Vertical Alignment ‐2

Dr. Sameer Ud-Din

School of Civil & Environmental Engineering
National University of Science & Technology (NUST)
 Vertical Curve Design
• Provision of a minimum stopping sight distance (SSD) is the only
criterion used for design of a crest vertical curve
• Sight distance is measured from an assumed eye height of 3.5 ft.
and an object height of 2.0 ft.
• For crest vertical curves, the daylight sight line controls minimum
length of vertical curves
 Vertical Curve Design
• Two possible scenarios that could control the design length: 
– (1) the SSD is greater than the length of the vertical curve
– (2) the SSD is less than the length of the vertical curve
 Vertical Curve Design

Assistant with Target Rod (2ft object height)

Observer with Sighting

Rod (3.5 ft)
 Minimum Length of Crest Vertical Curve Design
• Longer curve lengths provide more SSD all else being equal, but more costly
to construct
• Shorter curve lengths are less expensive to construct but may not provide
adequate SSD due to more rapid changes in slope
• Requirement: An expression for minimum curve length given a required
SSD for crest vertical curve

For SSD/ S/ d(s) < L For SSD / S/ d(s) >L

ASSD 
2
2158
L L  2SSD  
2158 A
• SSD = stopping sight distance in ft (m), and
• A =  algebraic difference in grades in percent
• L = minimum length of vertical curve in ft
Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves 
 Sag Vertical Curves
• Stopping sight distance not an issue for sag vertical curves, 
Instead the design controls are one of the following
– Headlight sight distance (distance on curve illuminated 
by headlights need to be considered)
– Ride comfort
– Drainage
– Appearance
 Minimum Length of Sag Vertical Curves Based on SSD
• The headlight SSD requirement is based on the fact that sight distance will be
restricted during periods of darkness whereas during daylight periods, sight
distance is unaffected by the sag curve
• As a vehicle is driven on a sag vertical curve at night, the position of the headlight
and the direction of the headlight beam will dictate the stretch of highway ahead
that is lighted
• Therefore the distance that can be seen by the driver is controlled by the
headlight beam
• If the headlight is located at a height h1 above the ground, and the headlight
beam is inclined upward at an angle β to the horizontal
• The headlight beam intersects the road at point D, thereby restricting the
available SSD S.
• Assumptions for design (AASHTO)
– h1 = headlight height = 2.0 ft.
– β = 1 degree (inclined angle of the headlight beam relative to the horizontal 
plan of the car)
 Sag Vertical Curves

Light Beam Distance =(S)

G1
headlight beam (diverging from LOS by β degrees) G2

D
PVC PVT

h1 PVI
h2=0
L

For SSD > L

For SSD < L

ASSD   400  3.5SSD  

2
L L  2SSD    
400  3.5SSD   A 
Minimum Length of Sag Vertical Curves Based on Comfort Criterion
• The comfort criterion is based on the fact that when a vehicle travels on a sag
vertical curve, both the gravitational and centrifugal forces act in combination,
resulting in a greater effect than on a crest vertical curve where these forces act
in opposition to each other
• Several factors such as weight carried, body suspension of the vehicle, and tire
flexibility affect comfort due to change in vertical direction, making it difficult for
comfort to be measured directly
• It is generally accepted that a comfortable ride will be provided if the radial
acceleration is not greater than 1 ft /sec‐sq.
• Minimum length of curve

AV 2
L
46 .5

– where V is the design speed in mph

– L the minimum length based on comfort
– A the algebraic difference in grades
Minimum Length of Sag Vertical Curves Based on Appearance Criterion

• The criterion for acceptable appearance is usually satisfied by

assuring that the minimum length of the sag curve is not less than
expressed by the following equation:

L  100 A
– L the minimum length based on appearance criterion
– A the algebraic difference in grades
• Longer curves are frequently necessary for major arterials if the
general appearance of these highways is to be considered to be
satisfactory
Minimum Length of Sag Vertical Curves Based on Drainage Criterion

• The drainage criterion for sag vertical curves must be

considered when the road is curbed
• This criterion is different from the others in that there is a
maximum length requirement rather than a minimum
length
• The maximum length requirement to satisfy the drainage
criterion is that a minimum slope of 0.35 percent be
provided within 50 ft. of the lowest point of the curve
 Length of Crest Vertical Curves Based on K factors
The expressions for the minimum lengths of the crest vertical curves are:
For SSD/ S/ d(s) < L For SSD / S/ d(s) >L
ASSD 
2
2158
L L  2SSD  
2158 A
• SSD = stopping sight distance in ft (m), and
• A =  algebraic difference in grades in percent
• L = minimum length of vertical curve in ft
These equation (where L > SSD) can be written as K 
SSD 
2

2158
L  KA
o K =  value that is the horizontal distance, in ft.  required to affect a 1% 
change in the slope of the vertical curve
o Since K is a function of design speed, it can be used as a convenient 
“shortcut” to compute the minimum length for a crest vertical curve
 Example
Try SSD > L,
Design speed is 60 mph
G1 = 3% and G2 = -1%,
what is L?
(Assume grade = 0% for SSD)
SSD = 570feet ( see: Table 3.4 of text)
Lmin = 2 (570’) – 2158’ = 600.5’
|(-1-3)|
S < L, so it doesn’t match condition
Assume SSD < L,
Design speed is 60 mph
G1 = 3% and G2 = -1%,
what is L?
Assuming average grade = 0%
SSD = 570 feet - ( Table 3.4 of text)
Lmin = |(-3 - 1)| (570 ft)2 = 602 ft
2158
SSD < L, equation matches condition
 Example: Length of Crest Vertical Curves
Example: Length of Crest Vertical Curve Using Equation
A highway is being designed to AASHTO guidelines with a 70‐mph design
speed, and at one section, an equal‐tangent vertical curve must be designed
to connect grades of + 1.0% and ‐2.0%: Determine the minimum length of
curve necessary to meet SSD requirements.
Solution
If we ignore the effect of grades the SSD (can be read directly from Table 
3.34 (Green Book)). In this case, the SSD corresponding to a speed of 70mph 
is 730 ft. If we assume that L > SSD (an assumption typically made):

ASSD 
2
3730 2 L  740.82 ft.
L L
2158 2158
740.82 > 730, our assume that L > SSD was correct
 Example 
Example: Length of Crest Vertical Curve Using K‐factors
A highway is being designed to AASHTO guidelines with a 70‐milh design
speed, and at one section, an equal‐tangent vertical curve must be designed
to connect grades of + 1.0% and ‐2.0%: Determine the minimum length of
curve necessary to meet SD requirements.
Solution
K‐factor corresponding to a speed of 70mph is 247 (Table 3.34 Green 
Book). 
L  KA L  247 * 3 L  741 ft .
Almost same results as using formula
Example
Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves 
 Length of Crest Vertical Curves Based on K factors
• Assumption that G = 0, made at the beginning of example is not really
correct
• If G not equal to 0, we cannot use the SSD values in Table 3.34 (need to
use proper formula)
• If we use the initial grade in (+1.0%), underestimation of SSD, because the
vertical curve has a slope as steeply positive as this only at the PVC
• If we use the final grade (‐2.0%), overestimation of SSD, because the
vertical curve has a slope as steeply negative as this only at the PVT
• In practice, policies vary as to how this grade issue is handled
• Some design agencies ignore the effect of grades completely, while others
assume G is equal to zero for grades less than 3%
• The use of curve length equations can be simplified if the initial
assumption that L > SSD is made
• The advantage of this assumption is that the relationship between A and L
in is linear, and we can use simple equation (k‐factor) for curve length
L  KA
 Length of Crest Vertical Curves Based on K factors
L  KA
• Why to assume that L > SSD?
• Two complications that could arise when SSD >L
– First, if SSD > L the relationship between A and L is not linear, so
K‐values cannot be used in the L = KA formula
– Second, at low values of A, it is possible to get negative
minimum curve lengths
• As a result of these complications, the assumption that L > SSD is
almost always made in practice, and K‐values presented in Table
3.34 & 3.36 (Green Book) are used
• Also in many cases, L is greater than SSD, and when it is not (SSD >
L), use of the L > SSD formula gives longer curve lengths and thus
the error is on the conservative, safe side
 Length of  Sag Vertical Curves Based on K factors
The expressions for the minimum lengths of the sag vertical curves are:
For SSD/ S/ d(s) < L For SSD / S/ d(s) >L

ASSD 
2
 400  3.5SSD  
L L  2SSD    
400  3.5SSD   A 
• SSD = stopping sight distance in ft (m), and
• A =  algebraic difference in grades in percent
• L = minimum length of vertical curve in ft
These equation (where L > SSD) can be written as
L  KA
o K =  value that is the horizontal distance, in ft.  required to affect a 1% 
change in the slope of the vertical curve
o Since K is a function of design speed, it can be used as a convenient 
“shortcut” to compute the minimum length for a crest vertical curve
Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves 
 Minimum Length of Crest and Sag Vertical Curves 
• Very short vertical curves can be difficult to construct and may not
be warranted for safety purposes
• It is common practice to set minimum curve length limits that range
from 100 to 325 ft (30 to 100 m) depending on individual
jurisdictional guidelines
• A common alterative to these limits is to set the minimum curve
length limit at:
– 3 x times the design speed (speed in mph and length in ft.)
– 0.6 x times the design speed (speed in kmph and length in m)
 Special Facilities Hy Vehicles on Steep Grades – Climbing Lanes
• A climbing lane is an extra lane in the upgrade direction for use by
heavy vehicles whose speeds are significantly reduced by the grade
• A climbing lane eliminates the need for drivers of light vehicles to
reduce their speed when they encounter a heavy slow‐moving
vehicle
• Because of the increasing rate of crashes directly associated with
the reduction in speed of heavy vehicles on steep sections of two‐
lane highways and the significant reduction of the capacity of these
sections when heavy vehicles are present, the provision of climbing
lanes should be considered
• The need for a climbing lane is evident when a grade is longer than
its critical length, defined as the length that will cause a speed
reduction of the heavy vehicle by at least 10 mi/h
• The amount by which a truck’s speed is reduced when climbing a
steep grade depends on the length of the grade
Special Facilities Hy Vehicles on Steep Grades – Climbing Lanes
 Special Facilities Hy Vehicles on Steep Grades – Climbing Lanes
• The length of the climbing lane will depend on the physical
characteristics of the grade, but in general, the climbing lane should
be long enough to facilitate the heavy vehicle’s rejoining the main
traffic stream without causing a hazardous condition
• A climbing lane is provided only if (in addition to the critical length
requirement) the upgrade traffic flow rate is greater than 200 veh/h
and the upgrade truck flow is higher than 20 veh/h.
• Climbing lanes are not typically used on multilane highways, since
relatively faster moving vehicles can pass the slower moving
vehicles by using a passing lane.
• Also, the provision of a climbing lane cannot be justified based on
capacity criterion since multilane highways are designed to have
capacity sufficient to carry the forecast traffic demand, which
include slow‐moving vehicles.
 Special Facilities Hy Vehicles on Steep Grades – Turnouts
• A turnout is a widened, unobstructed shoulder area that allows
slow‐moving vehicles to pull out of the through lane to give passing
opportunities to following vehicles
• The driver of the slow‐moving vehicle, if there are following
vehicles, is expected to pull out of the through lane and remain in
the turnout only long enough for the following vehicles to pass
before returning to the through lane
• One or two following vehicles, this maneuver can be accomplished
without it being necessary for the driver of the vehicle in the
turnout to stop
• More following vehicles ‐ the driver may need to stop in the turnout
in order for all the following vehicles to pass
• Turnouts are most frequently used:
– On lower volume roads where long platoons are rare
– Difficult terrain with steep grades where construction of an additional lane
may not be cost‐effective e.g mountain, or costal roads
Special Facilities Hy Vehicles on Steep Grades – Turnouts
Special Facilities Hy Vehicles on Steep Grades – Emergency Escape Ramps

• Purpose: Slowing or stopping out of control vehicles on long,

descending grades
• A lane is provided that diverges such that when a vehicle enters the
escape ramp, its speed is gradually reduced, and eventually it stops
• Out‐of‐control vehicles are generally the result of a driver losing
braking ability either through overheating of the brakes due to
mechanical failure or failure to downshift at the appropriate time
• Factors that should be considered for escape ramp site selection:
– Topography
– Length and percent of grade
– Potential speed
– Economics
– Environmental impact
– Crash experience
Emergency Escape Ramps
Special Facilities Hy Vehicles on Steep Grades – Emergency Escape Ramps

• Ramps should be located to intercept the greatest number of

runaway vehicles, such as at the bottom of the grade and at
intermediate points along the grade where an out‐of‐control vehicle
could cause a catastrophic crash
• Escape ramps generally may be built at any practical location where
the main road alignment is tangent and in advance of horizontal
curves that cannot be negotiated safely by an out‐of‐control vehicle
• Three broad categories:
– Gravity ramps
– Sandpile
– Arrester bed
• Four basic emergency escape ramp designs predominate
• These designs are the sandpile and three types of arrester beds: (1) 
descending grade, (2) horizontal grade, and (3) ascending grade
Special Facilities Hy Vehicles on Steep Grades – Emergency Escape Ramps
Special Facilities Hy Vehicles on Steep Grades – Emergency Escape Ramps

Gravity Ramp
• The gravity ramp has a paved or densely compacted aggregate 
surface, relying primarily on gravitational forces to slow and stop the 
runaway
• Gravity ramps are usually long, steep, and are constrained by 
topographic controls and costs
• While a gravity ramp stops forward motion, the paved surface 
cannot prevent the vehicle from rolling back down the ramp
• Therefore, the gravity ramp is the least desirable
Special Facilities Hy Vehicles on Steep Grades – Emergency Escape Ramps

Sand Piles
• Sandpiles, composed of loose, dry sand dumped at the ramp site,
are usually no more than 120 m [400 ft] in length
• Truck driver is exposed to severe deceleration rate
• Suitable where inadequate space exists
• Sand can be affected by weather – maintenance cost
Arrester Bed
• An escape ramp with a layer of loose aggregate in an arrester bed to
apply rolling resistance to slow down an out‐of‐control vehicle
• Descending‐grade, horizontal‐grade and ascending‐grade
• The most commonly used escape ramp is the ascending‐grade
• Ascending‐grade: uses gradient resistance to advantage,
supplementing the effects of the aggregate in the arrester bed, and
generally, reducing the length of ramp needed to stop the vehicle
 Ramp Length Calculations

• As a vehicle rolls upgrade, it loses momentum and will eventually 
stop because of the effect of gravity.
• To determine the distance needed to bring the vehicle to a stop with 
consideration of the rolling resistance and gradient resistance, 
AASHTO recommends as follows.
 Rolling Resistance of Roadway Surfacing Materials

Table for rolling resistance of roadway surfacing materials
 Example ‐ Ramp Length Calculation

• Assume that topographic conditions at a site selected for an 
emergency escape ramp limit the ramp to an upgrade of 10 percent. 
An arrester bed is to be constructed with loose gravel for an 
entering speed of 140 km/h [90 mph]. Determine the length of the 
arrester bed.
Solution: 
V = 140 km/h [90 mph].
G = +0.10
R  = 0.10
Using Formula as aforementioned;                            or  

∴ L = 1,350 ft [400 m]
 Consideration of More Than One Grade Along the Length

• An arrester bed is constructed using more than one grade along its 
length as shown in the following figure. 

• Then, we need to calculate first the change in the speed resulted 
from grade difference as the vehicle travels along the length
 Consideration of More Than One Grade Along the Length

• AASHTO provides the following: 
Vertical Alignment and Sight Distance
Horizontal Alignment and Superelevation
 Example (Other Properties)
Due to crashes at a railroad crossing, an overpass (with a surface 24 ft
above the existing road) is to be constructed on an existing level
highway. The existing highway has a design speed of 50 mph. The
overpass structure is to be level, centered above the railroad, and 200
ft long. What length of the existing level highway must be
reconstructed to provide an appropriate vertical alignment?
G1 x

PVT
PVC
Y
L  K .A Ym G2

PVI Yf
A  G1  G 2

A AL AL
Y  x2 Ym  Yf 
200 L 800 200
 Design Controls for ….
Sag Vertical Curve                        Crest Vertical Curve 
 Solution of Example (Other Properties)
Find K values for the crest and sag vertical curve.
• Ksag = 96 for 50 mph
• Kcrest = 84 for 50 mph
Because the combination sag & crest curve goes between 
two flat grades:
• G1 for the sag = 0
• G2 for the sag = G1 for the crest
• G2 for the crest = 0
• A for the crest = A for the sag

Use L = KA. 
• Lsag = 96A
• Lcrest = 84A
 Solution of Example (Other Properties)
Use a vertical relationship to get the second equation:
• AL/200 = Yf
• Yfsag+Yfcrest=Δelev
• ALsag/200 + ALcrest/200 = 24 ft

Substitute and solve for A
• A(96A)/200 + A(84A)/200 = 24
• A = 5.16% = G2 for the sag = G1 for the crest

Find curve lengths
• Lsag = KsagA = (96)(5.16) = 495.36 ft.
• Lcrest = KcrestA = (84)(5.16) = 433.44 ft
 Solution of Example (Other Properties)
Find total length of highway that must be reconstructed
• Need one sag and one crest curve on each end = 
2(495.36) + 2(433.44) = 1857.6 ft
• Add the 200 ft long flat section at the top = 1857.6 + 
200 = 2057.6 ft.