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 EEE 427

Measurement and Instrumentation (M&I)

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 Course Instructor:
Dr. Md Zahurul Islam
Associate Professor, Dept of EEE, BUET
Office: ECE 528

Email: mdzahurulislam@eee.buet.ac.bd
Office Phone #: 9665650 Ext. 6595
Cell #: 01721933227

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 Course Website

http://mdzahurulislam.buet.ac.bd/courses.html

There is a link for ‘EEE 427’

Course Site Password: jan2018

Always check the course site for LECTURE MATERIALS,

CLASS TEST MARKS, UPDATES etc.

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 Course Objectives

 To learn about applications and some basic terminologies of

measurement systems and instrumentation

 To introduce you to some examples of each of the

functional elements of a generalized measurement system
(working principles and some other important aspects will
be covered)

 To introduce the students to the basics of causes of signal

impairment in a measurement device and their mitigation

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 Text and Other Study Materials
TEXT:
 ‘A Course in Electrical and Electronic Measurements and
Instrumentation’ by A. K. Sawhney- 19th Revised Edition

Other Material Sources:

 ‘Electronic Instruments and Instrumentation Technology’, by M. M. S.
Anand
 Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques’ by A.
D. Helfrick and W. D. Cooper
AND
 ‘World Wide Web’

Some materials will be handed in to the class in the form of handouts.

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 Performance Evaluation

As per BUET rules:

Class Attendance – 10%
Class Test – 20%
Final Exam – 70%

Class Test: Best 3 out of 4

Any sense of dishonesty during a class test → ZERO (0) for

that test.

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 Tentative Lecture Plan
Uploaded to the site

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The schedules of CTs are already declared in the plan

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 What is M&I?
Measurement: Result of comparison between a quantity (of
unknown magnitude) and a predefined standard

Instrument: A device for determining the magnitude of a

quantity or variable

Instrumentation: The process of devising a measurement or

making an instrument

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What is NOT included in M&I?

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 Applications of Measurement Systems

Applications are generally classified into three major classes:

1. Monitoring of processes and operations
2. Control of processes and operations
3. Experimental engineering analysis

1. Monitoring of processes and operations

- measuring instrument is used to keep track of some quantity.
- e.g. thermometer, barometer, radar used by weather department
- e.g. water, gas, electric meters in home

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 2. Control of processes and operations

- The most important class of measurement applications

(automatic control systems)
- Feedback control system:

Output
Input Error
signal
Amplifier Actuator
(Desired (Controlled
output) quantity)

Measuring
instruments
30 October 2018 12
3. Experimental engineering analysis

- Part of engineering design, development and research

- two basic ways of solving engineering problems: Theory and
Experimentation

- Most problems require blend of theory and experiment

For example,
• Experimental validation of theoretical
prediction/simulation
• Formulation of empirical equations

30 October 2018 13
Note-2

1
 Functional Elements of a Measurement System

Ex 1: Elements of a SIMPLE instrument

2
Ex 2: Elements of another (not so simple) instrument

Physical
Analog signal Analog signal
measurement
variable variable
variable

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Generally, measurement systems contain three functional
elements:
1. Primary sensing element
2. Signal conditioning element and
3. Data presentation element

Each element is made up of a distinct component or a group of

components which perform the required function

1. Primary sensing element

Variously known as detector/sensor or transducer

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2. Signal conditioning element

- sometimes, the raw signal output from the sensor is not suited
to the desired performance of the system. So signal
conditioning may be required.

- For example: filtering noise, amplifying signal and A/D

conversion

- Many instruments do not need any signal conditioning

element

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3. Data presentation element

- The quantity under measurement has to be conveyed to a

personnel or to the system for monitoring, control, or analyses
purposes.

- manual monitoring: visual display (LED/LCD, pointer

etc)

- recording: magnetic tape, printers, computer etc

- control and analysis: computer, microcontroller

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 IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES

Passive Sensors
Passive sensors do not add energy as part of the
measurement process but may remove energy in their
operation

Active Sensors
Add energy to the measurement environment as part of the
measurement process.
Example: A radar system, where the distance to some object is
measured by actively sending out a radio wave to reflect off of the
object and measure its range.

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Calibration: The relationship between the physical measurement
variable (input) and the signal variable (output) for a specific sensor
is known as the calibration of the sensor. Typically, a sensor (or an
entire instrument system) is calibrated by providing a known
physical input to the system and recording the output.

Calibration Curve:

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Sensitivity: Ratio of output signal or response of the instrument to a
change of input or measured variable

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Types of errors:
Gross errors: largely human errors, e.g. misreading, incorrect
adjustment and improper application of instruments.
Systematic errors (bias): shortcomings of the instruments, e.g.
effects of environment (temperature, humidity etc) on the
instrument, change in instrument response due to aging.
- Use of compensation can reduce/remove some systematic
errors
- periodic recalibration can prevent systematic error
Random error (noise): caused by the noise introduced during the
measurement process and random variation of input itself.
- taking a large number of readings and averaging them can
reduce the effect of noise
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Accuracy: Closeness with which an instrument reading approaches
the true value of the variable
- It is affected by the systematic error (bias) of the
instrument

= true value – statistical mean of the measurements

Precision: A measure of the reproducibility (or spread) of the

measurements. It is a measure of the degree to which successive
measurements differ from one another.
- It is affected by the random error (noise) of the instrument

= standard deviation (σ) of the measurement

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Bulls-eye (Target) Illustration

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13
14
 Classifications of Instruments
Basic classification;
1. Mechanical instruments- They are very reliable for static and
stable conditions.
Disadvantage: unable to respond rapidly to measurement of
dynamic and transient conditions.

2. Electrical instruments- This method is more rapid than mechanical

methods. They normally depends upon a electro-mechanical meter
movement

3. Electronic/photonic instruments:- Have very fast response.

- Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is capable of following
dynamic and transient changes of the order of few
nanoseconds (10-9 s)
- Photonic instruments have resolution of femtosecond (10-15),
and even attosecond (10-18) 15
 Classifications of Electrical Instruments

This classification is based on various effects of electricity:

• Magnetic effect: Used in deflection-type ammeters, voltmeters, watt-

meters etc.

• Heating effect: Used in ammeters and voltmeters

• Chemical effect: Used in dc ampere hour meters

• Electrostatic effect: Used in voltmeters

• Electromagnetic induction effect: Used in ac ammeters, voltmeters,

wattmeters
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Classification based on the Nature of their Operations

• Indicating instruments: Indicated by means of a

mechanical pointer which moves on a scale, or digital
display. e.g., ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter

• Recording instruments: Record continuously the

variation of any electrical quantity with respect to time. e.g.
oscilloscope

• Integrating instruments: Record the consumption of the

total quantity of electricity, energy etc., during a particular
period of time. Ampere-hour meter: kilowatthour (kWh)
meter 17
Classification based on the kind of current on which they
operate:

• Direct current (dc) instruments

• Alternating current (ac) instruments

• Both direct current and alternating current instruments

(dc/ac instruments).

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 Mesurement of Electrical Quantities

• Current

• Voltage

• Power

• Energy

• Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance

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 Indicating (Pointer type) Instruments

In a pointer type indicating instrument, it is essential that the

moving system is acted upon by two distinct torque (or
forces) for satisfactory working. The torques are:

1. A deflecting or operating torque, Td

2. A controlling (spring) torque, Tc

Two other opposing torque that are

Important in dynamic condition:
3. An inertia torque, Ti
4. A damping torque, TD

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 Galvanometer

Used for detecting presence of Current or Voltage

Applications:
in bridge circuit, where their function is to indicate zero
current

Galvanometer
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 D’Arsonval Galvanometer

Construction:

1. Moving coil
system
2. Damping
3. Indication

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 Torque Equation
The equation for the deflecting torque can be obtained from
the basic laws of electromagnetics

G is called the displacement constant 23

24
 Dynamic Behaviour: Equation of Motion

Deflecting Torque: Td = Gi

Opposing Torques:
1. Inertia Torque:

2. Damping Torque:

3. Control/restoring Torque:

Deflecting Torque = Opposing Torque

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So,

Where:
G= Displacement constant
J= Moment of inertia
D= Damping constant
K= Spring/control constant

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Complete Solution: sum of ‘complemetary function’ and a
‘particular integral’

Auxiliary equation:

Roots are:

Particular Integral: at steady state:

Complete Solution:
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Complete Solution:
Where,

3 possible cases:
Case I:

Roots are complex; the motion is oscillatory. Called

UNDERDAMPED MOTION

Case II:
Roots are real and equal. The movement is CRITICALLY
DAMPED
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Case III:

Roots are real and unequal. The movement is called

OVERDAMPED. The motion is non-oscillatory.

In this case, the meter pointer reaches its final steady-state

position in a sluggish manner.

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Another special case: Undamped motion

The pointer will oscillate around the final position forever

Angular frequency of undamped motion:

This motion is also termed as NATURAL or FREE motion

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Note-3

1
 Damping Mechanisms
Two Mechanisms are used: Mechanical and Electromagnetic Induction

1. Mechanical damping:
- Caused mainly by the motion of the coil through the air surrounding
it.
- Independent of any electrical current throught the coil
- Bearing friction can also contribute to mechanical damping
- A simple damping mechanism is provided by an aluminum vane,
attached to the shaft of the moving coil. As the coil rotates, the vane
moves in an air chamber.

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2. Damping by EM Induction:

- This kind of damping works on the principle of Lenz’s law

(a) In the metal coil frame: Caused by induction in the metal coil
frame. The rotation sets up eddy currents in the conductive metal
frame, causing a retarding torque that opposes the motion of the
coil.

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(b) In the coil: When the coil rotates in the magnetic field, a voltage is
generated in the coil. If an external resistance is connected across
the coil, this generated voltage circulates a current through the coil
and provides damping action (as per Lenz’s Law).

- For any galvanometer, a value for the external resistor can be

found that produces critical damping. This resistance is called the
Critical Damping Resistance External (CDRX). It is an
important galvanometer constant.

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 Analog Meters: PMMC Meter

Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) meter:

Main difference with the D’Arsonval galvanometer: mirror assembly is
replaced by a pointer-scale assembly

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 PMMC Meter
Advantages:
- uniform linear scale ( )
- High Torque-Weight ratio is possible with powerful magnet.
- high sensitivity
- power consumption is surprisingly small. Typical values
range from 25 µW – 200 µW
- Accuracy is higher (2-5 % of the full scale reading)
- Extension of instrument range is possible

Disadvantages:
- Not suitable for AC (why?)
- Aging of permanent magnet and springs introduces error
- high cost due to permanent magnet
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 Temperature Compensation
- Deflection, , depends on temperature-dependent parameters

- As temperature , both B and K , and Coil resistance

So, at increased temperature:

* Reduced B and increased coil resistance tend to make the
pointer read low
*Reduced K, conversely, tends to make the pointer read high

- The effect are not identical. So, an uncompensated meter tends to

read low by approximately 0.2% per °C rise in temperature.
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 Temperature Compensation- An Example

• Connect a swamping resistors in series with the moving coil.

• Swamping resistor is made of manganin, which has a temperature

co-efficient of practically zero, combined with copper in the ratio of
20/1 to 30/1 8
 Circuit Symbol of Basic PMMC Meter

Symbols of basic PMMC meter may NOT be unique.

Mostly used symbol:

Im  Full-scale deflection current

Rm  resistance of the basic meter

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 DC PMMC Ammeter
Im can be only about 1 mA. For large current measurements, a shunt
resistance Rsh must be connected to the basic meter.

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 Multirange Ammeter

Various values of resistances can be used by means of suitable switching

arrangement, to increase the number of current ranges.

1. Simple arrangement:

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Disadvantages:

1. During the changeover of switch, the shunt is

momentarily removed from the meter. Then, the full
current flows through the meter coil. This may damage
the coil.

2. The contact resistance of the switch is in series with the

shunt. It can be of variable nature. So, the ammeter
indication may not be accurate.

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 Multirange Ammeter- Better Configuration

Ayrton Shunt/universal shunt Arrangement:

- During the changeover the whole meter is disconnected. So,

eliminates the possibility of burning.

- The contact resistance of the switch is external to the the shunt

and meter movement.
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 Ammeter Loading Effect

If the internal resistance of the meter is a large portion of the load

resistance of the circuit, an effect knonw as meter-loading occurs.
- Meter loading occurs when the insertion of the meter into the
circuit changes the voltage/current values of that circuit. We say
that the meter is loading the circuit.

Example:

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 DC PMMC Voltmeter
Let, Im = 1 mA, and Rm = 1000 Ω
So the basic meter can be connected across a maximum of 1 V only.
vb = ImRm = 1 V

- To increase the range, resistor (Rs) is conncected in series with the basic
meter. Sometimes this resistor is called a ‘multiplier’.

Applying KVL, V = Im (Rm + Rs)

New voltage range, V = Im (Rm + Rs)

or, Rs = V/Im – Rm
= Rm(V/vb – 1) = Rm (m-1)
Where, m = V / vb
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 Multirange Voltmeter

Ex:
A 1 mA meter movement with an internal resistance of 50 Ω is to be used in a 0-1
V, 0-10 V, 0-50 V, and 0-100 V ranges in the arrangement shown above. Find the
value of the required multiplier resistances.

Ans: R1 = 950 Ω
R2 = 9 kΩ
R3 = 40 kΩ
R4 = 50 kΩ

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 Voltmeter Sensitivity

Obtained by dividing the sum of Rm and Rs by the full-scale reading in

volts.

Sensitivity of a voltmeter is given in Ω/V or A-1

In terms of full-scale deflection current,

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 Voltmeter Loading Effect

 It is caused principally by low-S instruments

 So, S is an important factor when selecting a meter for a particular

measurement

 For voltage measurements in high-resistance circuits, high S

voltmeter should be used to prevent the loading effect
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Ex.: In this circuit, the voltage across the resistor RL is to be measured
first by using a voltmeter with S of 100 k/V and then with a voltmeter
with S of 500 k/V. Calculate the reading of the voltmeter in each case
and the % error in the measurement.

Solve yourselves
Assume the voltmeters with a range equal to the theoretical voltage
value across the load.

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 Rectifier-based AC Meters
 PMMC type movement works with DC only (  i)
 So, AC must be rectified before a PMMC movement can be used
for its measurement

Half-Wave Rectified meter:

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We want to relate Vrms, Im, Rm and Rs:
Vrms = 0.707 Vp
= 0.707 Ip (Rs + Rm)
= 0.707 Iav/0.318 (Rs + Rm)
= 2.22 Iav (Rs + Rm)
PMMC responds to the average value of current for a pulsating current
So, Iav = Im

Finally, Rs = 0.45 Vrms/Im – Rm

So AC sensitivity of this meter, Sac = (Rs + Rm) / Vrms

= 0.45 / Im

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Example:
A 50 A meter movement with an internal resistance of 50  is to be
used in a 0-50 V rms (sinusoidal input) range in a simple half-wave
rectifier based ac meter. Find the value of the required multiplier
resistance.

Solution:

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Note-4

1
 Half-wave Rectifier AC Meters

Disadvantages:
1. In negative half-cycle, reverse current flows through the circuit
 reduces average value of current meter reads lower than actual.

2. High peak inverse voltage (PIV) rating of Diode may be required 2

 Solution to these problems:

1. In negative half-cycle, D2 conducts no negative current flows through

the meter movement.

2. PIV rating requirement is much less than the large peak input voltage.

3
 Sensitivity of the voltmeter
Input resistance of this circuit
- Rs+Rm (during the positive half-cycle)
- Rs (during the negative half-cycle)

Generally, Rs >> Rm
And, we know that:

So,

Ifsd is the full-scale deflection current of the movement

Vfsd is the full-scale (rms) voltage.

Sac is the AC sensitivity of the voltmeter and is defined as:

So, Sac < Sdc 4
 Non-linearity in the lower rms ranges

- Diode I-V characteristics is non-linear.

- This non-linearity is maximum at low values
of current.
- Effect of non-linearity can be reduced by
operating the diode at relatively higher current.

Improving the linearity

5
If Rsh = Rm, the current through diode D1 doubles to 2Iav.

So, we can write:

The AC sensitivity is now:

So, Sac is further reduced.

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 Full-Wave Rectifier Based Meter

The average current is given by,

It can be shown that Rs is given by,

Now, the AC sensitivity becomes:

This is double that of a half-wave rectifier-based meter. 7

 Electrodynamic Meter Movement
The main constructional difference with PMMC meter:
PMMC meter: uses permanent magnet
Electrodynamic meter: uses electro-magnet

Three coils  two stationary field coils and one moving coil
Connected in series; So same current flows through each coil. 8
Deflecting Torque:
If i1 is current through the fixed coils. B = K1i1 Wb/m2
If i2 is current through the moving coil, Force applied, f = NBi2L newton
N  number of turns in the moving coil; L  length of moving coil

tD = NBi2Lb , b  breadth of moving coil

So, tD = NK1i1i2Lb

For i1 = i2 = i, tD = K1ANi2, A  effective area of moving coil

So, tD α i2

For a rapidly varying torque, the moving system responds to the average
value of the torque.

So, TD α (i2)av
9
Controlling Torque:

If controlling torque is provided by a spring: tC = K3 θ

Steady-State Deflection:
tC = tD

 θ α (i2)av

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Calibration:

Meter deflection takes the position of average of the squared current.

However, the scale is calibrated in terms of the rms value of the sinusoidal
signal.

As the rms value of a DC signal is its DC value itself, the same scale can
be used for both DC and AC signal.

So, electrodynamometer type instruments can be calibrated with DC and

used for measuring both DC and AC.

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Advantages:

1. Can be used for both DC and AC

2. Can be calibrated for rms reading irrespective of

voltage waveforms

Disadvantages:

1. Low torque/weight ratio, so low sensitivity

2. Non-uniform scale

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Voltmeter Construction:

Similar to PMMC voltmeter, multiplier resistors are connected in series

with the coils to limit the current through the meter

Ammeter Construction:

Similar to PMMC ammeter, shunts are connected in parallel with the

moving coil to increase the current measuring range.

13
 Why Electronic Analog Meters?

Disadvantages of non-electronic meters:

- low sensitivity ; low input impedance (for voltmeters)

- large power consumption (for low power electronic circuit applications)

- accuracy is very low at lower ranges

14
Solutions to these problems:

- An amplifier is necessary for sensitive low current, voltage measurement

- the amplifier must have very large input impedance so that it draws
minimum current from the electronic circuit

These can be achieved by electronic meters

15
 Electronic DC Voltmeters

- The circuit to the right side of A-B is the same as that of a non-electronic DC
voltmeter

- A single multiplier resistor is used for a fixed maximum voltage across A-B,
VA-B = Im(Rs+Rm)

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 A Typical Range Selection and Amplifier Circuit

- Let the multiplier resistor be designed for a 1 V input at A-B. So the maximum
voltage across A-B is 1 V
- The meter voltage range selection is done by a combination of input
switching and amplifier gain selection
- Input switching: two switches, S1 and S2 (mutually exclusive).
- S1 : for lower than 1V range
- S2 : for greater than 1V range 17
For input voltages less than 1 V:
- S1 and S3 are closed
- Gain of the non-inverting amplifier is chosen such that the voltage across A-B
does not exceed 1 V.
Rf
- Recall the gain equation for non-inverting amplifier, Gain  1 
Ri

- For 10 mV range, the gain should be 100, i.e. switch S7 shall be closed
(Ri=R6 = 1k and Rf=R4+R5 = 90k+9k=99k)

- For 100 mV input range, the gain should be 10, i.e. switch S6 shall be closed
(Ri=R5+R6 = 9k+1k = 10k and Rf=R4 = 90k)
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- For input voltage greater than 1 V:
- As the input voltage is greater than 1V, it must be attenuated.
- S2 and S4 are closed
- Resistors R2 and R3 provide an attenuation of 100.
- Then the gain of the amplifier is selected for appropriate range by closing S5, S6
or S7.
- For example, for a 10 V range, first divided by 100 in the voltage divider stage.
Then the gain of 10 is selected by closing S6 which maintains a maximum of 1V
across A-B.
Input impedance:
- Rin  10 G (for input ranges less than 1V)
- Rin  ( R2  R3 )  10 M (for input ranges greater than 1V)
19
 Electronic DC Ammeter

Shunt-type circuit (Fig. a)

- Current is converted into voltage by passing through a precision resistor, RS.
- This voltage (which is proportional to input current) is measured by an
electronic voltmeter.
- The scale is calibrated in units of current.
- RS should be as low as possible for low input resistance of the ammeter

20
To measure very low currents (i.e. Pico-amperes), this circuit can be employed.

- The op-amp is used as the current to voltage converter (voltage = RF  Iin).

- The resistor, RF, does not need to be very small, as the input resistance of this
current to voltage converter circuit is equal to 0, irrespective of the value of
RF.

- The current which is converted to voltage is then measured by using the

electronic voltmeter.

- The meter is calibrated in units of current directly. 21

 Electronic AC Meters

AC Voltmeter:

-A rectifier (half-wave or full-wave) is used to convert AC to DC.

AC Ammeter:

Shunt-type arrangement similar to the DC ammeter is used in these meters

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 Problem Exercise 1

An ac voltmeter is used to measure voltage V across 60 kΩ resistor in the

following circuit. What is the minimum voltage reading that can be indicated by
this meter? The specifications of the ac voltmeter are:

Meter Specs:

- Full-wave rectification
- 100 µA meter movement
- 15V range
- Accuracy = ± 3% fsd

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