Rheology-Hydraulics

CHAPTER
5 Rheology and Hydraulics
Introduction
The physical properties of a drilling hole cleaning, minimize pump pressures
fluid, density and rheological proper- and avoid fluid or formation influxes,
ties are monitored to assist in optimiz- as well as prevent loss of circulation to
ing the drilling process. These physical formations being drilled.
properties contribute to several impor- Rheology and hydraulics are interre-
tant aspects for successfully drilling a lated studies of fluid behavior. Rheology
well, including: is the study of how matter deforms and
• Provide pressure control to prevent flows. It is primarily concerned with the
an influx of formation fluid. relationship of shear stress and shear
• Provide energy at the bit to maximize rate and the impact these have on flow
Rate of Penetration (ROP). characteristics inside tubulars and annu-
Rheology is • Provide wellbore stability through lar spaces. Hydraulics describes how fluid
the science of pressured or mechanically stressed flow creates and uses pressures. In drill-
zones. ing fluids, the flow behavior of the fluid
deformation • Suspend cuttings and weight must be described using rheological
and flow of material during static periods. models and equations before the
matter. • Permit separation of drilled solids hydraulic equations can be applied.
and gas at surface. This chapter discusses the rheologi-
• Remove cuttings from the well. cal properties of drilling fluids, the
factors that influence these properties
Each well is unique, therefore it is
and the impact they have with respect
important to control these properties
to performing work during the drilling
with respect to the requirements for a
operation. A discussion of the influ-
specific well and fluid being used. The
ence of rheological properties on hole
rheological properties of a fluid can
cleaning, barite suspension and solids
affect one aspect negatively while pro-
separation can be found in the chap-
viding a significant positive impact with
ters on Hole Cleaning, Barite Sag and
respect to another aspect. A balance
Solids Control, respectively.
must be attained in order to maximize
Rheology
Rheology is the science of deformation to describe drilling fluid viscosity and
and flow of matter. By making certain rheological properties:
measurements on a fluid it is possible 1. Funnel viscosity (sec/qt or sec/l).
to determine how that fluid will flow 2. Apparent viscosity (cP or mPa•sec).
Viscosity… under a variety of conditions, including 3. Effective viscosity (cP or mPa•sec).
can be temperature, pressure and shear rate. 4. Plastic viscosity (cP or mPa•sec).
described 5. Yield point (lb/100 ft2 or Pa).
VISCOSITY
6. Low-shear viscosity and Low-
as a Of the rheological terms, viscosity Shear-Rate Viscosity (LSRV)
substance’s is the most familiar. Viscosity in its (cP or mPa•sec).
broadest sense can be described as a 7. Gel strengths (lb/100 ft2 or Pa).
resistance substance’s resistance to flow. In the These are among the key values for
to flow. oilfield, the following terms are used treating and maintaining drilling fluids.
Rheology and Hydraulics 5.1 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
CHAPTER
FUNNEL VISCOSITY (where lower shear rates exist). The sum

The funnel viscosity is measured of pressure losses throughout the circu-
using the Marsh funnel as described lating system (pump pressure) is often
Funnel in the Testing chapter. Funnel viscosity associated with shear stress while the
is used as a relative indicator of fluid pump rate is associated with shear rate.
viscosity… This relationship between shear rate and
condition. It does not provide suffi-
should be cient information to determine the shear stress for a fluid defines how that
used in rheological properties or flow charac- fluid flows. Figure 1 is a simplified depic-
teristics of a fluid. It should be used tion of two fluid layers (A and B) mov-
the field ing past each other when a force has
in the field to detect relative changes
to detect in the fluid’s properties. In addition, been applied.
relative no one funnel viscosity can be taken When a fluid is flowing, a force
changes in to represent a correct value for all fluids. exists in the fluid that opposes the
What works well in one area may fail flow. This force is known as the shear
the fluid’s in another, but, in general, a rule of stress. It can be thought of as a fric-
properties. thumb may be applied to clay-base tional force that arises when one layer
drilling fluids. The funnel viscosity of fluid slides by another. Since it is
of most fluids is controlled at four times easier for shear to occur between lay-
the density (lb/gal) or less. There are ers of fluid than between the outer-
exceptions, however, as in areas where most layer of fluid and the wall of a
high-viscosity fluids are necessary. pipe, the fluid in contact with the
Polymer and invert-emulsion (oil- wall does not flow. The rate at which
or synthetic-base) systems do not one layer is moving past the next
necessarily follow these rules. layer is the shear rate. The shear rate
(γ) is therefore a velocity gradient.
SHEAR STRESS AND SHEAR RATE
The other terms for viscosity (µ) can Flowing
force
be described in terms of the ratio of v1
This the shear stress (τ) to the shear rate A

v2
relationship (γ). By definition: d B
shear stress (τ)
between Viscosity (µ) =
shear rate (γ)
Opposing force
(shear stress)
shear rate
The concepts of shear rate and shear Figure 1: Shear rate and shear stress.
and shear stress apply to all fluid flow. Within a
stress for a circulating system, shear rate is depen- The formula for the shear rate (γ) is:
dent on the average velocity of the fluid V – V1
fluid defines γ (sec–1) = 2
in the geometry in which it is flowing. d
how that Thus, shear rates are higher in small Where:
fluid flows. geometries (inside the drillstring) and γ = Shear rate in reciprocal seconds
lower in larger geometries (such as cas- V2 = Velocity at Layer B (ft/sec)
ing and riser annuli). Higher shear rates V1 = Velocity at Layer A (ft/sec)
usually cause a greater resistive force of d = Distance between A and B (ft)
shear stress. Therefore, shear stresses
in the drillstring (where higher shear
rates exist) exceed those in the annulus
CHAPTER
The shear rate (γ), sec–1, is equal to viscosity values are consistent with the
the mud viscometer RPM (ω) multi- viscosity formula:
plied by 1.703. This factor is derived 300 x Θ
AV (cP) =
from the sleeve and bob geometry of ω
the viscometer.
PLASTIC VISCOSITY
γ (sec–1) = 1.703 x ω
Plastic Viscosity (PV) in centipoise (cP)
SHEAR STRESS or milliPascal seconds (mPa•s) is cal-
Shear stress Shear stress (τ) is the force required to culated from mud viscometer data as:
is the force sustain the shear rate. Shear stress is PV (cP) = Θ600 – Θ300
reported in standard oilfield units
required to as the pounds of force per hundred
Plastic viscosity is usually described
sustain the as that part of resistance to flow
square feet (lb/100 ft2) required to
caused by mechanical friction.
shear rate. maintain the shear rate.
Primarily, it is affected by:
Mud viscometer dial readings (Θ)
• Solids concentration.
taken with the standard number one
• Size and shape of solids.
(1) bob and spring combination as
• Viscosity of the fluid phase.
described in the Testing chapter can
• The presence of some long-
be converted to a shear stress (τ) with
chain polymers (POLY-PLUS T,
lb/100 ft2 units by multiplying the
Hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC),
reading by 1.0678.
POLYPAC T R, Carboxymethylcellulose
τ (lb/100 ft2) = 1.0678 x Θ (CMC)).
Viscometer readings are often used as • The Oil-to-Water (O/W) or
the shear stress (τ) in lb/100 ft2 without Synthetic-to-Water (S/W) ratio
this conversion since the difference in invert-emulsion fluids.
is small. • Type of emulsifiers in invert-
A variety of viscometers are used to emulsion fluids.
measure drilling fluid viscosity. Fann The solids phase is the chief concern
VG meters and rheometers are designed of the fluid engineer. An increase in
to simplify the use of rheological mod- plastic viscosity can mean an increase
els. Viscometers are also used to mea- in the percent by volume of solids, a
sure the thixotropic properties or gel reduction in the size of the solid parti-
strengths of a fluid. cles, a change in the shape of the parti-
EFFECTIVE VISCOSITY cles or a combination of these. Any
The viscosity of a non-Newtonian fluid increase in the total surface area of
changes with shear. The effective vis- solids exposed will be reflected in an
cosity (µe) of a fluid is a fluid’s viscos- increased plastic viscosity. Breaking a
ity under specific conditions. These solid particle in half, for instance, will
conditions include shear rate, pressure result in two pieces with a combined
and temperature. exposed surface area greater than the
original particle. A flat particle has more
APPARENT VISCOSITY surface area exposed than a spherical
The effective viscosity is sometimes one of the same volume. Most of the
referred to as the Apparent Viscosity time, however, an increase in plastic
(AV). The apparent viscosity is reported viscosity is the result of an increase in
as either the mud viscometer reading at the percentage of solids. This can be
300 RPM (Θ300) or one-half of the meter verified by density changes and/or
reading at 600 RPM (Θ600). It should retort analysis.
be noted that both of these apparent
CHAPTER
Some of the solids in the fluid are viscosities, especially after initially mix-
there because they have been deliber- ing the polymer. The long-chain poly-
ately added. Bentonite, for instance, mers (POLY-PLUS,T HEC, POLYPACT R, CMC)
is good for increasing viscosity and have the greatest impact on plastic vis-
decreasing fluid loss, while barite is cosity. The short-chain or low-viscosity
necessary for density. A good rule is variations of these polymers (POLYPACT R,
…the that the viscosity of the fluid should UL, CMC LV) have a less significant
viscosity of not be higher than that required for impact on plastic viscosity. The increase
hole cleaning and barite suspension. in plastic viscosity is most apparent just
the fluid When a fluid is failing to perform after mixing these polymers. It is there-
should not these functions, emphasis should fore recommended not to measure vis-
be higher be placed on raising the yield point cosity in the suction pit at this time.
and low-shear values (6 and 3 RPM) Generally, after a few circulations
than that rather than the plastic viscosity. the plastic viscosity and rheological
required for Drilled solids, however, adversely properties will decrease and stabilize.
hole cleaning affect rheological properties of the fluid With respect to invert-emulsion flu-
and are undesirable. They are continu- ids (oil- and synthetic-base) the plastic
and barite ally being added to the fluid during viscosity can be adjusted with the O/W
suspension. drilling, causing an increase in solids or S/W ratio. Generally, the higher the
concentration. If the solids are not O/W or S/W, the lower the plastic vis-
removed promptly, they continue to cosity. Also, the choice of primary
break up into smaller pieces as they are emulsifier can have an impact on
circulated and recirculated through the plastic viscosity.
system. Viscosity problems will occur if Changes in plastic viscosity can
drilled solids are not controlled. result in significant changes in pump
There are three ways that drilled pressure in the field. This is extremely
solids can be controlled: important in extended-reach as well
1. Mechanical solids control. as coiled-tubing drilling where longer,
2. Settling. smaller-diameter tubulars are used. It
3. Dilution or displacement. is critical to minimize plastic viscosity
in these situations. As a rule, plastic
Chapter 8 discusses solids control
Changes and the removal of drilled solids in
viscosity should be kept as low as
in plastic practical in all cases because a low
more detail.
PV can result in greater energy at the
viscosity Plastic viscosity is also a function
bit, greater flow in the annulus for
of the viscosity of the fluid phase. As
can result in the viscosity of water decreases with
hole cleaning, as well as less wear and
significant tear on the equipment, and lower fuel
increased temperature, the plastic vis-
usage. A practical upper limit for the
changes cosity will decrease proportionally.
plastic viscosity is twice the fluid
in pump Brines have higher viscosities than
weight (lb/gal). Although this value
freshwater fluids. Oil emulsified in
pressure in water-base fluids also acts as a solid
may seem restrictive for high fluid
weights, the solids are so crowded
the field. and will affect the plastic viscosity
by weight material that these fluids
of the fluid.
have a very low tolerance for drill
Polymers added to the system for vis-
solids. The plastic viscosity is a good
cosity, fluid-loss control or shale inhibi-
approximation of the viscosity
tion may contribute to elevated plastic
through the bit nozzles.
CHAPTER
YIELD POINT 4. Drilled hydratable shales or clays

Yield Point (YP) in pounds per 100 introduce new active solids into the
square feet (lb/100 ft2) is calculated system, increasing attractive forces by
from Fann VG meter data as: bringing the particles closer together,
and by increasing the total number
YP (lb/100 ft2) = 2 x Θ300 – Θ600
of charges.
or
5. Under- or over-treatment with elec-
YP (lb/100 ft2) = Θ300 – PV
trochemically charged chemicals
or in Pascals: increases the attractive forces.
YP (Pa) = 0.4788 x (2 x Θ300 – Θ600) 6. The use of branched biopolymers
or (DUO-VIS,T products in the FLO-VIST
YP (Pa) = 0.4788 x (Θ300 – PV) family, XCD,T Xanvis).
Yield point… Yield point, the second component of 7. Overtreatment with organophilic
clay or rheological modifiers in
is a resistance to flow in a drilling fluid, is a
invert-emulsion systems (HRP,E
measurement measurement of the electro-chemical or
attractive forces in a fluid. These forces VERSAMODE).
of the are a result of negative and positive Yield point is that part of resistance
electro- charges located on or near the particle to flow that may be controlled by
chemical or surfaces. Yield point is a measure of proper chemical treatment. The yield
these forces under flow conditions and point will decrease as the attractive
attractive is dependent upon: (1) the surface prop- forces are reduced by chemical treat-
forces in a erties of the fluid solids, (2) volume ment. Reduction of yield point will
fluid. concentration of the solids, and (3) the also decrease the apparent viscosity.
electrical environment of these solids In a clay-base, water-base mud, yield
(concentration and types of ions in the point may be lowered by the following
fluid phase of the fluid). High viscosity methods:
resulting from high yield point or 1. Broken bond valences, caused by
attractive forces may be caused by: grinding the clay particles, may be
1. Introduction of soluble contaminants neutralized by adsorption of certain
such as salts, cement, anhydrite or anionic materials at the edge of the
gypsum that result in flocculation clay particles. These residual valences
clays and reactive solids. are almost satisfied completely by
2. Breaking of the clay particles by the such chemicals as tannins, lignins
grinding action of bit and drill pipe (TANNATHIN,T XP-20K,E K-17T ), com-
creating new residual forces (broken plex phosphates (Phos and SAPP),
bond valences) on the broken edges lignosulfonates (SPERSENEE) and low-
of the particle. These forces tend molecular-weight polyacrylates
to pull the particles together in (TACKLE,T SP-101T ). The basic nega-
disorganized form or flocs. tive charge of the clay particle pre-
3. Introduction of inert solids into dominates so that the solids now
the system increases the yield point. repel each other.
This results in the particles being 2. In the case of contamination from
moved closer together. Because the calcium or magnesium, the cations
distance between each particle is causing the attractive force can be
decreased, the attraction between removed as an insoluble precipitate,
particles is increased. thus decreasing the attractive force
and yield point.
CHAPTER
3. Water can be used to lower the yield The yield point is often used as an
point, but unless the concentration indicator of the shear-thinning charac-
of solids is very high, this is relatively teristics of a fluid and its ability to sus-
ineffective and can be expensive. pend weight material and remove
Water alone may undesirably alter cuttings from the wellbore, but it can
other properties of the fluid. This is be misleading. Any fluid with a yield
particularly true of weighted fluids point greater than zero, shear thins to
where water can increase fluid loss some degree. Fluids with very low yield
and lower fluid weight (necessitating points will not suspend weight material,
weighting up again). but fluids with high yield points may
not suspend weight material either.
Generally in clay-base, water-base
Solutions of CMC, Polyanionic Cellulose
muds, anionic (negatively charged)
(PAC) and HEC polymers in water have
materials deflocculate, reducing vis-
yield points, but they will not suspend
cosity. Cationic (positively charged)
weight material under static conditions.
materials promote flocculation and
Measurements of their shear stresses at
increase viscosity.
low shear rates indicate that their shear
An increase in the yield point can be
stress at a shear rate of zero sec–1 is
achieved through additions of a good
zero (0). The ability of a fluid to sus-
commercial viscosifier. Also, anything
pend barite is more dependent on gel
that produces flocculation in a fluid will
strengths, low-shear viscosity and the
raise the yield point. A small amount of
thixotropy of a fluid.
lime, for example, added to a freshwater
fluid containing enough hydrated ben- LOW-SHEAR VISCOSITY AND LSRV
tonite or other clays will produce floccu- The increase in directional, extended-
lation and, hence, an increase in the reach and horizontal drilling, and the
yield point. It should be remembered, use of biopolymers for rheological
however, that flocculation can have properties has altered the perception
undesirable effects on fluid-loss control, of which rheological properties are
circulating pressures and gel strengths. required for efficient hole cleaning in
The yield point of dispersed ligno- deviated wellbores. Through numerous
sulfonate (SPERSENEE) clay-fluid systems laboratory studies and field experience,
…low-shear is typically maintained approximately it was found that the low-shear viscos-
equal to the mud weight. The yield ity values (6 and 3 RPM) had a greater
viscosity point of low- or minimum-solids, non- impact on hole cleaning than yield
values…had dispersed fluids, may be run at consid- point, in addition to providing barite
a greater erably higher values, but these fluids suspension under dynamic as well as
are seldom used at densities in excess static conditions. These topics are cov-
impact on of 14 lb/gal. ered in more detail in the Barite Sag
hole cleaning Wetting agents or chemical thinners and Hole Cleaning chapters.
than yield can be used to reduce yield point in In addition to 6- and 3-RPM readings,
point… invert-emulsion fluids. These materi- it was found that low-shear-rate viscos-
als can sometimes reduce the solids ity created by the polymer network in
tolerance of the fluid. Usually the best FLO-PROT systems was critical for hole
method for reducing yield point in cleaning and solids suspension in hori-
an invert system is to increase the zontal and high-angle wells. This LSRV
O/W or S/W ratio by adding oil- or is measured using a Brookfield viscome-
synthetic-base fluid. ter at a shear rate of 0.3 RPM (the equiv-
alent of 0.037 RPM on a VG meter).
CHAPTER
Excessive gel strengths can cause com-

Fann rpm plications, such as the following:
3 6
1. Entrapment of air or gas in the fluid.
1.5 lb/bbl
2. Excessive pressures when breaking
Viscosity
FLO-VIS
circulation after a trip.
2.5 lb/bbl
3. Reduction in the efficiency of
HEC solids-removal equipment.
4. Excessive swabbing while tripping
0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0 out of the hole.
Shear/rate (sec–1) 5. Excessive pressure surges while
tripping in the hole.
Figure 2: Comparison of FLO-VIS’ LSRV to that of HEC.
6. Inability to get logging tools to
Figure 2 shows how similar viscosities the bottom.
Progressive at 6 and 3 RPM may not indicate true Progressive gels or flash gels may
LSRV behavior. reflect fluid system problems. A wide
gels or flash These low-shear rheological proper- range between the initial and 10- or
gels may ties fill the gap between traditional 30-min gel readings is called progressive
reflect fluid dynamic viscosity measurements of gels, and is an indication of solids
PV, YP and static measurements of buildup. If the initial and 10-min gel
system gel strength. readings are both high with little differ-
problems. ence between the two, it is called flash
THIXOTROPY AND GEL STRENGTHS
gels and may indicate that flocculation
Thixotropy is the property exhibited by
has occurred. In the case of a FLO-PROT
some fluids which form a gel structure
system, the gel strengths are elevated
while static and then become fluid
and flat, but this is due to the polymer
again when shear is applied. Most
network created. In addition to being
water-base drilling fluids exhibit this
elevated and flat, FLO-PROT gel strengths
property due to the presence of electri-
are also fragile and “break back” quite
cally charged particles or special poly-
readily. Fragile gel strengths are very
mers that link together to form a rigid
common in polymer drilling fluids.
matrix. Gel strength readings taken at
Figure 3 graphically illustrates the
10-sec and 10-min intervals, and in crit-
different types of gel strength.
ical situations at 30-min intervals, on
the Fann VG meter provide a measure
80
of the degree of thixotropy present in
the fluid. The strength of the gel formed 70
Gel strength (lb/100 ft2)
Progressive gels
…anything is a function of the amount and type of 60
solids in suspension, time, temperature
promoting or and chemical treatment. In other words,
50
preventing anything promoting or preventing the

40
FLO-PROT
30 polymer-type gels
the linking linking of particles will increase or
of particles decrease the gelation tendency of 20
a fluid. 10
will increase The magnitude of gelation, as well Flat gels
0
or decrease as the type of gel strength, is impor- 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
the gelation tant in the suspension of cuttings and Time (min)
weight material. Gelation should not
tendency of be allowed to become any higher than Figure 3: Gel strengths.
a fluid. necessary to perform these functions.
CHAPTER
Gel strength and yield point are both can be taken in moving from one shear
measures of the attractive forces in a rate to another. This is illustrated in
fluid system. The initial gel strength Figure 4. The solid curve represents the
measures the static attractive forces, equilibrium shear-stress/shear-rate rela-
while the yield point measures the tionship that will occur if the shear rate
dynamic attractive forces. Treatment of the fluid is changed very slowly. If,
for excessive initial gel strength is, however, the fluid starts at point A at
therefore, the same as for excessive an equilibrium value of high-shear stress
yield point. that suddenly decreases to a shear rate
…gelation In addition, gelation gives a fluid a of zero, the shear stress will follow the
gives a fluid “memory” of its past history and must lower curve, which at all points is less
be taken into account in making mean- than the equilibrium curve.
a “memory” ingful rheological property measure- Upon standing quiescent, the gel
of its past ments. If a fluid has been allowed to strength will build up until point B is
history… stand for a period of time before making reached. If, after gelling to point B, the
a measurement of shear stress at some shear rate is suddenly increased, the
shear rate, some time at that particular shear stress will follow a higher path
shear rate is required before an equilib- from point B to point C, which at all
rium shear stress can be measured. All of points is higher than the equilibrium
the bonds between particles that can be curve. With time at this high shear
broken at that shear rate must be bro- rate, the shear stress will eventually
ken or the measured shear stress will be decrease from point C to the equilib-
higher than the true equilibrium shear rium value at point A. Conversely, if,
stress. The length of time required after gelling to point B the shear rate is
depends on the degree of gelation that slowly increased, the shear stress will
has occurred in the sample. decrease at first and then follow the
After a measurement has been made equilibrium curve to point A.
at 600 RPM and the shear rate is slowed The B-to-C curve can be followed
to 300 RPM, the fluid tends to remem- if the drilling fluid is not properly
ber its past shear history at 600 RPM. A treated. This would result in very high
period of time is required for certain circulating pressures. Extended time
bonds between particles that can exist at periods could be required to reach
the reduced shear rate to re-form before equilibrium point A. Properly treated
a true equilibrium shear stress can be drilling fluids follow the shorter path
measured. The indicated shear stress will to the equilibrium curve, resulting in
be too low at first and will gradually lower pump pressures.
increase to an equilibrium value.
The first indicated value of shear
stress at any shear rate is a function
Shear stress (τ)
of the immediate shear history of the increas

e C
Rapid e
sample. If the initial gel strength of a um curv
B se Equilibri A
fluid is measured immediately after increa
Slow ase
shearing the fluid at 600 RPM, the decre
Rapid
indicated value will be less than the
true yield stress of the fluid.
Shear rate (γ)
Since the formation or breakdown of
a gel structure is time-dependent, many Figure 4: Thixotropic behavior.
different shear-stress/shear-rate paths
CHAPTER
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND

PRESSURE ON VISCOSITY
Shear stress (τ) (dial units)

Constant slope
Increases in temperature and pressure
affect the viscosity of the liquid phases 105
of all drilling fluids. The effect on invert- τ
= γ τ
emulsion fluids is more pronounced µ
70 γ
than on water-base fluids. Base oils and
synthetics thin more appreciably under 35 Viscosity (µ) = slope
elevated temperature conditions. Each
of the different oil- and synthetic-base
fluids is affected somewhat differently 100 200 300
by temperature. Shear rate (γ) (rpm)
Water-base Water-base fluids are nearly perfect
Figure 5: Newtonian fluid.
fluids…do hydraulic fluids. They do not compress
appreciably under pressure. Oil- and FLUID TYPES
not compress synthetic-base fluids, on the other hand, Based on their flow behavior, fluids can
appreciably are all compressible to some degree. be classified into two different types:
under Their compressibility varies with the Newtonian and non-Newtonian.
base fluid, O/W or S/W ratio, and addi-
pressure. tives. In critical situations, the effects of NEWTONIAN FLUID
temperature and pressure should be The simplest class of fluids is called
determined for the drilling fluid and the Newtonian. The base fluids (freshwa-
base liquid phases. The effects on vis- ter, seawater, diesel oil, mineral oils
cosity can be determined with a high- and synthetics) of most drilling fluids
temperature rotational viscometer such are Newtonian. In these fluids, the
as the Fann Model 50 for water-base shear stress is directly proportional to
fluids or with a high-pressure, high- the shear rate, as shown in Figure 5.
temperature viscometer such as the The points lie on a straight line pass-
Fann Model 70 or the Huxley Bertram ing through the origin (0, 0) of the
In for oil or synthetic fluids. graph on rectangular coordinates.
The API equations to compensate for Viscosity of a Newtonian fluid is the
Newtonian the effects of temperature and pressure slope of this shear-stress/shear-rate
fluids, the require the effective viscosity (µe) at line. The yield stress (stress required
shear stress two temperatures. to initiate flow) of a Newtonian fluid
will always be zero (0).
is directly [ T2 – T1
ß TT
1 2 ] In the example, when the shear rate
µe(T2) = µe(T1)
proportional is doubled, the shear stress is also dou-
to the shear The temperature constant (ß) must bled. When the circulation rate for this
be determined at each shear rate for fluid is doubled, the pressure required
rate… each fluid. to pump the fluid will be squared (e.g.
α(P2 – P1) 2 times the circulation rate requires
µe(P2) = µe(P1) 4 times the pressure). For example, at
The pressure constant (α) must be 100 RPM the shear stress is 35 deflec-
determined for each drilling fluid. tion units and doubling the shear rate
M-I’s VIRTUAL HYDRAULICST computer doubles the shear stress to 70 deflec-
program uses data from the Fann Model tion units, etc. This fluid would have
70/75 to determine the viscosity of the a viscosity of 105 cP at 100 rpm.
drilling fluid at any combination of Newtonian fluids will not suspend
temperature and pressure. cuttings and weight material under
CHAPTER
static conditions. When Newtonian

fluids (freshwater, seawater, brines and Velocity profile Slope of velocity
oils) are used for drilling, the hole Maximum
profile = shear rate
Minimum
should be circulated or swept clean
Maximum
dv
periodically and before trips.
Zero
dr
The shear stress at various shear
Average velocity
rates must be measured in order to
characterize the flow properties of a
fluid. Only one measurement is neces-
sary since the shear stress is directly
proportional to the shear rate for a
Newtonian fluid. From this measure-
ment the shear stress at any other
shear rate can be calculated from A B
the following equation:
Figure 6: Newtonian velocity profile (laminar).
τ=µxγ
pipe is shown in Figure 6b. The flow
This general definition is indepen-
profile is in the form of a parabola or
dent of units. VG meter data (con-
bullet shape.
verted to shear stress and shear rate)
The rate of change of velocity with
can be converted to viscosity with
distance (shear rate) is the slope of the
this formula:
velocity profile at any point in the
1.0678 x Θ
The slope of µ= pipe. The slope of the velocity profile is
1.703 x ω maximum at the wall of the pipe and
the velocity
The viscosity as determined by this decreases to zero at the center of the
profile is formula is in English units (ft, lb, etc.), pipe. Therefore, the shear rate is a maxi-
maximum at but the viscosity is reported in cen- mum at the wall and zero at the center
the wall of tipoise (cP or 0.01 dynes/cm2) on the of the pipe. At the pipe wall, the slope
API Daily Mud Report. The factor for of the velocity profile is parallel to the
the pipe and converting viscosity in English units to pipe wall and has an infinite slope
decreases to centipoise is 478.9. When this conver- (maximum). This slope decreases with
zero at the sion factor is included in the formula, distance away from the wall and at
it becomes: some point has a 45° slope that would
center of the
1.0678 Θ have a slope of 1. In the center of the
pipe. µ (cP) = 478.9 x
1.703
x
ω pipe, the slope of the velocity profile is
perpendicular to the pipe wall and has
If the numerical values are simplified, a zero slope (minimum) (see Figure 6b).
this formula becomes: Consequently, the shear stress will also
Θ be maximum at the wall.
µ (cP) = 300 x
ω The shear rate (sec–1) at the wall of a
This simple formula will be used to cylindrical pipe may be calculated in
show that the viscosity of drilling flu- the following equation:
ids is far more complex than might 8V
γ=
be assumed. D
Fluid flowing in a cylindrical pipe Where:
in laminar or streamline flow moves V = Average fluid velocity in the
in concentric layers as shown in pipe (ft/sec)
Figure 6a. A typical velocity profile D = Pipe diameter (ft)
for a Newtonian fluid flowing in a
CHAPTER
This calculation is somewhat differ- long compared to their thickness, the

ent in the case of concentric annuli, particle interference will be large when
i.e., in a wellbore with drill pipe in the they are randomly oriented in the flow
hole as shown in Figure 7. Here, the stream. However, as the shear rate is
fluid is flowing around the drill pipe increased, the particles will “line up” in
and inside either cased or uncased the flow stream and the effect of particle
hole. The annular shear rate (sec–1) for interaction is decreased. This causes the
concentric pipes is calculated with the velocity profile in a pipe to be different
following equation: from that of water. In the center of the
12V pipe, where the shear rate is low, the
γ= particle interference is high and the
DH – DP
fluid tends to flow more like a solid
Where: mass. The velocity profile is flattened as
…flattening V = Average fluid velocity in the shown in Figure 8. This flattening of the
pipe (ft/sec) velocity profile increases the sweep effi-
of the DH = Diameter of the hole (ft) ciency of a fluid in displacing another
velocity DP = Outside diameter of the pipe (ft) fluid and also increases the ability of a
profile The relationship DH – DP is sometimes fluid to carry larger particles.
increases referred to as the hydraulic diameter. If the particles are electrically
attracted to each other, the effect
the sweep NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS is similar. At low shear rates, the par-
efficiency of When a fluid contains clays or colloidal ticles link together, increasing the
a fluid… particles, these particles tend to “bump” resistance to flow, but at high shear
into one another, increasing the shear rates the linking bonds are broken.
stress or force necessary to maintain a Under these circumstances, the shear
given flow rate. If these particles are stress does not increase in direct pro-
portion to the shear rate. Fluids that
behave in this manner are called non-
Newtonian fluids. Most drilling fluids
are of this type.
Telescopic
cylinders
of fluid
Average velocity
Figure 8: Non-Newtonian velocity profile (laminar).

Figure 7: Newtonian velocity profile —
concentric annulus (laminar).
CHAPTER
Effective viscosity
(µ) lines
file
pro
Flow
Shear stress (τ)
Effec
tive v
Shear stress (τ) and effective viscosity (µ)
µ3
iscos
µ2
µ1
ity cu
ve r
e
curv
Shear rate (γ) ar stress
She
Figure 9: Effect of shear rate on effective viscosity
of non-Newtonian fluid.
Non-Newtonian fluids exhibit a

shear-stress/shear-rate relationship as
shown in Figure 9. The ratio of shear
stress to shear rate is not constant but
different at each shear rate. This means
…non- that a non-Newtonian fluid does not
Newtonian have a single or constant viscosity that
Shear rate (γ)
describes its flow behavior at all shear
fluid does rates. To describe the viscosity of a non- Figure 10: Shear-thinning effect in
not have Newtonian fluid at a particular shear non-Newtonian fluids.
a single or rate, an “effective viscosity” is used.
Effective viscosity is defined as the ratio in drilling fluids as it provides what we
constant (slope) of shear stress to shear rate at a desire most:
viscosity particular shear rate, and is illustrated as 1. At high velocities (high shear rates)
in the drillstring and through the
that the slope of a line drawn from the shear
bit, the mud shear thins to low vis-
stress curve (at the shear rate of interest)
describes back to the origin (see Figure 9). As cosities. This reduces the circulating
its flow shown, most non-Newtonian fluids pressure and pressure losses.
2. At the lower velocities (lower shear
behavior exhibit “shear-thinning” behavior so
rates) in the annulus, the mud has
at all that the effective viscosity decreases
with increasing shear rate. a higher viscosity that aids in hole
shear rates. As shown in Figure 10, when the cleaning.
effective viscosity is plotted alongside 3. At ultra-low velocity the mud has
the shear-stress-shear-rate curve, it is its highest viscosity and when not
easy to see the shear-thinning nature circulating will develop gel strengths
that most drilling fluids exhibit. Shear- that aid in suspending weight
thinning has very important implications material and cuttings.
CHAPTER
Rheological Models
A rheological A rheological model is a description of Converting the equation for appli-

model is a the relationship between the shear stress cation with viscometer readings, the
and shear rate. Newton’s law of viscosity equation becomes:
description is the rheological model describing the ω
of the Θ = YP + PV x
flow behavior of Newtonian fluids. It 300
relationship is also called the Newtonian model.
Most drilling fluids are not true
However, since most drilling fluids are
between non-Newtonian fluids, this model does
Bingham Plastic fluids. For the typical
the shear mud, if a consistency curve for a drilling
not describe their flow behavior. In fact,
fluid is made with rotational viscometer
stress and since no single rheological model can
data, a non-linear curve is formed that
precisely describe the flow characteristics
shear rate. of all drilling fluids, many models have
does not pass through the origin, as
shown in Figure 11. The development
been developed to describe the flow
of gel strengths causes the y-intercept to
behavior of non-Newtonian fluids.
occur at a point above the origin due to
Bingham Plastic, Power Law and
the minimum force required to break
Modified Power Law models are dis-
gels and start flow. Plug flow, a condition
cussed. The use of these models requires
Most measurements of shear stress at two or
wherein a gelled fluid flows as a “plug”
with a flat viscosity profile, is initiated as
drilling more shear rates. From these measure-
this force is increased. As the shear rate
fluids are ments, the shear stress at any other
increases, there is a transition from plug
shear rate can be calculated.
not true to viscous flow. In the viscous-flow
Bingham BINGHAM PLASTIC MODEL region, equal increments of shear rate
The Bingham Plastic model has been will produce equal increments of shear
Plastic used most often to describe the flow stress, and the system assumes the flow
fluids. characteristics of drilling fluids. It is pattern of a Newtonian fluid.
one of the older rheological models The two-speed viscometer was
currently in use. This model describes a designed to measure the Bingham
fluid in which a finite force is required Plastic rheological values for yield
to initiate flow (yield point) and which point and plastic viscosity. A flow
then exhibits a constant viscosity with
increasing shear rate (plastic viscosity).
d
The equation for the Bingham Plastic l mu
a
model is: pic
Ty
τ = τ0 + µpγ Bingham
Shear stress (τ)
yield point
Where:
τ = Shear stress Transition from plug
τ0 = Yield point or shear stress at zero to viscous flow
shear rate (Y-intercept) Plug flow
µp = Plastic viscosity or rate of nian
True yield Newto
increase of shear stress with
increasing shear rate (slope of
Shear rate (γ)
the line)
γ = Shear rate Figure 11: Flow diagram of Newtonian and typical mud.
CHAPTER
low and high shear rate as compared

Θ600 to the Bingham Plastic viscosity. The
Shear stress (τ) (dial units)

Slope = plastic PV Bingham yield point is higher than the
viscosity
Θ300 true yield stress. The true yield point
can usually be better estimated from
YP the initial gel strength value.
Intercept =
yield point
The Bingham Plastic model accurately
represents the shear-stress/shear-rate
relationship of low-density, flocculated-
clay, water-base muds (like Mixed Metal
Hydroxide (MMH)) and most other
300 600
Shear rate (γ) (rpm) fluids at high shear rates (greater than
511 sec–1 or 300 RPM). Generally, the
Figure 12: Bingham Plastic values from shear-stress/shear-rate values of most
two measurements. non-flocculated fluids diverge from the
values predicted by the Bingham Plastic
model as the shear rate is decreased.
If a mud id The greatest divergence is at the lowest
c flu
lasti shear rates. If a mud is a true Bingham
is a true P
Shear stress (τ)
Bingham ham
Bing Plastic fluid then the initial gel strength
Bingham yield point luid
a nf
ni and yield point will be equal, as is
wto
Plastic fluid on-Ne the case with many flocculated clay
ln
ica water-base fluids.
then the Typ
initial gel True yield point POWER LAW MODEL

strength and Shear rate (γ) The Power Law model attempts to
solve the shortcomings of the Bingham
yield point Figure 13: Bingham model and typical Plastic model at low shear rates. The
will be non-Newtonian fluid. Power Law model is more complicated
equal… curve for a typical drilling fluid taken than the Bingham Plastic model in that
on the two-speed Fann VG meter is it does not assume a linear relationship
illustrated in Figure 12. The slope of between shear stress and shear rate, as
the straight-line portion of this consis- shown in Figure 14. However, like
tency curve is plastic viscosity. From Newtonian fluids, the plots of shear
these two shear stress measurements, stress vs. shear rate for Power Law
the plastic viscosity line can be extrap- fluids go through the origin.
olated back to the Y-axis to determine
the Bingham yield point that is Typical mud
defined as the Y-intercept. For most tic
m Plas
Shear stress (τ)
Bingha
muds, the true yield stress is actually
an
less than the Bingham yield point, as toni
w New
shown in Figures 11 and 13. La
wer
Figure 13 illustrates an actual drill- Po
ing fluid flow profile with the ideal
Bingham Plastic model. It shows not Shear rate (γ)
only the comparison of the “true yield
Figure 14: Power Law model comparison.
point” to the Bingham yield point, but
also shows the deviation in viscosity at
CHAPTER
Θ = K(rpm) n
pe
Log shear stress (Θ)

slo
n= 1)
(n<
ud
lm
ica
}log Θ – log Θ300 p
Shear stress (τ)

600 Ty 1)
w (n <
a
er l
Pow )
K log ω600 – log ω300 =1
n (n
ia
Log shear rate (rpm) on >1
)
wt
Ne t (n
n
Figure 15: Log plot of Power Law model. ata
Dil
Shear rate (γ)
Figure 17: Effect of Power Law “n” on fluid behavior.

Shear stress (τ)
As the 0.2
5
Depending on the value of “n,”
n=
velocity 0.5 three different types of flow profiles
n= and fluid behavior exist:
profile =
1
n 1. n < 1: The fluid is shear-thinning,
becomes non-Newtonian.
flatter the 2. n = 1: The fluid is Newtonian.
fluid velocity Shear rate (γ) 3. n > 1: The fluid is dilatant, shear-
thickening (drilling fluids are not
will be Figure 16: Effect of Power Law “n” on
in this category).
higher over a shape of flow profile.
A comparison of a typical drilling
larger area… This model describes a fluid in which fluid to a shear-thinning, Newtonian
the shear stress increases as a function and dilatant fluid is shown in Figure 17.
of the shear rate mathematically raised The effect of “n” on flow profile and
to some power. Mathematically, the the velocity profile is very important for
Power Law model is expressed as: shear-thinning, non-Newtonian fluids.
τ = Kγ n As the velocity profile becomes flatter
Where: (see Figure 18) the fluid velocity will be
τ = Shear stress higher over a larger area of the annulus
K = Consistency index so that hole cleaning will be greatly
γ = Shear rate improved. This is one of the reasons
n = Power Law index that low “n”-value fluids like FLO-PROT
provide such good hole cleaning.
The consis- Plotted on a log-log graph, a Power The consistency index “K” is the vis-
Law fluid shear-stress/shear-rate rela- cosity at a shear rate of one reciprocal
tency index tionship forms a straight line, as shown second (sec–1). It is related to a fluid’s
“K” is the on Figure 15. The “slope” of this line is viscosity at low shear rates. A fluid’s
viscosity “n.” “K’ is the intercept of this line. hole-cleaning and suspension effective-
at a shear The Power Law index “n” indicates ness can be improved by increasing the
a fluid’s degree of non-Newtonian “K” value. The consistency index “K” is
rate of one behavior over a given shear rate range. usually reported as lb-sec–n/100 ft2, but
reciprocal The lower the “n” value the more shear- may be reported in other units. The
second… thinning a fluid is over that shear rate terms “K” and “n” only have real rele-
range and the more curved the shear- vance when associated with a specific
stress/shear-rate relationship, as shown shear rate. However, where a fluid curve
in Figure 16.
CHAPTER
Θ2
n=
log ( )
Θ1
ω2
log ( )
ω1
Θ1
K=
ω1n
Velocity
n = 1.0 Where:
n = 0.667 n = Power Law index or exponent
n = 0.5 K = Power Law consistency index or
n = 0.25 fluid index (dyne sec–n/cm2)
n = 0.125 Θ1 = Mud viscometer reading at
lower shear rate
Θ2 = Mud viscometer reading at
higher shear rate
Figure 18: Effect of Power Law “n” on velocity profile.
ω1 = Mud viscometer RPM at lower
is described by a finite number of meas- shear rate
urements, the line segments for those ω2 = Mud viscometer RPM at higher
particular measurements describe “K” shear rate
and “n.” RELATING (K, N) TO (PV, YP)
“K” and “n” values can be calculated
In clay-base drilling fluids, both the
from mud viscometer data. The general
plastic viscosity and yield point of
equations for “n” and “K” values are:
Shear rate (sec–1)

1 10 100 1,000
1,000
Base – k = 0.95, n = 0.85

Case 1 – k = 1.30, n = 0.83
(3) Case 2 – k = 0.65, n = 0.89
Case 3 – k = 6.00, n = 0.67
Effective viscosity (cPs) (µe)
PV 4
4, Y
P 32
(1)
100
Base
In clay-base PV 36,
YP 10
(2) PV 30, Y
drilling P8
fluids, both PV 28, YP

4
the plastic
viscosity and
yield point
of the mud
10
affect the 1 2 3 6
Shear rate (rpm x 100)
“K”
coefficient. Figure 19: Power Law “K” and “n” relationship to Bingham PV and YP.
CHAPTER
the mud as shown in Figure 19 affect The annular Power Law equations
the “K” coefficient. Three cases are are developed in the same manner,
shown: (1) solids build-up, (2) decreas- but use the 3- and 100-RPM (Θ3 and
ing solids and (3) flocculation due to Θ100) values. By substituting the shear
contamination. rates (5.1 sec–1 and 170 sec–1, respec-
Case 1. Plastic viscosity has increased tively) into the general equation, they
over that of the “base” due to solids simplify to:
Θ100
increase with very little change in yield
point. The viscosity curve is essentially
parallel to the base curve, thus there is na =
log( ) Θ3 Θ
= 0.657 log 100
Θ3
little change in “n.” The overall viscos-
ity has increased; therefore, “K” is a
log( )170.2
5.11
higher number. 5.11Θ100 5.11Θ3
Ka = or
Case 2. Plastic viscosity decreased 170.2na 5.11na
due to solids removal; yield point also These annular equations require a
is reduced. As with Case 1, the viscosity 100-RPM (Θ100) viscometer reading.
curve is essentially parallel and there is This is not available on two-speed VG
little change in “n.” “K” decreases due meters. The API recommends that an
to a decrease in overall viscosity. approximate value be calculated for
Case 3. Yield point and plastic vis- the 100-RPM reading when using
cosity increased due to contamination two-speed VG meter data:
and solids increase. The ratio of YP to
…pipe 2(Θ600 – Θ300)
PV is greatly affected by the resultant Θ100 = Θ300 –
3
Power Law flocculation and “n,” the slope of the
equations viscosity curve, decreased in value. General Power Law equation for
“K” increases as a function of the effective viscosity (cP):
should changed slope (“n”) and the overall µe = 100 x Kγ n–1
be used increase in viscosity.
The bulletin, “Recommended Practice Effective viscosity, pipe:
whenever
on the Rheology and Hydraulics of Oil- µep (cP) =
the shear Well Drilling Fluids” (API Recommended
( ) (
1.6 x Vp (np–1) 3np + 1
)
np
rate is Practice 13D Third Edition, June 1, 100 x Kp

D 4np
greater 1995), recommends two sets of rheo-
Effective viscosity, annulus:
logical equations, one set for inside pipe
than (turbulent conditions) and one set for µea (cP) =
170 sec–1.
( ) (
2.4 x Va (na–1) 2na + 1
)
na
the annulus (laminar conditions).
100 x Ka
The pipe Power Law equation is D2 – D1 3na
based on the mud viscometer 300-
Where:
and 600-RPM (Θ300 and Θ600) read-
D = ID drill pipe or drill collars
ings. When the shear rates (511 and
D2 = ID hole or casing
1,022 sec–1) are substituted in the “n”
D1 = OD drill pipe or drill collars
and “K” equations and the equations
are simplified, they become: Although the API refers to these
Θ600
np =
( )
log
Θ300 Θ
= 3.32 log 600
equations as being annular and pipe
Power Law equations, the shear rate in
the annulus may fall in the range best
Θ300
( )
log
1,022
511
described by the pipe equations. The
shear rate in the pipe can fall in the
5.11Θ300 5.11Θ600 range best described by the annular
Kp = or
511np 1,022np equations. In either of these cases, the
CHAPTER
Power Law equations that provide the

best fit for the data should be used.
Generally, the pipe Power Law equa-
Shear stress (τ)

Bingham Plastic model
tions should be used whenever the
shear rate is greater than 170 sec–1.
MODIFIED POWER LAW Modified Power Law
As mentioned above, the API has cho- Power Law
sen the Power Law model as the stan- Shear rate (γ)
dard model. The Power Law model,
however, does not fully describe drill- Figure 20: Rheological model comparison.
ing fluids because it does not have a
yield stress and underestimates LSRV,
Bingham
Log shear stress (τ)

as shown previously in Figure 14. The Plastic model
modified Power Law or Herschel-
Bulkley model can be used to account
for the stress required to initiate fluid
Modified Power Law
movement (yield stress).
The diagrams shown in Figures 20 and Power Law
21 illustrate the differences between the Log shear rate (γ)

modified Power Law, the Power Law
and Bingham Plastic models. Clearly, Figure 21: Log plot rheological model comparison.
the modified Power Law model more In practice, the yield stress has been
closely resembles the flow profile of a accepted to be the value for the 3-RPM
typical drilling mud. A Fann VG meter reading or initial gel on the VG meter.
has been used to get the dial readings at Converting the equations to accept VG
600, 300 and 3 RPM. First, the three meter data gives the equations for “n”
models are shown on rectangular coor- and “K.”
dinate paper (Figure 20), and then on Θ2 – Θ0
The modified
log-log paper (Figure 21).
In each case, the modified Power n=
log
Θ1 – Θ0 ( )
ω2
Power
Law…can
Law is between the Bingham Plastic
model, which is highest, and the
log
ω1 ( )
Power Law, which is lowest. The mod- Θ – Θ
approximate K= 1 n 0
ified Power Law is a slightly more ω1
more closely complicated model than either the
Bingham Plastic model or the Power Where:
the true Law. However, it can approximate n = Power Law index or exponent
rheological more closely the true rheological K = Power Law consistency index or
fluid index (dyne sec–n/cm2)
behavior of behavior of most drilling fluids.
Θ1 = Mud viscometer reading at
Mathematically the Herschel-Bulkley
most drilling model is: lower shear rate
fluids. Θ2 = Mud viscometer reading at
τ = τ0 + Kγ n higher shear rate
Where: Θ0 = Zero gel or 3-RPM reading
τ = Shear stress ω1 = Mud viscometer (RPM) at lower
τ0 = Yield stress or stress to initiate flow shear rate
K = Consistency index ω2 = Mud viscometer (RPM) at higher
γ = Shear rate shear rate
n = Power Law index
CHAPTER
Stages of Flow
The drilling fluid is subject to a variety
of flow patterns during the process of
Wellbore
drilling a well. These flow patterns can Stage 6
be defined as different stages of flow
as depicted in Figure 22. Turbulent flow
Stage 1 — No flow. Most drilling flu-
Drill pipe
ids resist flow strongly enough so that
Stage 5
pressure must be applied to initiate
flow. The maximum value of this force
Transition flow
is the true yield stress of the fluid. In a
…true yield well, the true yield stress is related to
stress is the force needed to “break circulation.” Stage 4
Stage 2 — Plug flow. When the true
related to the yield stress is exceeded, flow will com- Complete streamline
force needed mence as a solid plug. In plug flow, the
to “break velocity will be the same across the pipe
Stage 3
diameter or annulus except for the fluid
circulation.” layer against the conduit wall. The flow
Incomplete streamline
of toothpaste from a tube is often used
as an example of plug flow. The velocity
profile of plug flow is flat. Stage 2
Stage 3 — Plug to laminar flow tran-
sition. As the flow rate is increased, Plug flow
shear effects will begin to influence the

layers within the fluid and reduce the Stage 1
size of the plug in the center of flow.
The velocity will increase from the well- No flow
bore to the edge of the central plug. The
velocity profile is flat across the plug
that has the highest velocity, and tapers
or decreases to zero at the conduit wall. Figure 22: Stages of flow.
Stage 4 — Laminar flow. As the
flow rate is increased, the flow rate be moving in the direction of flow,
and wall effects on the fluid continue but with different velocities. This
to increase. At some point, the cen- stage of orderly flow is called laminar
tral plug will cease to exist. At this for the layers or laminae described by
point, the velocity will be highest in the differing velocities.
the center of flow and diminish to Stage 5 — Laminar to turbulent
zero at the conduit wall. The velocity flow transition. As the flow rate
profile will resemble a parabola. The increases, the orderly flow will
velocity of the fluid is related to the begin to break down.
distance from the annulus or pipe Stage 6 — Turbulent flow. As the
wall. Inside a pipe, the flow can be flow rate continues to increase, the
depicted as a series of telescoping lay- orderly flow will be completely dis-
ers with each layer toward the center rupted, and the fluid will swirl and
having a higher velocity. All of the eddy. The bulk movement of fluid will
fluid across the pipe or annulus will continue to be along the annulus or
CHAPTER
pipe in one direction, but at any point three times will increase the pressure
within the body of fluid, the direction loss eight times (23).
While of movement will be unpredictable. While drilling, the drillstring is almost
drilling, the Under these conditions the flow is always in turbulent flow, and the result-
turbulent. After these conditions are ing increases in pressure loss can limit
drillstring reached, any further increases in the flow rate. The pressure losses associ-
is almost the flow rate will only increase the ated with turbulent flow in the annulus
always in turbulence. can be critical when the Equivalent
These flow stages have several differ- Circulating Density (ECD) approaches
turbulent ent implications. The pressure required the fracture gradient. In addition, tur-
flow, and the to pump a fluid in turbulent flow is bulent flow in the annulus is associated
resulting significantly higher than the pressure with hole erosion and washouts in
required to pump the same fluid in many formations. In susceptible zones,
increases in laminar flow. Once the flow is turbu- the hole will erode to a diameter where
pressure loss lent, increases in the flow rate increase the flow reverts to laminar. When drill-
can limit the the circulating pressure geometrically. ing these zones, the flow rate and the
flow rate. In turbulent flow, doubling the flow mud’s rheological properties should be
rate will increase the pressure by a fac- controlled to prevent turbulent flow.
tor of four (22). Increasing the flow rate
Hydraulics Calculations
Once the rheological properties for a and annulus as well as the possibly
fluid have been determined and mod- smaller-diameter drillstring. The mud
eled to predict flow behavior, hydrau- pump liners will be changed to have
lics calculations are made to determine smaller diameters and higher pressure
what effect this particular fluid will have ratings. This will increase the maximum
on system pressures. The critical pres- allowable circulating pressure.
sures are total system pressure (pump Under any set of hole conditions,
pressure), pressure loss across the bit a theoretical limit is imposed on the
and annular pressure loss (converted flow rate by the maximum allowable
to ECD). circulating pressure. Circulating pres-
Many wells are drilled under pressure sures, and consequently the flow rate,
limitations imposed by the drilling rig are directly related to the wellbore
It is… and associated equipment. The pres- and tubular geometry used, including
imperative sure ratings of the pump liners and special Bottom-Hole Assembly (BHA)
to optimize surface equipment and the number of equipment, as well as the fluid’s den-
mud pumps available limit the circu- sity and rheological properties. It is
drilling-fluid lating system to a maximum allowable therefore imperative to optimize drilling-
hydraulics by circulating pressure. fluid hydraulics by controlling the
controlling the As wells are drilled deeper and casing rheological properties of the drilling
is set, the flow rate will be decreased in fluid to avoid reaching this theoreti-
rheological the smaller diameter holes. The circulat- cal limit. This is especially true in
properties… ing pressures will increase because of extended-reach drilling.
the increased length of the drillstring
CHAPTER
GUIDELINES FOR example problem at the end of this

HYDRAULICS OPTIMIZATION chapter to demonstrate the use of
The maximum allowable circulating these equations.
pressure and circulating rate are limited Fluids in laminar flow “act” differ-
assets that can be wasted or maximized. ently than fluids in turbulent flow.
Rheology and hydraulics calculations These differences make it necessary
provide the means for adjusting the to use different equations to deter-
mud’s properties, the flow rate and the mine the pressure losses in laminar
bit nozzles to optimize these assets and turbulent flow. Different equa-
under the constraints imposed by tions are also required to calculate
the rig equipment. the pressure losses in the annulus
The major The major goal of hydraulics opti- and drillstring because of different
mization is to balance well control, geometries.
goal of The first step in hydraulics calcula-
hole cleaning, pump pressure, ECD
hydraulics and pressure drop across the bit. The tions is to determine which stage of
optimization fluid’s density and rheological proper- flow is occurring in each geometric
is to balance ties are the parameters that affect this interval of the well. The velocity of the
hydraulic efficiency. If it is assumed that fluid in each of these intervals can be
well control, fluid density is maintained at a mini- determined with the equations below.
hole mal safe level for well control and well- AVERAGE BULK VELOCITY
cleaning, bore stability, hydraulics optimization
The API refers to the velocity of fluid
is then dependent on the fluid’s rheo-
pump logical properties and the flow rate.
flowing in an annulus or pipe as the
pressure, bulk velocity. This assumes that all of
In many cases, downhole equipment
the fluid is flowing at the same veloc-
ECD such as downhole motors, thrusters,
ity with a flat profile and no instanta-
and pressure and measurement-while-drilling and
neous velocity differences as occurs
logging-while-drilling instrumentation
drop across has a minimum flow rate requirement
in turbulent flow. It is basically an
average velocity.
the bit. to properly function. This leaves fluid
Average bulk velocity in pipe (Vp):
rheological properties as the only
variable in the optimization process. 24.48 x Q (gpm)
Vp (ft/min) =
D2 (in.)
API HYDRAULICS EQUATIONS
With one exception, the formulae Average bulk velocity in annulus:
in this chapter are generally consis- 24.48 x Q (gpm)
Va (ft/min) =
tent with those in the API bulletin, (D22 – D12)(in.)
“Recommended Practice on the Where:
Rheology and Hydraulics of Oil-Well V = Velocity (ft/min)
Drilling Fluids” (API Recommended Q = Flow ratio (gpm)
Practice 13D Third Edition, June 1, D = Diameter (in.)
1995). The API equations determine, REYNOLDS NUMBER
use and report velocities in the annulus The Reynolds number (NRe) is a dimen-
and pipe in feet per second. M-I reports sionless number that is used to deter-
velocities in feet per minute. In this chap- mine whether a fluid is in laminar or
ter, the API formulae have been modi- turbulent flow. The assumption is made
fied to determine and use velocities in in “Recommended Practice on the
feet per minute. M-I’s computer and Rheology and Hydraulics of Oil-Well
calculator software (PCMODE3, HYPLANE , Drilling Fluids” (API Recommended
RDHE and QUIKCALC3E) use these Practice 13D Third Edition, June 1,
hydraulics equations. There is an 1995), that a Reynolds number less than
CHAPTER
or equal to 2,100 indicates laminar flow. CRITICAL VELOCITY

A Reynolds A Reynolds number greater than 2,100 The critical velocity is used to describe
number indicates turbulent flow. Earlier API the velocity where the transition occurs
hydraulics bulletins and many hydrau- from laminar to turbulent flow. Flow in
greater lics programs that predate the current the drill pipe is generally turbulent. The
than 2,100 API hydraulics bulletin define laminar equations for critical velocity in the pipe
indicates and turbulent flow differently. and in the annulus are listed below.
The general formula for Reynolds Critical flow rate can be calculated from
turbulent number is: these equations.
flow. V Dρ Critical pipe velocity (Vcp):
NRe =
µ Vcp (ft/min) =
38,727 x Kp (2 – n) (n
1
Where: 1.6 3n + 1 2 – n)
V = Velocity ( ρ ) x ( D
x
4n )
D = Diameter
ρ = Density Critical pipe flow rate:
V D2
µ = Viscosity Qcp (gpm) = cp
24.51
The Reynolds number for inside the
pipe is: Critical annular velocity (Vca):
15.467 x Vp Dρ Vca (ft/min) =
NRep =
25,818 x Ka (2 – n) 2n + 1 (2 – n)
1 n
µep
( ρ ) x ( 2.4
(D2 – D1)
x
3n )
The Reynolds number for the
annulus is: Critical annular flow rate:
15.467Va (D2 – D1)ρ V (D22 – D12)
NRea =
µea Q ca (gpm) = ca
24.51
Where:
D = ID drill pipe or drill collars
D2 = ID hole or casing
D1 = OD drill pipe or drill collars
µep = Effective viscosity (cP) pipe
µea = Effective viscosity (cP) annulus
CHAPTER
Pressure-Loss Calculations
CIRCULATING SYSTEM
The circulating system of a drilling well Top drive or kelly
is made up of a number of components Standpipe
or intervals, each with a specific pressure
The sum drop. The sum of these interval pressure
of interval drops is equal to the total system pres-
Fluid out
sure loss or the measured standpipe Standpipe
pressure pressure. Figure 23 is a schematic of the
gauge
drops is circulating system. This figure can be Fluid in

Casing or riser
equal to simplified to Figure 24 that illustrates
the relative flow area of each interval.
the total There can be any number of sub- Drill pipe
system intervals within the categories listed

pressure in the table below.
loss… 0 Standpipe/top drive/ kelly
1 Inside drill pipe Liner
2 Inside drill collars
3 Inside downhole tools
4 Bit nozzle
Drill collars
5 Annulus open hole/drillstring
Open hole
6 Annulus liner/drillstring Downhole tools
7 Annulus casing or riser/drillstring Bit
The total pressure loss for this sys- Figure 23: Schematic of a circulating system.
tem can described mathematically as:
PTotal =
PSurf Equip + PDrillstring + PBit + PAnnulus 0
Each of these pressure groups is

broken down into their component
1
parts and appropriate calculations.
7
2
6
3
4 5
Figure 24: Simplified circulation system.
CHAPTER
SURFACE EQUIPMENT PRESSURE LOSSES or top drive. To calculate the pressure

Surface Surface pressure losses include losses loss in the surface connections, use the
between the standpipe pressure gauge API pipe formula for pressure loss in the
pressure drill pipe. Common surface equipment
and the drill pipe. This includes the
losses standpipe, kelly hose, swivel, and kelly geometries are listed in the table below.
include
Eq. Length
losses Case Standpipe Hose Swivel, etc. Kelly 3.826-in. ID
between the 1 40 ft long,
3-in. ID
45 ft long,
2-in. ID
20 ft long,
2-in. ID
40 ft long,
2.25-in. ID
2,600 ft
standpipe 2 40 ft long, 55 ft long, 25 ft long, 40 ft long, 946 ft

3.5-in. ID 2.5-in. ID 2.5-in. ID 3.25-in. ID
pressure 3 45 ft long, 55 ft long, 25 ft long, 40 ft long, 610 ft
gauge and 4-in. ID 3-in. ID 2.5-in. ID 3.25-in. ID
4 45 ft long, 55 ft long, 30 ft long, 40 ft long, 424 ft
the drill pipe. 4-in. ID 3-in. ID 3-in. ID 4-in. ID
TOP DRIVE SURFACE CONNECTIONS If the Reynolds number is less than

There is no current standard case for top or equal to 2,100:
drive units. The surface connections of 16
fp =
most of these units consist of an 86-ft NRep
standpipe and 86 ft of hose with either If the Reynolds number is greater
a 3.0- or 3.8-in. ID. In addition, there is than 2,100:
an “S” pipe that is different on almost
every rig.
fp =
(
log n + 3.93
50 )
DRILLSTRING PRESSURE LOSSES
NRep[ ]
1.75 – log n
7
The pressure loss in the drillstring
is equal to the sum of the pressure PIPE INTERVAL PRESSURE LOSS
losses in all of the drillstring intervals, Drillstring (including drill collars) inter-
including drill pipe, drill collars, mud vals are determined by the ID of the
motors, MWD/LWD/PWD or any pipe. The length of an interval is the
other downhole tools. length of pipe that has the same inter-
FRICTION FACTOR nal diameter. The following equation
Before calculating the pressure loss, is used to calculate the pressure loss
the Fanning friction factor (fp) is cal- for each drillstring interval.
culated next with different equations f V 2ρ
Pp (psi) = p p xL
being used for laminar and turbulent 92,916D
flow. This friction factor is an indica- Where:
tion of the resistance to fluid flow at Vp = Velocity (ft/min)
the pipe wall. The friction factor in D = ID pipe (in.)
these calculations assumes a similar ρ = Density (lb/gal)
roughness for all tubulars. L = Length (ft)
CHAPTER
_______________________ PRESSURELOSSES THROUGH In the case of coring or diamond

_______________________
MOTORS AND TOOLS bits, the Total Flow Area (TFA) and
If the drillstring contains a downhole appropriate conversion factors are
_______________________
motor; an MWD, LWD or PWD tool; substituted into the equation to give:
_______________________ a turbine or a thruster, their pressure ρQ2
losses must be included in the system Pbit (psi) =
_______________________ 10,858(TFA)2
_______________________
pressure losses when calculating the Where:
system’s hydraulics. These pressure ρ = Density (lb/gal)
_______________________ losses can significantly change the Q = Flow ratio (gpm)
_______________________ pressure available at the bit, as well TFA = Total Flow Area (in.2)
_______________________
as bypass flow around the bit.
The pressure loss through MWD and TOTAL ANNULUS PRESSURE LOSSES
_______________________ The total annular pressure loss is the
LWD tools varies widely with mud
_______________________ weight, mud properties, flow rate, tool sum of all of the annular interval pres-
_______________________ design, tool size and the data transmis- sure losses. Annular intervals are divided
sion rate. Some manufacturers publish by each change in hydraulic diameter. A
_______________________ change in drillstring outside diameter
pressure losses for their tools but these
_______________________ pressure losses can be conservative, and/or a change in casing, liner or open
_______________________ because they are usually determined hole inside diameter would result in a
with water. hydraulic diameter change. As with the
The pressure loss through Positive drillstring pressure loss equations, the
Displacement Motors (PDM) (Moyno), friction factor must first be determined
thrusters and turbines is higher than the before calculating the pressure loss for
losses across MWD and LWD tools and each annular section.
subject to even more variables. With a FRICTION FACTOR ANNULUS
PDM or thruster, increased weight on
If the Reynolds number is less than or
the bit increases the torque and pressure
equal to 2,100:
loss across the motor. The pressure drop
24
through a turbine is proportional to the fa =
flow rate, the mud weight and the num- NRea
ber of drive stages in the turbine. The If the Reynolds number is greater
pressure loss across motors and turbines than 2,100:
cannot be accurately determined by for-
mula, but, again, this pressure loss data
is available from the suppliers. fa =
( log n + 3.93
50 )
NRea[ ]
1.75 – log n
7
PRESSURE LOSS AT THE BIT (FRICTION
PRESSURE LOSS IN THE NOZZLES)
The pressure loss across the bit is cal-
culated with the following equation:
156ρQ2
Pbit =
(Dn1
2
+ Dn2
2
+ Dn3
2
+ …)2
CHAPTER
ANNULUS INTERVAL PRESSURE LOSS HYDRAULIC HORSEPOWER AT BIT

The pressure The pressure loss for each interval The bit hydraulic horsepower cannot
loss for each must be calculated separately and exceed the total system hydraulic
added together for the total annular horsepower.
interval pressure loss. This equation is used QPBit
must be to calculate the individual interval hhpb =
1,740
calculated pressure losses. Where:
separately faVa2ρ Q = Flow rate (gpm)
Pa (psi) = x Lm
92,916 (D2 – D1) PBit = Bit pressure loss (psi)
and added
together for Where: HYDRAULIC HORSEPOWER PER
D2 = ID hole or casing (in.) SQUARE INCH OF BIT AREA
the total D1 = OD drill pipe or drill collars (in.) 1.27 x hhpb
annular HSI =
EQUIVALENT CIRCULATING DENSITY Bit Size2
pressure loss. The pressure on a formation while circu- Where:
lating is equal to the total annular circu- Bit Size = Bit diameter (in.)
lating pressure losses from the point of SYSTEM HYDRAULIC HORSEPOWER
interest to the bell nipple, plus the PTotalQ
hydrostatic pressure of the mud. This hhpSystem =
1,714
force is expressed as the density of
Where:
mud that would exert a hydrostatic
PTotal = Total system pressure
pressure equivalent to this pressure.
losses (psi)
This equivalent mud weight is called the
Q = Flow rate (gpm)
Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD).
ECD (lb/gal) = NOZZLE VELOCITY (FT/SEC):
Pa (psi) Although more than one nozzle size
ρ (lb/gal) + may be run in a bit, the nozzle velocity
0.052 x TVD (ft)
will be the same for all of the nozzles.
Excessive ECD may cause losses by Nozzle velocities of 250 to 450 ft/sec
exceeding fracture gradient on a well. are recommended for most bits. Nozzle
It is important to optimize rheological velocities in excess of 450 ft/sec may
properties to avoid excessive ECD. erode the cutting structure of the bit.
BIT HYDRAULICS CALCULATIONS 417.2 x Q
Vn (ft/sec) =
In addition to bit pressure loss, sev- Dn1
2
+ Dn22
+ Dn3
2
+…
Low eral other hydraulics calculations Where:
hydraulic are used to optimize the drilling per- Q = Flow rate (gpm)
horsepower formance. These include hydraulic Dn = Nozzle diameter (32nds in.)
horsepower, impact force and jet
at the bit velocity calculations.
PERCENT PRESSURE DROP AT THE BIT
can result It is generally desired to have 50 to
HYDRAULIC HORSEPOWER 65% of surface pressure used across
in low The recommended hydraulic horse- the bit.
penetration power (hhp) range for most rock bits is P
%∆PBit = Bit x 100
rates and 2.5 to 5.0 Horsepower per Square Inch PTotal
poor bit (HSI) of bit area. Low hydraulic horse-
power at the bit can result in low pene-
performance. tration rates and poor bit performance.
CHAPTER
Generally, HYDRAULIC IMPACT FORCE (IF) to 65% of the maximum allowable cir-
the goal is VnQρ culating pressure to the bit. Systems are
IF (lb) = considered optimized for impact force
to use 50 to 1,930
Where: when the pressure loss at the bit is
65% of the Vn = Nozzle velocity (ft/sec) equal to 50% of the circulating pres-
maximum Q = Flow rate (gpm) sure. When the pressure loss at the bit
ρ = Density (lb/gal) is equal to approximately 65% of the
allowable circulating pressure, the system is con-
circulating IMPACT FORCE/IN.2 sidered optimized for hydraulic horse-
pressure to IF (psi) =
1.27 x IF (lb) power. Figure 24 compares optimization
Bit Size2 by hydraulic horsepower and impact
the bit. force. There is a tradeoff in optimizing
BIT HYDRAULICS OPTIMIZATION with respect to one aspect vs. the other.
In many areas of the world, rock bit In the soft formations typical of off-
hydraulics can be optimized to improve shore wells, the only limit on the pen-
rate of penetration. There are a lot of etration rate may be the connection
factors that effect ROP including bit time. The jetting action is not as criti-
size, bit type, bit features, formation cal. Under these conditions, high flow
type and strength, and bit hydraulics. rates and turbulence beneath the bit to
In hard rock areas, bit/formation inter- reduce balling of the bit and BHA (bit,
action has a greater impact on ROP collars, etc.) and cleaning the wellbore
than bit hydraulics. are the primary concerns. For these
Bit hydraulics may be optimized on conditions, the bit can be optimized
hydraulic impact, hydraulic horse- for impact force and flow rate. When
power, hydraulic horsepower per square optimized for impact force, approxi-
inch of hole beneath the bit or nozzle mately 50% of the maximum allowable
velocity. Generally, the goal is to use 50
3,000
2,750
Pressure loss, impact force and hydraulic horsepower
Maximum allowable surface pressure

2,500
Bit s
2,250 pre se
ssu los
re l
oss lar
2,000 nu
an
d
1,750 an
Optimized for hydraulic horsepower ring
st
ill
1,500 Dr
1,250 Optimized for impact force
1,000
750 Hydraulic impact force
500
power
250 Hydraulic horse
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Flow rate (gpm)
Figure 25: Effect of flow rate on pressure loss and bit hydraulics.
CHAPTER
circulating pressure will be lost at horsepower at the bit and the circu-
the bit. lating rate will decrease with depth
When drilling hard shales at greater and drilling performance can suffer.
depths, chip hold-down and fines The flow rate must be maintained at
beneath the bit are the limiting factors adequate levels for hole cleaning, even
for penetration rates. Under these con- though the bit pressure loss becomes
Care should ditions, relatively small increases in the less than desired. Care should also be
be taken penetration rate can lower well costs sig- taken to not “optimize the nozzles
nificantly. Jetting action is critical and down” to a size that will not permit
to not drilling rates are improved when the bit the use of lost-circulation material.
“optimize is optimized for hydraulic horsepower This problem is sometimes avoided by
the nozzles with 65% of the maximum allowable blanking one of the nozzles and sizing
circulating pressure loss at the bit. the remaining nozzles for the total
down” to a flow area. With one of the nozzles
size that will LIMITATIONS OF OPTIMIZING FOR
blanked, the bit can be optimized
PERCENT PRESSURE LOSS AT THE BIT
not permit While there is a need to achieve opti-
with larger-size nozzles.
Optimum flow rates change with the
the use mum drilling performance, there are type of formation being drilled, the hole
of lost- upper limits to acceptable hydraulics. size, hole angle, and whether the bit is
Excessive nozzle velocities may dam-
circulation age the cutting structures of bits and
optimized for impact force or hydrau-
material. lics. Use a hole cleaning computer
shorten bit life. Nozzle shear rates in model such as M-I’s VIRTUAL HYDRAULICST
excess of 100,000 sec–1 have been or RDH, or charts for deviated wells to
associated with hole washout. determine an appropriate flow rate.
In addition to upper limits there are
also lower acceptable limits. Selecting DOWNHOLE TOOLS, BYPASSED FLOW
the bit nozzles for 50 or 65% of the cir- Downhole tools can also affect the abil-
culating pressure loss at the bit without ity to optimize bit hydraulics. Some (but
considering the circulating system as a not all) MWD and LWD tools bypass up
whole can create problems. As a well is to 5% of the flow. This bypassed fluid
drilled deeper, the pressure losses in the does not reach the bit and must be sub-
drillstring and annulus increase if the tracted from the flow to the bit when
flow rate is maintained. As this occurs, optimizing bit hydraulics. The full flow
a smaller percentage of the maximum rate (not reduced by the bypassed vol-
allowable circulating pressure will be ume) is used for calculating annular
available for use at the bit. It will hydraulics and pressure losses in the
become impossible to maintain the drill pipe and drill collars. The MWD
flow rate and the bit pressure loss and LWD manufacturer’s representative
at 65% of the maximum allowable should be contacted to determine if a
circulating pressure. specific tool bypasses flow, how much it
If the circulating rate is decreased, the bypasses and the estimated pressure loss
pressure losses in the drillstring and through the tool.
annulus will decrease. The nozzles can The bearing sections of both PDMs
then be sized to maintain the bit pressure and turbines require a portion of the
loss at 65% of the maximum allowable flow for cooling. This fluid is directed to
surface pressure. Although the percent the annulus and bypasses the bit. The
pressure loss at the bit can be main- bypassed volume depends on a number
tained by decreasing the flow rate, the of different variables, but usually ranges
CHAPTER
from 2 to 10% of the total flow rate.

This bypassed fluid must be subtracted 1.0 lb/bbl
l
from the flow to the bit when optimiz- b/bb
1.5 l
Flow rate (bpm)

ing bit hydraulics. The full flow rate
l
(not reduced by the bypassed volume) b/bb
0.5 l
is used for calculating annular hydrau- Water
lics and pressure losses in the drill pipe
and drill collars. The PDM or turbine
Using manufacturer’s representative should be
extended contacted to determine the specific vol-
Pressure loss (psi)
ume that is bypassed and the estimated
nozzles…can pressure loss through the motor. Figure 26: Drag reduction with FLO-VIS.w
increase the
BOTTOM-HOLE CLEANING
jet intensity will indicate the intensity of the jet-
In addition to providing energy at the ting action. The full intensity of the
on the face of the bit, the drilling fluid should jet is maintained in the center of flow
formation. also effectively remove the cuttings at H/D ratios of 8 or less and falls off
from beneath the bit to maximize ROP rapidly at higher ratios. Increasing the
by avoiding “redrilling.” Cleaning can nozzle diameter will lower the H/D
be improved by several means, none ratio, but it also lowers the nozzle
of which affect the way pressure losses velocity and pressure drop through
and energy at the bit are calculated. the bit.
Increasing the intensity of the jet action PDC bit nozzle placement is designed
from the nozzles on the face of the for- to effectively remove cuttings from
mation beneath the bit by extending beneath the bit. The nozzle layout is
nozzles will improve bottom-hole clean- also important to effectively cool the
ing. Blanking a nozzle will permit bet- cutter faces.
ter crossflow beneath the bit. A center
jet improves cone cleaning to avoid DRAG REDUCTION
bit balling. Drag reduction is the tendency of a fluid
The jet action is greatest as the mud to delay the onset of turbulent flow. The
exits the nozzles and diminishes with result of this delay is decreased pressure
Drag distance from the nozzles through inter- loss. Figure 26 shows how increasing the
reduction is action with the surrounding mud. Using concentration of FLO-VIST reduces circu-
the tendency extended nozzles that place the exits lating pressure. Several long-chain poly-
closer to the bottom of the hole can mers (POLY-PLUS,T FLO-VIS,T DUO-VIS,T
of a fluid increase the jet intensity on the forma- HEC) promote drag reduction. A drop
to delay tion. Jet intensity can also be main- in pump pressure can be observed when
the onset of tained by using asymmetric nozzle sizes these materials are added to the system.
(increasing the size of one nozzle while Drag reduction is a very complex behav-
turbulent reducing the size of the others). This ior. It is not completely understood, and
flow. will maintain the desired total flow there is no model to predict or compen-
area and pressure loss at the bit while sate for it. Drag reduction can be very
giving greater jetting intensity from at time- and solids-dependent. The pump
least one of the nozzles. The proximity pressure increases gradually on subse-
of the nozzle to the bottom of the hole quent circulations as the polymers are
is often described with the H/D ratio, broken down or envelop solids.
where H is the distance of the nozzle
VIRTUAL HYDRAULICST
from the bottom of the hole and D is
the nozzle diameter. This H/D ratio The VIRTUAL HYDRAULICST computer pro-
gram from M-I uses the vast number
CHAPTER
of variables that affect drilling fluid into the well are called surge pressures. If
hydraulics to produce a clearer pic- the surge pressure plus the hydrosta-
ture of the viscosities and pressure tic pressure exceed the fracture gradi-
losses that are occurring under down- ent, the formation will be fractured
…the hole conditions. It incorporates not with resultant loss of circulation.
maximum only field viscosity data but also high- Swab and surge pressures are related
temperature and high-pressure viscos- to the mud’s rheological properties; the
reduction in ity to better predict the behavior of mud’s gel strengths; the speed at which
hydrostatic invert systems under non-standard the pipe is pulled from, or run into, the
pressure conditions. VIRTUAL HYDRAULICST is also well; the annular dimensions; and the
capable of accounting for subtle changes length of drillstring in the well. The
is called in pipe and wellbore geometry that rheological properties affect swab and
the swab heretofore had been averaged across surge pressures in the same manner as
pressure. an interval. The information produced they affect annular pressure losses.
by this program is extremely accurate Increases in either the plastic viscosity
and can be validated with downhole or the yield point will increase the
pressure measurement devices. swab and surge pressures.
The velocity of the mud being dis-
SWAB AND SURGE PRESSURES
placed is different for each annular
When the drillstring is picked up to space and is directly related to the
make a connection or trip out of the velocity of drillstring movement,
well, the mud in the annulus must fall whether tripping in or out of the well.
to replace the volume of pipe pulled Since the maximum (not average) swab
from the well. The hydrostatic pressure and surge pressures must be less than
is momentarily reduced while the mud the pressures needed to swab the well
is falling in the annulus. This action is in or break the formation down, swab
referred to as swabbing and the maxi- and surge pressures must be calculated
mum reduction in hydrostatic pressure for the maximum drillstring velocity
is called the swab pressure. Swab pres- when tripping. This is generally calcu-
sures are related to the frictional pres- lated as one-and-one-half times the
sures of the mud flowing in the annulus average drillstring velocity.
to displace the drillstring, not the reduc-
VMaxDrillstring (ft/min per stand) =
tion in hydrostatic pressure due to the
stand length (ft)
lower mud level in the annulus. If the 1.5 x x 60 sec/min
swab pressure is greater than the hydro- seconds per stand
static pressure safety margin (overbal- The annular velocity is calculated for
ance pressure), formation fluids will be each interval based on the drillstring
swabbed into the wellbore. displacement for that interval. The
When the drillstring or casing is low- drillstring displacement is adjusted
ered or run into the well, mud is dis- accordingly for free flow from or into
placed from the well. The frictional the drillstring (no float, plugged bit,
pressure losses from the flow of mud etc.) or for plugged drillstring where
in the annulus as it is displaced by the the displacement plus capacity of the
pipe causes pressures in excess of the drillstring is used.
hydrostatic pressure of the column of The annular velocity must be calcu-
mud in the wellbore. The elevated pres- lated for each annular space. These
sures caused by running the drillstring annular velocities should be substituted
VMaxDrillstring (ft/min) x drillstring displacement (bbl/ft)
AVSwab-Surge (ft/min) =
annular capacity (bbl/ft)
CHAPTER
into the API equations for the annular As pipe is removed from the hole, the
pressure losses for each interval. The drillstring length decreases and the bot-
swab and surge pressures are then calcu- tom hole assembly will be pulled into
The object of lated in the same manner as the ECD. large diameter casing. This will make it
calculating The object of calculating swab and possible to pull each stand faster with-
surge pressures is to determine safe out risk of swabbing in the well. When
swab and pulling and running speeds and mini- tripping in to the well, the length of
surge mized trip times. This is done by chang- drillstring will be increasing and the
pressures is ing the maximum or minimum time annular spaces will decrease as the BHA
per stand and recalculating the swab is run into smaller diameters. This will
to determine and surge pressures until times per stand require that the running time per stand
safe pulling are found where the swab and surge be increased to avoid fracturing the for-
and running pressures plus the hydrostatic pressure is mation. The swab and surge pressures
speeds and approximately equal to the formation should be calculated at either 500- or
pressure and fracture pressure. This time 1,000-ft intervals.
minimized per stand is only relevant for the present
trip times. length of drillstring in the well.
Summary
Drilling performance is directly related should be controlled to deliver as much
to the mechanical limitations imposed of the rig’s maximum allowable circulat-
Controlling by the drilling rig. Controlling the ing pressure as possible to the bit by
the mud’s mud’s rheological properties can opti- reducing the parasitic pressure losses in
mize the performance while operating the surface connections, drillstring
rheological within the mechanical limits imposed by and annulus without compromising
properties can the rig. The mud’s rheological properties hole cleaning or solids suspension.
optimize the
performance
while Hydraulics Example Problem
operating
PROBLEM: Yield point: 15 lb/100 ft2
within the MD/TVD: 12,031 ft Initial gel: 8 lb/100 ft2
mechanical Surface casing: 2,135 ft of 133⁄8-in. Flow rate: 335 gpm
limits 61 lb/ft Calculations: Hydraulics calculations
Intermediate casing: 10,786 ft of use a series of formulae that must be
imposed by 95⁄8-in. 40 lb/ft used in sequence. Since the mud veloc-
the rig. Bit: 85⁄8 in. ity and viscosity change every time the
Nozzles (32nds in.): 11, 11, 11 internal diameter of the drillstring and
Surface connections: Case 3 annulus diameter changes, hydraulics
Drill pipe: 41⁄2 in., 16.6 lb/ft must be calculated for each length of
Drill collars: 390 ft of drillstring and annulus that has a differ-
7 in. x 21⁄4 in. ent diameter. Although the same val-
Surface pressure: 3,000 psi ues are calculated for the annular and
Mud weight: 12.8 lb/gal drillstring intervals, different formulae
Funnel viscosity: 42 sec/qt are used to compensate for the differ-
Plastic viscosity: 19 cP ences in flow in the drillstring and
CHAPTER
_______________________ annulus. The sequence of calculations ANNULAR GEOMETRY:

_______________________
for each interval is as follows: Interval #1:
• “n” and “K” values. Length: 10,786 ft; casing ID:
_______________________
• Bulk velocity. 8.835 in.; drill pipe: 41⁄2 in.
_______________________ • Effective viscosity. Start from the surface, with the drill
_______________________ • Reynolds number. pipe in casing as the first interval.
• Friction factor (one of two different The first interval length will be the
_______________________
formulae will be used depending on shorter of the two, the casing
_______________________ the value of the Reynolds number). length, 10,786 ft. The drill pipe is
_______________________ • Interval-pressure loss. The annular 855 ft longer than the casing
interval-pressure losses are totaled (11,641 – 10,786). This 855-ft por-
_______________________
and used to calculate the equivalent tion of the drill pipe will be used
_______________________ circulating density. Pipe (drillstring) to calculate the length of the
_______________________ equations and the equivalent hydrau- next interval.
_______________________
lic pipe length of the surface connec- Interval #2:
tions are used to calculate the pressure Length: 855 ft; open hole ID: 85⁄8 in.;
_______________________ loss of the surface connections. drill pipe: 41⁄2 in.
_______________________
The sum of the pressure losses in the Determine the length of the next
_______________________ surface connections, drillstring, down- geometry interval using the 855 ft
hole tools, bit and annulus should of drillpipe that extends below the
approximate the surface pressure. casing and the next hole interval,
Θ300 = PV + YP 1,245 ft of open hole. The shorter
= 19 + 15 = 34 of the two, the drill pipe, deter-
mines the length of the second
Θ600 = Θ300 + PV interval, 855 ft. The open hole is
= 34 + 19 = 53 390 ft longer (1,245 – 855) than
2PV the drill pipe. This length will be
Θ100 = Θ300 – used to determine the length of
3
the next geometry interval.
2 x 19
Θ100 = 34 – = 21 Interval #3:
3 Length: 390 ft; open hole ID: 85⁄8 in.;
The API annular hydraulics formulae drill collars: 7 in.
use the 100-RPM VG meter reading. If The next drillstring interval consists
six-speed mud viscometer data is of 390 ft of drill collars. This length
available, use the 100-RPM reading is equal to the length of the remain-
rather than the calculated value. der of the open-hole interval from
Intermediate casing ID: 8.835 in. Interval #2; therefore the length of
Open hole interval: the final geometry interval is 390 ft.
MD – casing length Pipe “n” and “K” values:
12,031 ft – 10,786 = 1,245 ft Θ
np = 3.32 log 600
Surface connection Case 3, equiva- Θ300
lent length (ft): 610 ft of 3.826-in.
ID pipe
Drill pipe ID: 3.826 in.
np = 3.32 log ( )
53
34
= 0.64
Drill pipe length: MD – collar length 5.11Θ600

12,031 ft – 390 ft = 11,641 ft of Kp =
1,022np
41⁄2 in. x 3.826 in.
5.11 x 53
Kp = = 3.21
1,0220.64
CHAPTER
_______________________ SURFACE CONNECTION: Effective viscosity:

_______________________ Velocity: µep (cP) =
24.48 x Q (gpm)
(
1.6 x Vp
) ( 3np + 1
)
(np–1) np
_______________________ Vp (ft/min) = 100 x Kp
D2 (in.) D 4np
_______________________
µep =
24.48 x 335
Vp = = 560.23 ft/min
( 1.6 x 560.23
) ( )
3 x 0.64 + 1
(0.64–1) 0.64
_______________________
3.8262 100 x 3.21 x
3.826 4 x 0.64
_______________________
Effective viscosity: = 48.96 cP
_______________________
µep (cP) =
_______________________ Reynolds number:
(
1.6 x Vp
) ( 3np + 1
)
(np–1) np
100 x Kp 15.467 x VpDρ
_______________________ D 4np NRep =
µep
_______________________ µep =
15.467 x 560.23 x 3.826 x 12.8
(1.6 x 560.23
) ( 3 x 0.64 + 1
) NRep =
(0.64–1) 0.64
_______________________
100 x 3.21 x 48.96
3.826 4 x 0.64
_______________________ = 8,667
= 48.96 cP
_______________________
Reynolds number: Friction factor:
_______________________
15.467 x VpDρ Since the Reynolds number is
NRep = greater than 2,100, use the turbulent
_______________________ µep
equation.
15.467 x 560.23 x 3.826 x 12.8
NRep =
= 8,667
48.96
fp =
( log n + 3.93
50 )
NRep[ ]
1.75 – log n
7
Friction factor:
fp =
(log n + 3.93
50 ) fp =
( log (0.64) + 3.93
50 )
NRep[
1.75 – log n
7
] [ 1.75 – log (0.64)
]
8,667 7
fp =
( log (0.64) + 3.93
50 ) = 0.006025
Interval pressure:
8,667
[ 1.75 – log (0.64)
7
] Pp (psi) =
fpVp2ρ
x Lm
92,916 D
= 0.006025
0.006025 x 560.232 x 12.8
Pressure loss: Pp = x 11,641
92,916 x 3.826
fpVp2ρ = 792.52 psi
Pp (psi) = x Lm
92,916 D
DRILLSTRING INTERVAL #2
0.006025 x 560.232 x 12.8 (DRILL COLLARS):
Pp = x 610
92,916 x 3.826 Bulk velocity:
= 41.53 psi 24.48 x Q (gpm)
Vp (ft/min) =
DRILLSTRING INTERVAL #1 (DRILL PIPE): D2 (in.)
Velocity: 24.48 x 335
24.48 x Q (gpm) Vp = = 1,619.91 ft/min
Vp (ft/min) = 2.252
D2 (in.)
24.48 x 335
Vp = = 560.23 ft/min
3.8262
CHAPTER
_______________________ Effective viscosity: Annular pressure losses:

_______________________
µep (cP) = Annular “n” value:
Θ100
(
1.6 x Vp
) ( )
3np + 1
( )
(np–1) np
_______________________ 100 x Kp x na = 0.657 log
D 4np Θ3
_______________________
µep =
_______________________
_______________________
100 x 3.21(1.6 x 1,619.91
2.25 ) ( x
3 x 0.64 + 1
(0.64–1)
4 x 0.64 )
0.64 na = 0.657 log ( ) 21
8
= 0.275
= 27.6 cP Annular “K” value:

_______________________
5.11Θ3
_______________________ Reynolds number: Ka =
5.11na
15.467 x VpDρ
_______________________ NRep = 5.11 x 8
µep Ka = = 26.1
_______________________ 5.110.275
15.467 x 1,619.91 x 2.25 x 12.8
_______________________ NRep = ANNULAR INTERVAL #1 (8.835-IN.
27.6
_______________________ = 26,144
CASING X 4.5-IN.DRILL PIPE):
Annular velocity:
_______________________
Friction factor: 24.48 x Q (gpm)
_______________________ Since the Reynolds number is Va (ft/min) =
(D22 – D12)
_______________________ greater than 2,100, use the turbulent 24.48 x 335 (gpm)
equation. Va =
8.8352 – 4.52 (in.)
fp =
( log n + 3.93
50 ) = 141.86 ft/min
Effective annular viscosity:
NRe [
1.75 – log n
7
] µea (cP) =
p
( ) (
2.4 x Va (na–1) 2na + 1
)
na
fp =
( log (0.64) + 3.93
50 ) 100 x Ka
µea =
D2 – D1
x
3na
26,144
[ 1.75 – log (0.64)
7
] 100 x Ka ( ) (
2.4 x 141.86
8.835 – 4.5
(0.275–1)
x
3 x 0.275 )
2 x 0.275 + 1 0.275
= 0.004434 = 131.22 cP
Pressure loss: Annular Reynolds number:
fpVp2ρ 15.467 x Va x (D2 – D1) x ρ
Pp (psi) = x Lm NRea =
92,916 D µea
0.004434 x 1,619.912 x 12.8 15.467 x 141.86 x (8.835 – 4.5) x 12.8
Pp = x 390 NRea =
92,916 x 2.25 131.22
= 277.84 psi = 927.82
Total drillstring pressure loss: Friction factor (if the Reynolds num-
PDrillstring = Pp1 + Pp2 + … ber is less than 2,100, use laminar
PDrillstring = 792.52 + 277.84 equation):
= 1,070.36 psi 24
fa =
NRea
24
fa = = 0.025867
927.82
CHAPTER
_______________________ Annular interval pressure loss, Annular interval pressure loss:

_______________________
annular interval #1: faVa2ρ
Pa (psi) = x Lm
faVa2ρ 92,916 x (D2 – D1)
_______________________ Pa (psi) = x Lm
92,916 x (D2 – D1)
0.02342 x 151.472 x 12.8
_______________________ Pa = x 855
0.025867 x 141.86 x 12.8 2
92,916 x (8.625 – 4.5)
_______________________ Pa = x 10,786
92,916 x 8.835 – 4.5 = 15.34 psi
_______________________ = 177.94 psi ANNULAR INTERVAL #3 (8.625-IN.
_______________________ ANNULAR INTERVAL #2 (8.625-IN. HOLE X 7-IN. DRILL COLLARS):
_______________________ OPEN HOLE X 4.5-IN. DRILL PIPE): Bulk velocity:
Annular velocity: 24.48 x Q (gpm)
_______________________ Va (ft/min) =
24.48 x Q (gpm) D22 – D12 (in.)
_______________________
Va (ft/min) =
D22 – D12 (in.) 24.48 x 335
Va = = 322.99 ft/min
_______________________ 24.48 x 335 8.6252 – 72
Va =
_______________________ 8.6252 – 4.52
_______________________ Va = 151.47 ft/min µea (cP) =
( ) (
2.4 x Va (na–1) 2na + 1
)
na
_______________________
µea (cP) = 100 x Ka
_______________________ D2 – D1 3na
( ) (
2.4 x Va (na–1) 2na + 1
) µea =
na
100 x Ka x
(
2.4 x 322.99
) ( )
2 x 0.275 + 1
(0.275–1) 0.275
D2 – D1 3na 100 x 26.1
8.625 – 7 3 x 0.275
µea =
= 35.48 cP
( ) (
2.4 x 151.47 2 x 0.275 + 1
)
(0.275–1) 0.275
100 x 26.1 x
8.625 – 4.5 3 x 0.275 Annular Reynolds number:
= 120.72 cP 15.467 x Va x (D2 – D1) x ρ
NRea =
µea
Annular Reynolds number:
15.467 x Va x (D2 – D1) x ρ 15.467 x 322.99 x (8.625 – 7) x 12.8
NRea = NRea =
µea 35.48
= 2,928.7
15.467 x 151.47 x (8.625 – 4.5) x 12.8
NRea = Friction factor (if the Reynolds num-
120.72
= 1,024.68 ber is greater than 2,100, use the tur-
bulent equation):
Friction factor (if the Reynolds num-
ber is less than 2,100, use the laminar
equation): fa =
((log n + 3.93)
50 )
NRea[
fa =
24
1.75 – log n
7
]
NRea
fa =
24
1,024.68
= 0.02342
fa =
( (log (0.275) + 3.93)
50 )
2,928.70
[ 1.75 – log (0.275)
7
]
= 0.00483
CHAPTER
_______________________ Annular pressure loss: Hydraulic impact:

faVa2ρ V (ft/sec) x Q (gpm) x ρ (lb/gal)
_______________________ Pa (psi) = x Lm IF (lb) = n
92,916 x (D2 – D1) 1,930
_______________________
0.00483 x 322.992 x 12.8 385 x 335 x 12.8
_______________________ Pa = x 390 IF (lb) =
92,916 x (8.625 – 7) 1,930
_______________________
= 16.66 psi = 855 lb
_______________________ Impact force/in.2:
Equivalent circulating density: 1.27 x IF (lb)
_______________________ Total annular pressure loss at TD: IF (psi) =
Bit Size2 (in.)
_______________________ PAnnulus = Pa1 + Pa2 + … 1.27 x 855
_______________________ PAnnulus = 177.97 + 15.34 + 16.66 IF (psi) = = 14.6 psi
8.6252
_______________________ = 209.97 psi
Hydraulic horsepower at bit:
_______________________ Equivalent circulating density at TD: Q (gpm) x PBit (psi)
_______________________
ρc (lb/gal) = hhpb =
1,740
PAnnulus (psi)
_______________________ ρ (lb/gal) + 335 x 1,700
0.052 x TVD (ft) HHPb = = 327.3 hhp
1,7402
_______________________ 209.97
ρc = 12.8 +
_______________________ 0.052 x 12,031 Hydraulic horsepower per
= 13.14 lb/gal square inch:
1.27 x hhpb (hhp)
BIT HYDRAULICS: HSI =
Pressure loss through nozzles or bit Bit Size2 (in.)
pressure loss: 1.27 x 327.3
HSI = = 5.58 hhp/in.2
156 x ρ x Q2 8.6252
PBit (psi) = 2 2 … 2
(Dn1 + Dn2
2
+ Dn3 ) Total calculated pressure loss:
156 x 12.8 x 335 2
The calculated pressure losses for
PBit =
(112 + 112 + 112)2 the system (surface connections, drill-
= 1,700 psi string, downhole tools, bit and annu-
lus) should closely approximate the
Percent pressure loss at bit:
circulating (standpipe) pressure.
P
%∆PBit = Bit x 100 PTotal =
PTotal
PSurf Equip + PDrillstring + PBit + PAnnulus
1,700
%∆PBit = x 100 = 57% PTotal = 41.53 + …
3,000 (792.52 + 277.84) + …
Bit nozzle velocity: 1,700.0 + (177.97 + …
417.2 x Q (gpm) 15.34 + 16.66)
Vn (ft/sec) = 2
Dn1 + Dn2
2
+ Dn3
2
+ … (in.) = 3,021.9 psi
417.2 x 335 This is acceptably close to the
Vn =
112 + 112 + 112 recorded circulating pressure of
= 385 ft/sec 3,000 psi.

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CHAPTER

5 Rheology and Hydraulics

5 Rheology and Hydraulics

FUNNEL VISCOSITY (where lower shear rates exist). The sum

This the shear stress (τ) to the shear rate A

5 Rheology and Hydraulics

5 Rheology and Hydraulics

5 Rheology and Hydraulics

YIELD POINT 4. Drilled hydratable shales or clays

5 Rheology and Hydraulics

5 Rheology and Hydraulics

Excessive gel strengths can cause com-

preventing anything promoting or preventing the

5 Rheology and Hydraulics

of the immediate shear history of the increas

5 Rheology and Hydraulics

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND

Shear stress (τ) (dial units)

5 Rheology and Hydraulics

static conditions. When Newtonian

5 Rheology and Hydraulics

This calculation is somewhat differ- long compared to their thickness, the

Figure 8: Non-Newtonian velocity profile (laminar).

5 Rheology and Hydraulics

Non-Newtonian fluids exhibit a

5 Rheology and Hydraulics

A rheological A rheological model is a description of Converting the equation for appli-

5 Rheology and Hydraulics

low and high shear rate as compared

Shear stress (τ) (dial units)

initial gel True yield point POWER LAW MODEL

5 Rheology and Hydraulics

Log shear stress (Θ)

Shear stress (τ)

Shear rate (γ)

Figure 17: Effect of Power Law “n” on fluid behavior.

5 Rheology and Hydraulics

Shear rate (sec–1)

Base – k = 0.95, n = 0.85

fluids, both PV 28, YP

5 Rheology and Hydraulics

rate is Practice 13D Third Edition, June 1, 100 x Kp

5 Rheology and Hydraulics

Power Law equations that provide the

Shear stress (τ)

As mentioned above, the API has cho- Power Law

Log shear stress (τ)

21 illustrate the differences between the Log shear rate (γ)

5 Rheology and Hydraulics

shear effects will begin to influence the

5 Rheology and Hydraulics

5 Rheology and Hydraulics

GUIDELINES FOR example problem at the end of this

5 Rheology and Hydraulics

or equal to 2,100 indicates laminar flow. CRITICAL VELOCITY

5 Rheology and Hydraulics

drops is circulating system. This figure can be Fluid in

system intervals within the categories listed

Each of these pressure groups is

Figure 24: Simplified circulation system.

5 Rheology and Hydraulics

SURFACE EQUIPMENT PRESSURE LOSSES or top drive. To calculate the pressure