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Documente Cultură
Mechatronics
Training material
094 536
Rules of utilisation
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automation and communication. The training institution and / or the
instructor must ensure that trainees comply with the safety precautions
described in this workbook.
Festo Didactic hereby excludes any liability for damage or injury which
might occur to the trainee, the training institution and / or any third party
while using / applying the system outside a purely pedagogical situation,
unless Festo Didactic has caused the damage or injury intentionally or
through gross negligence.
Table of contents
1 Project planning.....................................................................A-1
2 Material flow...........................................................................A-9
2.1 General..................................................................................A-10
2.1.1 Definition of terms..................................................................A-10
2.1.2 Analysis of material flow ........................................................A-12
2.2 Handling ................................................................................A-19
4 Commissioning of complex
automated systems..............................................................A-71
4.1 Testing and performing the fine adjustment
of the pneumatic/mechanical or
hydraulic/mechanical drives ...................................................A-73
4.2 Checking the electrical connection between the
sensors and the PLC and calibrating as required...................A-74
4.3 Testing the emergency-off function........................................A-74
4.4 Forcing the PLC outputs and checking the
connection between the output card and
electrical drives or solenoid valves and performing
any required fine adjustment..................................................A-75
4.5 Loading the program..............................................................A-76
4.6 Testing all program functions and
operating modes ....................................................................A-76
4.7 Complete parameterisation ....................................................A-77
4.8 Documentation.......................................................................A-78
5 Maintenance .........................................................................A-79
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................A-80
5.2 What is meant by maintenance..............................................A-80
5.3 Service...................................................................................A-82
5.4 Inspection ..............................................................................A-83
5.5 Repairs ..................................................................................A-84
5.6 Fault documentation...............................................................A-86
5.7 Possible fault influence analysis (PFIA) .................................A-87
6 Faultfinding ..........................................................................A-93
6.1 Systematic repairs in the event of malfunction .......................A-94
6.1.1 Prerequisite for systematic repairs.........................................A-94
6.1.2 Procedure ..............................................................................A-96
6.2 Faultfinding ............................................................................A-97
6.2.1 Systematic faultfinding ...........................................................A-98
6.2.2 Fault documentation ..............................................................A-99
6.2.3 Fault analysis....................................................................... A-101
6.3 Safety while faultfinding ....................................................... A-102
6.3.1 Recommissioning and powering up the system ................... A-103
6.3.2 Faultfinding in systems with the power
switched on.......................................................................... A-104
8 Communication..................................................................B-113
8.1 The need for communication ............................................... B-114
8.2 Data transmission ................................................................ B-115
8.3 Interfaces............................................................................. B-116
8.4 Communication in the field area........................................... B-117
Part D – Appendix
Various assembly drawings
Introduction
Mechatronic systems have been around for a long time. If you compare
products from the nineties with products that are twenty or thirty years
old, you will notice a growing interrelationship of software, electronic
signal management and fluid or electro-mechanical drives. Often
enough these three types of technology are combined or closely linked
within the same product.
You can find examples of this interrelationship in industry as well as in
household technology. Fully automatic washing machines, radio-
controlled garage doors, power tools with automatic speed regulation,
valve terminals, positioning units, intelligent microdrives – the list could
be continued indefinitely.
The mechatronic concept is even more obvious when applied to plant
engineering. Processes performed on assembly facilities, machine tools
or in materials processing are now controlled almost exclusively by
freely programmable electronic systems.
Nowadays PLC technology, industrial computers and CNC controls can
be found on almost every shop floor. Furthermore, communication
technology has also become an integral part of modern production
facilities.
On the one hand, workpiece-related data must to be passed on from
one production or processing stage to the next. On the other, relevant
data from production, logistics and maintenance must be available on
demand. So, no matter if we are talking about inventories, finished
products, customer-specific parameters, machine downtime or rate of
utilisation: the electronic links between production and processing
stages and production planning and control software has become
absolutely essential.
Designed as programmable logic controllers, the EduTrainers are equipped with a SysLink
universal interface. This makes the PLC – in an ER or A4 frame – a central element of your
process-oriented training area. The EduTrainer enables control and monitoring of all processes –
from simple electro-pneumatic processes to complex virtual processes and industrial
manufacturing processes in the Modular Production System MPS.
Chapter 1
Project planning
Fig. 1.1
Despite the unique nature of a specific machine, a project for the devel-
opment of a line essentially always involves the same phases:
· development of ideas
· definition of design specifications
· planning and design
· assembly and installation of the machine's pneumatic, hydraulic and
electrical systems
· installation of the switchgear cabinet
· design and realisation of the software
· final assembly
· test operation
· fine tuning and correction
· commissioning
· documentation
It goes without saying that these phases are not necessarily dealt with
consecutively. Generally, they overlap or parallel one another. Graphical
methods are often used to illustrate the overlap or parallel nature of the
individual phases and ensure the success of the project.
The Gantt chart Gantt charts use a two-dimensional coordinate system. The horizontal
axis generally represents the time scale and the individual subtasks or
actions are entered along the vertical axis. The length of the bars indi-
cates the projected duration for the performance of the subtasks or ac-
tion. The relative length and position of the bars to one another
illustrates their temporal relationships. Overall, this technique is very
simple and easy to learn. While it lends itself well to the illustration of
'AND' associations and chains, 'OR' associations or reactions cannot be
represented using this technique.
Fig. 1.2
As the development process of a machine or line becomes more com- Network analysis
plex, it becomes increasingly difficult to illustrate it using a Gantt chart.
For this reason, network analysis is often used to plan complex projects.
These networks consist of nodes and arrows. Depending on how these
nodes and arrows are defined, we distinguish between
· action arrow networks
· event node networks
· action node networks
The following will be concentrating on the action node network. In this
type, the actions are represented as rectangles. Each of the rectangles
contains exactly 8 items of information:
Description of action
EST D EET
LST BT LET
Fig. 1.3
The result is exactly one connection between the start and end points.
The total duration of the project is the sum of the specified durations of
the individual actions. This is known as the critical path, as delays along
this path always result in delays for the project as a whole. A buffer time
is not available along the critical path. The earliest and latest starting
times are thus the same value. Certain buffer times result for the re-
maining connections depending on the specified times. This temporal
view of the project sequence makes it easier for project participants to
set priorities for their work.
The following sections contain information on the various development
phases as they apply to the training program for mechatronics special-
ists. Specifically, it includes:
· planning of complex automated lines
· installation of pneumatic systems
· installation of electrical systems
· vacuum technology
· sensor technology
· PLC technology
· analog signal processing
· technical communication
· commissioning
Chapter 2
Material flow
2.1 General
Handling Handling refers to all motion sequences used for the starting or ending
of production processes and also of transporting and storage. This in-
cludes, for instance, the insertion of a workpiece in a workpiece retainer
or the stacking of workpieces at a storage place. Handling therefore
includes all material flow processes taking place at a workstation.
Conveying Conveying is the movement in horizontal or vertical direction via limited
distances and is therefore generally restricted to in-plant processes.
Examples are: The supply of screws by means of a vibratory bowl
feeder and the transporting of vehicle bodies by means of overhead
conveyors.
Continuous conveyor These examples immediately highlight an important difference: in the
first example, a continuous conveyor is used. Continuous conveyors
operate continuously (at least over an extended time period).
Fig. 2.1:
Graphic representation of
material flow for one prod-
uct
In practice, a production facility will not just produce one product, but a
multitude of products which, however, will run through the same equip-
ment. In this case, the following representation arranged according to
equipment is indicated:
Fig. 2.2:
Material flow sorted ac-
cording to equipment for
two products and one mod-
ule.
Left as per sequence, right
taking into consideration the
location of the equipment
Quantitative assess- Although a graphic representation of material flow gives some idea
ment of material flow about the paths of material flow, it does not give any indication of the
incidence of transport. Only when the number of goods to be conveyed
within a specific unit of time is known, plus the required means convey-
ance and additional information about weight and dimensions, is it pos-
sible to optimise material flow.
Direct recording of Direct recording of material flow takes place during the production proc-
material flow ess, in that employees keep a list at the individual stations. Because of
the interruption of the normal production process as a result of this ac-
tivity, direct recording of material flow should be avoided.
Indirect recording of Indirect recording of material flow is the result of the product spectrum
material flow of the production operation and the actual number of items over a rep-
resentative period of time (e.g. a production week).
The component parts and modules are determined on the basis of parts
lists of each product and their overall number extrapolated within the
time period considered. The schedules of job operations produce the
structure of the materials flow and this then permits the numerical cal-
culation of the material flow between the equipment.
With indirect recording of material flow, care must be taken to ensure
that information is not recorded directly in a period of seasonal high or
low values. Particular care is also indicated during production of highly
seasonal products, such as Christmas goods.
ABC analysis In production operations which have a very large product spectrum, it
will not be possible to record all products. A better method, other than
statistical is to take into account particularly "important" products. This
can be determined by means of ABC analysis, which is an economics
procedure.
Products are sorted according to a criteria, e.g. according to profit
achieved. Products with the highest profits are listed on the left and
those with the lowest on the right. This scale of product order is repre-
sented graphically, in that the profit of each article is added to the profit
calculated thus far. If the same profit applies for each product, this will
result in a straight line.
However, in practice, the line is characteristically curved, which indicates
that, for instance, with 20% of products. 80% of profit is already being
achieved. This 20% of products represents the "important" ones and
must be taken into account particularly when planning the material flow.
Fig. 2.3:
Selection of representative
products by means of ABC
analysis
Once the extent of material flow has been established on all conveying
distances, the structural representation can be entered, in that either the
numbers are entered on the connection line or the lines drawn in corre-
sponding width or number.
For quantitative material flow, a matrix form is also frequently used. A Matrix representation
material flow matrix is a square arrangement of cells. The equipment is
entered on the lefthand side and upper edge. For the sake of simplicity,
the numbers 1 to 6 are used in this example.
The lines (legend left) mean the starting point, the columns (legend top),
the destination points of the conveying distance. The incidence of trans-
port is entered in the cells. We shall use the following example, which
has already been used in the structural representation:
Conveying distance of section A: 1®3®5®6 100 pieces
Conveying distance of section B: 1 ® 4 ® 2 ® 4 ® 6 50 pieces
Conveying distance of section C: 1®2®3®4 150 pieces
Fig. 2.4: to 1 2 3 4 5 6
Material flow matrix
from
1 A: 100
B: 50
C:150
2
B: 50
C: 150
3 A: 100
C: 50
4
B: 50 B: 50
5 A: 100
Fig. 2.5:
Optimisation of material
flow according to intuitive
process (left: initial situa-
tion, right: result).
The equipment is then entered in the factory building plans taking into
account their size and the space available.
In the triangular method, the building plan is covered with a triangulation Triangular method
system. Each node is a possible location for equipment.
The material flow matrix is used in triangular form (i.e. the total of out-
ward and return travel is entered in a matrix element. The matrix ele-
ment with the highest number determines the two devices with the most
intensive exchange of material. These are placed at two neighbouring
nodes. For all remaining equipment, the total of the matrix elements in
relation to the two already placed devices is calculated. The one with the
highest total is positioned directly near the first two, thus completing a
triangle. This same procedure is followed until all the equipment has
been placed.
2.2 Handling
Fig. 2.6:
Typical motion sequence of
pick-and-place robot
Fig. 2.7:
Overlapping control of mo-
tion from fig. 2.6, plus dis-
placement-time diagram
Electromagnetic Magnetic grippers are used to grip soft-magnetic workpieces with the
grippers help of electromagnets. Critical is the permanent magnetisation, which
cannot be entirely eliminated even in the case of soft-magnetic work-
pieces. In order to release a workpiece safely, magnetic grippers must
be briefly pressurised with a short pulse in reverse polarity or AC volt-
age.
Modular system When examining simple handling tasks, it is possible to detect a basic
similarity time and again. The obvious answer is therefore for industry to
offer modular systems. Individual modules are available in various sizes
and of different functionality whereby it is possible, for instance, to use
arms of different length or to chose between a vacuum and pincer grip-
per.
Freely programmable Freely programmable handing devices differ from fixed-programmed
handling devices handling devices as far as two characteristics are concerned:
§ The control of the axes permits not only the approaching of a few
end positions, but also a targeted approach of any number of inter-
mediate positions, whereby any point within the range of the han-
dling device can be reached.
§ The motion sequence is not hard-wired, but stored in the main
memory of the control computer. In this way, the motion sequence
can be changed without mechanical intervention. In flexible produc-
tion cells or transfer lines, where different workpieces need to be
handled by identical handling devices, it is even possible to switch
the control computer between several prepared motion sequences.
Industrial robots Freely programmable handling devices with a greater number of axes
(depending on delimitation, five or six) are known as industrial robots.
Similar to pick-and-place robots, industrial robots require three axes to
transport a workpiece to a given point, the so-called main axes or arm
axes. However, a further three axes are required in order to swivel the
workpiece in the required direction, i.e. the hand joint axes. In practice,
hand joint axes are always rotational axes. Robots are categorised into
types, depending on how the main axes are divided into translatory and
rotational movements.
Chapter 3
These five methods will be introduced below and described in detail us-
ing practical examples.
Fig. 3.1:
Circuit diagram
24V
S1
(I)
H1
(O)
0V
Push button S1 acts as signal input, the lamp forms the output. The ac-
tual status can be recorded in a truth table:
I O Fig. 3.2:
Truth table
0 1
1 0
Fig. 3.3:
NOT function
I 1 O
Fig. 3.4:
2 logic NOT functions
I=I
I 1 I 1 I
If two normally-open contacts are switched in series, the actuated lamp Conjunction
s illuminated only if both push buttons are actuated. (AND-function)
Fig. 3.5:
Circuit diagram
24V
S1
(I1)
S2
(I2)
H1
(O)
0V
I1 I2 O Fig. 3.6:
Truth table
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
The truth table assigns the conjunction. The output assumes 1 only if
both input 1 and input 2 produce a "1"-signal. This is referred to as an
AND operation, which is represented as follows as an equation:
I1 Ù I2 = O
Fig. 3.7:
AND function
I1 &
O
I2
aÙ0 = 0
aÙ1= a
aÙa = 0
aÙa = a
Disjunction Another basic logic function is OR. If the 2 normally-open contacts are
(OR-Function) switched in parallel, then the lamp is illuminated whenever a least one
push button is pressed.
Fig. 3.8:
Circuit diagram
24V
S1 S2
(I1) (I2)
H1
(O)
0V
I1 I2 O Fig. 3.9:
Truth table
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 1
Fig. 3.10:
OR function
I1 >=1
O
I2
I1 Ú I2 = O
bÚ 0 = b
bÚ1= 1
bÚ b = b
bÚ b = 1
Name Equation Truth table log. symbols pneumatic realisation electr. realisation electron. realisation
+
I
I O I O
I
Identity I=A 0 0 I 1 O O
1 1
R
O
I
I O I O R
Negation I=O 0 1 I 1 O
1 0 O
I
O
I1
I1 I2 O R
0 0 0 I1
Conjunction I1 I2 = O & O
>
I2
0 1 0 I2
I1 I2 I1 O
1 0 0
1 1 1
O I2
I1 O
O
I1 I2 I2
I1 I2 O
0 0 0 I1 >=1
Disjunction I1 I2 = O O
>
0 1 1 I2
I1 I2
1 0 1 R
1 1 1
O
Name Equation Truth table log. symbol pneumatic realisation electr. realisation electron. realisation
O
I1 I1
I1 I2 O
0 0 0 I1
Antivalence I1
> >
I2 1 O I1 I2
>
0 1 1 I2 I2
(exclusive I1 I2 = O I2 O
1 0 1
OR) 1 1 0
I1 I2 O
I1
I1 I2 O I1
0 0 1 I1
Equivalence I1 I2 = O
> >
I1 I2
>
I2
0 1 0 I2
I1 I2 = O 1 0 0 I2 O
1 1 1
I1 I2 O
O
R R
I1 K1
I1 I2 O
I1 O
0 0 1 I1
>
NAND I1 I2 = O & O I2
0 1 1 I2
1 0 1 I1 I2 I2
1 1 0 K1 O
O I1 I2 K1 R
I1 I2 O
I1 O
0 0 1 I1
>
NOR I1 I2 = O >=1 O
0 1 0 I2
1 0 0 I1 I2 I2
1 1 0 K1 O
R
Fig. 3.13:
Sorting station
1.0
B4
B3
B1
B2
Parts with the following hole patterns are for the ’Standard’ kitchen type.
These parts are to be advanced via the double-acting cylinder 1.0.
Fig. 3.14:
Hole pattern of parts
a
d b d d
a c a a c
d b d b d
a b c d y Fig. 3.15:
Truth table
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1
Two options are available in order to derive the logic equation from this
table, which lead to two different expressions. The same result is ob-
tained, of course, since the same circumstances are described.
(a Ù b Ù c Ù d) Ú (a Ù b Ù c Ù d) Ú (a Ù b Ù c Ù d) Ú
y=
(a Ù b Ù c Ù d) Ú (a Ù b Ù c Ù d) Ú (a Ù b Ù c Ù d)
(a Ú b Ú c Ú d) Ù (a Ú b Ú c Ú d) Ù (a Ú b Ú c Ú d) Ù
(a Ú b Ú c Ú d) Ù (a Ú b Ú c Ú d) Ù (a Ú b Ú c Ú d) Ù
Y=
(a Ú b Ú c Ú d) Ù (a Ú b Ú c Ú d) Ù
(a Ú b Ú c Ú d) Ù (a Ú b Ú c Ú d)
(a Ù b Ù c Ù d) Ú (a Ù b Ù c Ù d) Ú (a Ù b Ù c Ù d) Ú
Y=
(a Ù b Ù c Ù d) Ú (a Ù b Ù c Ù d) Ú (a Ù b Ù c Ù d)
aÚ 0 = a aÙ 0 = 0
aÚ1= 1 aÙ 1= a
aÚ a = a aÙ a = a
aÚ a = 1 aÙ a = 0
Commutative law
aÚb=bÚa aÙb=bÙa
Associative law
a Ú b Ú c = a Ú (b Ú c) = (a Ú b) Ú c
a Ù b Ù c = a Ù (b Ù c) = (a Ù b) Ù c
Distributive law
a Ù (b Ú c) = (a Ù b) Ú (a Ù c)
a Ú (b Ù c) = (a Ú b) Ù (a Ú c)
De Morgan’s rule
aÚ b = aÙ b aÙ b = aÚ b
= cd Ú ad
For reasons of clarity, the AND-operation symbol "Ù" has been omitted
in the individual expressions.
The basic principle of simplification is in the factoring out of variables
and reducing to defined expressions. However, this method does re-
quire a sound knowledge of Boolean algorithms plus a certain amount of
practice. Another option for simplification will be introduced in the fol-
lowing section.
Fig. 3.17:
Value table
The results of the value table are transferred to the KV diagram accord-
ing to the diagram shown below. In principle, representation is again
possible in conjunctive or disjunctive standard form. The following, how-
ever, will be limited to the disjunctive standard form.
Fig. 3.18:
Value table
The next step consists of combining the statuses, for which "1" has
been entered in the value table. This is done in blocks whilst observing
the following rules:
§ The combining statuses in the KV diagram must be in the form of a
rectangle or square
x
§ The number of combining statuses must be a result of function 2 .
Fig. 3.19:
Value table
The variable values are selected for the established block and these in
turn combined disjunctively.
y1 = cd
y2 = acd
y = cd Ù acd
y = (c Ú ac) Ù d
y = (c Ú a) Ù d
y = cd Ú ad
Purpose of the The function diagram is intended to facilitate the planning, design and
function diagram: development of control systems for machines and production lines. It is
not dependent on the type of control system or technology used.
The function diagram can also be used as a faultfinding aid in the event
of malfunctions. The principles of representation and symbols should be
identical in all cases to permit diagrams from a variety of international
sources to be read and understood without risk of confusion. The sim-
plest form of representation that clearly describes the process is often
sufficient.
Areas of application of Function diagrams are used for the representation of function se-
the function diagram: quences in mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, electrical and electronic
control systems, as well as for combinations thereof such as electro-
pneumatic or electro-hydraulic systems.
Fig. 3.20:
Displacement-step diagram
Fig. 3.21:
Displacement-time diagram
Fig. 3.22:
Example using
displacement-step diagram
Fig. 3.23:
Example using displacement-time diagram
Fig. 3.24
Fig. 3.25:
Example of a
function diagram
Fig. 3.26
Fig. 3.27:
Function chart
for a test process
0 N Initial position
Timer expired
Lifting cylinder up
3 L Defining thickness t = 1 s
Timer expired
Steps
A function chart is structured by means of steps. These are represented
by blocks and identified with the respective step number.
The output status of the controller is identified by the initial step.
Each step is assigned actions (commands) containing the actual execu-
tion parts of the controller.
Fig. 3.28:
Elements of function chart
Initial step 1
directed connections
Transition
Step 2
Action
Transitions
A transition is a link from one step to the next. The logic transition con-
dition associated with the transition is represented next to the horizontal
line across the transition. If the condition is met, the transition to the next
step takes place and this is then processed by the controller.
Sequence structures
Three basic forms of sequence structure may be created by means of
combining the step and transition elements:
§ Linear sequence
§ Sequence branch (alternative branch)
§ Sequence splitting (parallel branch)
Steps and enabling conditions must always alternate irrespective of the
form of the sequence structure. Sequence structures are processed
from top to bottom.
In a linear sequence, only one transition follows a step and one step
each transition. Fig. 3.27 illustrates an example of a linear sequence.
Fig. 3.29:
Alternative branch
2
d g
3 5
e h
4
Fig. 3.30:
Parallel branch
2
3 5
e f
4 6
g
7
Action
Each step contains actions, the actual execution parts of the controller.
The action itself (fig. 3.31) is divided into three fields, whereby fields a
and c should only be represented if necessary.
Fig. 3.31:
Action a b c
The table contains the symbols defined in DIN 40 719, P.6 or IEC 848
used to describe the order of execution of the actions..
S Stored Tab.:
Mode of actions
N Not stored
D Delayed
F Enabled
L Limited
P Pulse-shaped
C Conditional
Step refinement
As shown in fig. B15.6, each step may itself contain sequence struc-
tures. This facility is supported by the step-by-step refinement of a solu-
tion in the sense of a top-down design.
Fig. 3.32:
Step refinement
2.1 N Filling magazine
2 Part ejected
Release part
2.3 S Grip part
S Gripper to position 2
Part released
3.4.3 Example
The Petri net method will be applied to the production of valves in the
following example.
Fig. 3.33:
Initial state Petri net model of
the production of
pneumatic valves
Start
Install valve
Fold carton slide VS VB removed from
processing center
VB machined and
VS assembled
Install VS in VB
Transport to station 3
Transport to station 4
and folded box available
VB – valve body
VS – valve slide Quality control and packing
Fig. 3.34:
Step-by-step refinement of Petri nets
Fig. 3.35
Fig. 3.36
Program conversion
The direct conversion of automation system models to programs in
CASE environments is not possible yet. Petri net elements have been
introduced as actual programming language elements with the publica-
tion of IEC 1131 Part 3 for the programming of automated systems. A
number of manufacturers of process control computers and major con-
trol systems are currently developing systems that comply with this
standard and which will permit a systematic, structured approach using
hierarchical models. The implementation of Petri nets using common
high-level languages is also no problem, however.
In the past it was a common goal to integrate all required functions into
a single machine. Today, however, the trend is toward a modular ap-
proach with regard to machine functions. This is particularly useful in the
event of faults, as it simplifies their localisation. The machine or line also
becomes, in effect, an open system that is easier to expand or modify
as needed. From the control technology vantage point, this means a
change from large PLC systems with many electrical inputs and outputs
and complex programs toward several smaller control systems with sim-
pler programs. To ensure that these modules function as a complete
system, logical associations must be created with regard to their proc-
ess control and safety technology. The technical aspects of this com-
munication will be covered in Chapter 6. When planning automated
systems, the individual communication channels and signals must be
defined at an early stage, of course. This is done using communication
analysis. It uses symbols for the individual modules, with arrows mark-
ing the association and the direction of the signals between the symbols.
Fig. 3.37
The following example will clarify this: A system consists of four mod-
ules. The purpose of this system is to check the height of workpieces
and recognise their color, drill the workpieces and check the drilled hole.
Module 1 separates the workpieces coming from a gravity-feed maga-
zine; Module 2 checks their height and determines their color. Module 3
takes care of the drilling and quality control of the drilled hole. Finally,
Module 4 sorts the workpieces according to their colors and places them
in the appropriate gravity-feed magazines. A communications analysis
between these 4 stations therefore could look like this:
Communication analysis
Storage Machining
station E65.0 (Free from 3) A64.0 (Turning complete) station
E65.1 (Red) A64.1 (Red) Testing
E65.2 (Black) A64.2 (Black) MW5
A64.3 (Aluminum) Clocking of
E65.4 (Thickness) A64.4 (Thickness) Removal Drilling information
E65.5 (Drill hole) A64.5 (Drill hole) AB64 MW4 when turning
E65.7 (Communication A64.7 (Communication complete
from 3) to 4) Holder
MW3
from 4)
Distribution to 2) from 1)
Inspection
A64.7 (Communication to 3)
M3.4 – A64.4 Information “thickness”
M3.3 – A64.3 Information “aluminum”
M3.2 – A64.2 Information "black”
M3.1 – A64.1 Information "red”
station station
3B6 3B6 6
Release S Set Free from 4
to 3
7 Extend 3.1A (drill feed on) 3B2 8
Drill S Continue
3B6
9
S Extend 3.2A
Inspect (Extend inspection cylinder) 3B4
S Start inspection time (1s)
3B3 3B3
3B4 3B4
10 Retract 3.2A 11 Retract 3.2A
Drilled S (Retract inspection cylinder) 3B3 Drilled S (Retract inspection cylinder) 3B3
hole ok hole ok
S Set info "drilled hole OK” M5.5 S Set info "drilled hole OK” M5.5
3B3
12
Retract S Retract 3.1A (drill feed off) 3B1
drill
3B1
13
Drill S 3K1 off (drill motor off)
off
A1
Chapter 4
Commissioning of complex
automated systems
Once the assembly and installation of the machine is finished, the media
(pneumatics, hydraulics, electrical power and data networks) connected
and the PLC program developed, the final phase of the development of
a production system can begin – commissioning. This generally in-
volves the following steps:
1. Getting to know the system's functions
2. Testing and performing the fine adjustment of the pneu-
matic/mechanical or hydraulic/mechanical drives
3. Checking the electrical connections between the sensors and the
PLC and calibrating as required
4. Testing the EMERGENCY STOP function
5. Forcing the PLC outputs and checking the connections between the
output card and the electrical drives or solenoid valves and perform-
ing any required fine adjustment
6. Loading the program
7. Testing all program functions and operating modes
8. Complete parameterisation
9. Documentation
Of course, Item 1 can be skipped if the engineer commissioning the
system is already familiar with it and its functions. If the commissioning
is to be performed by others, however, it is absolutely essential that they
are informed about the machine's intended sequence of operation and
functions.
Due to the high power of the pneumatic and hydraulic drives, this phase
of commissioning involves a high risk of accidents. Always ensure that
all involved persons stay clear of the range of travel of the cylinders.
Also remove tools and other materials from the machine before testing.
We recommend performing the following steps in the order listed here.
1. Ensure that the complete system is depressurised.
2. Ensure that all power components are in their initial positions.
3. Check whether the valve bodies of all impulse valves are in the po-
sitions specified. If necessary, reverse them with the manual over-
ride.
4. Close all of the flow control valves that control the working speed of
the cylinders.
5. Slowly increase the air for the cylinders and valves, either by manu-
ally actuating the pressure regulator or using an automatic safety
start-up valve.
6. Slowly open the flow control valves.
7. Test the functions of the individual cylinders and drives without a
workpiece using the manual overrides.
8. At the same time, ensure that the mechanical limit switches are se-
curely installed and work reliably.
9. Test the functions of the individual cylinders and drives with a work-
piece.
10. Check that the specified power levels and speeds are being attained
and adjust as required.
The next step ensures that the signals of the sensors and switches
reach the central control unit of the PLC and that the signals address
the correct inputs.
All PLC software has a mode or function which allows the individual in-
put bits to be displayed with their current status. So, for this step, con-
nect your PC or PLC programmer to the PLC and call up this mode or
function.
The allocation list can now be used to check whether the individual sen-
sor signals are actually reaching the central control unit and arriving at
the correct input.
After the EMERGENCY STOP function has been tested, the must im-
portant precondition for the forcing of the outputs is fulfilled. Under cer-
tain circumstances, forcing may involve controlling great forces within
the machine at the simple touch of a button. At the same time, the rele-
vant safety interlocks will not be active as the PLC program is not
loaded. The danger of accidents and collisions is very high as a result,
and the only possible way to interrupt a command after it has been ac-
knowledged is the use of the EMERGENCY STOP button. One person
should always be near the EMERGENCY STOP button to shut off the
machine without delay if necessary.
The actual setting of the outputs themselves is performed using the PLC
programmer or the PC in the same software mode or function as men-
tioned in section 4.2 when checking the inputs. The outputs can be
turned on and off at will.
Next, use the allocation list to check whether the relevant PLC output is
transmitting its signal to the specified actuator. Open or inadvertently
swapped connections can be detected very quickly using this process.
Once you have completed these steps, it will be safe to assume that
there are no further faults in your hardware. Malfunctions occurring dur-
ing the remainder of the commissioning process can thus be localised
as software faults.
Once the program sequence has passed its tests, continue with the fine
adjustment of the machine parameters. This includes adjusting speeds
and power levels, fine adjustment of the recording and output of analog
values, correct user interface output and error display, and the transfer
of data to upstream and downstream process steps, as well as higher-
order networks.
4.8 Documentation
Chapter 5
Maintenance
5.1 Introduction
Fig. 5.1:
Areas of maintenance
More specifically, maintenance can be divided into three areas (fig. 5.1):
§ Service
§ Inspection
§ Repairs.
5.3 Service
Fig. 5.2:
Service
5.4 Inspection
The wear and tear of components cannot always be detected with the
naked eye. It is therefore important, particularly with regard to safety
components to check the functioning and condition of certain compo-
nents at fixed intervals. Manufacturers of components or systems gen-
erally specify the time intervals for inspection.
Inspection covers all measures required to establish and evaluate the
actual state of a technical installation. These include:
§ the drawing up of an inspection schedule, which must be geared to
the particular aspects of the operation and system and must be
mandatory,
§ the preparation of the implementation,
§ the implementation,
§ the submission of the result of the actual state detected,
§ the evaluation of the results and
§ the conclusion of the required consequences (DIN 31051).
Fig. 5.4:
Inspection
5.5 Repairs
Fig. 5.5:
Repairs
Planned repairs, for instance, are carried out after an inspection. Com-
ponents that were found to be faulty or worn during the inspection are
either repaired or replaced. In this way, the required status of the sys-
tem is maintained.
In the event of an inadvertent interruption, repairs are to be carried out Systematic repairs
according to the following plan. in the event of
malfunction
Fig. 5.6:
Systematic repairs
The basic prerequisite for systematic repairs and faultfinding is knowl- Prerequisite for
edge of the system. This means that only when you have become fa- systematic repairs
miliarised with the system and know how it is structured, is it possible to
carry out targeted repairs.
Familiarisation with the system by:
§ closely observing the installation.
§ making available the entire system documentation.
§ knowing the product and the processing technology.
§ exchanging information with the user or operator.
A detailed explanation of systematic faultfinding on technical systems
can be found in the chapter on faultfinding, together with some practical
exercises on this subject.
When a fault has been found, it is not sufficient just to rectify this but, in
addition, the cause of the problem must be established. A useful aid for
this is a fault list, which should be kept on the installation. This list de-
scribes the faults and their causes. It may take different forms, such as
in the example below:
This list may be useful in finding recurring faults and their causes. The
fault index* enables you to easily establish the nature of the fault.
A = Faulty working practice
(e.g. a retaining screw has not be properly tightened
on an assembly component)
M = Mechanical fault
(e.g. sensors are maladjusted)
E = Electrical fault
(e.g. relay is not energised or solenoid does not switch)
S = Control error
(e.g. program or program part is not activated)
L = Leakage fault
(e.g. air escaping from a threaded joint)
B = Operator error
(e.g. shut-off valve not closed)
W = Service error
(e.g. filter not cleaned)
The machine malfunctions list can form the basis for a systematic
analysis of faults which have occurred. A useful tool for this is for in-
stance the Possible Fault Influence Analysis method, (PFIA). The
original concept of this method was to identify beforehand potential er-
rors at the production planning stage and to provide appropriate meas-
ures to eliminate faults.
However, the PFIA method can also be used for the systematic analysis
and evaluation of errors which have already occurred and have been
logged in the malfunctions list.
The objective of PFIA is to establish those faults which occur frequently
or which are particularly serious on the basis of an evaluation of the sum
total, whereby solutions can then be found for these faults.
All potential faults are listed on a form and their frequency, significance
and detection evaluated using a figure between 1 and 10.
Multiplication of the three figures provides a risk priority figure (RPF) for
each fault. Means of eliminating faults are discussed and introduced for
all faults with a significant risk priority figure (e.g. >100).
Fault elimination measures of this type can for instance include design
modifications of the system or changes in the service schedule (e.g. a
component is to be regularly replaced as a preventive measure).
PFIA example:
Prevention
Frequency
Sequence
Cons. No.
Measures
Detection
Detection
Signifi-
Cause
cance
Fault
RPF
1 wrong much mix-up better des- after 2 8 9 144 new
material shorter ignation assembly designation
service life as a result label
of destruc-
tive test
2
Frequency
Sequence
Cons. No.
Measures
Detection
Detection
Signifi-
Cause
cance
Fault
RPF
1 vacuum vacuum excessive workpieces regular daily cleaning of suction filter (->
suction filter generator contamina- are no Extending the service schedule)
blocked inoperative tion of longer
workpieces transported or
cleaning the workpieces prior to trans-
port to distribution station
(-> changing the production sequence)
2
Problem definition
A machine malfunctions list drawn up for the MPS distribution station is
to be examined for systematic faults.
A PFIA protocol is to be created for the most frequently occurring faults
and a solution to the problem worked out.
Marginal conditions
A simplified PFIA method (without evaluation of fault) is to be used.
Task
1. Join a group, in which you would like to carry out the exercise!
2. Carry out the PFIA analysis for a fault with the help of the machine
malfunctions list!
3. Discuss the possible fault solution strategies!
4. Present your results to the whole group!
Worksheets
The following worksheets consist of:
§ the exercise sheet
§ the prepared machine malfunctions list
§ a form to log the PFIA.
Fault index*:
M= Mechanical fault
E= Electrical fault
P= Pneumatic fault
Chapter 6
Faultfinding
Fig. 6.1
Mechanical design
§ Structure and support unit
§ Function units
§ Adjustment
Drive technology
§ Electrical system
§ Hydraulics
§ Pneumatics
§ Mechanical system
Control system
§ Electrical relay control
§ Programmable logic controller
Signal generator
§ Binary sensors
§ Analogue sensors
§ Digital sensors
Power supply
§ Electrical
§ Hydraulic
§ Pneumatic
6.1.2 Procedure
The first thing that must be done in the event of an error signal is to es-
tablish the actual status. The following options are available for this:
§ Discussing the fault with the user (Does the system operate incor-
rectly?)
§ Start failure
§ Stopping during process step
§ Faulty process
§ Incorrect working practice
Fig. 6.2
6.2 Faultfinding
The actual faultfinding starts once the actual status has been estab-
lished and compared with the required status. This comparison fre-
quently leads to the discovery of the error source, if the fault is
§ visible (e.g. mechanical damage to a signal generator),
§ audible (e.g. leakage on a valve),
§ detectable by smell (e.g. cable burnt out)
If this is not the case, the fault can only be found and eliminated by
means of a systematic procedure.
Fig. 6.3
This list can be useful in detecting frequently recurring faults and their
causes. The fault index makes it easier to establish the nature of the
error.
A= Incorrect working practice
(e.g. a retaining screw is not properly tightened on an assembly
part)
M= Mechanical fault
(e.g. sensors are maladjusted)
E= Electrical fault
(e.g. relay is not energised or solenoid does not switch)
S= Controller error
(e.g. program or program part is not activated)
L= Leakage fault
(e.g. air escaping from threaded connection)
B= Operator error
(e.g. shut-off valve not closed)
W= Service error
(e.g. filter not cleaned)
Example:
Fig. 6.4
Faultfinding with power switched off is only feasible for faults that are Conclusion
immediately obvious. It is important to switch off the power during repair
work, however, as this involves manual intervention in the system. In
hydraulic systems, switching the pump off and emptying the accumula-
tor is mandatory.
Example: A workpiece is ejected by a pneumatic cylinder and jams me-
chanically.
Exhaust air restrictors are no longer effective and the cylinder will Caution
"shoot" forward when the mechanical lockup is cleared. Due to the dan-
ger of accidents, the power must be switched off during all mechanical
lockups!
· Switch off the power if personnel or equipment are not endangered,
by suspended loads, for example!
· Switch off the power in the event of fires or leaks!
· Switch off the power if the fault can be identified immediately!
· Switch off the power when repairing machines or lines!
Caution Danger!
Disconnecting hoses in the control section may lead to cylinder move-
ments.
One option for checking power valves is to test the valve functions using
the manual override.
Danger! Caution
Uncontrolled use of the manual override can lead to uncontrolled cylin-
der movements!
The following rules must be observed when using the manual override:
1. The action that will be triggered by the override must be known
2. Reduce the system pressure.
3. Lock outputs on the valve as required.
· If the flow control valves or restrictors require checking, please ob- Faults in the speed
serve the drive carefully while changing the setting. If no change oc- control system and
curs, restore the original setting. drive
· Manual work on the power section of a line may only be performed
while the system is depressurised.
Chapter 1
Safety recommendations
Regulations The following safety regulations apply for the field of hydraulics:
and standards
§ accident prevention regulations, directives, safety rules and the
testing guidelines of the employers‘ liability insurance associations,
§ regulations on pressure vessels, pressurised gas vessels and filling
systems (pressure vessel regulations),
§ DIN standards, VDI directives, VDMA standard sheets and technical
rules for pressure vessels, containing in particular, notes and regu-
lations on dimensions, design, calculations, materials and permis-
sible loads as well as stipulations on functions and requirements.
Electro-hydraulic systems must comply not only with the regulations on
hydraulic systems but also with the regulations on electrical systems and
components (e.g. DIN VDE 0100).
§ Do not operate systems or actuate switches if you are not totally Start-up of an electro-
sure what function they perform. hydraulic system
§ All setting values must be known.
§ Do not switch on the power supply until all lines are connected.
Important:
Check that all return lines (leakage lines) lead to the tank.
§ When starting up the system for the first time, open the system
pressure relief valve almost completely and gradually set the system
to the operating pressure. Pressure relief valves must be installed in
such a way that they cannot become ineffective.
§ Carefully clean the system prior to start-up, then change the filter
cartridge.
§ Vent system and cylinders.
§ In particular, the hydraulic lines to the reservoir are to be carefully
vented. It is generally possible to effect venting at the safety and
shut-off block of the reservoir.
§ Special care is needed when handling hydraulic reservoirs. Before
the reservoirs are started up, the regulations stipulated by the ma-
nufacturer are to be studied carefully.
Repair and § Repair work may not be effected on hydraulic systems until the fluid
maintenance of an pressure of the reservoir has been vented. If possible, separate the
electro-hydraulic reservoir from the system (using a valve). Never drain the reservoir
system unthrottled! Installation and operation are governed by the Technical
Rules for Pressure Vessels (TRB).
§ When repairs are completed effect a new start-up in line with the
safety regulations listed above.
§ All hydraulic reservoirs are subject to the provisions of the pressure
vessel regulations and must be inspected at regular intervals.
Fig. 1.1:
Hazard zones with
alternating current
(50/60Hz)
Fig. 1.2:
Hazard zones with direct
current
Internal resistance of In line with Ohm‘s law, the flow of current and thus the risk to human
the human body safety is greater:
§ the higher the voltage
§ and the lower the internal resistance of the person concerned.
When electrical current flows through the body to earth, 1300 W is given
as an approximate figure for the internal resistance of the body.
There is serious risk to life and limb from currents of 50 mA upwards.
Taking into account the internal resistance, this is equivalent to a con-
tact voltage of
50 mA · 1300 W = 65 V.
Protective measures The supply voltage in the signal control section of electro-hydraulic sys-
in the signal control tems is normally 24 V, and thus way below the critical contact voltage of
section 65 V. The mains voltage is stepped down in the power supply unit by an
isolating transformer.
Fig. 1.3:
Isolating transformer
Protection against coming into contact with live parts is essential (and Protection against
stipulated) for both low and high voltages. This protection can take the direct contact
form of
§ insulation,
§ covering devices or
§ keeping at a safe distance.
Fig. 1.4:
Protection through
insulation
Fig. 1.5:
Protection through covers
L1
L2
L3
PEN
Overload protection In contrast to the signal control section, the hydraulic assembly is gene-
devices rally operated at higher voltages. The measures for protection against
direct contact also apply here. In addition, components situated in areas
where they may be touched by personnel (e.g. housings) are earthed. If,
for example, a housing becomes live, this leads to a short circuit and the
upstream overload protection devices are activated. The layout of these
circuits and the response characteristics of the overload protection devi-
ces can differ considerably. The following devices are used:
§ fusible links,
§ circuit-breakers,
§ residual current operated circuit-breakers,
§ residual voltage operated circuit-breakers.
Fig. 1.6:
Protection through
keeping a safe distance
In the event of danger, it must be possible to shut down a machine im- EMERGENCY STOP
mediately via an EMERGENCY STOP switch to separate all equipment switch
from the mains supply. The following regulations apply to the
EMERGENCY STOP circuit:
1. Necessary lighting must not be switched off using the EMERGENCY
STOP function.
2. Clamped workpieces must not be released by actuation of the
EMERGENCY STOP function.
3. Auxiliary and braking devices designed to peform functions such as
rapid shutdown of the machine must not be rendered ineffective.
4. Return movements must be initiated by actuation of the
EMERGENCY STOP function if this is necessary. They may, howe-
ver, only be initiated if this does not pose a risk to personnel.
5. The identification colour of the EMERGENCY STOP switch is bright
red; the area below the manual actuating element must be in the
contrasting colour yellow.
Further requirements for the EMERGENCY STOP circuit in electrical
and hydraulic systems are contained in DIN 31000.
In addition, each machine must be equipped with a master switch via Master switch
which the entire electrical equipment can be switched off for the duration
of cleaning, maintenance and repair work and during lengthy down-
times.
1. The master switch must be manually operated and may have only
one Off and On position with stops identified by 0 and 1.
2. In the Off position it should be possible to lock the switch in such a
way that manual and remote switch-on are prevented.
3. If there are several feed sources, it must be possible to interlock the
master switches in such a way that there is no risk or danger.
Chapter 2
Fundamentals of
electrical engineering
Fig. 2.1:
Current strength over time
2.2 DC circuit
Fig. 2.2:
DC circuit
If the switch contact in the above circuit is closed, a current I flows via Technical direction
the consumer. The electrons travel from the negative terminal to the of current
positive terminal of the voltage source. Before scientists became aware
of the existence of electrons, the current direction was described as
from "plus" to "minus". This definition is still valid today – it is termed the
technical direction of current.
Every material puts up a certain level of resistance to electrical current. Electrical conductor
This resistance depends on, among other things, the atomic density and
the number of free electrons. It is generated by the collision of the free
mobile electrons with the atoms of the conductor material and the
restriction of movement of the electrons caused by these collisions. In
the field of control technology, copper is the most frequently used con-
ductor material. The electrical resistance of copper is particularly low.
Source voltage At the negative terminal of a voltage source there is an electron surplus,
while at the positive terminal there is a shortage of electrons. This re-
sults in a difference in electron assignment between the two terminals.
This condition is known as source voltage.
Electrical resistance Every material puts up a certain level of resistance to electrical current.
This resistance depends on, among other things, the atomic density and
the number of free electrons. It is generated by the collision of the free
mobile electrons with the atoms of the conductor material and the
restriction of movement of the electrons caused by these collisions. In
the field of control technology, copper is the most frequently used con-
ductor material. The electrical resistance of copper is particularly low.
Ohm‘s law The relationship between voltage, current strength and resistance is
described by Ohm‘s law. Ohm‘s law states that in a circuit with constant
resistance the current strength changes in proportion to the change in
voltage:
§ if the voltage increases, the current strength also increases.
§ if the voltage falls, the current strength also decreases.
In the field of mechanical engineering, power can be defined in terms of Electrical power
the work performed. The faster a task is performed, the greater the re-
quired power. Power therefore means work per unit of time.
In the case of a consuming device in a circuit, electrical energy is con-
verted into kinetic energy (e.g. electrical motor), light radiation (e.g. e-
lectrical lamp) or thermal energy (e.g. electrical heater, electrical lamp).
The faster the energy is converted, the greater the electrical power. In
this case, therefore, power means converted energy per unit of time. It
increases with increasing current and increasing voltage.
Rectifier Various diode circuit arrangements can be used for rectification. The
most important circuit is the bridge or Graetz circuit. For the supply of
current to electronic controls (PLCs) or if sensors are used, the direct
voltage supplied by the rectifier must be smoothed using a charge ca-
pacitor and, if necessary, downstream filters (chokes or filter resistors).
Fig. 2.3:
Bridge rectifier circuit
with charge capacitor
2.3 Electromagnetism
Fig. 2.4:
Illustration of an
electrical coil
To increase the magnetic field, the conductor through which the current
flows is wound in the form of a coil. If the field lines are then superimpo-
sed on the coil windings, the main direction of the magnetic field can be
established. If the coil possesses an iron core, the iron is also magneti-
sed. This makes it possible to generate considerably greater magnetic
fields than can be achieved using an air-core coil with the same amount
of current.
Inductive resistance If an alternating voltage is applied to a coil, the current – and thus also
with alternating voltage the magnetic field – is constantly increased and decreased. The change
in the magnetic field induces a current in the coil. The induced current
counteracts the current generated by the magnetic field. The coil there-
fore puts up a resistance against the alternating current. This resistance
is called inductive resistance.
Inductive resistance In the case of direct voltage, the voltage, the current and the magnetic
with direct voltage field only change upon switch-on. In this case, therefore, the inductive
resistance is only active at the time of switch-on.
The unit of inductance is the "Henry" (H):
Vs
1H = 1 = 1Ws
A
2.4 Capacitance
Fig. 2.5:
Schematic illustration
of a capacitor
1,5 0,15V
10 V 10V · = 0,15V · 100 = 1,66%
100 9V
1,5 1,5V
100 V 100V · = 1,5V · 100 = 16,6%
100 9V
The sample calculation shows clearly that the greater the deflection of
the needle, the more precise the measurement. In other words: the
measuring range selected on the measuring instrument should ensure
that the indication is in the latter third of the measuring scale.
Example 2.6:
Example of voltage
measurement
If current flows through a measuring instrument, there is a voltage drop Voltage measurement
via the measuring instrument. This affects all currents and voltages in
the circuit. The resulting measurement is therefore falsified not only by
the indicating error but also by the influence of the measuring instrument
on the circuit.
To measure electrical voltage, a suitable measuring instrument must be
connected parallel to the consuming device. To ensure that measuring
inaccuracies are kept to a minimum, only an extremely small current
may flow through the voltmeter. Otherwise, the current decreases due to
the consuming device, as does the voltage drop, and the measured
voltage is too small. For this reason, a voltmeter with a maximum pos-
sible resistance must be used. This resistance is also called the internal
resistance of the voltmeter.
Fig. 2.7:
Voltage measurement
Current measurement If the current in a circuit is to be measured, the entire current must be
able to flow through the measuring instrument. For this purpose, the
current measuring instrument (ammeter) is connected in series with the
consuming device. Every current measuring instrument possesses a
specific internal resistance. This additional resistance reduces the flow
of current. The measured current is therefore smaller than the current
which flows in the circuit when no measuring instrument is connected.
To keep the measuring error as small as possible, only current measu-
ring instruments with an extremely low internal resistance may be used.
Fig. 2.8:
Current measurement
Chapter 3
Electrical components
Safety note The components of the power supply unit form the power current sys-
tem (DIN VDE 0100) in an electrical circuit. The safety regulations for
power current systems must therefore be observed!
Fig. 3.1:
Modules of a
power supply unit
Normally-open In the normally-open version, the circuit is open when the push-button is
contact in the normal position; i.e. not pressed. The circuit is closed when the
control stem is actuated; current then flows to the consuming device.
When the control stem is released, the push-button is returned to its
original position by spring pressure, and the circuit is then interrupted.
Fig. 3.2:
Normally-open contact:
sectional view
and circuit symbol
Normally-closed In the normally-closed version, the circuit is closed when the push-
contact button is in normal position. The spring action ensures that the contacts
remain closed until the push-button is pressed. When the push-button is
pressed, the switching contact is opened against the spring pressure.
The flow of current to the consuming device is interrupted.
Fig. 3.3:
Normally-closed contact:
sectional view and circuit
symbol
The third variation is the changeover contact. These contacts combine Changeover contact
the functions of normally-closed and normally-open contacts in one unit.
Changeover contacts are used to close one circuit and simultaneously
open another. It should be noted, however, that both circuits are mo-
mentarily interrupted during changeover.
Fig. 3.4:
Changeover contact:
sectional view and circuit
symbol
3.3 Sensors
Sensors are used to record information about the status of a system and
to pass this information on to the control. In electro-hydraulic systems,
sensors are mainly used for the following tasks:
§ recording the proximity i.e. the position or the end position of drive
components,
§ measurement and monitoring of pressure and temperature of the
pressure fluid,
§ for material recognition.
Limit switch A mechanical limit switch is an electrical switch which is activated when
a machine part or a workpiece is in a certain position. Activation is gene-
rally effected by a cam activating a movable operating lever. Limit swit-
ches are normally equipped with changeover contacts capable of
performing closing, opening or changeover of circuits.
Plunger
(insulated) 1
Pressure switch Pressure switches are used as control or monitoring devices. They can
be used to open, close or change between circuits when a preset pres-
sure is reached. The supply pressure acts on a piston surface. The re-
sulting force acts against an adjustable spring pressure. If the pressure
is greater than the force of the spring, the piston is moved and actuates
the contact assembly.
In pressure switches with mechanically actuated contact assemblies, a
diaphragm, a bellows or a Bourdon spring can be used in place of the
helical spring.
Fig. 3.6:
Piston pressure switch:
sectional view
and circuit symbol
Proximity sensors Non-contacting proximity sensors differ from mechanically actuated limit
switches by virtue of the means of actuation, without external mechani-
cal actuating force. A distinction is made between the following groups
of proximity sensors:
§ magnetically activated proximity sensors (Reed switch),
§ inductive proximity sensors,
§ capacitive proximity sensors and
§ optical proximity sensors.
Reed switches Reed switches are magnetically actuated proximity switches. They con-
sist of two contact reeds housed in a glass tube filled with inert gas.
When the switch enters a magnetic field e.g. the magnet on a cylinder
piston, the reeds are closed and output an electrical signal. The opening
function of reed contacts can be achieved by pre-stressing the contact
reeds using small magnets. This initial stress is overcome by the consi-
derably stronger switching magnets.
Reed switches are characterised by the following properties:
§ long service life,
§ maintenance-free,
§ switching time = 0.2 ms,
§ limited response sensitivity,
§ unsuitable for areas with strong magnetic fields (e.g. resistance wel-
ding machines).
Fig. 3.7:
Reed switch,
normally-open contact
An inductive proximity sensor consists of an oscillating circuit (1), a trig- Inductive proximity
gering stage (2) and an amplifier (3). When a voltage is applied to the sensors
terminals, the oscillating circuit generates a high-frequency electro-
magnetic field which is emitted from the end face of the proximity sen-
sor. If a good electrical conductor is introduced into this oscillating
magnetic field, the oscillating circuit is dampened. The downstream trig-
gering stage evaluates the oscillating circuit signal and activates the
switching output via the amplifier.
Fig. 3.8:
Inductive proximity sensor
Capacitive proximity Capacitive proximity sensors measure the change in capacitance in the
sensors electrical field of a capacitor caused by the approach of an object. The
proximity sensor consists of an ohmic resistor, a capacitor (RC oscilla-
ting circuit) and an electronic circuit. An electrostatic field is built up in
the space between active electrode and earth electrode. If an object is
then introduced into this stray field, the capacitance of the capacitor
increases, thus detecting not only highly conductive materials, but also
all insulators which possess a high dielectric constant. Materials such as
plastics, glass, ceramics, liquids and wood, for example.
Fig. 3.9:
Capacitive proximity sensor
Fig. 3.10:
Through-beam sensor
Retro-reflective sensor In retro-reflective sensors, the transmitter and the receiver are mounted
side by side in a common housing. For the correct function of these
sensors, a reflector must be mounted in such a way that the light beam
emitted by the transmitter is more or less totally reflected onto the recei-
ver. Interruption of the light beam causes the sensor to switch.
Fig. 3.11:
Retro-reflective sensor
Diffuse sensor The transmitter and receiver of the diffuse sensor are mounted in a si-
milar way to that of the retro-reflective sensor. If the transmitter is aimed
at a reflecting object, the reflected light is absorbed by the receiver and
a switching signal is generated. The greater the reflection properties of
the object in question, the more reliably the object can be detected.
Fig. 3.12:
Diffuse sensor
Fig. 3.13:
Relay: sectional view
and circuit symbol
Application examples There are various types of relay; e.g. time-delay relays and counter re-
lays. Relays can be used for various regulating, control and monitoring
functions:
§ as interfaces between control circuits and load circuits,
§ for signal multiplication,
§ for separation of direct current and alternating current circuits,
§ for delaying, generating and converting signals and
§ for linking information.
Fig. 3.14:
Circuit symbols and termi-
nal designations of a relay
Contactors work on the same basic principle as relays. The typical fea- Contactor
tures of a contactor are:
§ double-break (2 break points per contact),
§ positive-action contacts and
§ closed arcing chambers (spark arresting chambers).
Fig. 3.15:
Relay
Fig. 3.16:
Stroke/force characteristic
of a DC solenoid
DC and AC solenoids There are solenoids for direct current or alternating current. AC sole-
noids for 230 V are used less and less frequently for reasons of safety
(dangerous touch voltage).
Arcing When a solenoid is switched off, the flow of current is interrupted. The
collapse of the magnetic field creates a voltage peak in the opposite
direction. A protective spark suppression circuit is essential to prevent
damage to the solenoids or the contacts.
Types DC solenoids are produced as wet or dry designs, whereas AC sole-
noids are always dry solenoids.
Wet solenoid In wet solenoids, the armature chamber of the solenoid contains
hydraulic oil, in which the solenoid switches. The housings of these so-
lenoids have to be seal-tight (towards the outside). The armature cham-
ber is connected to the tank port to prevent high pressures on the
solenoid. The advantages of this nowadays common type of solenoid
are:
§ absolute seal-tightness and low friction due to the absence of a dy-
namically stressed seal at the plunger,
§ greatly reduced corrosion inside the housing and
§ cushioning of switching operations.
Core
Emergency
manual override
The term "dry solenoid" means that the solenoid is isolated from the oil. Dry solenoid
The plunger is sealed off from the oil in the valve body by a seal. The-
refore, in addition to the spring force and the friction of the control gate,
the solenoid has to overcome the friction between plunger and seal.
Core
Emergency Seal
manual override
Magnet
Plug connector for When the valves are assembled the solenoid is screwed directly to the
solenoid valves valve body. This facilitates replacement in the event of malfunction.
(line sockets)) Three contacts (plug pins) protrude from the solenoid and it is via these
contacts that the solenoid coil is supplied with current. The spacing of
the plug-in contacts is laid down in DIN 43 650.
Fig. 3.19:
Solenoid with plug base
The line sockets are screwed onto these contacts using a captive chee-
se head screw. A fitted seal between solenoid base and line socket ser-
ves as protection against dust and water spray (protection type IP 65 to
DIN 40 050).
The housing dimensions of the line sockets vary from manufacturer to
manufacturer.
24V
24V
Terminal allocation The control cabinet is generally fitted with a distribution board via which
all input and output signals are routed. The electrical circuit diagrams
and the terminal allocation list are required for production, installation
and maintenance of the control cabinets.
§ The terminals (distribution boards DIN 43 880) are drawn on the
electrical circuit diagrams.
§ In the terminal allocation list drawn up on the basis of the circuit dia-
gram, the internal (inside the control cabinet) and external connecti-
ons (on the system) are each allocated to one side of the terminal
strip. Each terminal is designated by an X and a serial number.
A detailed description of circuit documentation can be found in DIN 40
719, with details of terminal designations in DIN EN 50 011.
Example The following example shows how the electrical circuit diagram and the
terminal allocation list for the control cabinet are drawn up on the basis
of a task definition. The piston rod of a cylinder (1.0) is to advance when
a push-button (S1) is pressed once. A further start condition is that the
piston rod is in the retracted position – with the proximity switch (B1) in
the actuated state. The speed can be varied via a one-way flow control
valve. When it reaches the forward end position, the piston rod is to be
reversed by the electrical signal from the limit switch (S2).
Fig. 3.23:
Displacement-Step diagram
Fig. 3.24:
Hydraulic circuit diagram
Fig. 3.25:
Electrical circuit diagram
with terminal designations
Fig. 3.26:
Terminal allocation list
L1 Fig. 3.27:
Voltage supply for an elect-
L2 380V 50Hz ric motor (3-phase)
L3
PE
220V F1
T
F3 + F3 K1
F2
U1
0V 24V V1 M
W1 3
PE
Safety note Only suitably qualified electricians may perform work on electrical sys-
tems with voltages exceeding 50 volts AC/120 volts DC. It is strictly for-
bidden for others to perform work on such systems (danger to life and
limb!).
The controls shown here all use a safe low voltage of 24 V DC. Safety
voltages are voltages rated up to 50 V AC or 120 V DC. The use of the-
se voltages rules out the possibility of coming into contact with dange-
rous voltages.
Chapter 4
Solenoid-operated
directional control valves in
pneumatic systems
4.1 Overview
Directional control valves control the path of the air flow in pneumatic or
electro-pneumatic control systems. The directional control valve controls
or blocks supply air to specific air supply lines, and/or exhaust air to the
surroundings via the exhaust opening.
The symbol of a valve provides information about
· its general functional characteristics and
· its function within the control system.
The symbol contains the number of power ports (air flow paths through
the valve), the number of switching positions and the actuation type of
the directional control valve.
Specific functions can be realised by different types of valves. The type
of valve determines the flow rate, pressure loss and switching speed.
For this reason, the type of valve to be used must be selected using
application-specific criteria.
The design of the valve affects its service life, actuating force, switching
time, type of actuation, and size.
The flow paths in seat valves are opened or closed by balls, poppets, Seat valves
slides or cones. The valve seats are generally fitted with rubber seals.
Seat valves are rugged and insensitive to contamination, have few
wearing parts and thus have a long service life. They require a relatively
high actuating force, however, to overcome the power of the return
spring and air pressure. Because of their size, poppet valves are well-
suited for applications requiring high flow rates.
Fig. 4.1:
3(R) Seat valves
left: ball poppet valve
right: poppet valve
2(A)
2(A)
1(P) 3(R)
1(P)
Slide valves The effective seal of a longitudinal slide valve is ensured either by very
tight fit between the piston slide and valve body, or by the use of o-rings.
The actuating force of these valves is low, as virtually only the internal
friction of the valve must be overcome.
Fig. 4.2:
5/2-way valve with sus-
pended disk (seat valve)
4(A) 2(B)
The suspended disk principle has the advantage over the longitudinal
principle of relatively short switching travel slide, in addition to the lower
susceptibility to wear that it shares with the poppet valve.
Fig. 4.3:
Actuation types Manually General
operation
Pushbutton
Lever
Pedal
Mechanical Plunger
operation
Roller
Roller, monodirectional
Spring
Spring-centering
The 2/2-way solenoid valve shown below has two connections, the sup- 2/2-way valve,
ply air port 1 and the exhaust air port 2. The valve has two switching normally-closed posi-
positions, the normal position and the actuated position. No exhaust is tion
possible with the valve in the normal or normally-closed position. It is
therefore mainly used as a shut-off valve.
Fig. 4.4:
2/2-way valve 2
normally-closed position
1 1
2 2
When an electrical signal is applied to the coil, an electro-magnetic field Functional principle
is generated that lifts the lower armature seal from the valve seat. The
compressed air can flow from input 1 to output 2 of the valve and the
exhaust opening 3 in the armature is closed by the upper armature seal.
The armature is pressed against the exhaust air seal.
An eccentric cam acting on the armature flange can be used as a man-
ual override. Turning the cam from zero (0) to one (1) actuates the valve
manually. The cam must be turned back to the zero position for normal
magnetic actuation to be effective, otherwise the valve is locked in the
normally-open position.
Fig. 4.5:
3/2-way solenoid valve,
normally-closed position
1 3
3 3
2 2
1 1
Application Typical applications for this valve are the control of single-acting cylin-
ders, indirect actuation of other pneumatic valves and the feed or shut-
off of compressed air in control systems.
Fig. 4.6:
2 3/2-way solenoid valve,
normally-open position
1 3
1 1
2 2
3 3
The magnetic coil can be relatively small on a valve with pilot control.
This has two major advantages from the electrical engineering stand-
point:
· lower power consumption
· reduced heat generation.
An electrical signal is applied to the coil, actuating the armature of the
pilot control. The pilot control signal actuates the valve.
Fig. 4.7:
Signal flow
in a pilot control system
Fig. 4.8:
Pilot control
The valves shown on the previous pages with direct connections are
rarely used these days. Modern systems are equipped with baseplate
valves and the appropriate connection technology. In other words, en-
ergy supply and exhaust is realised via baseplates. Several valves can
be mounted on a single baseplate to perform a wide variety of actions.
These valves are generally realised as slide valves with pilot control. All
connections come from below, the power supply and exhaust air are
ducted via the baseplate, and the outputs of the individual valves are led
outward laterally. The pilot control exhaust air is ducted and also re-
moved via the baseplate.
Fig. 4.9:
Baseplate with three sole-
noid valves
Fig. 4.10:
3/2-way solenoid valve
with pilot control
Fig. 4.11:
5/2-way valve
with pilot control
Note This valve returns to its normal position in the event of a power failure.
This may result in a movement within the system.
Fig. 4.12:
5/2-way double solenoid
valve with pilot control
Unlike valves with return springs, double solenoid valves remain in their Note
last switching position even if no signal is applied to either coil. The
valve thus retains its setting. The use of these valves in electro-
pneumatic systems has many advantages. For example, the switching
signal to the coil need only be of a very short duration (10 - 25 ms).
Their electrical power requirements are thus modest. Cylinder positions
can thus be retained in circuits with complex sequences of operations
without the need for latching relays for the buffering of electrical signal
states.
Fig. 4.13:
Normal position
closed
Fig. 4.14:
Normal position
exhausted
Fig. 4.15:
5/3-way solenoid valve
with pilot control,
normally-closed
Chapter 5
Measuring instruments
Fig. 5.1:
Front view of a mechanical
measuring instrument with
an analog display
Moving-coil measuring With the field lines shown here, the moving coil will turn clockwise.
instrument
Fig. 5.2:
Moving-coil measuring
instrument
Fig. 5.2:
Continuation
Fig. 5.3:
Symbols Moving-coil instrument with permanent magnet
Zero setting
Due to their design, moving-coil units are only suitable for direct currents
and DC voltages, and are limited to 50 mA or 0.3 V. A number of inter-
nal circuits are required to measure higher currents and voltages or pe-
riodic quantities.
Measuring The direct/periodic quantity ranges are selected using the multimeter's
periodic quantities selector switch. To determine exact values, the user must be informed
about the nature of the electrical quantities. When selecting the peri-
odic-quantity range (often marked in red) for example, alternating volt-
age is internally converted to direct voltage by a rectifier. The display
often contains several scales due to the mathematical properties of rec-
tification. The user can read the appropriate value on the alternating-
voltage section.
The objective is to measure the voltage across two terminals, or the Measuring
voltage drop across a load such as a lamp, a motor or solenoid valve. voltages
The result is the following switching diagram:
Fig. 5.4:
Switching diagram
Fig. 5.5:
Basic circuit
Measuring current The current flowing through a load (lamp, solenoid valve, etc.) is to be
determined. In this case, the multimeter must be inserted into the circuit
in series with the load.
Fig. 5.6:
Switching diagram
Fig. 5.7:
Basic circuit
A battery in the multimeter (1.5 V) serves as a source of current. The Measuring resistance
strength of this current permits the resistance of an unknown load to be
calculated using Ohm's law.
Fig. 5.8:
Front view of an electronic
measuring instrument
with a digital display
Chapter 6
6.1 Introduction
Fig. 6.1:
Example of a
PLC application
Fig. 6.2:
Example of a PLC:
Siemens S7-300
Fig. 6.3:
System components
PLC-program
of a PLC
Sensors Actuators
Fig. 6.4:
Compact PLC, modular
PLC, PLC plug-in cards
Fig. 6.5:
Festo valve terminal
Chapter 7
Fig. 7.1:
Fundamental design Data bus
of a microcomputer
Address bus
Control bus
Fig. 7.2:
Festo FPC 101
Design of the Fig. 7.3 illustrates a simplified version of a microprocessor which repre-
central control unit sents the heart of a microcomputer.
Fig. 7.3:
Design of a microprocessor Data bus
Address bus
Today’s conventional microcomputer systems operate according to the Instruction cycle within
so-called "by-Neumann principle". According to this principle, the com- central control unit
puter processes the program line by line. In simple terms, you could say
that each program line of the PLC user program is processed in se-
quence.
This applies wholly irrespective of the programming language, in which
the PLC program is written, be it in the form of a text program (state-
ment list) or a graphic program (ladder diagram, sequential function
chart). Since these various forms of representation always result in a
series of program lines within the computer, they are subsequently pro-
cessed one after the other.
Fig. 7.4:
Command sequence Data bus
Microprocessor Memory
Command Command
register
Program-
counter
+1
Addresses
Address bus
The contents of the program counter are transferred to the address bus.
The control unit then causes the command at a specified address in the
program memory, to be relayed to the data bus. From there, the com-
mand is read to the instruction register. Once the command has been
decoded, the control unit generates a sequence of control signals for
execution.
During the execution of a program, the commands are fetched in se-
quence. A mechanism which permits this sequence is therefore requi-
red. This task is performed by a simple incrementer, i.e. a step enabling
facility in the program counter.
Fig. 7.5:
Cyclical processing
of a PLC program
Image table
Inputs
Inputs
PLC program
Image table
Outputs
Outputs
The processing of a program line via the central control unit of a PLC
takes time which, depending on PLC and operation can vary between a
few microseconds and a few milliseconds.
The time required by the PLC for a single execution of a program inclu-
ding the actualisation and output of the process image, is termed the
cycle time. The longer the program is and the longer the respective PLC
requires to process an individual program line, the longer the cycle.
Realistic time periods for this are between approximately 1 and 100 mil-
liseconds.
The consequences of cyclical processing of a PLC program using a
process image are as follows:
§ Input signals shorter than the cycle time may possibly not be re-
cognised.
§ In some cases, there may be a delay of two cycle times between the
occurence of an input signal and the desired reaction of an output to
this signal.
§ Since the commands are processed sequentially, the specific beha-
viour sequence of a PLC program may be crucial.
The RAM (random access memory) is a fast and highly cost effective RAM
memory. Since the main memory of computers (i.e. PLCs) consist of
RAMs, they are produced in such high quantities that they are readily
available at low cost without competition.
RAMs are read/write memories and can be easily programmed and mo-
dified.
The disadvantage of a RAM is that it is volatile, i.e. the program stored
in the RAM is lost in the event of power failure. This is why RAMs are
backed up by battery or accumulator. Since the service life and capacity
of modern batteries are rated for several years, RAM back-up is relati-
vely simple. Despite the fact that these are high performance batteries it
is nevertheless essential to replace the batteries in good time.
Fig. 7.6:
Example of an EPROM
The input module of a PLC is the module, which sensors are connected
to. The sensor signals are to be passed on to the central control unit.
The important functions of an input module (for the application) are as
follows:
§ Reliable signal detection
§ Voltage adjustment of control voltage to logic voltage
§ Protection of sensitive electronics from external voltages
§ Screening of signals
Fig. 7.7:
Block diagram
Optocoupler Signal to of an input module
Error
Input Signal the
voltage
signal delay control unit
detection
The main component of today’s input modules which meets these requi-
rements is the optocoupler.
The optocoupler transmits the sensor information with the help of light,
thereby creating an electrical isolation between the control and logic
circuits, thereby protecting the sensitive electronics from spurious exter-
nal voltages. Nowadays advanced optocouplers guarantee protection for
up to approximately 5 kV, which is adequate for industrial applications.
The adjustment of control and logic voltage, in the straightforward case
of a 24 V control voltage, can be effected with the help of a breakdown
diode/resistor circuit. In the case of 220 V AC, a rectifier is connected in
series.
Depending on PLC manufacturer reliable signal detection is ensured
either by means of an additional downstream threshold detector or a
corresponding range of breakdown diodes and optocouplers. Precise
data regarding the signals to be detected is specified in DIN 19 240 .
Output modules conduct the signals of the central control unit to final
control elements, which are actuated according to the task. In the main,
the function of an output – as seen from the application of the PLC –
therefore includes the following:
§ Voltage adjustment of logic voltage to control voltage
§ Protection of sensitive electronics from spurious voltages from the
controller
§ Power amplification sufficient for the actuation of major final control
elements
§ Short-circuit and overload protection of output modules
Fig. 7.8:
Block diagram of an output
module Optocoupler
Signal from Short-circuit Output
the Amplifier
monitoring signal
control unit
The optocoupler once again forms the basis for power electronics and
ensures the protection of the electronics and possibly also the voltage
adjustment.
A protective circuit consisting of diodes must protect the integral power
transistor from voltage surges.
Nowadays short-circuit protection, overload protection and power ampli-
fication are often ensured with fully integral modules. Standard short-
circuit protection measures the current flow via a power resistor so as to
switch off in the event of short-circuit; a temperature sensors provides
overload protection; a Darlington stage or alternative power transistor
stages provide the necessary power.
The permissible power of an output module is usually specified in a way
which permits differentiation to be made between the permissible power
of an output and the permissible cumulative power of an output module.
The cumulative power of a module is almost always considerably lower
than the total of individual permissible ratings, since power transistors
transmit heat to one another.
If relays are used for the outputs, then the relay can assume practically
all the functions of an output module: The relay contact and relay coil
are electrically isolated from one another; the relay represents an ex-
cellent power amplifier and is particularly overload-proof, only short-
circuit protection must be ensured via an additional fuse. In practice,
however, optocouplers are nevertheless connected in series with relays,
since this renders the actuation of relays easier and simpler relays can
be used.
Relay outputs have the advantage that they can be used for different
output voltages. By contrast, electronic outputs have considerably hig-
her switching speeds and a longer service life than relays. In most ca-
ses, the power of the very small relays used in PLCs corresponds to that
of the power stages of electronic outputs.
In Germany for example, outputs are also connected positive switching
in accordance with VDI 2880, i.e. the output represents a power source
and supplies the operating voltage to the consuming device.
In the case of a short circuit of the output signal line to earth, the output
is short-circuited, if normal protective grounding measures are used.
The electronics switch to short circuit protection or the fuse switches off,
i.e. the consuming device cannot draw any current and is therefore un-
connected and rendered safe. (In accordance with DIN 0113, the dee-
nergised status must always be the safe status.)
If negative switching outputs are used, i.e. the output represents a cur-
rent sink, the protective measure must be adapted in such a way, that
the consuming device is rendered safe in the event of a short circuit on
the signal line. Again, protective grounding with isolation monitoring or
the neutralising of the positive control voltage are standard practice in
this case.
Each PLC has a programming and diagnostic tool in support of the PLC
application.
§ Programming
§ Testing
§ Commissioning
§ Fault finding
§ Program documentation
§ Program storage
These programming and diagnostic tools are either vendor specific pro-
gramming devices or personal computers with corresponding software.
Nowadays, the latter is almost exclusively the preferred variant, since
the enormous capacity of modern PCs, combined with their comparati-
vely low initial cost and high flexibility, represent crucial advantages.
Also available and being developed are so-called hand-held program-
mers for mini control systems and for maintenance purposes. With the
increasing use of notebook personal computers, i.e. portable, battery
operated PCs, the importance of hand-held programmers is steadily
decreasing.
Any programming software conforming to IEC 1131-1 should provide Essential software
the user with a series of functions. Hence the programming software system functions
comprises software modules for:
§ Program input
Creating and modifying programs in one of the programming langu-
ages via a PLC.
§ Syntax test
Checking the input program and the input data for syntax accuracy,
thus minimising the input of faulty programs.
§ Translator
Translating the input program into a program which can be read and
processed by the PC, i.e. the generation of the machine code of the
corresponding PC.
§ Connection between PLC and PC
This data circuit effects the loading of a program to the PLC and the
execution of test functions.
§ Test functions
Supporting the user during writing and fault elimination and checking
the user program via
– a status check of inputs and outputs, timers, counters etc.
– testing of program sequences by means of single-step operations,
STOP commands etc.
– simulation by means of manual setting of inputs/outputs, setting
constants etc.
§ Status display of control systems
Output of information regarding machine, process and status of the
PLC system
– Status display of input and output signals
– Display/recording of status changes in external signals and internal
data
– Monitoring of execution times
– Real-time format of program execution.
§ Documentation
Drawing up a description of the PLC system and the user program.
This consists of
– Description of the hardware configuration
– Printout of the user program with corresponding data and identi-
fiers for signals and comments
– Cross-reference list for all processed data such as inputs, outputs,
timers etc.
– Description of modifications.
§ Archiving of user program
Protection of the user program in non volatile memories such as
EPROM etc.
Chapter 8
Communication
How can the PLC communicate with other data processing devices?
The individual bits, which are combined into one data word, must be
transmitted from one piece of data terminal equipment to another.
Basic differentiation is made here between two methods: parallel or se-
rial data transmission.
Parallel data transmission means that a separate line must be available
for each individual binary signal. When signal generators for example,
are connected to a programmable logic controller, a separate wire is
installed for each push button, limit switch, limiting value encoder and
sensor to a terminal strip and from there to the input of the PLC. All in-
formation (“push button actuated”, “cylinder advanced”) can in this way
be transmitted simultaneously (parallel) to the PLC. Since in the case of
parallel transmission of input and output signals, a line is required for
each signal generator, literally miles of cable bundles are installed over-
all for correspondingly complex machines.
For the parallel transmission of a data word, sufficient lines must there-
fore be available to transmit all bits of this data word simultaneously.
With serial data transmission only one binary signal is transmitted at a
time. Again, using the example of the PLC: If several modules of a PLC
are interconnected, it is not necessary for a individual line to be installed
for each input or output, instead the information regarding inputs or out-
puts is transmitted consecutively (serial).
Accordingly only one data line is therefore required for the serial tans-
mission of data words, irrespective of the number of bits, to transmit the
binary signals consecutively. In order to now be able to represent the
various signals in the form of a related data word, it is necessary to
agree the transmission speed, word length and specific start and end
characters.
8.3 Interfaces
Exercises:
Exercise 1
Planning and control of work processes, monitoring and evaluation of
results
Planning and control of work processes, monitoring and evaluation of results (6)
Name: Date
Project name:
Task: Drawing up a work plan
Training aim Trainees know how to plan the development process of a machine as a
project. They can use various planning methods, and they can
determine time relationships, possible work sequences and parallel
activities.
Solutions
Exercise 2
Testing, scoring and labeling - manual and mechanical cutting,
cutting-off and forming - joining
Exercise 3
Installation of electrical modules and components
Resources - Drawings
- Board components
- Tools
Providing power
Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
24V 24V 24V 24V -XOG2 24V 24V -XIG2 24V 24V
9 10 21 22 9 10 21 22
-XMA1 -XMG2
B B
C C
24V 0V
Einspeisung 24V/DC
D 6A max. D
Current supply 24V/DC
6A max. -XMA1 -XMG2
11 12 23 24 11 12 23 24
-XMF1 11 12 23 24 -XMV2 11 12 23 24
24V 24V 24V 24V -XOG2 24V 24V -XIG2 24V 24V
9 10 21 22 9 10 21 22
-XMA1 -XMG2
B B
C C
24V 0V
Einspeisung 24V/DC
D 6A max. D
Current supply 24V/DC
6A max. -XMA1 -XMG2
12 -XMF1 -XMV2
11 12 23 24 11 23 24 11 12 23 24 11 12 23 24
24V 24V 24V 24V -XOG2 24V 24V -XIG2 24V 24V
9 10 21 22 9 10 21 22
-XMA1 -XMG2
B B
C C
24V 0V
Einspeisung 24V/DC
D 6A max. D
Current supply 24V/DC
6A max. -XMA1 -XMG2
-XMF1 11 -XMV2
11 12 23 24 11 12 23 24 12 23 24 11 12 23 24
1. Define cable paths on the basis of building and local conditions Assignment
2. Select, prepare, lay and connect lines taking mechanical and
electrical load, laying method and intended purpose into account
3. Attach connection elements – in particular cable shoes, wire sleeves
and plugs – to lines
4. Connect lines by soldering, clamping and insertion
5. Correct faults and document changes
ACKNOWLEDGE
2 EMERGENCY-STOP 4
-XMG2 20 19 18
B B
-XIG2 I7 I6 I5
5.3
-A1 PNOZ
C C
X1 X2 A2 14 24 34 42
7.7 5.3
-XOG2 O7
-XMG2 8
D D
X1
-H7
NOT-AUS X2
EMERGENCY-STOP
-XMG2 23
-XG2 0V
E E
-XK1 0V -XK1 0V
0V 0V
3.8 5.1
B B
20 19 18
-XMG2 -XMG2 -XMG2
I7 I6 I5
-XIG2 -XIG2 -XIG2
-A1
NOTAUS-Relais PNOZ / EMERGENCY-STOP relay PNOZ
D D
X1 X2 A2 14 24 34 42
O7
-XOG2
7.7 5.2 8
-XMG2
NOT-AUS
EMERGENCY STOP X1
E -H7 E
X2
23
-XMG2
0V -XG2
-XK1 -XK1 0V
0V 0V
3.8 5.1
B B
20 19 18
-XMG2 -XMG2 -XMG2
I7 I6 I5
-XIG2 -XIG2 -XIG2
-A1
NOTAUS-Relais PNOZ / EMERGENCY-STOP relay PNOZ
D D
X1 X2 A2 14 24 34 42
O7
-XOG2
7.7 5.5 8
-XMG2
NOT-AUS
EMERGENCY STOP X1
E -H7 E
X2
23
-XMG2
0V -XG2
-XK1 -XK1 0V
0V 0V
3.8 5.1
1. Define cable paths on the basis of building and local conditions Assignment
2. Select, prepare, lay and connect lines taking mechanical and
electrical load, laying method and intended purpose into account
3. Attach connection elements – in particular cable shoes, wire sleeves
and plugs – to lines
4. Connect lines by soldering, clamping and insertion
5. Correct faults and document changes
A 33 A
-XK1 24V -XK1 24V -XK1 24V
-A1
4.5 34
B B
a3
a4
a1
a3
a4
a1
c3
c4
c1
c3
c4
c1
c24
c24
a31
a32
a24
a31
a32
a24
a15
-A2 -A3
FPC 101 E/A Erweiterung
I/O Unit
C C
a2
a5
c2
c5
a9
a2
a5
c2
c5
a9
D D
-A4 0V PE -A5 0V PE
E -XK1 0V -XK1 0V E
0V 0V
4.7 6.1
4.7
B B
L+ a1 a11 b1 a1 a11 b1
-A2 -A3
C C
AG 95U 8E
D D
E E
0V 0V
4.7 6.1
A 24V 24V
A
-XK1 24V -XK1 24V -XK1 -XK1
33
-A1
4.6 34
B B
1 1
COM
COM B
COM A
24 VDC -A2 -A3 -A4
ASA Micro 612 DEO 216 DAO 216
24 RET 11 11
C C
COM D
COM C
OUT 4A
OUT 3A
OUT 2A
OUT 1A
D D
B B
C C
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
-XMA1
E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1
EINGANG BIT 0 EINGANG BIT 1 EINGANG BIT 2 EINGANG BIT 3 EINGANG BIT 4 EINGANG BIT 5 EINGANG BIT 6 EINGANG BIT 7
I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1
INPUT BIT 0 INPUT BIT 1 INPUT BIT 2 INPUT BIT 3 INPUT BIT 4 INPUT BIT 5 INPUT BIT 6 INPUT BIT 7
F Datum 3.06.96 SPS-Eingänge E0.0-E0.7
F
MPS
Bearb HJP Festo FPC 100, E/A-Kopplung PLC Inputs I0.0-I0.7
Festo Didactic GmbH & Co. Festo FPC100, I/O Interface
Gepr. --- Rechbergstr. 3 / D-73770 Denkendorf BLATT 6
Aenderung Datum Name Norm DIN5 Urspr keiner Ers.f. --- Ers.d. FOLGE 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A A
3.4 4.5
3 3 3 3 3
-S1 -S2 -S3 -S4 -S5
4 4 4 4 4
C C
-XMG2
13 14 15 16 17
-XIG2 I0 I1 I2 I3 I4
D D
START RESET SPECIAL FUNCTION AUTOMATIC / STEP STOP NOT CONNECTED EMERGENCY-STOP
A A
B B
-XMF2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 11/12
0V
D D
E/A-KOPPLUNG
CS_Net nicht belegt CS_R nicht belegt nicht belegt nicht belegt nicht belegt nicht belegt
I/O INTERFACE
CS_Net not used CS_R not used not used not used not used not used
F Datum 25.06.97 MPS SPS-Eingänge E10.0-E10.7 F
Bearb DEL Festo FPC 100, E/A-Kopplung PLC Inputs I10.0-I10.7
Festo Didactic GmbH & Co. Festo FPC 100, I/O Interface
Gepr. --- Rechbergstr. 3 / D-73770 Denkendorf BLATT 8
Aenderung Datum Name Norm DIN5 Urspr keiner Ers.f. --- Ers.d. FOLGE 9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A A
C C
-XMV2
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 23/24
-XIV2 I0 I1 I2 I3 0V
D I4 I5 I6 I7
D
E E
-A3 E/A-Erweiterung / I/O Unit
E/A-KOPPLUNG
CP_D0 CP_D1 CP_D2 nocht belegt nicht belegt CP_Net nicht belegt CP_S
I/O INTERFACE
CP_D0 CP_D1 CP_D2 not used not used CP_Net not used CP_S
F Datum 25.06.97 SPS-Eingänge E11.0-E11.7 F
MPS
Bearb DEL Festo FPC 100, E/A-Kopplung PLC Inputs I11.0-I11.7
Festo Didactic GmbH & Co. Festo FPC 100, I/O Interface
Gepr. --- Rechbergstr. 3 / D-73770 Denkendorf BLATT 9
Aenderung Datum Name Norm DIN5 Urspr keiner Ers.f. --- Ers.d. FOLGE 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-37
C-38
Exercise 3
24V 24V
5.8
0V 0V
A 5.8 10.1 A
C C
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
-XMA1
D D
graurosa rotblau weißgrün braungrün weißgelb gelbbraun weißgrau graubraun
grey-pink red-blue white-green brown-green white-yellow yellow-brown white-grey grey-brown
b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 b7 b8 b9
A A
3.5 4.6
B B
3 3 3 3 3
-S1 -S2 -S3 -S4 -S5
4 4 4 4 4
C C
13 14 15 16 17
-XMG2 -XMG2 -XMG2 -XMG2 -XMG2
D D
-XIG2 I0 -XIG2 I1 -XIG2 I2 -XIG2 I3 -XIG2 I4
A A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 11/12
-XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2
C C
0V
D D
A A
B B
C C
D I0 I1 I2 I5 I7 D
-XIV2 -XIV2 -XIV2 -XIV2 -XIV2
0V
B B
C C
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
-XMA1
D D
graurosa rotblau weißgrün braungrün weißgelb gelbbraun weißgrau graubraun
grey-pink red-blue white-green brown-green white-yellow yellow-brown white-grey grey-brown
A A
3.4 4.5
3 3 3 3 3
-S1 -S2 -S3 -S4 -S5
4 4 4 4 4
C C
13 14 15 16 17
-XMG2 -XMG2 -XMG2 -XMG2 -XMG2
D D
-XIG2 I0 -XIG2 I1 -XIG2 I2 -XIG2 I3 -XIG2 I4
A A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 11/12
-XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2
B B
C C
0V
D D
I3 I4 I5 I6 I7 I8 I9 I10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
E -A3 E
DEO 216 Bit 0 Bit 1 Bit 2 Bit 3 Bit 4 Bit 5 Bit 6 Bit 7 1
CS_NET frei CS_R frei frei frei frei frei
not used not used not used not used not used not used 8
A A
C C
D I0 I1 I2 I5 I7 D
-XIV2 -XIV2 -XIV2 -XIV2 -XIV2
0V
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
E -A3 E
DEO 216 Bit 0 Bit 1 Bit 2 Bit 3 Bit 4 Bit 5 Bit 6 Bit 7 9
CP_D0 CP_D1 CP_D2 frei frei CP_NET frei CP_S
not used not used not used 16
A A
-A2 SPS FPC 101 B / PLC FPC 101 B
A0.0 A0.1 A0.2 A0.3 A0.4 A0.5 A0.6 A0.7
O0.0 O0.1 O0.2 O0.3 O0.4 O0.5 O0.6 O0.7
-XMA1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
C C
D D
0V 0V
6.7
E E
E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1 E/A-KABEL XMA1
AUSGANG BIT 0 AUSGANG BIT 1 AUSGANG BIT 2 AUSGANG BIT 3 AUSGANG BIT 4 AUSGANG BIT 5 AUSGANG BIT 6 AUSGANG BIT 7
I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1 I/O CABLE XMA1
OUTPUT BIT 0 OUTPUT BIT 1 OUTPUT BIT 2 OUTPUT BIT 3 OUTPUT BIT 4 OUTPUT BIT 5 OUTPUT BIT 6 OUTPUT BIT 7
F Datum 3.06.96 SPS-Ausgänge A0.0-A0.7 F
MPS
Bearb HJP Festo FPC 100, E/A-Kopplung PLC Outputs O0.0-O0.7
Festo Didactic GmbH & Co. Festo FPC 100, I/O Interface
Gepr. --- Rechbergstr. 3 / D-73770 Denkendorf BLATT 10
Aenderung Datum Name Norm DIN5 Urspr keiner Ers.f. --- Ers.d. FOLGE 11
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
B B
-XOG2 O0 O1 O2 O6
1 2 3 7
-XMG2
C C
X1 X1 X1 X1
-H1 -H2 -H3 -H6
X2 X2 X2 X2
D D
E 3.4 E
weißblau
white-blue
-XMF2 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 23/24
D D
E E
E/A-KOPPLUNG
CS_D0 CS_D1 CS_D2 nicht belegt nicht belegt Vernetzung (-S108) nicht belegt CS_S
I/O INTERFACE
CS_D0 CS_D1 CS_D2 not used not used Networking (-S108) not used CS_S
F Datum 25.06.97 SPS-Ausgänge A10.0-A10.7 F
MPS
Bearb DEL Festo FPC 100, E/A-Kopplung PLC Outputs O10.0-O10.7
Festo Didactic GmbH & Co. Festo FPC 100, I/O Interface
Gepr. --- Rechbergstr. 3 / D-73770 Denkendorf BLATT 12
Aenderung Datum Name Norm DIN5 Urspr keiner Ers.f. --- Ers.d. FOLGE 13
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
B -XOV2
B
O0 O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 0V
-XMV2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 11/12
C C
D D
E E
E/A-KOPPLUNG
Vernetzung (-S108) nicht belegt CP_R nicht belegt nicht belegt nicht belegt nicht belegt nicht belegt
I/O INTERFACE
Networking (-S108) not used CP_R not used not used not used not used not used
F Datum 25.06.97 SPS-Ausgänge A11.1-A11.7 F
MPS
Bearb DEL Festo FPC 100, E/A-Kopplung PLC Outputs O11.1-O11.7
Festo Didactic GmbH & Co. Festo FPC 100 I/O Interface
Gepr. --- Rechbergstr. 3 / D-73770 Denkendorf BLATT 13
Aenderung Datum Name Norm DIN5 Urspr keiner Ers.f. --- Ers.d. FOLGE 14
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 3
C-57
C-58
Exercise 3
E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1 E/A-Kabel XMA1
-A2 Ausgang Bit 0 Ausgang Bit 1 Ausgang Bit 2 Ausgang Bit 3 Ausgang Bit 4 Ausgang Bit 5 Ausgang Bit 6 Ausgang Bit 7
A S5-95U 32 ,00 A
I/O cable XMA1 I/O cable XMA1 I/O cable XMA1 I/O cable XMA1 I/O cable XMA1 I/O cable XMA1 I/O cable XMA1 I/O cable XMA1
AG Output Bit 0 Output Bit 1 Output Bit 2 Output Bit 3 Output Bit 4 Output Bit 5 Output Bit 6 Output Bit 7 32 ,07
C C
D D
0V
6.8
E E
B O0 O1 O2 O6 B
-XOG2 -XOG2 -XOG2 -XOG2
1 2 3 7
-XMG2 -XMG2 -XMG2 -XMG2
C C
X1 X1 X1 X1
D D
E E
3.5
0V
C -XOG2 O0.6 C
gelbbraun weißblau
yellow-brown whiteblue
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 23/24
E -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 E
B O2 B
-XOV2
3
-XMV2
C C
D D
E E
C C
D D
0V
6.8
E E
Start Grundstellung
-A2
A Start Initial position 0.9 A
Micro 612
0.12
B O0 O1 O2 O6 B
-XOG2 -XOG2 -XOG2 -XOG2
1 2 3 7
-XMG2 -XMG2 -XMG2 -XMG2
C C
X1 X1 X1 X1
X2 X2 X2 X2
D D
E E
3.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 O8 O9 O10
0V
C -XOG2 O0.6 C
gelbbraun weißblau
yellow-brown whiteblue
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 23/24
E -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 -XMF2 E
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 11/12
-XMV2 -XMV2 -XMV2 -XMV2 -XMV2 -XMV2 -XMV2 -XMV2 -XMV2
C C
D D
E E
Exercise 4
Measuring and testing electrical variables
Training aim Trainees know how to measure current and voltage consumption of
electrical actuators. They can determine DC power and resistance of the
actuator on the basis of measurement results.
Assignment 1. Determine the current consumption and the voltage drop across an
actuated solenoid valve.
2. Develop a pertinent measurement circuit.
3. When this is done, measure the resistance and the power of the
magnet coil.
Measurement circuit
V(b) =
I(b) =
R=
P=
Trainees know how to determine operating and output voltage and Training aim
currents of an electronic sensor. They can set up specified
measurement circuits, and they can record characteristic curves and
represent them graphically.
Assignment What measurement error can creep into the circuit shown above? How
can it be avoided?
Determine the operating voltage and operating current as well as the Assignment
output voltage on the basis of output current. Set up the following
measurement circuit.
The sensor is in damped condition Caution
I(off) 0 mA 5 mA 10 mA 15 mA 20 mA 25 mA 30 mA 35 mA 40 mA
V(off)
I(b)
V(b)
Training aim Trainees know how to determine the switch-on and switch-off voltage of
a PLC input and how to describe it graphically and calculate the
hysteresis. At the same time, they become familiar with the functions of
PLC input modules.
Assignment Set up the following measurement circuit. Connect your PC to the PLC,
put it online and follow on the screen what switch-on voltage switches
the logical condition of the input from ‘0’ to ‘1’. Then determine the
switch-off voltage, i.e. the voltage that switches the logical condition of
the output from ‘1’ to ‘0’. Enter the two curves into the diagram below
and calculate the hysteresis.
V (start) =
V (switch-off) =
V (hysteresis) =
Training aim Trainees know how to determine the switch-off current of a PLC output
in the event of an overload and to compare it with the switch-off current
stated in the documentation.
Assignment Set up the following measurement circuit. Connect your PC to the PLC,
put it online and set the logical condition of an output to ‘1’. Slowly
increase the current and determine the point at which the output
switches off. Compare the logical condition with the electrical condition
of the output. What differences are there?
I(a) in A 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1.0 1.1
Logical
condi-
tion
Elec.
condi-
tion
V(a_max) =
Solutions
I(off) in 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
mA
V(off)
I(b)
V(b)
V (hysteresis) =
I(a) in A 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1.0 1.1
Logical
condi-
tion
Elec.
condi-
tion
Exercise 5
Setting up and testing of electrical and pneumatic controllers
Assignment 1. The station must be set up and tested in accordance with the
pneumatic circuit diagram.
2. All electrical components must be wired and tested in accordance
with the electrical circuit diagrams.
· Check the operation of the individual cylinders and drive units, both
without workpiece using the manual override.
· Verify the mounting and safe switching of the limit switches.
· Check the operation of the individual cylinders and drive units with
workpiece.
· Verify that stated power levels and speeds are reached and make
changes if necessary.
4 2 4 2 4 2
-1Y1 -2Y1 -2Y2 -3Y1 -3Y2
C 5 3 5 3 5 3 C
1 1 1
D -0Z D
2
1 3
E E
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 5
C-89
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 5
C-90
B B
4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2
-1Y1 -1Y2 -2Y1 -3Y1 -4Y1
C 5 3 5 3 5 3 51 3 C
1 1 1
D -0Z D
2
1 3
E E
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
4 2 4 2 4 2
-1Y1 -1Y2 -2Y1 -3Y1
C 5 3 5 3 5 3 C
1 1 1
D -0Z D
2
1 3
E E
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 5
C-91
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 5
C-92
B B
4 2 4 2 4 2
-1Y1 -2Y1 -3Y1
C 5 3 5 3 51 3 C
1 1
D -0Z D
2
1 3
E E
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A A
B P1 = P 2 B
-1B1 -1B2 -3S1 -3S2 -2B1 -B4
-XIA1 I0 I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 I7
C C
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
-XMA1
D D
E E
A A
-XMA1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
C C
-XOA1 O0 O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7
-XOA1 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V
0V 0V
E E
B B
-B5 -B6 -B7 -1B2 -1B1 -2B1 -3B1
-XIA1 I0 I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 I7
C C
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
-XMA1
D D
E E
24V 24V
0V 0V
A A
-XIA1 24V 0V
C Uref Ue 0V -XIA1 I7
C
grau
grey
gelb
yellow
grün
green
-P1
D D
E E
ANALOGSPANNUNGSVERSORGUNG
FÜR POTENTIOMETER
VOLTAGE SUPPLY FOR
DISPLACEMENT SENSOR
F Datum 26.04.94 Analog Potentiometer F
MPS Station Prüfen
Bearb SPW Testing Station Analogue Sensor
Festo Didactic GmbH & Co.
Bezeichnung 20.11.97 DEL Gepr. --- Rechbergstr. 3 / D-73770 Denkendorf BLATT
Aenderung Datum Name Norm DIN5 Urspr keiner Ers.f. --- Ers.d. FOLGE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 5
C-97
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 5
C-98
A A
B B
-XMA1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
C C
-XOA1 O0 O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7
-1Y1 A1 -1Y2 A1 A1 A1 A1
-2Y1 -3Y1 -4Y1
A2 A2 A2 A2 A2
D D
-XOA1 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V
0V 0V
E E
24V 24V
0V 0V
A A
-XIA1 I0 I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 I7
C C
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
-XMA1
D D
E E
A A
B B
-XMA1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
C C
-XOA1 O0 O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7
A1 A1 -1Y1 A1 -1Y2 A1 A1 A1
-K1 -K2 -3Y1 -2Y1
A2 A2 A2 A2 A2 A2
D D
-XOA1 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V
0V 0V
E E
24V 24V
A A
-XIA1 24V 24V
C C
+ +
-M1 M -M2 M
24VDC = 24VDC =
- -
D D
-XIA1 0V 0V
0V 0V
E E
BOHRMASCHINE RUNDSCHALTTISCH
MOTOR AN MOTOR AN
DRILLING UNIT ROTARY INDEXING TABLE
MOTOR ON MOTOR ON
F Datum 26.04.94 Station Bearbeiten Ansteuerung Motoren F
MPS
Bearb SPW Processing station Motor control
Festo Didactic GmbH & Co.
Bezeichnung 11.12.97 DEL Gepr. --- Rechbergstr. 3 / D-73770 Denkendorf BLATT
Aenderung Datum Name Norm DIN5 Urspr keiner Ers.f. --- Ers.d. FOLGE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 5
C-101
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 5
C-102
24V 24V
0V 0V
A A
B B
-1B1 -1B2 -2B1 -2B2 -B5 -B6 IR
-XIA1 I0 I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 I7
C C
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
-XMA1
D D
E E
A A
-XMA1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
C C
-XOA1 O0 O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7
A1 A1 A1 A1
-1Y1 -2Y1 -K1 -3Y1
A2 A2 15.2 A2 A2
D D
-XOA1 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V
0V 0V
E E
A -XIA1 24V A
B 11 B
-K1
14
C C
+
-M1 M
24VDC
=
-
D D
-XIA1 0V
0V 0V
E E
TRANSPORTBAND
CONVEYOR BELT
1. Connect pneumatic supply to the service unit. Set pressure from the Assignment
service unit to 6 bar and verify operation of pneumatic supply.
2. Connect and test electrical supply.
P = ______ bar
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Exercise 6
Assembly of modules and components to machines and systems
Alternative:
Each trainee prepares his/her own work plan. Prior to the actual setup of
the circuit, work plans are discussed in the group and a common work
plan is drawn up.
In the work plan, name the operations to be carried out while setting up
and commissioning the station. Determine the sequence of the
operations in the “planned sequence” column.
Alternative:
Here again, an individual trainee’s list of Materials can be discussed in
the group and a common list of Materials prepared (cf. Instructions for
the worksheet: work plan).
Worksheet: Materials
Name: Date
Project name:
Task: :
Enter all the tools, testing equipment and incidentals you think you will
require to construct and commission the station in the list below.
Additionally required:
Yes No
Was the work plan complete?
Was the sequence of the work plan respected?
Was the ‘Materials’ overview complete?
Does the setup match the circuit diagram?
– Does the wiring match the electrical circuit diagram?
– Does the piping match the pneumatic circuit diagram?
Is mechanical operation possible without compressed air?
Is the circuit fully functional?
_________________________________________________________
Exercise 7
Checking and setting of functions in mechatronic systems -
maintenance of mechatronic systems
Training aim Trainees are able to draw up the maintenance plan for a mechatronic
system. They can analyse mechatronic systems and their environmental
situation, find relevant information about the components used,
determine and understand activities, define cycles and assess the time
required for the work.
Assignment Prepare a maintenance plan for the station. Take into account the
environment (dust, humidity, temperature) of your training shop.
Maintenance plan
Cycle Time Tech- Module or Activities to be carried out Resp.
nolo- component
gy
Training aim Trainees know how to systematically localise, identify and eliminate
disruptions and faults in mechatronic systems. They develop a
methodical procedure which also allows them to eliminate faults in
systems they are not familiar with.
Faultfinding
Objective General
A systematic faultfinding procedure is absolutely necessary when faults
occur in a system. This reduces the time spent on corrective
maintenance and repair and cuts down on cost-intensive downtime.
Types of faults and their distribution
The following chart shows the main fault locations in PLC-controlled
systems. It is the result of a study by Siemens AG, Erlangen.
The results of this study have an important effect for the vocational and
continuing training of service personnel:
If 95% of all faults are outside the PLC in sensor and actuator
technology, in mechanical parts or in the power supply, then training
with regard to faultfinding must focus on this type of hardware fault.
Execution
With the help of the problem description and of the motion or function
diagram, trainees will be able to find the step where the fault has
occurred.
Potential fault locations can then be determined. By systematically
testing and measuring the various system elements, trainees can then
zero in on the fault, find it and ultimately eliminate it.
After all necessary repairs have been carried out, the system can be put
back in operation.
Fault locations Faults should only be inserted in the execution part of the sequence.
This is because faults in the RESET sequence or in the CYCLE STOP
sequence cannot be localised in a displacement-step diagram.
Faults in the return stroke are more difficult to find than faults in the
forward stroke of an actuator. If, for instance, the tube from the final
control element to the forward stroke connector of the cylinder is
blocked, the cylinder will not extend.
The same fault cause has a totally different and much less evident effect
in the connection between the final control element and the return stroke
connector of the cylinder. The cylinder piston rod shoots out from its
back end position, and, most of the time, it does not reach its front end
position.
In addition to faults in the controller parts, mechanical faults or defective
elements can also be inserted.
Number of faults
Under normal conditions, only one fault should be inserted in a circuit. If
several faults are inserted at the same time, they should be logically
interrelated, because in practice it is extremely rare for a number of
unconnected faults to occur at the same time in the same system.
Practical exercise
Name: Date
Project name:
Task: faultfinding
You are employed in the service and maintenance section of Cylinder & Issue
Co. company. The production department informs you that a fault has
occurred in station xyz.
The station is in the status in which the fault occurred. Additional conditions
Determine the actual status of the system on the basis of the following
documents:
· positional sketch and problem description
· graphic representation
If the correct function is not available (comparison of required and actual
status), mark the spot where the fault occurs clearly on the diagram.
You have marked the fault location in the ‘comparison of required and
actual status’ worksheet.
In a few words, describe the process up to the stoppage of the station or
system.
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Example
· After you have determined the actual status of the system, think
about the possible cause of the fault.
· What pneumatic connection might be faulty?
· Write down all the possibilities. Name the elements at the beginning
and end of the connection to ensure non-ambiguous identification.
Beginning End
· After you have determined the actual status of the system, think
about the possible cause of the fault.
· What current path might be faulty?
· What is the function of the current path?
· Write down all possibilities!
Potential Connection
fault no. Beginning End Check Result
1 5/2-way double pilot DRV 1.01 Remove tube from the no pressure
valve 1.1 5/2-way double pilot
valve at connection 4(A)
· Investigate the possible causes for the pneumatic faults you have
found.
· Use the same fault numbering as in the ‘Fault determination in the
pneumatic system’ worksheet.
· Record your procedure while verifying tube connectors.
· Write down the result of the testing action.
Potential Connection
fault no. Beginning End Check Result
· Investigate the possible causes for the faults you have found.
· Use the same fault numbering as in the ‘Fault determination in the
electrical system’ worksheet.
· Record your procedure while verifying line connections.
· Write down the result of the testing action.
Important!
For safety reasons, the instructor must point out that voltage and
pressure supply should be switched off prior to eliminating faults.
After you have localised the fault, you must record your procedure to
eliminate it in this worksheet.
Describe each of your steps in detail!
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If the system does not fulfill the desired function, return to the first
worksheet and repeat the faultfinding process.
Get new worksheets.
Faultfinding: recommissioning
Name: Date
Project name:
Task:
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Trainees know how to apply cause and effect analysis to mechatronic Training aim
systems. They understand the significance of this method for potentially
assessing the effect of disruptions. They can develop methods to
ensure that faults that pose health hazards, or faults that are difficult to
eliminate or discover, do not occur or can be found quickly.
Additional conditions A simplified FMEA method (without fault assessment) should be used.
Assignment 1. Join the group with which you would like to execute this task.
2. Carry out the FMEA analysis for a fault on the basis of the machine
malfunction list.
3. Discuss possible fault elimination strategies.
4. Present your results to the entire group.
Fault index*:
M= Mechanical fault
E= Electrical fault
P= Pneumatic fault
Exercise 8
Commissioning and operation of mechatronic systems
Practical exercise
Name: Date
Project name:
Task: commissioning station
Additional conditions The station has arrived at the customer’s premises in its original
packaging. In accordance with the customer’s order, individual
components have been preassembled.
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Check Carry out a function test and describe what you have paid attention to.
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What measuring points are available, and what resources are needed?
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Check Carry out a function test and describe what you have paid attention to.
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Aufnahme Receptacle
Buchse Bush
Hebel, vollst Lever, complete
Lagerbuchse Bearing bush
Schwenkhebel Swivelling lever
Welle Shaft
035 690 Modul Bohren Drilling module
035 695 Modul Bohrloch prüfen Drill-hole checking module
036 200 Modul Heben Lifting module
120 880 Station Verteilen Distributing station
120 881 Station Prüfen Testing station
120 882 Station Bearbeiten Processing station
120 887 Station Sortieren Sorting station
121 255 Weiche Switch
151 481 Modul Rundschalttisch Rotary indexing table
162 259 SPS-Board S95U PLC board S95U
162 261 SPS-Board ASA PLC board ASA
162 385 Modul Stapelmagazin Stack magazine module
162 387 Modul Umsetzen Changer module
167 000 Modul Rutsche 210 Slide module 210
167 023 SPS-Board IPC PLC board IPC
170 467 Modul Rutsche 130 Slide module 130
170 650 SPS-Board FPC PLC board FPC
170 676 Modul Sortieren Sorting belt module
172 938 Umrüstsatz Messen Conversion kit for Measuring
module
184 795 SPS-Board S7 PLC board S7
374 135 Transportband Conveyor belt