 1000 and constant.
SOLUTION
The coils
magnetomotive
forces are additive,
so the total
magnetomotive
force on this core
is
mmf TOT  N 1i 1  N 2i 2  400  0.5  300  0.75  425 A T
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The total reluctance in the core is

2.6
   92.0 kA  t /Wb
r o A 1000  4  107  0.15  0.15
and the flux in the core is:
mmf TOT 425 A T

   0.00462Wb
92 kA  t /Wb
Magnetic Behaviour of Ferromagnetic Materials

Materials which are classified as non-magnetic all
show a linear relationship between the flux
density B and coil current I.
 In other words, they have constant permeability.
Thus, for example, in free space, the permeability
is constant.
But in iron and other ferromagnetic materials it is
not constant.
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For magnetic materials, a much larger value of B

is produced in these materials than in free space.
Therefore, the permeability of magnetic materials
is much higher than µo.
Thus, the permeability is the property of a
medium that determines its magnetic
characteristics.
In other words, the concept of magnetic
permeability corresponds to the ability of the
material to permit the flow of magnetic flux
through it
In electrical machines and electromechanical

devices a somewhat linear relationship between
B and I is desired, which is normally approached
by limiting the current
Look at the magnetization curve and B-H curve.
Note: The curve corresponds to an increase of DC
current flow through a coil wrapped around the
ferromagnetic core
This plot is called a
saturation curve or
a magnetization
curve
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The region where the flux changes rapidly is called

the unsaturated region.
The transition region is called the ‘knee’ of the
curve
Advantage of using a ferromagnetic material for

cores in electric machines and transformers is that
one gets more flux for a given mmf than with air
(free space).
Generators and motors depend on magnetic flux
to produce voltage and torque, so they need as
much flux as possible.
So, they operate near the knee of the
magnetization curve (flux not linearly related to
the mmf).
This non-linearity as a result gives peculiar
behaviours to machines
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Example 4
A square magnetic core has a mean path length
of 55cm and a csa of 150cm2. A 200 turn coil of
wire is wrapped around one leg of the core. The
core is made of a material having the
magnetization curve shown below. Find:
1. How much current is required to produce
0.012 Wb of flux in the core?
2. What is the core’s relative permeability at that
current level?
3. What is its reluctance?
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SOLUTION
 0.012
B   0.8 T
A 150  104
From graph at B=0.8 ; H=120
H 120  0.55
i    0.33 A
N 200
H 120 150
0 r    150 r   119.366  106
B 0.8 4  10 7
0.55
   0.244 A  t /Wb
r o A 150  150  104
Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core

 Hysteresis Loss
Above discussions are concentrates on the
application of a DC current through the coil.
 Now let’s move the discussion into the
application of AC current source at the coil.
 Using our understanding previously, we can
predict that the curve would be as shown
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Theoretical ac magnetic behaviour for flux in a

ferromagnetic core
Unfortunately, the above assumption is only

correct provided that the core is ‘perfect’ i.e.
there are no residual flux present during the
negative cycle of the ac current flow.
A typical flux behaviour (or known as hysteresis
loop) in a ferromagnetic core is as shown in fig.
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Explanation of Hysteresis Loop

1. Apply AC current. Assume
flux in the core is initially
zero.
2. As current increases, the flux
traces the path ab.
(saturation curve)
3. When the current decreases,
the flux traces out a different
path from the one when the
current increases.
4. When current
decreases, the flux
traces out path bcd.
5. When the current
increases again, it
traces out path deb.
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6. NOTE: the amount of flux present in the

core depends not only on the amount of
current applied to the windings of the core,
but also on the previous history of the flux in
the core.
7. HYSTERESIS is the dependence on the
preceding flux history and the resulting
failure to retrace flux paths.
8. When a large mmf is first applied to the core
and then removed, the flux path in the core
will be abc.
9. When mmf is removed, the flux does not go

to zero – residual flux. This is how
permanent magnets are produced.
10.To force the flux to zero, an amount of mmf
known as coercive mmf must be applied in
the opposite direction.
Why does hysteresis occur?
To understand hysteresis in a ferromagnetic
core, we have to look into the behaviour of
its atomic structure before, during and after
the presence of a magnetic field.
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The atoms of iron and similar metals (cobalt,

nickel, and some of their alloys) tend to have
their magnetic fields closely aligned with each
other.
Within the metal, there is an existence of
small regions known as domains where in
each domain there is a presence of a small
magnetic field which randomly aligned
through the metal structure.
 This as shown in fig. :
a metal structure before
the presence of a magnetic field
(length of arrows means mag. Dif.)
Magnetic field direction in each

domain is random as such that the
net magnetic field is zero.
When mmf is applied to the core, each magnetic
field will align with respect to the direction of the
magnetic field.
That explains the exponential increase of magnetic
flux during the early stage of magnetisation. As
more and more domain are aligned to the
magnetic field, the total magnetic flux will maintain
at a constant level hence as shown in the
magnetisation curve (saturation).
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When mmf is removed, the

magnetic field in each domain will
try to revert to its random state.
However, not all magnetic field domain’s would

revert to its random state hence it remained in its
previous magnetic field position.
 Hence the material will retain some of its
magnetic properties (permanent magnet) up until
an external energy is applied to the material. That
is why a permanent magnet can lose its magnetism
if it is dropped, hit with a hammer or heated.
Therefore, in an ac current situation, to realign the

magnetic field in each domain during the opposite
cycle would require extra mmf (also known as
coercive mmf).
This extra energy requirement is known as
hysteresis loss.
The larger the material, the more energy is
required hence the higher the hysteresis loss.
Area enclosed in the hysteresis loop formed by
applying an ac current to the core is directly
proportional to the energy lost in a given ac cycle.
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Eddy Current Loss

A time-changing flux induces voltage within a
ferromagnetic core.
These voltages cause swirls of current to flow
within the core – eddy currents.
Energy is dissipated (in the form of heat) because
these eddy currents are flowing in a resistive
material (iron)
The amount of energy lost to eddy currents is
proportional to the size of the paths they follow
within the core.
To reduce energy loss, ferromagnetic core should

be broken up into small strips, or laminations, and
build the core up out of these strips.
An insulating oxide or resin is used between the
strips, so that the current paths for eddy currents
are limited to small areas.
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 FARADAY’S LAW – Induced Voltage from a

Time-Changing Magnetic Field
 Before, we looked at the production of a
magnetic field and on its properties.
 Now, we will look at the various ways in which
an existing magnetic field can affect its
surroundings.
 Faraday’s Law:
‘If a flux passes through a turn of a coil of
wire, voltage will be induced in the turn of the
wire that is directly proportional to the rate of
change in the flux with respect of time’
d
e ind  
dt
If there is N number of turns
in the coil with the same
amount of flux flowing
through it, hence:
d
e ind   N
dt
 Lenz’ Law ; states:
The direction of the build-up voltage in the coil
is as such that if the coils were short circuited,
it would produce current that would cause a
flux opposing the original flux change.
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 Production of Induced Force on a Wire

 A current carrying conductor present in a
uniform magnetic field of flux density B,
would produce a force to the
conductor/wire.
 Dependent upon the direction of the
surrounding magnetic field, the force
induced is given by:
F  i l  B 
where:
i – represents the current flow in the conductor
l – length of wire, with direction of l defined to be in the
direction of current flow
B – magnetic field density
 If the current carrying conductor is position at an

angle to the magnetic field, the formula is
modified to be as follows
F  ilB sin 
Where:  - angle between the conductor and the
direction of the magnetic field
 Induced Voltage on a Conductor Moving
in a Magnetic Field
If a conductor moves or ‘cuts’ through a
magnetic field, voltage will be induced
between the terminals of the conductor
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 the magnitude of the induced voltage is

dependent upon the velocity of the wire
assuming that the magnetic field is constant.
 This can be summarised in terms of formulation
as shown
eind = (v x B) l
where:
v – velocity of the wire
B – magnetic field density
l – length of the wire in the magnetic field
It can be proof as follows:
‫ ص‬09:46 08/08/2015 Dr. kamal Ramadan UofK; 2014 50
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08/08/2015
Note: The value of l (length) is dependent upon

the angle at which the wire cuts through the
magnetic field. Hence a more complete formula
will be as follows
eind = (v x B)l cosθ
where:
 - angle between the conductor and the direction of (v x B)
The induction of voltages in a wire moving in a

magnetic field is fundamental to the operation
of all types of generators
Example5
The wire is shown in Figure is moving in the
presence of a magnetic field. With the information
given in the figure, determine the magnitude and
direction of the induced voltage in the wire
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SOLUTION
The induced voltage on this
wire can be calculated from
the equation shown below.
The voltage on the wire is
positive downward because
the vector quantity vxB
points downward.
e ind  (v  B )   vB cos
e ind  5  0.25  0.5cos45  0.442 V , positive down
 Simple Incremental Transducer

Figure shows a simple construction for this
transducer
Dr. Kamal Ramadan; UofK; Sudan 54
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 Simple Ideal X-ducer

As shown in figure it consists of the following
components: Inductor L, with internal resistor R,
damper D, Moving part and spring with elasticity k
k elastic factor
spring force fk = kX
Or fk= k  for rotating
D= damping factor
where D  v and
dx d
f D  Dv  D or f D  D  D
dt Dr. Kamal Ramadan; UofK; Sudan
dt 55
• If we assume that a force

applied on the moving part
with velocity v then an emf
will be induced in the coil
equal
el  Blv (1)
• Or vice versa if a voltage applied at its terminal
with cureent i then a force will be produced on
the moving coil equal
f l  Bli (2)
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• Electrical and mechanical power given by:

Pe  (el )i  ( Blv )i 
 (3)
Pm  ( f l )v  ( Bli )v 
• For ideal transducer Pe = Pm
• i.e. D=0, k=0 & R=0
• So the equivalent circuit can be drawn as
57
Dr. Kamal Ramadan; UofK; Sudan
• This equivalent circuit

can be describe by two
equations which are:
The elect. equation is

el  Blv (4)
The mech. equation is
d 2x 
Bli  f m  m 2 for linear motion 
dt 
 (5)
d
2
Bli  f m  j 2 for rotating motion
dt 
Where m is the mass and J moment of inertia
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 Transfer Function H(s)
o / p( s )
H ( s) 
i / p( s )
Example6
Find the transfer function for ideal transducer for
an electrical input
Solution

di
since ei  Blv  L 

dt
2 time domain (1)
d x dv 
Bli  m 2  m
dt dt 

transform into s domain
transform into s domain

E ( s )  BlV ( s )  LsI ( s ) 
 ( 2)
BlI ( s )  msV ( s ) 
E ( s )  BlV ( s )
from (2) I ( s )  (3) 60
Ls Dr. Kamal Ramadan; UofK; Sudan
30
08/08/2015
sub. from (3) into (2)

 E ( s )  BlV ( s ) 
Bl    msV ( s )
 Ls 
 Bl 
 
gives H ( s) 
V ( s)

Bl
  mL 
E ( s ) mLs2  ( Bl ) 2 ( Bl ) 2
s2 
mL
N.B. If the i/p is pulse volt (t) then E(s)=1 then
61
 Bl 
 
H ( s) 
V ( s)
  mL 
gives
1 ( Bl ) 2
s 
2
mL
  Bl  
    2
V (t )  L1   mL   p ut  2  ( Bl )
 2 ( Bl ) 2  mL
 s  mL 
 
1 Bl
then v (t )  sin t
mL mL
62
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 Normal Transducer equivalent cct.
Where fm= mechanical force

fD= damping force
fa=applied force
di 
ei  Ri  L  Blv 
dt 
 (1)
dv
Bli  m  Dv 
dt 
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08/08/2015
BlV ( s)  E ( s)  RI ( s)  LsI ( s) (a)

 (2)
BlI ( s)  msV ( s)  DV ( s) (b) 
from (a)
E ( s )  BlV ( s )
I ( s)  (3)
R  Ls
sub. into (2)
 E(s)-BlV(s ) 
Bl    msV ( s )  DV ( s )
 R  Ls 
gives
V (s) Bl
H ( s)   or
E ( s) ( R  Ls)(ms  D)  ( Bl ) 2
 Bl 
 
H ( s) 
V (s)
  Lm 
(5)
E ( s) R D ( Bl ) 2
( s  )( s  )  65
L m Lm Dr. Kamal Ramadan; UofK; Sudan
End of Lecture 1
Thank You
Dr. kamal Ramadan Misrata University;

‫ ص‬10:07 08/08/2015 66
2014
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08/08/2015

Evaluation Course Works

08/08/2015 Dr. Kamal Ramadan; UofK, 2015 3

 Instructor: Dr. Kamal Ramadan

08/08/2015 Dr. Kamal Ramadan; UofK, 2015 4

References: 1."Electric Machinery". ‫المراجع‬

‫ ص‬09:10 08/08/2015 Dr. kamal Ramadan UofK; 2014 5

Basic concept of electrical machines

  Force  perpendicular distance

08/08/2015 Dr. Kamal Ramadan; UofK, 2015 10

Assuming that the direction of F is collinear (in

08/08/2015 Dr. Kamal Ramadan; UofK, 2015 11

 Newton’s Law of Rotation

08/08/2015 Dr. Kamal Ramadan; UofK, 2015 14

08/08/2015 Dr. Kamal Ramadan; UofK, 2015 16

08/08/2015 Dr. Kamal Ramadan; UofK, 2015 17

The Magnetic Field

where H is the magnetic field intensity produced by the

Consider a current currying conductor is

 In a core such as in the figure

08/08/2015 Dr. Kamal Ramadan; UofK, 2015 21

mmf TOT  N 1i 1  N 2i 2  400  0.5  300  0.75  425 A T

08/08/2015 Dr. Kamal Ramadan; UofK, 2015 22

The total reluctance in the core is

and the flux in the core is:

mmf TOT 425 A T

08/08/2015 Dr. Kamal Ramadan; UofK, 2015 23

Magnetic Behaviour of Ferromagnetic Materials

08/08/2015 Dr. Kamal Ramadan; UofK, 2015 24

For magnetic materials, a much larger value of B

08/08/2015 Dr. Kamal Ramadan; UofK, 2015 25

In electrical machines and electromechanical

The region where the flux changes rapidly is called

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Advantage of using a ferromagnetic material for

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Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core

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Theoretical ac magnetic behaviour for flux in a

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Unfortunately, the above assumption is only

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Explanation of Hysteresis Loop

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6. NOTE: the amount of flux present in the

9. When mmf is removed, the flux does not go

The atoms of iron and similar metals (cobalt,

Magnetic field direction in each

When mmf is removed, the

However, not all magnetic field domain’s would

Therefore, in an ac current situation, to realign the

Eddy Current Loss

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To reduce energy loss, ferromagnetic core should

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 FARADAY’S LAW – Induced Voltage from a

 Production of Induced Force on a Wire

 If the current carrying conductor is position at an

 the magnitude of the induced voltage is

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It can be proof as follows: