Christianity and the Newtonian Worldview
9
Christianity and the
Newtonian Worldview
Margaret C . Jacob
A l l his [Christ's] laws are in themselves, abstracted from
any consideration of recompense, conducing to the tem-
poral interest of them that observe them.
—Richard Bentley, 1692
Thus the wise Governour of the W o r l d , hath taken Care for
the Dispatch of Business. But then as too long Engagement
about w o d d l y Matters w o u l d take off Mens M i n d s from
God and Divine Matters, so by this Reservation of every
Seventh Day, that great Inconvenience is prevented also.
— W i l l i a m Derham, 1714
T h e i n t e r p l a y b e t w e e n science a n d r e l i g i o n i n s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
E n g l a n d s e r v e d to t r a n s f o r m b o t h . Far f r o m b e i n g i n c o n f l i c t , as h i s -
t o r i a n s u s e d to s u p p o s e , science a n d r e l i g i o n (as s y s t e m s of ideas)
m o d i f i e d each o t h e r i n t h e course of the c e n t u r y . M a i n s t r e a m E n g l i s h
P r o t e s t a n t s g r a d u a l l y e m b r a c e d a v e r s i o n of t h e n e w science t h a t
s u p p o r t e d t r a d i t i o n a l C h r i s t i a n m e t a p h y s i c s , w h i l e scientists re-
s p o n d e d to the necessity of p r o t e c t i n g a n e s t a b l i s h e d c h u r c h a n d
r e l i g i o s i t y b y s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o d i f y i n g the m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y o f
n a t u r e a n d p u r g i n g i t o f its m a t e r i a l i s t i c t e n d e n c i e s . B u t t h i s process,
t h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of ideas, d i d n o t o c c u r i n m i n d s d i v o r c e d f r o m
e v e r y d a y r e a l i t y . I n t e l l e c t u a l c h a n g e does n o t g e n e r a l l y occur i n t h a t
w a y . Scientists a n d c h u r c h m e n alike w e r e c o m i n g to t e r m s w i t h eco-
n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l forces t h a t w e r e n e w a n d p r o f o u n d l y u n s e t t l i n g .
T o d a y w e use w o r d s l i k e capitalism a n d revolution to describe these
forces; i n t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y m e n ( a n d s o m e w o m e n ) s p o k e o f
n a t u r e a n d G o d , of l a w s s p i r i t u a l a n d n a t u r a l , o f self-interest o r g r e e d ,
o f b u s i n e s s , a n d of t h e necessity f o r o r d e r a n d h a r m o n y . B o t h science
a n d r e l i g i o n w e r e seen as b e i n g capable o f i m p o s i n g t h a t o r d e r , b u t
239
a g r e e m e n t a m o n g the e d u c a t e d as to w h i c h v e r s i o n of e i t h e r w o u l d
best serve w a s d i f f i c u l t , i f n o t i m p o s s i b l e , to achieve. T h i s f a i l u r e to
agree c o n v i n c e d s o m e t h i n k e r s t h a t science a n d n a t u r e , p r o p e r l y
u n d e r s t o o d , were sufficient principles by w h i c h h u m a n beings m i g l i t
o r d e r r e a l i t y . T h e r e s u l t i n g " d e i s m , " o r e v e n " a t h e i s m , " became a
v i t a l p a r t of a n i n t e l l e c t u a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f o u n d t h r o u g h o u t w e s t e r n
E u r o p e i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , c o m m o n l y described b y h i s t o r i a n s
as the " E n l i g h t e n m e n t . " A l m o s t u n w i t t i n g l y , i n the early decades of
the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , science h e l p e d to foster the first g e n e r a t i o n
o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s a m o n g w h o m c o u l d be f o u n d a s i g n i f i c a n t n u m b e r of
q u i t e a r t i c u l a t e o p p o n e n t s of all f o r m s of t r a d i t i o n a l C h r i s t i a n i t y .
THE SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY BACKGROUND
T h e P r o t e s t a n t C h r i s t i a n i t y e m b r a c e d b y Isaac N e w t o n (1642-1727)
a n d h i s N e w t o n i a n f o l l o w e r s h a d been m o l d e d b y a n e w social a n d
economic order that emerged i n seventeenth-century E n g l a n d . A
p o w e r f u l m a r k e t society o p e r a t i n g a c c o r d i n g to the necessities of s u p -
p l y a n d d e m a n d existed i n s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y L o n d o n a n d t l i e
s o u t h e r n m a r k e t t o w n s , a n d a n y c l e r g y m a n w o r t h y of a p u l p i t t l i e r e
h a d to a d d r e s s t h a t f u n d a m e n t a l social a n d m o r a l r e a l i t y . O f c o u r s e ,
t h i s c o m m e r c i a l society, w h i c h g r e w i n c r e a s i n g l y m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s
b y t h e late s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , h a d e m e r g e d w i t h i n the c o n t e x t of
p o l i t i c a l r e v o l u t i o n . T h e E n g l i s h R e v o l u t i o n , u n d e r s t o o d as a m a t r i x
of social a n d p o l i t i c a l u p h e a v a l t h a t b e g a n i n the 1640s a n d t h a t c u l -
m i n a t e d i n t h e R e v o l u t i o n of 1688-89, gave increased p o l i t i c a l p o w e r
to t h e l a n d e d a n d c o m m e r c i a l classes. By t h e late 1690s t h e great
L o n d o n f i n a n c i e r s h a d t h e i r Bank, w h i l e the l a n d e d g e n t r y , w i t h t h e i r
side interests i n c o m m e r c e a n d t r a d e , r u l e d o v e r t h e i r p a r l i a m e n t a i y
seats w i t h l i t t l e i n t e r f e r e n c e f r o m t h e c r o w n . ' I n L o n d o n a n d the
m a r k e t t o w n s m e n of " b u s i n e s s a n d d i s p a t c h , " as one c l e r g y m a n m
t h e 1660s d e s c r i b e d t h e m , r e p r e s e n t e d a n e w class a n d a n e w p o l i t i c a l
force f o r w h o m b o t h l e a r n i n g a n d d i v i n i t y h a d to be practical a n d
a p p l i c a b l e i f t h e y w e r e to be m e a n i n g f u l .
T h e C h r i s t i a n i t y t h a t s p o k e m o s t d i r e c t l y to t h i s p o s t r e v o l u t i o n a i y
elite w a s n o t t h e r i g o r o u s C a l v i n i s m o f t h e 1630s a n d 1640s, w h i c h
h a d i n s p i r e d a g e n e r a t i o n of r e v o l u t i o n a r y saints. R a t h e r i t w a s a
l i b e r a l (at t h e t i m e o n e said " l a t i t u d i n a r i a n " ) A n g l i c a n i s m t h a t re-
p u d i a t e d p r e d e s t i n a t i o n , y e t c o n t i n u e d to d e f i n e r e l i g i o n as a n i n -
d i v i d u a l m a t t e r w h e r e i n t h e conscience of the l a i t y m u s t be r e s p e c t e d ,
a n d t h a t f i r m l y s u b o r d i n a t e d c h u r c h to state, i n s i s t i n g t h a t bishi.<ps
serve, n o t m a n i p u l a t e , t h e p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m . I f t h a t l i b e r a l C h r i s t i a n i t y
240 Christianity and the Newtonian Worldview
h a d a b i r t h p l a c e a n d t h e o l o g i c a l center, i t w a s C a m b r i d g e . T h e r e as
early as the 1650s the C a m b r i d g e Platonists, H e n r y M o r e (1614-1687)
a n d R a l p h C u d w o r t h (1617-1688), r e p u d i a t e d the d o c t r i n e of p r e d e s -
t i n a t i o n , w h i l e the y o u n g m a t h e m a t i c i a n a n d c l e r g y m a n Isaac B a r r o w
(1630-1677), a n associate of N e w t o n , r e c o r d e d p r i v a t e l y h i s belief t h a t
r e l i g i o n m u s t a d d r e s s itself n o t to "cloisters ( w h e n c e m u c h of i t c a m e ) "
b u t to " c o n g r e g a t i o n s of t r a d e s m e n a n d m e r c h a n t s . " ^ I n t h e select
circle of l i b e r a l A n g l i c a n s t h a t N e w t o n f r e q u e n t e d , C a m b r i d g e w a s
i n t e l l e c t u a l l y a l i v e a n d n o t the a r i d w a s t e l a n d c h r o n i c l e d b y
c o m m e n t a t o r s ^ w h o w a n t t o d o w n p l a y the s t i m u l a t i o n p r o v i d e d N e w -
t o n b y M o r e a n d C u d w o r t h o r the i m p o r t a n c e o f Isaac B a r r o w a n d
t h e C a m b r i d g e d i v i n e s i n s h a p i n g the i r e n i c a l , a n t i - C a l v i n i s t , m i l l e -
narian, a n d v i o l e n t l y antimaterialistic C h r i s t i a n i t y that became central
to N e w t o n ' s o w n r e l i g i o s i t y .
N o t o n l y w a s t h i s l i b e r a l A n g l i c a n i s m basic t o N e w t o n ; it w a s also
embraced by a n e w generation of Cambridge-trained clergymen w h o
u s e d b o t h p u l p i t a n d press to a r t i c u l a t e f o r t h e e d u c a t e d elite w h a t
w a s n o t h i n g less t h a n a n e w v e r s i o n of the C h r i s t i a n message. T h e y
a d d r e s s e d t h e m s e l v e s to the c o m p e t i t i v e a n d s e l f - i n t e r e s t e d w o r l d of
t h e m a r k e t a n d f o u n d its ethics, w h e n r e s t r a i n e d b y C h r i s t i a n v i r t u e ,
compatible w i t h salvation. A n d for our purposes even more i m p o r -
t a n t , t h e y u s e d t h e n e w science o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y as a f o u n -
d a t i o n u p o n w h i c h t h i s l i b e r a l C h r i s t i a n i t y m i g h t rest its case f o r G o d ' s
b e n e v o l e n t o v e r s e e i n g o f society a n d c o m m e r c e . C h a n c e a n d d i s o r d e r
are o n l y a p p a r e n t , n o t r e a l , t h e y a r g u e d , a n d G o d i n s t i l l s o r d e r i n a
w o r l d made complex by competition, market fluctuations, and (not
least) p o l i t i c a l u p h e a v a l . Science, l i b e r a l A n g l i c a n s a r g u e d , p r o v e s t h e
r e a l i t y of t h a t i n h e r e n t , p r o v i d e n t i a l l y d i r e c t e d , n a t u r a l h a r m o n y . B y
t h e late s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y the n e w science a n d the n e w A n g l i c a n -
i s m r e i n f o r c e d one a n o t h e r . W e s h o u l d h a r d l y be s u r p r i s e d to f i n d
t h e y o u n g Isaac N e w t o n i n c o r p o r a h n g i n t o his n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y ,
a n d h e n c e i n t o h i s science, d e f i n i t i o n s o f m a t t e r , space, a n d t i m e t h a t
w e r e d e e p l y i n d e b t e d to t h e l i b e r a l A n g l i c a n i s m of R e s t o r a t i o n C a m -
b r i d g e . T h e N e w t o n i a n s y n t h e s i s e n t e r e d the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y as
a n i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n s t r u c t i o n b o r n i n r e s p o n s e to t h e E n g l i s h R e v o l u -
t i o n . M o r e t h a n a n y o t h e r p h i l o s o p h y o f the e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d ,
N e w t o n i a n i s m i n t u r n s h a p e d t h e beliefs a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l a s p i r a t i o n s
o f a n age w e h a v e c o m e t o describe as e n l i g h t e n e d .
B u t i f l i b e r a l A n g l i c a n i s m w a s s y m p a t h e h c to m e n of b u s i n e s s , to
t h e necessities a n d ethics of the m a r k e t p l a c e , to w h a t m o s t p e o p l e
t o d a y w o u l d call m a t e r i a l i n t e r e s t s , h o w c o u l d i t also h a v e b e e n so
v i o l e n t l y o p p o s e d to m a t e r i a l i s m i n p h i l o s o p h y ? I n s e v e n t e e n t h -
century England philosophical materialism, although derived f r o m a
Christianity and the Newtonian Worldview 241
v a r i e t y o f sources a n d f o u n d a m o n g v e r y d i s p a r a t e social g r t ) u p s , was
u n i f o r m l y c o n d e m n e d b y C h r i s t i a n apologists as " a t h e i s m " a n d as
d i s r u p t i v e o f t h e v e r y fabric of social o b l i g a t i o n . T h e y c o n d e m n e d it
f o r e n d o r s i n g t h e w o r s t aspects o f m a r k e t c o m p e t i t i o n a n d w o r l d l y
self-interest, o r t h e y associated it w i t h the r e l i g i o u s heresies p r o
m u l g a t e d b y lower-class social r e f o r m e r s i n t e n t u p o n t i n d e r m i n i n g
t h e c h u r c h ' s p r i v i l e g e s , w h o w e r e o f t e n t i m e s d r a w n f r o m the ranks
o f t h e p e o p l e v i c t i m i z e d b y the n e w w a g e m a r k e t .
Because there w e r e so m a n y varieties of m a t e r i a l i s m i n m i d
seventeenth-century E n g l a n d , n o one d e f i n i t i o n i d e n t i f i e s all its
p r o p o n e n t s a n d t h e i r v a r i o u s social beliefs a n d interests. A l l d i d ,
h o w e v e r , share one c o m m o n p h i l o s o p h i c a l a s s u m p t i o n ; w h i l e t r a d i
t i o n a l C h r i s t i a n m e t a p h y s i c s a r g u e d for a separate s p i r i t u a l r e a l m ,
d i s t i n c t f r o m m a t t e r a n d b o d y — i n effect the w o r l d o f G o d , angels,
a n d souls—materialists obliterated that d i s t i n c t i o n . They m i g h t argue
t h a t souls are i n b o d i e s i n s u c h a w a y as to be i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e one
f r o m t h e o t h e r , o r t h e y m i g h t s i m p l y assert t h a t there is o n l y m a t t e r
i n the u n i v e r s e . T h e sources of s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y m a t e r i a l i s m w e r e
n u m e r o u s : a n c i e n t p h i l o s o p h e r s l i k e A r i s t o t l e o r E p i c u r u s , n e w sci-
entists l i k e H o b b e s , or p o p u l a r heresies a n d beliefs t h a t saw n a t u r e
as a l i v e a n d f e r t i l e w i t h o u t t h e n e e d o f d i v i n e i n t e r v e n t i o n . S u c h
p h i l o s o p h i c a l heresies w e r e p a r t i c u l a r l y r i f e d u r i n g the E n g l i s h Rev-
o l u t i o n . I n the reaction that f o l l o w e d that R e v o l u t i o n , s y m b o l i z e d by
t h e R e s t o r a t i o n o f C h a r l e s I I i n 1660, p r o g r e s s i v e c h u r c h m e n s o u g h t
to a d v a n c e t h e cause o f science u n d e r r o y a l p a t r o n a g e a n d still to
p u r g e i t o f a n y m a t e r i a l i s t i c t e n d e n c i e s . A t stake i n t h e i r e n t e r p r i s e ,
as t h e y p e r c e i v e d i t , w a s n o t s i m p l y the r e c o n c i l i a t i o n of science a n d
r e l i g i o n . H e r e s i e s t h a t e l i m i n a t e d t h e s p i r i t u a l r e a l m , a n d hence its
p r i e s t l y overseers, t h r e a t e n e d t h e v e r y o r d e r of s o c i e t y — c h u r c h , ar-
istocracy, p r o p e r t y , a n d p r i v i l e g e .
I n t h e 1640s a n d 1650s L e v e l l e r s , Q u a k e r s , D i g g e r s , a n d M u g g l e -
t o n i a n s — t o n a m e the b e t t e r k n o w n sectaries o f the p e r i o d — a r g u e d
t h a t i f G o d d w e l t i n N a t u r e ( s o m e w e n t so far as to say t h a t G o d is
N a t u r e ) , t h e n a l l h u m a n b e i n g s p a r t a k e o f t h e d i v i n e i n t h i s w o r l d as
w e l l as i n t h e n e x t . A n d f r o m t h a t m e t a p h y s i c the radicals d r e w c e r t a i n
social c o n c l u s i o n s . S h o u l d n o t a l l p e o p l e share i n t h e riches of the
earth? I f G o d d w e l l s i n us a l l , w h a t n e e d h a v e w e of c l e r g y m e n a n d
c h u r c h e s , a n d are t h e r e s u c h t h i n g s as s i n a n d hell?"* T h a t sort of
p a n t h e i s t i c m a t e r i a l i s m c o u l d j u s t i f y social l e v e l i n g , a n d the C a m -
b r i d g e Platonists w a g e d a v i o l e n t c a m p a i g n i n p u l p i t a n d press against
t h a t h e r e t i c a l a n d d a n g e r o u s r e s p o n s e to social a n d e c o n o m i c i n -
e q u a l i t y . I n t h e 1660s N e w t o n w r o t e a m a n u s c r i p t treatise w h e r e i n
he t o o c o n d e m n e d the m a t e r i a l i s m o f t h e " a t h e i s t s , " " t h e v u l g a r , "
242 Christianity and the Nezotonian Worldvieio
w h o o n t h i s occasion w e r e p r o b a b l y f o l l o w e r s o f a v e r y p a g a n i z e d
v e r s i o n o f A r i s t o t l e ' s p h i l o s o p h y of n a t u r e . ' W h a t e v e r its source, m a -
terialism represented the gravest intellectual heresy c o n f r o n t e d b y the
English church.
T h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l heresies associated w i t h lower-class r a d i c a l i s m
h a d t h e i r a n a l o g u e i n a n o t h e r species of m a t e r i a l i s m b e l i e v e d to be
p r e v a l e n t a m o n g t h e e d u c a t e d classes t h e m s e l v e s . T h e m a j o r p o l i t i c a l
p h i l o s o p h e r o f the E n g l i s h R e v o l u t i o n , T h o m a s H o b b e s (1588-1679),
h a d u s e d the n e w science a n d m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y t o a r g u e t h a t
o n l y matter a n d m o t i o n g o v e r n the operations of nature, a n d i n that
f o r m u l a t i o n c h u r c h m e n s a w a p r o f o u n d t h r e a t to social h a r m o n y as
w e l l as to C h r i s t i a n i t y itself. A c c o r d i n g to H o b b e s , desire a n d p a s s i o n
r u l e i n t h e h e a r t — w e are n o t h i n g b u t m a t t e r i m p e l l e d b y f o r c e — a n d
as a r e s u l t , c h u r c h m e n a r g u e d , H o b b e s ' s m a t e r i a l i s m , w h i c h s a w t h e
a c t i o n s o f m a t t e r as g o v e r n e d o n l y b y l a w s i n h e r e n t to i t , s a n c t i o n e d
t h e u n r e s t r a i n e d use of passion i n p u r s u i t of s e l f - i n t e r e s t — t o para-
p h r a s e H o b b e s , t h e m a r k e t p l a c e o f the a l l against t h e all.*^
W h i l e c h u r c h m e n read H o b b e s as a b l a t a n t m a t e r i a l i s t a n d atheist,
t h e y w e r e also s u s p i c i o u s f o r d i f f e r e n t reasons o f h i s F r e n c h c o n t e m -
p o r a r y , Rene Descartes (1596-1650). A l t h o u g h Descartes w a s a c o m -
m i t t e d t h e i s t , h i s n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y rested o n a r a d i c a l s e p a r a t i o n
o f m a t t e r a n d s p i r i t . T h i s w a s a s e p a r a t i o n so r a d i c a l t h a t t h e C a m -
b r i d g e Platonists, a m o n g o t h e r s , c a m e t o fear t h a t Descartes h a d f r e e d
m a t t e r to o p e r a t e o n its o w n , w i t h o u t the assistance of s p i r i t u a l a g e n -
cies. I n effect, Descartes d e f i n e d m a t t e r i n s u c h a w a y t h a t i t c o u l d
be seen as p a r t o f H o b b e s ' s s e l f - c o n t a i n e d m a t e r i a l o r d e r . N e w t o n
h i m s e l f c a l l e d Descartes a m a t e r i a l i s t a n d a r g u e d t h a t h i s science
w o u l d u n d e r m i n e all r e l i g i o u s belief. A t a l m o s t precisely the same
t i m e the vice-chancellor of C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y , E d m u n d Boldero
o f j e s u s C o l l e g e , o r d e r e d t h a t Descartes's w o r k n o t be read.^ B o t h
H o b b e s a n d Descartes a d d r e s s e d t h e h i g h l y e d u c a t e d , a n d w h a t later
seventeenth-century Anglican Christians, i n c l u d i n g N e w t o n , w a n t e d
was an equally sophisticated natural a n d religious p h i l o s o p h y that
w o u l d effectively counter materialism of whatever origin w h i l e m a i n -
t a i n g a l i b e r a l stance i n m a t t e r s o f d o c t r i n e . C h u r c h m e n w a n t e d social
h a r m o n y w i t h o u t the threat of social d i s o r d e r c o m i n g f r o m b e l o w ,
b u t also w i t h o u t t h e r a p a c i o u s self-interest ( w h i c h u l t i m a t e l y f e d t h e
f l a m e s o f lower-class r a d i c a l i s m ) so characteristic o f the " c r a f t y i l l -
p r i n c i p l e d m e n , " as J o h n E v e l y n , o n e o f t h e f o u n d e r s o f t h e R o y a l
Society, called t h e u n g o d l y a n d p r o s p e r o u s .
U n d e r t h e l i n k a g e f o r g e d b y t h e C a m b r i d g e Platonists, B a r r o w ,
N e w t o n , a n d the N e w t o n i a n s d u r i n g the late s e v e n t e e n t h a n d early
e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d science e n t e r e d i n t o a n alliance
Christianity and the Newtonian Worldvieio 243
a d d r e s s e d to t h e m o r a l r e a l i t y o f a m a r k e t society, the first of its k i m l
( o u t s i d e o f the N e t h e r l a n d s ) to exist i n o n e o f the h i g h l y c e n t r a l i z e d
n a t i o n - s t a t e s o f the early m o d e r n p e r i o d . Science a n d n a t u r a l p h i K u
o p h y , as i n t e r p r e t e d b y N e w t o n a n d h i s f o l l o w e r s , o f f e r e d a m o d e l
of the stable, o r d e r e d , p r o v i d e n t i a l l y g u i d e d u n i v e r s e w i t h i n w h i c h
c o u l d o c c u r t h a t c o m p e t i t i o n so basic to the o p e r a t i o n s of the re
s t r a i n e d , y e t r e l a t i v e l y free, m a r k e t society.
T H E BOYLE LECTURES
T h r o u g h t h e e f f o r t s of t h e first g e n e r a t i o n of N e w t o n i a n s — R i c h a r d
Bentley, S a m u e l C l a r k e , W i l l i a m D e r h a m , a n d W i l l i a m W h i s t o n -
N e w t o n ' s n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y w a s p r e a c h e d f r o m the 1690s o n w a r d
at the p o d i u m p r o v i d e d b y a p r e s t i g i o u s L o n d o n l e c t u r e s h i p . It was
p r e s e n t e d as t h e c o r n e r s t o n e o f a l i b e r a l , t o l e r a n t , a n d h i g h l y p h i l o -
s o p h i c a l v e r s i o n o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , a n a t u r a l r e l i g i o n based u p o n reason
a n d science t h a t came d a n g e r o u s l y close to d e i s m b u t t h a t m a n a g e d ,
i n N e w t o n ' s o w n l i f e t i m e , n e v e r to s l i p o v e r t h a t p a r t i c u l a r l e d g e
Perhaps t h e m a j o r r e a s o n w h y the early N e w t o n i a n s r e m a i n e d ag-
g r e s s i v e l y C h r i s t i a n , o r m o r e precisely A n g l i c a n , d e r i v e d f r o m the
active r o l e t h a t N e w t o n t o o k i n the p r o m u l g a t i o n o f his n a t u r a l p h i -
l o s o p h y . W h e n the great n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h e r a n d s u p p o r t e r of the
c h u r c h , R o b e r t B o y l e , w a s i n his last illness a n d the t e r m s of his w i l l
e s t a b l i s h i n g w h a t became h i s f a m o u s l e c t u r e s h i p became k n o w n to
his i n t i m a t e s , a close f r i e n d of N e w t o n , the Scottish m a t h e m a t i c i a n
D a v i d G r e g o r y , r e c o r d e d i n a m e m o r a n d u m d a t e d 28 D e c e m b e r Ifayi
a r e v e a l i n g g l i m p s e o f N e w t o n ' s sense o f w h a t h i s p h i l o s o p h y m i g h t
a c h i e v e . F r o m t h e date a n d c o n t e n t s o f G r e g o r y ' s m e m o r a n d t t m it
a p p e a r s l i k e l y t h a t N e w t o n w a s r e f e r r i n g to the p r o j e c t e d Boyle lec
t u r e s . H i s d e s c r i p t i o n of the " p u b l i c s p e e c h " a n d the c o n t e n t s of "ane
A c t , " t h a t is, a college speech, thesis, o r d i s p u t a t i o n , closely resembles
the c o n t e n t s of lectures f i r s t g i v e n i n 1692 by Bentley. N e w t o n , i n
effect, s u g g e s t e d t h a t h i s discoveries i n celestial p h y s i c s w o u l d s h o w
the c o s m i c q u a l i t i e s i n t h e l a w s of n a t u r e a n d hence w o u l d serve the
a r g u m e n t f r o m p r o v i d e n t i a l d e s i g n better t h a n the reliance o n the
" g e n e r a l c o n t r i v a n c e " i n a n i m a l s a n d p l a n t s u s e d b y J o h n Ray i n
his The Wisdom of God Manifested in the Works of the Creation (1691).
G r e g o r y ' s m e m o r a n d u m reads:
In M r Newton's o p i n i o n a good design of a publick speech (and w h i c h
may serve well as ane Act) may be to shew that the most simple laws of
nature are observed in the structure of a great part of the Universe, thai
244 Christianity and the Newtonian Worldview
the philosophy ought ther to begin; and that Cosmical Qualities are as
much easier as they are more Universal! than particular ones, and the
general contrivance simpler than that of Animals Plants etc."
I n J a n u a r y 1692 N e w t o n m a y also h a v e s u g g e s t e d R i c h a r d B e n t l e y
as t h e f i r s t Boyle lecturer, a n d earlier, i n July 1691, Bentley h a d a l r e a d y
received instructions t h r o u g h another liberal c h u r c h m a n , W i l l i a m
W o t t o n , o n h o w to u n d e r s t a n d the Principia. W o t t o n took a keen
i n t e r e s t i n t h e Boyle lectures, as d i d his p a t r o n a n d leader of t h e
c h u r c h p a r t y , H e n e a g e F i n c h . I n t h e a u t u m n o f 1692 B e n t l e y d e v e l -
o p e d h i s v e r s i o n o f N e w t o n ' s p h i l o s o p h y a n d u s e d i t as the u n d e r -
p i n n i n g f o r his social v i s i o n . Before p u b l i s h i n g those s e r m o n s B e n t l e y
c o n s u l t e d w i t h N e w t o n , a n d the f i r s t o f N e w t o n ' s f o u r r e p l i e s b e g a n
w i t h t h e n o w f a m o u s w o r d s : " W h e n I w r o t e m y treatise u p o n o u r
S y s t e m e I h a d a n eye u p o n s u c h P r i n c i p l e s as m i g h t w o r k w i t h c o n -
s i d e r i n g m e n f o r t h e beliefe o f a D e i t y a n d n o t h i n g can rejoyce m e
m o r e t h a n to f i n d i t u s e f u l l for t h a t p u r p o s e . " ' By w a y o f assistance
to B e n t l e y , N e w t o n m a y h a v e w r i t t e n a n a c c o u n t of h i s s y s t e m of t h e
w o r l d ; a m a n u s c r i p t version of that draft survives arpong N e w t o n ' s
unpublished papers.'"
I n t h e e a r l y e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y the n u m e r o u s e d i t i o n s a n d t r a n s -
l a t i o n s of t h e B o y l e lectures b e c a m e t h e m a j o r v e h i c l e for d i s s e m i -
n a t i n g N e w t o n i a n n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y to the e d u c a t e d l a i t y b o t h i n
E n g l a n d a n d o n t h e C o n t i n e n t . O n the basis at N e w t o n ' s b e h i n d - t h e -
scenes i n t e r e s t i n t h o s e lectures, h i s c o n s i s t e n t a n t i m a t e r i a l i s m , a n d
his d e v o u t , b u t h i g h l y l i b e r a l a n d i r e n i c a l , C h r i s t i a n i t y , t h i s f o r e m o s t
E n g l i s h scientist s h o u l d also be d e s c r i b e d as a N e w t o n i a n i n t h e social
a n d i d e o l o g i c a l sense. H e c o n d o n e d the Boyle lectures t h a t a r t i c u l a t e d
t h e social v i s i o n o f B e n t l e y , C l a r k e , D e r h a m , a n d t h e o t h e r l i b e r a l
d i v i n e s ; a n d h e l e n t t h e p r e s t i g e o f his a c h i e v e m e n t to w h a t b e c a m e
i n their hands an enlightened p h i l o s o p h y that s u p p o r t e d the p u r s u i t
of sober self-interest, t h a t e n d o r s e d h u m a n d o m i n a t i o n o v e r n a t u r e ,
a n d t h a t e n c o u r a g e d the a p p l i c a t i o n o f scientific l e a r n i n g to the p r o b -
lems posed by navigation, agriculture, a n d i n d u s t r y . I n short, N e w -
t o n i a n i s m became an ideology that justified commercial capitalism,
e m p i r e , scientific p r o g r e s s , a n d a n e w r e l i g i o s i t y geared m o r e to t h e
v i c i s s i t u d e s o f t h i s w o r l d t h a n t h e r e w a r d s o f t h e n e x t . T h i s is n o t t o
say t h a t social factors a n d p o l i t i c a l interest can a c c o u n t f o r N e w t o n ' s
scientific a c h i e v e m e n t s , his m a t h e m a t i c a l g e n i u s , o r his p h i l o s o p h i c a l
i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e s t r u c t u r e o f p h y s i c a l r e a l i t y . B u t i t is to say t h a t , w i t h
h i s c o n s e n t , h i s science s e r v e d a precise i d e o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n i n t h e
e a r l y decades of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . A f t e r 1688-1689 i t w a s u s e d
to s h o r e u p t h e n e w l y r e c o n s t i t u t e d m o n a r c h y a n d e s t a b l i s h e d c h u r c h
as t h e b u l w a r k s o f o r d e r , s t a b i l i t y , a n d p r o s p e r i t y ; o n l y s t r o n g g o v -
Christianity and the Newtonian Worldview 245
e r n m e n t , centralized a n d coordinated by court, placeinen, a n d bish-
o p s , w o u l d m a k e t h e p u r s u i t of e c o n o m i c interests possible. T h e
c o s m i c o r d e r a n d d e s i g n e x p l i c a t e d i n t h e Principia became, i n the
h a n d s o f N e w t o n ' s e a r l y f o l l o w e r s , a n a t u r a l m o d e l for a C h r i s t i a n
society, p r o v i d e n t i a l l y s a n c t i o n e d a n d r e a s o n a b l y t o l e r a n t o f d i v e r s e
r e l i g i o u s beliefs, p r o v i d e d t h e y d i d n o t t h r e a t e n the s t a b i l i t y of the
p o l i t y ( h e n c e t h e e x c l u s i o n o f C a t h o l i c s a n d a n t i - T r i n i t a r i a n heretics
w i t h t h e i r p r o p e n s i t y , or so i t w a s i m a g i n e d , f o r p u r e l y r a t i o n a l i s t
e x p l a n a t i o n s of s u p e r n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a ) . Yet t h e N e w t o n i a n s ar-
g u e d , a g a i n s t t h e d e m a n d s m a d e b y c o n t e m p o r a r y r e f o r m e r s , that
n o f u r t h e r p o l i t i c a l r e f o r m w a s necessary b e y o n d t h a t e m b o d i e d i n
the so-called R e v o l u t i o n s e t t l e m e n t o f 1689.
I n p o l e m i c a l r e s p o n s e to t h e m a t e r i a l i s m o f H o b b e s a n d the p a n t h e -
i s m o f t h e p o l i t i c a l r a d i c a l s , N e w t o n ' s closest f r i e n d s , Bentley, C l a r k e ,
a n d W h i s t o n , t o o k to t h e i r p u l p i t s a n d i n t h e i r lectures a n d w r i t i n g s
p r e a c h e d p r i m a r i l y t o a L o n d o n - b a s e d a n d p r o s p e r o u s — o f t t n rner
c a n t i l e — a u d i e n c e . T h e y e x t o l l e d the v i r t u e s o f self-restraint a n d
p u b l i c - m i n d e d n e s s , w h i l e at t h e same t i m e a s s u r i n g t h e i r c o n g r e g a
Hons t h a t p r o s p e r i t y c a m e to t h e v i r t u o u s a n d t h a t d i v i n e p r o v i d e n c e
p e r m i t t e d , e v e n f o s t e r e d , m a t e r i a l r e w a r d s . T h e same p r o v i d e n c e tliat
generates the m e c h a n i c a l l a w s at w o r k i n t h e u n i v e r s e oversees the
w o r k i n g s o f society a n d g o v e r n m e n t , a n d m e n m u s t see to i t t h a t
t h e i r p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c actions c o n f o r m to the s t a b i l i t y a n d har-
m o n y decreed by supernatural authority. W h i l e tolerating doctrinal
d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g C h r i s h a n s t h e m s e l v e s , reasonable p e o p l e m u s t
a c k n o w l e d g e a vast c o s m i c o r d e r , i m p o s e d b y G o d , a n d a t t e m p t to
i m i t a t e i t i n society a n d g o v e r n m e n t . I n Boyle lectures t h a t w e r e read
a n d a d m i r e d b y e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y t h i n k e r s as d i v e r s e as S a m u e l
J o h n s o n a n d Jean-Jacques Rosseau, S a m u e l C l a r k e a r g u e d that r e l i -
g i o n r e i n f o r c e d b y science s h o u l d p l a y a v i t a l role i n state p o l i c y . "
L i b e r a l A n g l i c a n i s m preaches social o r d e r a n d p o l i t i c a l s t a b i l i t y - i n
o t h e r w o r d s , t h a t m e n s h o u l d n o t be " e x t r e m e l y a n d u n r e a s o n a b l y
s o l i c i t o u s " t o c h a n g e t h e i r s t a t i o n s i n life a n d t h a t t h e y s h o u l d n o t
b e c o m e , i n t h e w o r d s of B e n t l e y , " m e n o f a m b i t i o u s a n d t u r b u l e n t
s p i r i t s , t h a t [are] d i s s a t i s f i e d . . . w i t h p r i v a c y a n d r e t i r e m e n t . " ' " T h e
n a t u r a l r u l e r s s h o u l d be a l l o w e d t h e i r p o s i t i o n s a n d stations; t h e y , o f
course, m u s t practice a m o r a l v i r t u e t h a t is c o n d u c i v e to h a r m o n y
because G o d ' s p r o v i d e n c e sees t o i t t h a t i t is. T h e r e can be n o d o u b t i n g
the a b s o l u t e necessity f o r social s t a b i l i t y a n d n o d o u b t i n g t h a t the
m o r a l l a w s o r d a i n e d b y G o d f o r its a t t a i n m e n t are u n i v e r s a l a n d
guaranteed to w o r k . The physical order explicated by N e w t o n pro-
claims order a n d stability, b u t this order comes not f r o m matter or
n a t u r e b u t d i r e c t l y f r o m G o d , w h o s e w i l l operates i n t h e u n i v e r s e
e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r t h r o u g h active p r i n c i p l e s . T h e " w o r l d n a t u r a l "
246 Christianity and the Newtonian Worldview
Christianity and the Newtonian Worldvieiv 247

s t a n d s as a m o d e l f o r t h e " w o r l d p o l i t i c k , " a n d N e w t o n ' s e x p l a n a t i o n

g o a w a y . T h e c h a r g e bears r e l e v a n c e n o t to t h e r e l i g i o s i t y of the first
of the first provides a f o u n d a t i o n u p o n w h i c h the g o v e r n m e n t of the
g e n e r a t i o n o f N e w t o n i a n s — n o t e v e n to S a m u e l C l a r k e , w h o s e a n t i -
s e c o n d s h o u l d rest. W i t h o u t t h a t m o d e l , w h a t r e f u t a t i o n c o u l d w o r k T r i n i t a r i a n i s m w a s d r a w n f r o m his r e a d i n g of N e w t o n ' s science'" b u t
a g a i n s t t h e radicals o r t h e H o b b i s t s , w h o s e p r e s c r i p t i o n s rested u p o n d i d n o t , i n m y r e a d i n g o f h i s w r i t i n g s , lessen his c o m m i t m e n t to a
o b s e r v e d b e h a v i o r a n d u p o n t h e e x p e r i e n c e of p o l i t i c a l r e v o l u t i o n ? l i b e r a l C h r i s t i a n i t y as he u n d e r s t o o d i t — b u t r a t h e r to t h e s e c o n d
I n t h e m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l a n d c o n s i s t e n t l y r e p u b l i s h e d lectures e v e r g e n e r a t i o n o f N e w t o n i a n s . T h e s e w e r e scientists a n d i d e o l o g u e s w l u )
delivered d u r i n g the eighteenth century, the N e w t o n i a n s soothed a n d c a m e i n t o t h e i r o w n i n the 1720s, i n t h a t c o m p l a c e n t w o r l d of W h i g
assured their congregations, b u t t h e y also s i m u l t a n e o u s l y exhorted o l i g a r c h s t h a t so i m p r e s s e d f o r e i g n v i s i t o r s l i k e V o l t a i r e . I n t h e i r h a n d s
t h e m . W e a l t h , leisure, a n d p o w e r i n the h a n d s of the n a t u r a l r u l e r s N e w t o n i a n science f o s t e r e d a v a r i e t y o f c u l t u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d p l i i l o -
of society f u l f i l l e d the p r o v i d e n t i a l d e s i g n , yet all h a d to be u s e d w i t h s o p h i c a l s y s t e m s t h a t seem to bear l i t t l e r e s e m b l a n c e to the C h r i s -
m o d e r a t i o n a n d i n t h e service o f a l i b e r a l a n d t o l e r a n t C h r i s t i a n i t y . t i a n i t y i n w h i c h N e w t o n , o r W h i s t o n a n d C l a r k e f o r t h a t matter,
Social h a r m o n y a n d p o l i t i c a l s t a b i l i t y c o m p l e m e n t a n o r d e r e d uni- personally believed.
verse e x p l i c a t e d b y N e w t o n , w h e r e m a t t e r is d e a d o r lifeless, i t s m o - Not least o f these n e w i n s t i t u t i o n s w a s F r e e m a s o n r y , t h a t secret
t i o n c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e w i l l o f G o d ; i n s h o r t , as C l a r k e e x p l a i n e d , " t h e r e male fraternity officially established i n 1717 i n L o n d o n . It g r e w o u t
is n o s u c h t h i n g as w h a t m e n c o m m o n l y call t h e c o u r s e o f n a t u r e , o r of the o l d a r t i s a n g u i l d s b u t b e c a m e , u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f W h i g s
the p o w e r o f n a t u r e . [ItJ is n o t h i n g else b u t t h e w i l l of G o d p r o d u c i n g a n d N e w t o n i a n s , a t o t a l l y " s p e c u l a t i v e " (to use the M a s o n i c term)
c e r t a i n effects i n a c o n t i n u e d , r e g u l a r , c o n s t a n t , a n d u n i f o r m m a n - b r o t h e r h o o d of bourgeois gentlemen a n d aristocrats dedicated, as
ner."'^ T h e N e w t o n i a n s s u c c e e d e d , as h a d t h e C a m b r i d g e Platonists t h e i r o f f i c i a l Constitutions p r o c l a i m , to r e l i g i o u s t o l e r a t i o n , Baconian
before t h e m , i n p r o c l a i m i n g the p r o v i d e n t i a l a n d interventionist G o d experimentalism, and court-centered government. The leading spirit
w h o a l l o w e d the o r d e r e d u n i v e r s e to o p e r a t e a c c o r d i n g to d i s c e r n i b l e in British Freemasonry was the A n g l i c a n clergyman jean Theophile
l a w s of n a t u r e . D e s a g u l i e r s (1683-1744), t h e o f f i c i a l e x p e r i m e n t e r o f the U o y a l Society,
who h a d k n o w n N e w t o n w e l l ; i n d e e d , N e w t o n s t o o d as a g o d p a r e n t
to o n e o f D e s a g u l i e r s ' s c h i l d r e n . " D e s a g u l i e r s c o m b i n e d a clerical
N E W T O N I A N I S M A N D DEISM
career, w h i c h he r a t h e r n e g l e c t e d , w i t h a n a v i d d e d i c a t i o n to N e w -
t o n i a n science a n d F r e e m a s o n r y . H e l e c t u r e d w i d e l y i n E n g l a n d a n d
T h e c h a r g e m o s t c o m m o n l y l e v e l e d against t h i s N e w t o n i a n C h r i s -
the N e t h e r l a n d s o n the practical a p p l i c a t i o n of N e w t o n i a n m e c h a n i c s
t i a n i t y o f the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y w a s , a n d is, t h a t i t q u i c k l y d e g e n -
to i n d u s t r y a n d a g r i c u l t u r e . H e also encoviraged the formati(.)n of
e r a t e d i n t o d e i s m . Yet all the e v i d e n c e w e possess a b o u t N e w t o n ' s
M a s o n i c l o d g e s i n t h e p r o v i n c e s a n d a b r o a d , w h i l e his o w n L o n d o n
o w n religiosity c o n f i r m s his theistic a n d p r o v i d e n t i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g
l o d g e at the H o r n T a v e r n w a s a m o n g the m o s t p r e s t i g i o u s i n the
o f G o d a n d his b i b l i c a l sense of h i s t o r y . I n his m i l l e n n i a l p a r a d i s e ,
c o u n t r y a n d t h e o n e to w h i c h t h e F r e n c h p h i l o s o p h e r , C h a r l e s L o u i s
" t h e n e w Jerusalem that [mystical] spiritual b u i l d i n g i n Sion w h e r e
de Secondat M o n t e s q u i e u , p r o u d l y belonged.
o f t h e C h i e f c o r n e r s t o n e is [ C h r i s t ) , " t h e r e t u r n e d S a v i o r w i l l " r u l e
I n t h e h a n d s of D e s a g u l i e r s a n d his N e w t o n i a n associates i n the
w i t h a r o d o f i r o n . " " I n d e e d , N e w t o n d i s c u s s e d e v e n t s i n his o w n
n e w f r a t e r n i t y , i n p a r t i c u l a r B r o o k T a y l o r (1685-1731) a n d M a r t i n
t i m e — f o r e x a m p l e , t h e w a r a g a i n s t France d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f A n n e —
Folkes (1690-1754), t h e L o n d o n M a s o n i c l o d g e s became places w h e r e
as p o s s i b l e signs l e a d i n g to t h e i n s t i t u t i o n of t h a t e x p e c t e d g o d l y
literate a n d c o s m o p o l i t a n m e n c o u l d seek a g r o u n d i n g i n the new
p a r a d i s e . T h e r e was n o t h i n g remote about N e w t o n ' s G o d , a n d
science a n d m a t h e m a t i c s m a d e s i m p l e a n d p a r t i c i p a t e v i c a r i o u s l y i n
s u r e l y if t h e t e r m deism h a d a n y m e a n i n g i n the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y ,
t h e " R o y a l A r t " o f a r c h i t e c t u r e , w i t h its s u p p o s e d l y ancient w i s d o m
it lay i n a d e f i n i t i o n of G o d t h a t a l l o w e d H i m to exist b u t n o t t o
still i n t a c t , w h i l e w o r s h i p i n g the n e w s c i e n c e - i n s p i r e d G o d , the
p a r t i c i p a t e , a n d t h a t r e l e g a t e d C h r i s t i a n i t y to a series o f e t h i c a l m a x -
" G r a n d A r c h i t e c t , " as he w a s c a l l e d . T h e o f f i c i a l M a s o n i c Constitutions
i m s t a k e n less, r a t h e r t h a n m o r e , s e r i o u s l y .
o f 1723 p r e s c r i b e d t h a t " i n a n c i e n t T i m e s M a s o n s w e r e c h a r g ' d i n
Yet after w e h a v e p o i n t e d to N e w t o n ' s i n t e n s e l y C h r i s t i a n t e m p e r
e v e r y C o u n t r y to be o f the R e l i g i o n o f t h a t C o u n t r y o r N a t i o n , w h a t -
o r t o t h e v a g a r i e s i n d e f i n i n g d e i s m d u r i n g the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y ,
ever i t w a s , yet ' t i s n o w t h o u g h t m o r e e x p e d i e n t o n l y to t)blige' t h e m
the c h a r g e t h a t s o m e t h i n g less t h a n C h r i s t i a n e m e r g e d i n c h u r c h -
to t h a t R e l i g i o n i n w h i c h a l l m e n agree, l e a v i n g t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r o p i n
sponsored, science-based E n g l i s h P r o t e s t a n t i s m still w i l l not
i o n s to t h e m s e l v e s . " " * I n t o t h a t f r a t e r n a l a n d secretive r e l i u i o s i t v a
 Christianity and the Newtonian Worldview 249
248 Christianity and the Newtonian Worldview

p o l e m i c s , i t is a g a i n s t the m a t e r i a l i s t s : those w h o assert t h a t g r a v i t y

v a r i e t y o f creeds c o u l d c o m f o r t a b l y f i t ; i n d e e d , e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
is essential to m a t t e r ; t h o s e w h o w o u l d assert the e t e r n i t y of the w o r l d ;
F r e e m a s o n r y , i n b o t h E n g l a n d a n d the C o n t i n e n t , h o u s e d N e w t o -
those w h o d e n y the s u p r e m a c y o f G o d i n e v e r y aspect of creation.^'
n i a n s , p a n t h e i s t s , m a t e r i a l i s t s , a n d deists, w i t h t h e specific i d e n t i t y
I n the second quarter of the eighteenth century, d u r i n g Walpole's
o f t h e object o f w o r s h i p r e v e r e d at l o d g e m e e h n g s u n d e r the n a m e
era, a f a s h i o n a b l e N e w t o n i a n a n d p r o v i d e n t i a l i s t " d e i s m " can be
of " G r a n d A r c h i t e c t " k n o w n o n l y to the i n d i v i d u a l w o r s h i p e r . I n
f o u n d a m o n g t h e e d u c a t e d elite, w h o g r e w less i n t e r e s t e d i n the
effect, t h e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y F r e e m a s o n c o u l d w o r s h i p N e w t o n ' s
doctrinal r i g i d i t y of the early N e w t o n i a n s . Their natural religion was
G o d o r N a t u r e , a n d the d i f f e r e n c e d e p e n d e d n o t u p o n c o m m u n a l
t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n e t h i c a l s y s t e m ( s e l d o m d w e l t u p o n at a n y l e n g t h )
e x p e r i e n c e , w h i c h c o n s i s t e d l a r g e l y o f b a n q u e t s a n d processions, n o r
b u t t r e s s e d b y N e w t o n i a n e x p l a n a t i o n s o f the u n i v e r s e . A n d m o s t
u p o n r i t u a l s a n d c e r e m o n i e s , w h i c h w e r e l a r g e l y secular i n o r i g i n ,
i m p o r t a n t , t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e to i n d i c a t e t h a t Bentley, C l a r k e , or i n
n o r u p o n d o c t r i n e , b u t solely u p o n the p r i v a t e m e a n i n g a t t a c h e d to
t h e 1720s N e w t o n h i m s e l f d i s a p p r o v e d o f t h i s f a s h i o n a b l e e x t r a p o
language.
l a t i o n . N o r s h o u l d t h e y h a v e . T h i s n a t u r a l r e l i g i o n , so b r o a d as to
As a cultural i n s t i t u t i o n Freemasonry betrays the linkage b e t w e e n
a c c o m m o d a t e Protestants a n d e v e n " d e i s t s " o f w h a t e v e r d o c t r i n a l
N e w t o n i a n i s m , w h e n embraced by the educated laity, a n d deism. But
p e r s u a s i o n , at e v e r y t u r n asserted G o d ' s b e n e v o l e n t , i f s o m e w h a t
t h e r e w e r e also p u r e l y i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f N e w t o n ' s s y s t e m
i m p e r s o n a l , r e l a t i o n s h i p to h i s c r e a t i o n . I t w a s a tested b u l w a r k
m a d e b y t h a t s e c o n d g e n e r a t i o n o f N e w t o n i a n scientists w h i c h f u r t h e r
against m a t e r i a l i s m i n p h i l o s o p h y as w e l l as against the p o l i t i c a l r a d -
s u g g e s t t h a t c o n n e c t i o n . I n p a r t i c u l a r , the w r i t i n g s of H e n r y P e m -
i c a l i s m associated w i t h t h e E n g l i s h R e v o l u t i o n . By 1730 m o s t observ-
b e r t o n (1694-1771) are r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h i s " d e - C h r i s t i a n i z e d " N e w -
ers d e c l a r e d t h a t c h u r c h a n d m o n a r c h y rested m o r e securely t h a n
t o n i a n i s m . P e m b e r t o n w a s e d u c a t e d i n L e i d e n u n d e r the great
t h e y h a d i n p r e v i o u s decades a n d t h a t t h e seeds o f d e s t r u c t i o n lay
p h y s i c i a n a n d c h e m i s t L l e r m a n Boerhaave, f r o m w h o m he p r o b a b l y
i n i n t e r n a l c o r r u p t i o n r a t h e r t h a n i n t h e schemes o f the radicals.
l e a r n e d h i s N e w t o n i a n i s m . P e m b e r t o n ' s w i l l i n g n e s s to d e f e n d t h a t
s y s t e m against t h e C o n t i n e n t a l f o l l o w e r s o f L e i b n i z b r o u g h t h i m to G i v e n the i n c r e a s i n g l y o b v i o u s d e e m p h a s i z i n g of r e l i g i o u s doc-
N e w t o n ' s a t t e n t i o n , a n d b y 1725 he w a s s u p e r v i s i n g the p r o d u c t i o n t r i n e s i n f a v o r o f a science-based n a t u r a l r e l i g i o n c h a m p i o n e d b y t h e
o f t h e t h i r d e d i t i o n of t h e Principia (1726). A l t h o u g h v a r i o u s L o n d o n N e w t o n i a n s , i t is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t E u r o p e a n i n t e l l e c t u a l s h o s t i l e
F r e e m a s o n s w h o w e r e p u b l i s h e r s a n d p r i n t e r s w e r e i n v o l v e d i n its to o r g a n i z e d r e l i g i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y as f o u n d i n C a t h o l i c c o u n t r i e s ,
a c t u a l p r o d u c t i o n , a n d i n d e e d i n t h e g e n e r a l d i s s e m i n a t i o n of N e w - r u s h e d to e m b r a c e t h e N e w t o n i a n s y n t h e s i s . T h a t w a s precisely the
t o n i a n science, P e m b e r t o n , u n l i k e D e s a g u l i e r s , Folkes, a n d T a y l o r , r e s p o n s e o f the y o u n g V o l t a i r e , w h o after a r r i v i n g i n E n g l a n d i n 1726
d o e s n o t a p p e a r to h a v e b e e n a M a s o n . " became a n a r d e n t N e w t o n i a n . I n d e e d , he k n e w Clarke's Boyle lec-
t u r e s i n t i m a t e l y , a n d w i t h h i s N e w t o n i a n f a i t h i n place V o l t a i r e
T h e w r i t i n g s o f P e m b e r t o n a n d h i s N e w t o n i a n colleagues r e p e a t e d
l a u n c h e d v i o l e n t p o l e m i c s against clerics, r e l i g i o u s p e r s e c u t i o n , a n d
t h e m e s m a d e f a m o u s b y t h e great Boyle l e c t u r e r s . Yet t h i s n e x t g e n -
m o s t f o r m s o f o r g a n i z e d w o r s h i p . H i s c o n t e m p o r a r y a n d the l e a d i n g
e r a t i o n o f N e w t o n i a n s t o n e d d o w n the p o l e m i c s a i m e d at f r e e t h i n k e r s
D u t c h N e w t o n i a n o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , W i l l e m Jacob s'Graves-
a n d m a t e r i a l i s t s , w h i c h h a d b e e n so characteristic of the earlier p e r i o d .
a n d e , t a u g h t N e w t o n i a n p h y s i c s at L e i d e n f o r decades, b e l i e v e d
T h e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t of the H a n o v e r i a n Succession i n 1714 h a d e n -
d e e p l y i n d i v i n e p r o v i d e n c e , a n d seems to h a v e h a d n o scruples a b o u t
g e n d e r e d a m o d i c u m of p o l i t i c a l c o m p l a c e n c y . D e d i c a t i n g his e x p o -
associating w i t h p a n t h e i s t s , m a t e r i a l i s t s , a n d F r e e m a s o n s — p e r h a p s
s i t i o n of N e w t o n ' s p h i l o s o p h y t o R o b e r t W a l p o l e , t h e f i r s t p r i m e
e v e n j o i n i n g the l a s t - n a m e d o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h e a s s i m i l a t i o n of N e w -
m i n i s t e r , w h o s e g o v e r n m e n t e m b o d i e d reason as i t d i d his " m a s c u l i n e
t o n i a n science i n t o W e s t e r n t h o u g h t p r o d u c e d the first g e n e r a t i o n o f
p e r s p i c u i t y a n d s t r e n g t h of a r g u m e n t , " P e m b e r t o n c l a i m e d t h a t N e w -
E u r o p e a n t h i n k e r s f o r w h o m f a i t h i n the o r d e r o f the u n i v e r s e p r o v e d
t o n h a d r e a d a n d a p p r o v e d t h e greater- p a r t of t h i s treatise.^"
m o r e s a t i s f y i n g t h a n f a i t h i n d o c t r i n e s , creeds, a n d clerical a u t h o r i t y .
P e m b e r t o n ' s A View of Sir Isaac Neioton's Philosophy (1728) is a m u c h
m o r e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d a n d succinct a c c o u n t of N e w t o n ' s p h i l o s o p h y
o f n a t u r e , h i s d e f i n i t i o n s o f m a t t e r , space, t i m e , t h e v a c u u m , a n d the
CHRISTIAN OPPOSITION TO N E W T O N I A N I S MIN E N G L A N D
l a w o f u n i v e r s a l g r a v i t a t i o n , t h a n t h a t f o u n d i n the Boyle lectures.
C h r i s t i a n a p o l o g e t i c s has b e e n d e e m p h a s i z e d i n f a v o r of a g e n e r a l ,
b u t c o n s t a n t , e m p h a s i s o n the p o w e r o f the d e i t y , o n a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d By the m i d d l e o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y m a n y E n g l i s h Protestants
h a d b e c o m e c o n v i n c e d t h a t the g r o w t h of d e i s m a n d m a t e r i a l i s m , the
e x p l a n a t i o n o f N e w t o n i a n p h y s i c s . W h e n e v e r P e m b e r t o n enters i n t o
250 Christianity and the Newtonian Worldview
degeneration of public a n d private morality, a n d political c o r r u p t i o n
s h o u l d be l a i d at t h e d o o r of l i b e r a l A n g l i c a n i s m a n d its science-
s u p p o r t e d n a t u r a l t h e o l o g y . I n t h i s age o f W h i g a s c e n d a n c y t h e o p -
p o n e n t s o f N e w t o n i a n C h r i s t i a n i t y p r e d i c t a b l y c a m e f r o m the p o l i t i c a l
o p p o s i t i o n , the T o r y o r " c o u n t r y " w i n g o f the A n g l i c a n c h u r c h . By
the 1740s t h i s T o r y d i s a f f e c t i o n l e d to t h e q u e s t i o n i n g o f t h e m o s t
basic tenets o f l i b e r a l A n g l i c a n i s m . T o r y t h i n k e r s became i n c r e a s i n g l y
convinced that the N e w t o n i a n s , possibly even N e w t o n h i m s e l f — a l -
t h o u g h f e w , if a n y , o f h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s o u t s i d e his circle k n e w w h a t
w e n o w k n o w about his ideological involvements a n d his religious
b e l i e f s — h a d , b y t h e i r a v o w a l of t h e n e w m e c h a n i c a l p h i l o s o p h y as
t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f n a t u r a l r e l i g i o n , e f f e c t i v e l y u n d e r m i n e d all r e l i g i o n .
I r o n i c a l l y , i n t h e l i g h t of w h a t w e k n o w a b o u t the i d e o l o g i c a l uses o f
s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y science, t h e y b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e N e w t o n i a n s h a d
o p e n e d the d o o r to t h e radicals, t o the atheists, deists, a n d S p i n o z i s t s .
This a n t i - N e w t o n i a n thrust w i t h i n Tory A n g l i c a n t h o u g h t received
its m o s t e l a b o r a t e e x p l i c a t i o n i n the v o l u m i n o u s w r i t i n g s of J o h n
H u t c h i n s o n (1674-1737) a n d his m a n y f o l l o w e r s . " A l t h o u g h p r i m a r i l y
g i v e n to n a t u r a l - p h i l o s o p h i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n s o f the u n i v e r s e , t h i s a n t i -
N e w t o n i a n m o v e m e n t also d i s p l a y e d s t r o n g l y m y s t i c a l a n d s p i r i -
t u a l i z i n g t e n d e n c i e s . It s o u g h t to k e e p aspects of N e w t o n i a n science,
w h i l e f i n d i n g i n n a t u r e p r o o f f o r d o c t r i n e s as d i v e r s e as the Fall of
M a n a n d the T r i n i t y .
T h r o u g h o u t the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y the a n t i - N e w t o n i a n i s m o f t h e
d e v o u t m a y h a v e b e e n m u c h m o r e w i d e s p r e a d t h a n has as y e t b e e n
i m a g i n e d . M e t h o d i s t p r e a c h e r s c o u l d be f o u n d w h o " b i t t e r l y i n -
v e i g h e d against N e w t o n as a n i g n o r a n t p r e t e n d e r w h o h a d p r e s u m e d
to set u p h i s o w n ridiculous c h i m e r a s i n o p p o s i t i o n to the sacred
p h i l o s o p h y of the Pentateuch."^^ If a n y t h r e a d u n i t e d s u c h d i s p a r a t e
r e l i g i o u s p o s i t i o n s as t h o s e o f t h e H u t c h i n s o n i a n s a n d t h e " e n t h u -
siastic" M e t h o d i s t s , it w a s i n fact t h e i r o p p o s i t i o n to e s t a b l i s h m e n t
c u l t u r e a n d its l i b e r a l a n d N e w t o n i a n s p o k e s m e n . T o r y o r " c o u n t r y "
o p p o s i t i o n , i n p a r t i c u l a r its C h r i s t i a n a n d G o d - f e a r i n g e l e m e n t of
w h a t e v e r sectarian p e r s u a s i o n , saw the m a t e r i a l i s t s as t h e q u i n t e s -
sential s y m b o l o f a c o r r u p t age a n d as the w a y w a r d , b u t i n e v i t a b l e ,
o f f s p r i n g o f t h e i r science-deceived elders. E v e n w i t h i n C a m b r i d g e
itself a r e a c t i o n set i n against t h e alliance o f science a n d r e l i g i o n , a n d
t h r o u g h o u t the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y the college c o m m o n r o o m s a n d
lecture halls w i t n e s s e d i s o l a t e d attacks o n a f o r m of r e l i g i o n n o w
t o t a l l y d e p e n d e n t u p o n p r i n c i p l e s of a t t r a c t i o n a n d i n e r t i a a n d d e f i -
n i t i o n s of m a t t e r a n d m o t i o n .
A f e w e x a m p l e s s h o u l d suffice to i l l u s t r a t e t h e r e l i g i o u s sensibilities
o f these a n t i - N e w t o n i a n critics a n d the d e p t h of t h e i r d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n .
Christianity and the Newtonian Worldview 251
G e o r g e C h e y n e (1671-1743), o n e such critic a n d one of the finest
d o c t o r s of h i s age, became a n early c o n v e r t to the N e w t o n i a n n a t u r a l
p h i l o s o p h y a n d w r o t e a l o n g treatise (The Philosophical Principles of
Religion, 1705, 1715) i n s u p p o r t o f n a t u r a l r e l i g i o n based u p o n N e w -
t o n i a n p r i n c i p l e s . I n d e e d , C h e y n e w a s so c o n v i n c e d of the a r g u m e n t
f r o m d e s i g n t h a t he b e l i e v e d d i v i n e p r o v i d e n c e to have d e s i g n e d the
w a t e r s at Bath as the m e a n s b y w h i c h the E n g l i s h m i g h t cope w i t h
t h e i r w e a t h e r a n d diet.^'' A p p a r e n t l y C h e y n e k n e w w h e r e o f he s p o k e ;
he h a d b e e n a " F r e e - l i v e r " a n d s u f f e r e d f r o m e x t r e m e obesity for m a n y
years. H e t h e n b e c a m e a p i o n e e r f o r clean l i v i n g a n d careful d i e t a n d
an e x p e r t o n g o u t .
By t h e 1730s C h e y n e h a d b e c o m e c o n v i n c e d t h a t the b o d y p o l i t i c
w a s s e v e r e l y a i l i n g , a n d he traced its disease to " s p u r i o u s F r e e t h i n k -
ers, active L a t i t u d i n a r i a n s , a n d A p o s t o l i c I n f i d e l s . " " A s C h e y n e g r e w
i n c r e a s i n g l y disaffected f r o m t h e r u l i n g W h i g o l i g a r c h y , he s p o k e
m o r e a n d m o r e bitterly about liberal divines a n d freethinkers and
t u r n e d t o w a r d M e t h o d i s m . ^ * ' A t precisely the p e r i o d of his p o l i t i c a l
d i s a f f e c t i o n C h e y n e also g r e w s k e p t i c a l o f the n e w science w i t h its
e m p h a s i s u p o n i n d u c t i o n a n d c a l c u l a t i o n . I n his search f o r p h y s i c a l
well-being i n m a n a n d g o v e r n m e n t , Cheyne abandoned the N e w -
tonian synthesis a n d opted for an increasingly spiritualized under
standing of nature and for a contemplative, almost mystical and
m i l l e n a r i a n , v e r s i o n of C h r i s t i a n i t y . " I n t h e face o f the c o r r u p t i o n he
u n i v e r s a l l y p e r c e i v e d , C h e y n e , the y o u n g N e w t o n i a n , became the
d i s a f f e c t e d a n d a n t i e s t a b l i s h m e n t M e t h o d i s t . For t h e first t i m e i n Prot-
estant E u r o p e the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y w i t n e s s e d a w i d e s p r e a d d i s -
a f f e c t i o n f r o m t h e n e w science, characterized b y a g r o w i n g sense that
science h a d b e t r a y e d the v e r y r e l i g i o u s s e n s i b i l i t y t h a t h a d d o n e so
m u c h d u r i n g t h e p r e v i o u s c e n t u r y to foster i t .
T h e r u l e o f t h e l i b e r a l d i v i n e s i n the g o v e r n m e n t of t h e c h u r c l i
f u r t h e r i n f l a m e d t h e clerical (as w e l l as l a y ) o p p o s i t i o n to W h i g he-
g e m o n y i n c h u r c h a n d state a n d l o w - c h u r c h A n g l i c a n i s m . G i v e n the
p o w e r o f t h e l a t i t u d i n a r i a n s , f e w i f a n y of t h e o p p o s i t i o n clergy ever
e m e r g e d o u t o f t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d ecclesiastical w i l d e r n e s s to b e c o m e
effective s p o k e s m e n a g a i n s t t h e p r e v a i l i n g o r d e r . By the 1720s a n d
1730s W a l p o l e w a s said to h a v e f o u n d his p o p e i n the W h i g g i s h
E d m u n d G i b s o n , b i s h o p o f L o n d o n , w h i l e the l i b e r a l N e w t o n i a n Ben-
j a m i n H o a d l y , w h o h a d l e a r n e d h i s science f r o m S a m u e l C l a r k e , i n
cited t h e T o r y o p p o s i t i o n b y a r g u i n g f o r the s u b o r d i n a t i o n of c h u r c l i
to state. H o a d l y w a s r e w a r d e d w i t h a b i s h o p r i c for his e f f o r t s i n
s u p p o r t of t h e W h i g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of ecclesiastical g o v e r n m e n t . I n
contrast, a l i e n a t e d T o r y a n d a n t i - N e w t o n i a n c h u r c h m e n , such as the
H u t c h i n s o n i a n G e o r g e H o m e (1730-1792), g e n e r a l l y k e p t then- o p m -
252 Christianity and the Newtonian Worldview
i o n s t o t h e m s e l v e s . O n l y i n 1790 d i d H o m e f i n a l l y o b t a i n h i g h eccle-
siastical office as b i s h o p o f N o r w i c h ; i n t h e i n t e r i m he c o n f i n e d h i s
o p i n i o n s o n c u r r e n t e v e n t s a n d t h e state o f t h e c h u r c h t o h i s p r i v a t e
diary.
H o m e ' s d i a r y is t h e r e f o r e a v a l u a b l e g u i d e to the T o r y a n d a n t i -
N e w t o n i a n c o n s c i e n c e , a n d i t reveals t h a t he b e l i e v e d t h a t " A r i a n i s m
a n d D e i s m . . . h a v e d a r k e n e d t h e s u n . " I n a m o m e n t of s e l f - p i t y he
b i t t e r l y r e c o r d e d : " T h e s e [are] p o o r g e n t l e m e n t h e H u t c h i n s o n i a n s
because t h e y ' l l n e v e r get a n y p r e f e r m e n t . T h e b i s h o p s . . . all e n t e r e d
i n t o a l e a g u e n e v e r to p r o m o t e t h e m . . . [ y e t ] w e are n o t o f t h e
n u m b e r s o f t h e m w h o p r e a c h C h r i s t i a n i t y f o r g a i n o r take o r d e r s
because w e are l i k e l y to get m o r e b y t h a t t h a n b y a n y t h i n g else."^*
H o m e was convinced that the W h i g s a n d liberal c h u r c h m e n had
i n v e n t e d pernicious political a n d religious p r i n c i p l e s — " r e l i g i o n of
n a t u r e [is| a c h i m e r a " — w h i l e W h i g p r i n c i p l e s a l m o s t m v a r i a b l y lead
to republicanism.^' H o m e was convinced that mathematics could
never p r o v i d e ultimate certainty about the nature of r e a l i t y — " n o t h i n g
b u t r e v e l a t i o n can e v e r set us r i g h t , o r g i v e us c e r t a i n t y . " A n d t o m a k e
the d a n g e r to r e l i g i o n e v e n m o r e e x t r e m e . H o m e b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e
radicals w e r e e v e r y w h e r e ; he o b s e r v e d "a p r e s b y t e r i a n w h o said t h a t
m a n w a s n o t b o r n f o r s e r v i n g k i n g s — s o c h o p p i n g his n e c k w i t h h i s
hands."^^ H o m e k n e w " r a n t e r s " i n h i s o w n t i m e (a r a d i c a l sect of t h e
1650s) w h o , t r u e t o t h e i r n a t u r a l i s t i c d o c t r i n e s , m a k e e v e r y t h i n g g o d ,
w h i c h " i s the d r e g s o f the o l d c o r r u p t h e a t h e n p h i l o s o p h y . " " " If
H o m e ' s o b s e r v a t i o n s w e r e t r u e to a larger r e a l i t y , p e r h a p s w e can
b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d w h y the g u a r d i a n s o f the W h i g c o n s t i t u t i o n e n -
f o r c e d s o m e of the m o s t r e p r e s s i v e l e g i s l a t i o n against d i s r u p t i v e ele-
m e n t s e v e r t o be d e v i s e d i n t h e h i s t o r y o f E n g l i s h c r i m i n a l l a w .
D e s p i t e t h i s c a t a l o g u e of w o e s i n d u c e d b y t h e specter o f p o p u l a r
r a d i c a l i s m a n d i r r e l i g i o n . H o m e reserved e n o u g h a n i m o s i t y to list
tersely t h e m a n y f a i l i n g s o f J o h n T i l l o t s o n , a r c h b i s h o p o f C a n t e r b u r y
(1691-1695) after the R e v o l u t i o n , w h o m o r e t h a n a n y o t h e r a r c h b i s h o p
in his century had shifted the church's t h i n k i n g t o w a r d religious tol-
e r a t i o n , c o n s t i t u t i o n a l m o n a r c h y , a n d the n e w science. W e l l after 1750
H o m e c o n d e m n s T i l l o t s o n as if he w e r e a l i v e a n d w e l l a n d charges
t h a t he " d e n i e s the d i v i n i t y of C h r i s t . . . d e n i e s the e t e r n i t y of h e l l
t o r m e n t s . . . speaks o f the O l d T e s t a m e n t as n o t g o o d n o r r e l a t i n g
t o C h r i s t . . . m a k e s C h r i s t i a n i t y g o o d f o r n o t h i n g b u t to k e e p societies
i n o r d e r t h e better t h a t there s h o u l d be n o C h r i s t t h a n t h a t it s h o u l d
d i s t u r b societies. "^^ H o m e h a d d i s c e r n e d , as h a d m a n y o f h i s a l i e n a t e d
l a y a n d clerical c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , the social ( b u t n o t necessarily t h e
s p i r i t u a l ) message that lay at t h e heart of N e w t o n i a n n a t u r a l r e l i g i o n .
T h a t its s p o k e s m e n w e r e p e r c e i v e d as p u t t i n g t h e i r b l e s s i n g s o n a
Christianity and the Newtonian Worldview 253
c o r r u p t a n d godless society m e r e l y c o n f i r m e d o p p o s i t i o n attempts to
f i n d a l t e r n a t i v e f o r m s o f science a n d C h r i s t i a n w o r s h i p .
G e n e r a l l y these a t t e m p t s to f i n d a n a l t e r n a t i v e to N e w t o n i a n sci-
ence a n d n a t u r a l r e l i g i o n l e d to t h e exercises i n b a r o q u e m e t a p h y s i c s
t h a t w e associate w i t h H u t c h i n s o n a n d his w r i t i n g s o n science a n d
the T r i n i t y , o r to the p h i l o s o p h i c a l i d e a l i s m o f B i s h o p Berkeley, w h i c l i
w a s to p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e G e r m a n E n l i g h t e n m e n t . These
critics n e v e r s u c c e e d e d , h o w e v e r , i n b r e a k i n g t h e l i n k a g e b e t w e e n
N e w t o n i a n science a n d the l i b e r a l C h r i s t i a n i t y o f the c h u r c h ' s lead
e r s h i p . A s a r e s u l t , late i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y W i l l i a m Blake, w h o
w a s s e n s i t i v e to t h a t l i n k a g e , came t o see N e w t o n as a s y m b o l of
o p p r e s s i o n , as a p a r t y to c o m m e r c i a l a n d i n d u s t r i a l society a n d to the
e n d o r s e m e n t o f e c o n o m i c e x p l o i t a t i o n i n h e r e n t i n t h e social i d e o l o g y
of liberal Anglicanism.^^
O n l y i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y d i d D a r w i n i a n i s m d e l i v e r a severe
b l o w , n o t t o C h r i s t i a n i t y as s u c h , b u t to s c i e n c e - s u p p o r t e d a n d l i b e r a l
A n g l i c a n i s m . N o t o n l y d i d D a r w i n e x p o s e t h e scientific f a i l i n g s i n t h e
a r g u m e n t f r o m d e s i g n ; s o m e of h i s i m p o r t a n t f o l l o w e r s also called i n
q u e s t i o n t h a t m o d e l o f social o r d e r a n d b e n i g n h a r m o n y , b o r n i n
r e a c t i o n to r e v o l u t i o n , w h i c h h a d for so l o n g d e n i e d the realities of
c o m m e r c i a l society. Yet f o r n e a r l y a c e n t u r y , b e g i n n i n g i n the 1690s,
N e w t o n ' s science h a d p r o v i d e d the i n t e l l e c t u a l f o u n d a t i o n for a
u n i q u e v e r s i o n o f E u r o p e a n P r o t e s t a n t i s m , o n e p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t e d to
the m a i n t e n a n c e o f p o l i t i c a l s t a b i l i t y a n d a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d d e g r e e
of r e l i g i o u s t o l e r a t i o n , all w i t h i n the context of a r a p i d l y e x p a n d i n g
c o m m e r c i a l society.
NOTES
1. For a discussion of this political process see J. H . Plumb, Thd Origins
of Political Stability, England, 1675-1725 (Boston; Houghton M i f f l i n , 1967),
pp. 159-189.
2. Margaret C. Jacob, The Neivtonians and the English Revolution lo89-17Hi
(Ithaca, N.Y.; Cornell Univ. Press, 1976), p. 45. For preachings against pre-
destination i n Cambridge d u r i n g the 1650s see Trinity College, Cambridge,
MS R. 10.29, notes made by Isaac Barrow on sermons by Benjamin VVhichcote,
Ralph C u d w o r t h , John A r r o w s m i t h , and others.
3. Richard S. Westfall, "Isaac N e w t o n in Cambridge; The Restoration Uni-
versity and Scientific Creativity," in Culture and Politics: From Puritanism to the
Enlightenment, ed. Perez Zagorin (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London; Univ. of
California Press, 1980), p p . 135-164. For a different perspective see James
Jacob and Margaret Jacob, "The Anglican Origins of Modern Science; The
Metaphysical Foundations of the W h i g Constitution," Isis 71 (1980); 251-267.
254 Christianity and the Neiotonian Worldview
Christianity and the Newtonian Worldvieiu
255
4. Christopher H i l l , The World Turned Upside Down (New York: V i k i n g Press,
1972), p p . 112, 114, 176, 318-319. 21. I b i d . , p p . 22, 180-181, 406-407.
5. Unpublished Scientific Papers of Isaac Nezvton, ed. A . Rupert Hall and Marie 22. A. J. K u h n , "Hutchinson vs. N e w t o n , " Journal of the Histon/ of Ideas 22
Boas Hail (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1962), p p . 141-142, (1961): 303-322.
6. Jacob, Newtonians, p p . 169-171. 23. Barnard Semmel, The Methodist Revolution (New York: Basic Bi)L.ks,
1973), p. 20.
7. John Craig to John Conduitt; 7 Apr. 1727, Cambridge University Library,
MS A d d . 4007, f o l . 686. Cf. John Gascoigne, " T h e H o l y Alliance': The Rise 24. See George Cheyne, An Essay on the Gout, with an Account ol the t'latuic
and Diffusion of Newtonian Natural Philosophy and Latitudinarian Theology and Qualities of the Bath Waters (London, 1720).
w i t h i n Cambridge from the Restoration to the Accession of George I I " 25. George Cheyne, Dr. Chcyne's Account of Himself and His Writings: Faith
(D. Phil, diss.. University of Cambridge, 1981), p . 115 (citing Bodleian Library, fully Extracted from His Various Works (London, 1743), p . 21.
MS Rawlinson C.146, f o l . 37). This is a very useful thesis, w h i c h documents 26. An Essay on Regimen . . . Serving to Illustrate the Principles and Theory oj
Newton's relations w i t h other fellows i n his university and modifies the Philosophical Medicin, and Point Out Some of Its Moral Consetpiencet, (London
account found in Richard S. Westfall, Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton 1740), p p . x i v - x v ; The Letters of Dr. George Cheyne to the Countess of Huntingdon,
(Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1980), chap. 3. ed. Charles F. Mullett (San Marino, Calif.: H u n t i n g t o n Library, 1940), passim
8. The Correspondence of Sir Isaac Newton, ed. H . W. Turnbull, 7 vols. (Cam- 27. Essay on Regimen, p p . viii, 206-208, 227-236.
bridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1959-1977), 3:191. Cf. James E. Force, William 28. "Commonplace Book I of George H o m e , Bishop of N o r w i c h . " O w n e d
Whiston: Honest Newtonian (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985). by Sir Robert Arundel, but n o w i n the possessiim of the University I ibrary,
9. Jacob, Newtonians, p. 156. Cambridge, MS A d d . 8134/B/l, f o l . 2 (made available by the kindness ot
10. 1. B. Cohen, "Isaac Newton's Principia, the Scriptures and Divine Prov- Christopher Wilde). Probably written i n the 1760s. For further evidence ot
idence," in Philosophy, Science and Method: Essays in Honor of Ernest Nagel, ed. tension between Hutchinsonians and Newtonians see Walter Wilson, Histon/
S. Morgenbesser, P. Suppes, and M . White ( N e w York: St. Martin's Press, and Antitjuities of Dissenting Churches and Meeting Houses in London . . . ,2 vols.
1969), p p . 523-548. (London, 1808), 2:90. Cf. C. Wilde, "1 lutchinsonianism, Natural Philosophy
11. A Discourse Concermng the Unchangeable Obligations of Natural Reli- and Religious Controversy i n Eighteenth Century Britain," History of Scieiur
18 (1980): 1-24.
gions and the Truth and Certainty of the Christian Religion (London, 1706),
pp. 152-153. 29. "Commonplace Book," fols. 29, 42-43.
12. The Works of Richard Bentley, ed. A . Dyce, 3 vols. (London, 1838), 3:24. 30. I b i d . , f o l . 70.
For Whiston see Force, William Whiston. 31. I b i d . , fol. 100.
13. A Discourse . . . , in A Collection of Theological Tracts, ed. Richard Watson, 32. I b i d . , f o l . 111.
4 vols. (London, 1785), 4:246; a more accessible edition. 33. David V. Erdman, Blake: Prophet against Empire (New York: Doubloday,
14. Frank E. Manuel, The Religion of Isaac Newton: The Fremantle Lectures, 1969), p p . 224, 367, 484.
1973 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974), p p . 132-133. Appendix taken from
Newton's manuscripts.
15. Margaret Jacob, " N e w t o n and the French Prophets: N e w Evidence,"
History of Science 16 (1978): 134-142.
16. Larry Stewart, "Samuel Clarke, Newtonianism, and the Factions of
Post-Revolutionary England," journal of the History of Ideas 42 (1980): 53-72.
17. For Desaguliers and Freemasonry i n general see Margaret Jacob, The
Radical Enlightenment: Pantheists, Freemasons, and Republicans (London and Bos-
ton: George Allen & U n w i n , 1981), p p . 122-126.
18. Ibid., p. 280, i n appendix; a reprinting of a portion of the 1723 edition
of James Anderson, The Constitutions of the Freemasons (London).
19. J. R. Clarke, "The Royal Society and Early Grand Lodge Freemasonry,"
Ars Quatuor Coronatorum 80 (1967): 110-119. Of the t w o hundred k n o w n Ma-
sons based in London i n the 1720s, one out of four was a Fellow of the Royal
Society.
20. Henry Pemberton, A Vieu> of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy (London,
1728), dedication. The subscription list is heavily Whiggish.