Reading: Prophets Part 1 by C.

von Orelli
1. The Seer and Speaker of God:

According to the teaching of the Bible the prophet is a speaker of or for God. The prophet's
words are not the production of his own spirit, but come from God. For he is at the same time,
also, a seer, who sees things that do not lie in the domain of natural sight, or who hears things
which human ears do not ordinarily receive; compare 1 Samuel 9:9, where nabhi', "speaker,"
and ro'eh, "seer," are used as synonymous terms. Jeremiah 23:16 and Ezekiel 13:2 are
particularly instructive in regard to the sharp distinction made between those persons who only
claim to be prophets but who prophesy "from their own heart," and the true prophets who
declare the word which the Lord has spoken to them. In the latter case the contents of the
prophecy have not originated in their own reflection, thought or imagining; nor is this prophecy
the product of their own feelings, fears or hopes, but, as something extraneous to man and
independent of him, it has with a divine certainty entered the heart and soul of the prophet. The
prophet has seen that which he prophesies. He can also "see" words with his inner eyes
(Isaiah 2:1, and other verses). Another expression used is that God has spoken to the prophet.
In this case also it is not necessary that there must have been an audible voice voice though it
certainly may have been. The main thing is that he must have been able sharply to distinguish
the contents of this voice from his own heart. Only in this way is he capable of speaking to the
people in the name of God and able to publish his word as that of Yahweh. In this case he is
the speaker of Yahweh (nabhi'), or the mouth of the Lord. Under these conditions he then
regards it as absolute compulsion to speak, just as a person must be filled with fear when he
hears a lion roar nearby (Amos 3:8). The words burn in his soul until he utters them (Jeremiah
20:9).

2. Prophetical Inspiration:

The divine power, which comes over a human being and compels him to see or to hear things
which otherwise would be hidden from him, is called by various terms expressive of inspiration.
It is said that the Spirit of God has come over someone (Numbers 24:2); or has fallen upon him
(Ezekiel 11:5); or that the hand of Yahweh has come over him and laid hold of him (2 Kings
3:15; Ezekiel 1:3; 3:14,22); or that the Holy Spirit has been put on him as a garment, i.e. has
been incorporated in him (1 Chronicles 12:18; 2 Chronicles 24:20); or that the Spirit of
revelation has permanently descended upon him or rests on him (Numbers 11:25; 2 Kings
2:15; Isaiah 11:2; 61:1); or that God has given this Spirit of His (Numbers 11:29; Isaiah 42:1);
or pours Him out upon man (Joel 2:28; Acts 2:1-4); or the LORD makes himself known in a
vision or speaks to the prophet in a dream (Numbers 12:6). The recipient is in possession of
his full consciousness, and is able afterward to give a clear account of what happened. The
individuality of the prophet is not eliminated by this divine inspiration; this individuality
cooperates in the formal shaping of that which has been seen and heard. In accordance with
the natural peculiarity of the prophet and with the contents of the message, the psychological
condition of the recipient may be that of intense excitement or of calmness. Most times the
prophetical utterances find their expression in the ordinary language of speaking and writing.
The individual personality of the prophet is a prime factor also in the form in which the
revelation comes to him. In the one prophet we find he has mainly visions, while another
prophet has no visions. The form in which the prophet gives expression to this word of God is
determined by his personal talents and gifts and also by his experiences.

3. Freedom of Inspiration:

Because the Spirit of God acts with full freedom, He can select His organs at will from among
every station, age, or sex. The Spirit is not confined to any priestly class or organization. It
indeed was the case at times that a prophet gathered disciples around himself, who could
themselves in turn also be seized by the Spirit (2 Kings 2:10). Yet genuine prophecies
continued to be at all times a free gift of the sovereign God. Amos (7:14,15) appeals expressly
to this fact, that he did not himself choose the prophet's calling nor was the pupil of a prophetic
school, but that he had been directly called by Yahweh from his daily occupation as a shepherd
and workman. In the same way we indeed find prophets who belonged to the priestly order
(Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and others), but equally great is the number of those who certainly did not
so belong. Further, age made no difference in the call to the prophetic office. Even in his
earliest youth Samuel was called to be a prophet (1 Samuel 3), and it did not avail Jeremiah
anything when he excused himself because of his youth (Jeremiah 1:6-8). Then, too, a woman
could be seized by the Spirit. From time to time prophetesses appeared: Miriam (Exodus
15:20), Deborah (Judges 4:4), Huldah (2 Kings 22:14; 2 Chronicles 34:22), and Anna (Luke
2:36). As an exceptional case the Spirit of God could lay hold even of a person who inwardly
was entirely estranged from Him and could make an utterance through him (compare Saul, 1
Samuel 10:11; 19:24; Balaam, Numbers 23; Caiaphas, John 11:49-51). As a rule, however,
God has selected such prophetic organs for a longer service. These persons are called and
dedicated for this purpose by Him through a special act (compare Moses: Exodus 3; Elisha: 1
Kings 19:16,19-21; Jeremiah: Jeremiah 1: 1-19; Nathan, who afterward was compelled to take
back a word which he had spoken on his own authority in 2 Samuel 7:1-17). Characteristic
data on the mental state of the prophets in the reception and in the declaration of the divine
word are found in Jeremiah 15:16; 20:7,9,13. Originally Jeremiah felt it as a joy that Yahweh
spoke to him (compare Ezekiel 3:3), but then he lost all pleasure in life and would have
preferred not to have uttered this word, but he could not do as he desired.

4. The Fulfillment:

In genuine prophecy, according to Biblical conceptions, the fulfillment constitutes an integral

part. This is set up by Deuteronomy 18:21,22 as a proof of the genuineness of a prophetic
utterance. The prophetic word "falls to the ground" (1 Samuel 3:19) if it is not "raised up"
(heqim, "fulfil," for which we more rarely find mille', but regularly in the New Testament
plerousthai "being fulfilled") by the course of events. It would remain an empty word if it did not
attain to its full content through its realization. In fact, in the word spoken by the prophet itself
there dwells a divine power, so that at the moment when he speaks the event takes place,
even if it is not yet visible to man. This realization is also not infrequently represented
symbolically by the prophet in confirmation of his prediction. Thus in a certain sense it is the
prophet himself who through his word builds up and pulls down, plants and roots out (Jeremiah
1:10; 25:15). But the fulfillment can be judged by the contemporaries in the sense of
Deuteronomy 18:22 only when this fulfillment refers to the near future and when special
emphasis is laid on external events. In these cases the prediction of certain events assumes
the significance of a "sign" (compare Jeremiah 28:16; Isaiah 8:1; 37:30, and elsewhere). In
other cases it is only later generations who can judge of the correctness of a prediction or of a
threat. In this way in Zechariah 1:6 the fulfillment of a threat is declared, and in the New
Testament often the fulfillment of a promise is after a long time pointed out. But it is not the
case that a genuine prophecy must be fulfilled like an edict of fate. Such prophecy is not an
inevitable decree of fate, but is a word of the living God to mankind, and therefore conditioned
ethically, and God can, if repentance has followed, withdraw a threat (Jeremiah 18; the case of
Jonah), or the punishment can be mitigated (1 Kings 21:29). A prediction, too, Yahweh can
recall if the people prove unworthy (Jeremiah 18:9,10). A favorable or an unfavorable
prediction can also be postponed, as far as its realization is concerned, to later times, if it
belongs to the ultimate counsels of God, as e.g. the final judgment and deliverance on the last
day. This counsel also may be realized successively. In this case the prophet already collects
into one picture what is realized gradually in a longer historical development. The prophet in
general spoke to his hearers in such a way as could be understood by them and could be
impressed on them. It is therefore not correct to demand a fulfillment literally exact in the form
of the historical garb of the prophecy. The main thing is that the divine thought contained in the
prophecy be entirely and completely realized. But not infrequently the finger of God can be
seen in the entirely literal fulfillment of certain prophecies. This is especially the case in the
New Testament in the appearance of the Son of Man, in whom all the rays of Old Testament
prophecy have found their common center.

Reading: Prophets Part 2 by C. von Orelli

II. Historical Development of the Prophetic Office.

1. Abraham:

It is a characteristic peculiarity of the religion of the Old Testament that its very elementary
beginnings are of a prophetical nature. The fathers, above all Abraham, but also Isaac and
Jacob, are the recipients of visions and of divine revelations. Especially is this true of Abraham,
who appeared to the foreigners, to whom he was neither kith or kin, to be indeed a prophet
(nabhi') (Genesis 20:7; compare Psalm 105:15), although in his case the command to preach
the word was yet absent.

2. Moses:

Above all, the creative founder of the Israelite national religion, Moses, was a prophet in the
eminent sense of the word. His influence among the people was owing neither to his official
position, nor to any military prowess, but solely and alone to the one circumstance, that since
his call at the burning bush God had spoken to him. This intercourse between God and Moses
was of an intimate character. While other men of God received certain individual messages
only from time to time and through the mediation of dreams and visions, Yahweh spoke directly
and "face to face" with Moses (Numbers 12:6-8; Deuteronomy 34:10; compare Exodus 33:11).
Moses was the one through whom Yahweh brought about the Egyptian plagues and through
whom He explained what these meant to His people, as also through whom He led and ruled
them. The voice of Moses too had to explain to them the divine signs in the desert and
communicate to them the commandments of God. The legislation of Moses shows that he was
not only filled with the Spirit of God, but that he abode with God for longer periods of time and
produced something that is a well-ordered whole. A production such as the Law is the result of
a continuous association with God.

3. Period of the Judges:

Since that time revelation through prophecy was probably never entirely wanting in Israel
(Deuteronomy 18:15). But this fountain did not always flow with the same fullness or clearness.
During the period of the Judges the Spirit of God urged the heroes who served Yahweh to
deeds rather than to words. Yet Deborah enjoyed a high rank as a prophetess, and for a long
time pronounced decisions of justice in the name of the Lord before she, through her
prophetical utterances, aroused the people to rise up against their oppressors. What is said in
1 Samuel 3:1 concerning the times of Eli can be applied to this whole period, namely that the
word of the LORD and vision of the prophet had become rare in the land. All the more epoch-
making was the activity of Samuel, who while yet a boy received divine revelations (1 Samuel
3). He was by the whole people regarded as a "seer" whose prophecies were always fulfilled
(3:19-21). The passage of 1 Samuel 9:6 shows that the people expected of such a man of God
that he should also act as a clairvoyant and come to the assistance of the people in the
troubles of life. Such a professional clairvoyant, indeed, Samuel was not, as he was devoted
entirely to the service of his God and of his people and obeyed the Holy Spirit, even in those
cases when he was compelled to act contrary to his personal inclinations, as was the case
when the kingdom was established in Israel (8:6-9).

4. Schools of Prophets:

Since the days of Samuel we hear of schools of prophets, or "sons of prophets." These
associations probably originated in this way, that an experienced prophet attracted to himself
bands of youths, who sought to receive a measure of his spirit. These disciples of the prophets,
together with their families, lived in colonies around the master. Possibly Samuel was the first
who founded such a school of prophets. For in or near the city of Ramah we first find Naioth, or
colonies of such disciples (1 Samuel 19:18-24). Among these pupils is found to a much greater
extent than among the teachers a certain ecstatic feature. They arouse their feelings through
music and worship which also affects others in the same way, then they "prophesy" and,
throwing off their garments, fall to the ground. In the colonies of prophets there was assuredly
not to be found merely an enthusiasm without the Spirit of God. Proof for this is Samuel, the
spiritual father of this colony, as Elisha was for the later colonies of this kind. These places
were rather the centers of a religious life, where communion with God was sought by prayer
and meditation, and where the recollection of the great deeds of God in the past seemed to
prepare for the reception of new revelations. From such centers of theocratic ideas and ideals
without a doubt there came forth also corresponding influences that affected the people.
Perhaps not only was sacred music cultivated at these places but also sacred traditions, which
were handed down orally and in writing. Certain it is that at these colonies the worship of
Yahweh prevailed.

5. Period of the Kings:

During the period of the kings prophetically inspired men frequently appeared, who demanded
even of the kings that they should submit to their divinely-inspired word. Saul, who refused
such submission, perished as the result of this conflict. David owed much to the support of the
prophets Samuel, Nathan, and Gad (1 Samuel 16:1; 2 Chronicles 29:25, and elsewhere). But
David also bowed in submission when these prophets rebuked him because of his
transgression of the divine commands (2 Samuel 12; 24). His son Solomon was educated by
the prophet Nathan. But the destruction of his kingdom was predicted by the prophet Ahijah,
the Shilonite (1 Kings 11:29-40). Since Yahweh, as the supreme Sovereign, has the right to
enthrone or to dethrone kings, this is often done through the mouths of the prophets
(compare 1 Kings 14:7-16; 16:1-4).

After the division of the kingdom we find Shemaiah forbidding Rehoboam to begin a war with
his brethren of Israel (1 Kings 12:22-24; compare 2 Chronicles 11:2-4; compare another
mission of the same prophet, 2 Chronicles 12:5). On the other hand in the Northern Kingdom
the prophetic word is soon turned against the untheocratic rule of Jeroboam (1 Kings 13-14). It
is in this very same Northern Kingdom that the prophets unfolded their full activity and
generally in opposition to the secular rulers, although there was no lack of accommodating
"prophets," who were willing to sanction everything that the king wanted. The opposition of the
true prophets to these false representatives of prophecy is illustrated in the story of Micaiah,
the son of Imlah (1 Kings 22). But a still higher type of prophecy above the ordinary is found in
Elijah, whose historic mission it was to fight to the finish the battle between the followers of
Yahweh and the followers of Baal. He was entirely a man of action; every one of his words is a
deed on a grand scale. His successor Elisha inherited from him not only his mantle, but also a
double measure of his spiritual gifts. He exhibits the prophetic office more from its loving side.
He is accustomed to visit the schools of prophets found scattered throughout the land, calls the
faithful together around himself on the Sabbaths and the new moons (2 Kings 4:23), and in this
way establishes centers of a more spiritual culture than was common elsewhere among the
people. We read that first-fruits were brought to him as to the priests (2 Kings 4:42). But while
the activity of Elijah was entirely in antagonism to the ruling house in the kingdom, this feature
is less prominent in the work of Elisha. In general it was possible for Elisha, after the radical
change in public sentiment that had followed upon the work of Elijah, in later time to assume a
more friendly attitude toward the government and the people. He often assisted the kings in
their arduous contests with the Syrians (compare 2 Kings 6:8; 13:14). His deeds are generally
of a benevolent character. In connection with these he exhibits to a remarkable degree the gift
of prophetic foresight (2 Kings 4:16; 5:26; 6:8; 7:1; 8:10,12; 9:1-3; 13:19). Jonah, too, the son
of Amittai, had at that time a favorable message for the Northern Kingdom (2 Kings 14:25).

6. Literary Prophets, Amos, Hosea:

However, the flourishing condition of the kingdom under Jeroboam II had an unfavorable
influence on its spiritual development. Soon Amos and Hosea were compelled to announce to
this kingdom its impending destruction through a great world-power. These two prophets have
left us books. To put prophetic utterances into written form had already been introduced before
this. At any rate, many scholars are of the conviction that the prophecies of Obadiah and Joel
belong to an earlier period, although others place them in the post-exilic period. In any case,
the expectation of a day of settlement by Yahweh with His people was already in the days of
Amos common and current (5:18). As the writing of individual prophecies (Isaiah
8:1; 30:8; Habakkuk 2:2) had for its purpose the preserving of these words in permanent
authentic form and later to convince the reader of their wonderful fulfillment, thus too the writing
down of larger collections of prophecies had for its purpose to intensify the power of the
prophetic word and to secure this as a permanent possession of the people (Jeremiah
30:2; 36:1-3). Pupils of the prophets assisted them in this writing and in preserving their books
(compare Jeremiah 36:4; Isaiah 8:16).

7. Prophets in Judah, Isaiah and Others Down to Jeremiah:

In the kingdom of Judah the status of the prophets was somewhat more favorable than it was
in Ephraim. They were indeed forced in Jerusalem also to contend against the injustice on the
part of the ruling classes and against immorality of all kinds. But in this kingdom there were at
any rate from time to time found kings who walked more in the footsteps of David. Thus Asa
followed the directions of the prophet Azariah (2 Chronicles 15). It is true that the prophet
Hanani censured this king, but it was done for a different reason (2 Chronicles 16).
Jehoshaphat also regularly consulted the prophets. Among those who had dealings with him
Elisha is also mentioned (2 Kings 3:14), as also some other prophets (compare 2 Chronicles
19:2-3; 20:13-37). The greatest among the prophets during the period of the Assyrian
invasions was Isaiah, who performed the duties of his office for more than 40 years, and under
the kings Jotham, Ahaz, Hezekiah, and possibly too under Manasseh, through his word
exercised a powerful influence upon the king and the nation. Although a preacher of
judgments, he at critical times appeared also as a prophet of consolation. Nor did he despise
external evidences of his prophetic office (compare Isaiah 7:11; 38:7-8,22). His contemporary
Micah is in full agreement with him, although he was not called to deal with the great of the
land, with kings, or statesmen, as was the mission of Isaiah. Nahum, Zephaniah and Habakkuk
belong rather to the period of transition from the Assyrian to the Chaldean periods. In the days
of Josiah, the prophetess Huldah had great influence in Jerusalem (2 Kings 22:14). Much more
important under this same king was the prophet Jeremiah, who was called by God for a great
mission. This prophet during the siege and destruction of Jerusalem and after that time spoke
as an unyielding yet deeply feeling exponent of God, and was compelled again and again to
dash to the ground the false hopes of the patriots, whenever these arose. Not so firm was his
contemporary and fellow-sufferer Uriah (Jeremiah 26:20).

8. During the Exile, Ezekiel, Daniel:

In the time of the exile itself we find the period of the activity of Ezekiel. It was significant that
this prophet became the recipient of divine revelations while on Babylonian territory. His work
was, in accordance with the condition of affairs, more that of a pastor and literary man. He
seems also to have been a bodily sufferer. His abnormal conditions became symbolical signs
of that which he had to proclaim. The prophecies of Daniel are also accorded to a prophet
living during the exile, who occupied a distinguished position at the court of the heathen rulers,
and whose apocalyptic utterances are of a kind different from the discourses of the other
prophets, as they deal more with the political condition of the world and the drama of history, in
so far as this tends toward the establishment of the supremacy of Yahweh.

9. After the Exile, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi:

After the return from Babylon the Jews were exhorted by Haggai and Zechariah to rebuild their
temple (about 520 BC). At that time there were still to be found prophets who took a hostile
attitude to the men of God. Thus Nehemiah (Nehemiah 6:1-14) was opposed by hostile
prophets as also by a prophetess, Noadiah. In contrast with these, Malachi is at all times in
accord with the canonical prophets, as he was an ardent advocate for the worship of Yahweh
alone, not in the sense of a spiritless and senseless external worship, but as against the
current indifference to Yahweh. His style and his language, too, evidence a late age. The lyrical
form has given way to the didactic.

10. Prophecy in the New Testament:

Malachi finds a successor in John the Baptist, whose coming the former had predicted. John is
the greatest of the prophets, because he could directly point to Him who completed the old
covenant and fulfilled its promises. All that we know in addition concerning the times of Jesus
shows that the prophetical gift was yet thought of as possibly dwelling in many, but that
prophecy was no longer the chief spiritual guide of the people. Josephus himself claims to
have had prophetic gifts at times (compare BJ, III, viii, 9). He is thinking in this connection
chiefly of the prediction of some details. Such "prophets" and "prophetesses" are reported also
in the New Testament. In Jesus Christ Himself the prophetic office reached its highest stage of
development, as He stood in a more intimate relation than any other being to His Heavenly
Father and spoke His word entirely and at all times. In the Christian congregation the office of
prophecy is again found, differing from the proclamation of the gospel by the apostles,
evangelists, and teachers. In the New Testament the term prophet/s signify speaking under the
extraordinary influence of the Holy Ghost as in Acts 11:27-30 (prophecy of a famine by
Agabus); 21:10-14 (prediction of the sufferings of Paul); 13:1-3 (exhortation to mission work);
21:9 (prophetical gift of the daughters of Philip). Paul himself also had this gift (Acts
16:6; 18:9; 22:17-21; 27:23,24). In the public services of the church, prophecy occupied a
prominent position (see especially 1 Corinthians 14). A prophetical book in a special sense is
the Book of Revelation to John. The gift of prophecy was claimed by many also in later times.
But this gift was used less and less, as the Christian church more and more developed on the
historical basis of revelation as completed in Christ. Especially in spiritually aroused eras in the
history of the church, prophecy again puts in its appearance. It has never ceased altogether,
but on account of its frequent misuse the gift has become discredited. Jesus Himself warned
against false prophets, and during the apostolic times it was often found necessary to urge the
importance of the testing of spirits (1 John 4:1; 1 Corinthians 12:10; 14:29).

Reading: Prophets Part 3 by C. von Orelli

III. Historical Development of Prophecy.

1. Contents of Prophecy:
The contents of prophecy are not merely predictions concerning the future. That which is given
by the Spirit to the prophet can refer to the past and to the present as well as to the future.
However, that which is revealed to the prophet finds its inner unity in that it all aims to establish
the supremacy of Yahweh. Prophecy views also the detailed events in their relation to the
divine plan, and this latter has for its purpose the absolute establishment of the supremacy of
Yahweh in Israel and eventually on the entire earth. We are accustomed to call those
utterances that predict this final purpose the Messianic prophecies. However, not only those
that speak of the person of the Messiah belong to this class, but all that proclaim the coming of
the kingdom of God.

2. Conception of the Messiah:

The beginnings of the religion of Israel, as also the chief epoch in its development, emanated
from prophetical revelations. The prophet Moses elevated the "tribal" religion into a national
religion, and at the same time taught the people to regard the religion of the fathers more
ethically, spiritually and vitally. Samuel crowned the earthly religious form by introducing an
"Anointed of Yahweh" in whom the covenant relation between Yahweh and Israel was
concentrated personally. The Anointed of the Lord entered into a much more intimate
relationship to Yahweh as His Son or Servant than it was possible for the whole people of
Israel to do, although as a people they were also called the servant or the son of God
(compare Psalm 2:7; 110). The Psalms of David are a proof that this high destiny of the
kingdom was recognized. David himself became a prophet in those hymns in which he
describes his own unique relation to Yahweh. But the actual kings of history as a rule
corresponded too imperfectly to this idea. For this reason the word "prophetic" already in
David's time directs to the future, when this relationship shall be more perfectly realized (2
Samuel 7:12; compare David's own words, 2 Samuel 23:5).

3. Before the Exile (through Judgment to Deliverance):

Solomon completed the erection of the temple. But it was his reign that constituted the turning-
point, from which time on the prophets begin to emphasize the judgment to come, i.e. the
dissolution of the external existence of the kingdom of Yahweh. Yet prophecy at all times does
this in such a manner, that a kernel of the divine establishment on Zion remains intact. The
divine establishment of the sanctuary and the kingdom cannot be destroyed; all that is
necessary is that they be restored in greater purity and dignity. This can be seen also in Amos,
who predicts that the fallen tabernacle of David shall be raised up again (Amos 9:11), which
shall then be followed by a condition of undisturbed blessing. The same is found in Hosea, who
sees how all Israel is again united under "David" the king of the last times, when between God
and the people, between heaven and earth, an unbroken covenant of love shall be made
(Hosea 2:1,19); and also in Isaiah, who predicts that during the time of the conquest and
subjection of the country by the Gentiles a Son of David shall be born in a miraculous manner
and attain supremacy (Isaiah 7:14; 9:2; 11:1), and who speaks constantly of that divine
establishment on Zion, the foundation stone that has been laid by Yahweh (Isaiah 28:16, etc.).
Micah, his contemporary, does the same, and in an entirely similar manner predicts that the
radical judgment of destruction which shall come over the temple and the royal palace shall be
followed by the wondrous King of Peace from Bethlehem (Micah 5:1-4). Zechariah
9:9 described this future ruler in similar terms. In general it is not probable that Isaiah and
Micah were the first to speak so personally of this King. They seem to presuppose that their
contemporaries were acquainted with this idea.

4. Analogous Ideas among Heathen Peoples:

Some scholars in the past had pointed out the fact that in the old Orient, among the Egyptians,
the Babylonians and elsewhere, the expectation of a miraculously-born King of the future, who
was to bring to His own people and to all nations salvation and peace, was entertained at an
early period. This is not surprising since the promise of a Savior was made to Adam and Eve
and that promise would have been taught to the following generations and would have spread
throughout the world. Isaiah and Micah based their hopes on Yahweh, the one true God, and
his promises. The personal figure of the Son of David is not so much in the foreground in the
other prophets down to the period of the exile. These prophets mention the Branch of Jesse
and the Good Shepherd, as e.g. Jeremiah 23:1-6; 33:12-16; Ezekiel 34:23-31. And after that
time this Messianic expectation became a permanent element in the hopes of Israel.

In the meanwhile, prophecy had thrown much light on the ways of God, which prepare for His
kingdom on earth. Even long before Amos (5:18) the idea of a "day of Yahweh," which was to
be a day of revelation, on which God makes a settlement with the nations, must have been
generally known, since Amos is already compelled to protest against the abuse of this
expectation. But hand in hand with this settlement we find also and at all times the expectation
of the exaltation and of the salvation of Israel. Yet the prophets have all emphasized that Israel
and Judah must first be thoroughly purified by a judgment, before the land could, through
God's grace, be glorified and richly blessed. The judgment which the preexilic prophets are
continually predicting is, however, only a means to an end. This judgment is not the final word
of the Lord, as Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah and Habakkuk constantly teach. They announce
that return to Yahweh and obedience to His commandments is the way to salvation (Hosea
6:1; Isaiah 1:18-20; Jeremiah 4:1-4; and others). However, the prophets know that the people
will not turn again to God, but that first the Jewish state must be entirely overthrown (Isaiah 6).
It is particularly deserving of notice, that faith in Yahweh is regarded as the positive means for
deliverance (Isaiah 7:9; 30:15; Habakkuk 2:4). It is through this that the "remnant" of the
faithful, "the kernel" of the people, is saved.

In the case of Jeremiah, whose work it was to predict the immediate destruction of Judah,
there is not absent a kind of an esoteric book of consolation. His battle cry for the future is
"Yahweh our righteousness" (Jeremiah 23:6; 33:16). In his case we find a rich spiritualization
of walking with Yahweh. The external customs, circumcision and the like, he declares, do no
good, if the true state of the heart is lacking. Even the ark of the covenant is unnecessary and
is discarded in the enlargement of the sanctuary. Ezekiel, who lays more stress on the external
ordinances, nevertheless agrees with Jeremiah in this, that Jerusalem together with the temple
must fall. Only after this destruction the prophet in his spirit builds the sanctuary again; there is
found in his picture a further development of its spiritual character. The responsibility of the
individual and the love and mercy of Yahweh are strongly emphasized (Ezekiel 18; 33). The
land becomes transformed; the Gentiles are received into the covenant of God.

5. Before and During the Exile (Ezekiel, Isaiah):

Isaiah (Isaiah 40:1-66:24) enriches prophecy in an extraordinary manner, through the figure of
the true "Servant of Yahweh," who in a peaceful way, through his words of instruction and
especially through his innocent sufferings and his various deeds, converts Israel, the
undeserving servant, and also wins over the world to Yahweh. Since the unjust persecutions of
Joseph and David they were acquainted with the sufferings of the just, and Jeremiah's life as a
prophet was a continuous martyrdom. This true "Servant of Yahweh" brings to a completion the
kingdom of God through teaching, suffering and death, and attains to the glory of rulership. In
this way He unites the offices of prophet, priest and king.

6. After the Exile (Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi):

After the exile prophecy continues its work. The Messianic expectations, too, are developed
further by Haggai, and still more by Zechariah. Malachi announces the advent of the Day of
Yahweh, but expects before this a complete purification of the people of God. God Himself will
come, and His angel will prepare the way for Him. The visions of Daniel picture the
transformation of the world into a kingdom of God. The latter will mark the end of the history of
the world. It comes from above; the earthly kingdoms are from below, and are pictured as
beasts; the Ruler of the kingdom of God is a Son of man. The latter comes with the clouds of
the heaven to take possession of His kingdom (Daniel 7:3). Then the judgment of the world will
take place and include also each human being, who before this will bodily arise from the dead,
in order to enter upon blessedness or condemnation. Here we find indicated a universal
expansion of the kingdom of God extending over the whole world and all mankind.

7. Contemporaneous Character of Prophecy:

If we survey this prophecy of the kingdom of God and its divinely-blessed Ruler, the Messiah,
from a Christian standpoint, we find that a grand divine unity connects its different elements.
The form of this prophecy is indeed conditioned by the views and ideas of the time of
utterance. The prophets were compelled to speak so that their hearers could understand them.
Only gradually these limitations and forms become spiritualized, e.g. the kingdom of God is still
pictured by the prophets as established around the local center of Zion. Mt. Zion is in a
concrete manner exalted, in order to give expression to its importance, etc. It is the New
Testament fulfillment that for the first time gives adequate form to divine revelation. In the
person of Jesus Christ this perfection is given, although the full unfolding of this kingdom is yet
a matter of the future.

8. Perspective Character of Prophecy:

Another feature that deserves attention is the perspective character of prophecy. The prophet
sees together and at once upon the surface of the pictures things which are to be fulfilled only
successively and gradually. Thus, e.g. Isaiah sees in the near future the return from captivity,
and directly connected with this a miraculous glorification of the city of God. The return did as a
matter of fact take place soon afterward, but the glorification of the city in which Yahweh
Himself had promised to dwell was yet in the distant future. The succeeding prophets, Haggai
and Zechariah, predict that this consummation shall take place in the future.

Also in the predictions concerning the future made by Jesus and in the Apocalypse of John
these characteristics of prophecy, its contemporaneous and perspective and at times
symbolical features, are not disregarded. The firm prophetic word is intended to give the
congregation certain directive lines and distinctive work. But an adequate idea of what is to
come the Christian church will become compelled to form for itself, when the fulfillment and
completion shall have taken place.

IV. Analogous Phenomena among the Gentiles.

1. Necromancy and Technical Witchcraft:

The uniqueness of Biblical prophecy is grasped fully only when we try to find analogies among
the Gentile peoples. Here we find everywhere indeed the art of sooth-saying, the headquarters
for which was Babylon. But with this art the prophecy of the Old Testament stands out in bold
contrast (compare the prohibitions in Leviticus 19:26,31; 20:6,27; Deuteronomy 18:10,
prohibitions that refer to necromancy for the purpose of discovering the future). This art was
practiced through a medium, a person who had an 'obh (Babylonian, ubi), i.e. a spirit that
brought forth the dead in order to question them. The spirits were thought to speak in
murmurings or piping sounds (Isaiah 8:19), which could be imitated by the medium. According
to the Law, which forbade this under penalty of death, Saul had tried to destroy those who
practiced incantations (and then went to one for help in contacting Samuel) (1 Samuel 28:9).
This practice, however, continued to flourish. In addition, the Babylonians and other peoples
had also a developed art of interpretation (divination) in order to find omens for the future.
Especially was the examination of intestines practiced by them. The liver of sacrificial animals
particularly was carefully examined, and, from this, predictions, good or bad, were inferred
(compare Ezekiel 21:21). This art passed over from the Babylonions to the seafaring
Etruscans, and through these came to the Romans. But other phenomena also were by the
different nations interpreted as prophetically significant and were by those skilled in this art
interpreted accordingly. Among these were miscarriages by human beings and animals, the
actions of hens, horses, the flight of birds, earthquakes, forms of the clouds, lightning, and the
like. Further, mechanical contrivances were used, such as casting of lots, stones, sticks, etc.

2. The Mantic Art:

More spiritual and popular was the interpretation of dreams. It also was the case that mediums
intentionally would convert themselves into a semi-waking trance. In this way the suitable
mediums attained to a certain kind of clairvoyance, found among various peoples. This
approaches the condition of an ecstatically aroused pseudo-prophet, of whom mention is made
above. In Greece, too, oracles were pronounced by the Pythian prophetess, who by vapors
and the like was aroused to a practice of the mantic article In Dodona it was the voice of the
divinity in Nature, which they sought to read in the rustling of the trees and the murmuring of
the water. How uncertain these sources were was well known to heathen antiquity. The
ancients complain of the enigmatical character of the Sibylline utterances and the doubtful
nature of what was said. In contrast to this, Israel knows that it possesses in prophecy a clear
word (Numbers 23:23).

3. Contents of Extra-Biblical Oracles:

But the contents also of the Biblical prophecies are unique through their spiritual uniformity and
greatness. The oracle at Delphi, too, at times showed a certain moral elevation and could be
regarded as the conscience of the nation. But how insignificant and meager was that which it
offered to those who questioned it, in comparison with the spontaneous utterances of the
prophets of Israel! Also what has in recent times been said concerning the "prophetical texts"
from ancient Egypt (Gressmann, Texte und Bilder, I, 20) may indeed show some external
similarity to the prophecies of Israel; but they lack the spiritual and religious depth and the
strictly ethical dignity of the prophets of the Scriptures, as also the consistency with which
these from century to century reveal the thoughts of God and make known with constantly
increasing clearness their purposes and goal.

LITERATURE

Witsius, De prophetis et prophetia, 1731; Chr. A. Crusius, Hypomnemata ad theologiam

propheticam, Part I, 1764; A. Knobel, Der Prophetismus der Hebraer, 1837; F. B. Koester, Die
Propheten des Altes Testament und New Testament, 1838; B. Duhm, Die Theologie der
Propheten; Kuenen, The Prophets and Prophecy in Israel; F. E. Koenig, Der
Offenbarungsbegriff des Altes Testament, 1882; C. von Orelli, Die alttestamentliche
Weissagung von der Vollendung des Gottesreiches, 1882; W. Robertson Smith, The Prophets
of Israel and Their Place in History, 1882; E. Riehm, Die messianische Weissagung, English
translation, 1885; Delitzsch, Messianic Prophecy, 1891; A. T. Kirkpatrick, The Doctrine of the
Prophets, 1892; G. French Oehler, Theologie des A T, 1891; Ed. Koenig, Dos
Berufungsbewusstsein der alttestamentlichen Propheten, 1900; F. H. Woods, The Hope of
Israel, 1896; R. Kraetzschmar, Prophet und Seher im alten Israel, 1902; A. B. Davidson, Old
Testament Prophecy, 1903; Eb. Schrader, Die Keilinschriften und dos A T, 1902; C. von Orelli,
Allgemeine Religionsgeschichte; M. Jastrow, Die Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens, 1903;
Gressmann, Ursprung der israelitisch-judischen Eschatologie, 1905; W. J. Beecher, The
Prophets and the Promise, 1905; C. S. Macfarland, Jesus and the Prophets, 1905; G. G.
Findlay, The Books of the Prophets in Their Historical Succession, 1906-7; Gressmann, Alt-
orientalische Texte und Bilder zum A T, 1909; Selwyn, Christian Prophets.

Reading: Elijah by F. K. Farr

The great prophet of the time of Ahab, king of Israel, Elijah is identified at his first appearance
in 1 Kings 17:1 as "Elijah the Tishbite, of Tishbe in Gilead." Thus the prophet was a native of
that mountain region.

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I. The Works of Elijah.

In 1 Kings 16:29-34 we read of the impieties of Ahab, culminating in his patronage of the
worship of Baal, god of his queen, Jezebel (1 Kings 16:31). 1 Kings 16:34 mentions, as
another instance of the little weight attached in Ahab's time to ancient prophetic threatenings,
the rebuilding by Hiel the Bethelite of the banned city of Jericho, "with the loss" of Hiel's eldest
and youngest sons. This was judgment of Yahweh, announced beforehand by a faithful servant
of Yahweh, Joshua (Joshua 6:26).

1. The Judgment of Drought:

It is unclear whether Elijah was already a familiar figure at the court of Ahab in his introduction
in 1 Kings 17:1. His garb (a garment of hair with a leather belt) and his manner identified him
as a prophet (2 Kings 1:8; compare Zechariah 13:4 and Mark 1:6). Elijah declared in few words
that Yahweh, true and only rightful God of Israel, whose messenger he was, was even at the
very time sending a drought which would continue until the prophet himself declared it at an
end. The term was fixed not by Elijah but by Yahweh; it was not to be short ("these years").
Guided, as true prophets were continually, by the "word of Yahweh," Elijah then hid himself in
one of the ravines east of the Jordan, where the brook Cherith afforded him water, and ravens
brought him "bread and meat" twice daily (1 Kings 17:2-6). As the drought advanced the brook
dried up. Elijah was then directed, by the "word of Yahweh" to go beyond the western limit of
Ahab's kingdom to the Phoenician village of Zarephath, near Sidon. There the widow to whom
Yahweh sent him was found gathering a few sticks from the ground at the city gate, to prepare
a last meal for herself and her son. She yielded to the prophet's command that he himself
should be first fed from her scanty store; and in return enjoyed the fulfillment of his promise,
uttered in the name of Yahweh, that neither barrel of flour nor jug of oil should be exhausted
before the breaking of the drought. (Josephus, Ant, VIII, xiii, 2, states on the authority of
Menander that the drought extended to Phoenicia and continued there for a full year.) But
when the widow's son fell sick and died, the mother regarded it as a Divine judgment upon her
sins, a judgment which had been drawn upon her by the presence of the man of God. At the
prayer of Elijah, life returned to the child (1 Kings 17:17-24).

"In the third year" (Luke 4:25 and James 5:17 give three years and six months as the length of
the drought), Elijah was directed to show himself to Ahab as the herald of rain from Yahweh (1
Kings 18:1). How sorely both man and beast in Israel were pressed by drought and the
resulting famine, is shown by the fact that King Ahab and his chief steward Obadiah were in
person searching through the land for any patches of green grass that might serve to keep
alive some of the king's own horses and mules (1 Kings 18:5,6). The words of Obadiah upon
meeting with Elijah show the impression which had been produced by the prophet's long
absence. It was believed that the Spirit of God had carried Elijah away to some unknown,
inaccessible, mysterious region (1 Kings 18:10-12). Obadiah feared that such would again be
the case, and, while he entreated the prophet not to make him the bearer of a message to
Ahab, appealed to his own well-known piety and zeal, as shown in his sheltering and feeding,
during Jezebel's persecution, a hundred prophets of Yahweh. Elijah reassured the steward by
a solemn oath that he would show himself to Ahab (1 Kings 18:15). The king greeted the
prophet with the haughty words, "Is it you, you troubler of Israel?" Elijah's reply, answering
scorn with scorn, is what we should expect from a prophet; the woes of Israel are not to be
charged to the prophet who declared the doom, but to the kings who made the nation deserve
it (1 Kings 18:17,18).

2. The Ordeal by Prayer:

Elijah went on to challenge a test of the false god's power. He called for the gathering of all
Israel at Mount Carmel, and for the 450 prophets of Baal and the 400 prophets of Asherah,
who ate at Jezebel's table. Accepting Elijah's proposal, Ahab called all these to Mt. Carmel (1
Kings 18:19,20). Elijah's first word to the assembly implied the folly of their thinking that the
allegiance of a people could successfully be divided between two deities: "How long will you go
limping between two different opinions? If the LORD is God, follow him; but if Baal, then follow
him."

Taking the people's silence as an indication that they admitted the force of his first words,
Elijah went on to propose his conditions for the test: a bull was to be offered to Baal and a bull
to Yahweh, but no fire was to be put under it; "The God that answers by fire, he is God." The
voice of the people approved the proposal as fair (1 Kings 18:22-24). Throughout a day of
blazing sunshine the prophets of Baal called in frenzy upon their god, while Elijah mocked
them (1 Kings 18:25-29). About the time for the regular offering of the evening sacrifice in the
temple of Yahweh at Jerusalem, Elijah assumed control. He repaired the altar that had been
thrown down, and used twelve stones according to the number of the tribes of the sons of
Israel. He had the sacrifice and wood drenched with water, until even a trench about the altar,
deep and wide enough to hold two seahs (half-bushel) of grain, was filled. Then Elijah called in
few and earnest words upon the God of the fathers of the nation (1 Kings 18:30-37). The
answer of Yahweh was fire that consumed bull, wood, altar and the dust, and licked up the
water in the trench. This struck the people with awe and fear. Convinced that Yahweh is God
alone, they readily carried out the prophet's stern sentence of death for the prophets of the idol
god (1 Kings 18:38-40). Next the prophet bade Ahab make haste with his meal, which had
been made ready, because rain was at hand. On the mountain top Elijah bowed in prayer,
sending his servant seven times to look out across the sea for the coming storm. At last the
appearance of a rising cloud "as small as a man's hand" was reported; and before the hurrying
chariot of the king could cross the plain to Jezreel there was "a great rain" from the heavens
black with clouds and wind after three rainless years. With strength from Yahweh, Elijah ran
like a courier before Ahab to the very gate of Jezreel (1 Kings 18:41-46).

3. At Horeb:

That same night a messenger from Jezebel found Elijah. The message said, "So may the gods
do to me (i.e. may I be cut in pieces like a sacrificed animal if I break my vow; compare
Jeremiah 34:18-20) and more also, if I do not make your life as the life of one of them (the slain
prophets of Baal) by this time tomorrow." Elijah was afraid and he sought safety in instant
flight. At Beersheba, the southernmost town of Judah, he left his "servant," whom the narrative
does not elsewhere mention. Going onward into the southern wilderness, he sat down under
the scanty shade of a desert broom tree and prayed that he might share the common fate of
mankind in death (1 Kings 19:1-4). After sleep he was refreshed with food brought by an angel.
Again he slept and was fed. In the strength of that food he then wandered on for forty days and
nights, until he found himself at Horeb, the mountain sacred because there Yahweh had
revealed Himself to Moses (1 Kings 19:5-8). The prophet was bidden to take his stand upon
the sacred mount; and Yahweh passed by, heralded by tempest, earthquake and thunderstorm
(19:9-12). These were Yahweh's fore-runners only; Yahweh was not in them, but in the "still
small voice". When Elijah heard the voice, he recognized Yahweh was present to hear and
answer him. Elijah seems to be seeking to justify his own retreat to the wilderness by the plea
that he had been "very jealous" and had done in Yahweh's cause all that mortal prophet could
do, before he fled, yet all in vain! The same people who had forsaken the law and "covenant"
of Yahweh, thrown down His altars and slain His prophets, would have allowed the slaughter of
Elijah himself at the command of Jezebel; and in him would have perished the last true servant
of Yahweh in all the land of Israel (19:13,14).

Divine compassion passed by Elijah's complaint in order to give him directions for further work
in Yahweh's cause. Elijah must anoint Hazael to seize the throne of Syria, Israel's worst enemy
among the neighboring powers; Jehu, in like manner, he must anoint to put an end to the
dynasty of Ahab and assume the throne of Israel; and Elisha, to be his own successor in the
prophetic office. These three, Hazael and his Syrians, Jehu and his followers, even Elisha
himself, are to execute further judgments upon the idolaters and the scorners in Israel. Yahweh
will leave Himself 7,000 (a round number, a limited but not an excessively small one,
conveying a doctrine, like the doctrine of later prophets, of the salvation of a righteous
remnant) in Israel, men proof against the judgment because they did not share the sin. If Elijah
was rebuked at all, it was only in the contrast between the 7,000 faithful and the one, himself,
which he believed to number all the righteous left alive in Israel (1 Kings 19:15-18).

4. The Case of Naboth:

The anointing of Hazael and of Jehu (2 Kings 9:1-13) seems to have been left to Elijah's
successor; indeed, we read of no anointing of Hazael, but only of a significant interview
between Hazael and Elisha (2 Kings 8:7-15). Elijah next appears in the narrative as rebuker of
Ahab for the murder of Naboth. On the very piece of ground which the king had coveted and
seized, the prophet appeared, unexpected and unwelcome, to declare upon Ahab, Jezebel and
all their house the doom of a shameful death (1 Kings 21). There was present at this scene, in
attendance upon the king, a captain named Jehu, the very man already chosen as the
supplanter of Ahab, and he never forgot what he then saw and heard (2 Kings 9:25,26).

5. Elijah and Ahaziah:

Ahab's penitence (1 Kings 21:28,29) averted from himself some measure of the doom. His son
Ahaziah pulled it down upon his own head. Sick unto death from injuries received in a fall,
Ahaziah sent to ask an oracle concerning his recovery at the shrine of Baal-zebub in Ekron.
Elijah met the messengers and turned them back with a prediction, not from Baal-zebub but
from Yahweh, of impending death. Ahaziah recognized by the messengers' description the
ancient "enemy" of his house. A captain and fifty soldiers sent to arrest the prophet were
consumed by fire from heaven at Elijah's word. A second captain with another fifty met the
same fate. A third besought the prophet to spare his life, and Elijah went with him to the king,
but only to repeat the words of doom (2 Kings 1).

6. Elijah Translated:

A foreboding, shared by the "sons of the prophets" at Beth-el and Jericho, warned Elijah that
the closing scene of his earthly life was at hand. He desired to meet the end, come in what
form it might, alone. Elisha, however, bound himself by an oath not to leave his master. Elijah
divided the Jordan with the stroke of his cloak, that the two might pass over toward the
wilderness on the east. Elisha asked that he might receive a firstborn's portion of the spirit
which rested upon his master. "...chariots of fire and horses of fire" appeared, and parted the
two of them; "and Elijah went up by a whirlwind into heaven" (2 Kings 2:1-11).

7. The Letter to Jehoram:

In 2 Chronicles 21:12-15 we read of a "letter" from Elijah to Jehoram, son of Jehoshaphat, king
of Judah. The statements of 2 Kings 3:11,12 admit of no other interpretation than that the
succession of Elisha to independent prophetic work had already occurred in the lifetime of
Jehoshaphat. It has been pointed out that the difficult verse, 2 Kings 8:16, appears to mean
that Jehoram began to reign at some time before the death of his father; it is also conceivable
that Elijah left a message for the future king of Judah who would depart from the true faith.

II. The Work of Elijah.

One's estimate of the importance of the work of Elijah depends upon one's conception of the
condition of things which the prophet confronted in Northern Israel. While it is true that the
reign of Ahab was outwardly prosperous, and the king himself not without a measure of
political sagacity together with personal courage, his religious policy at best involved such
tolerance of false faiths as could lead only to disaster. Ever since the time of Joshua, the
worship of Yahweh as God alone had been waging its combat with the old Canaanite worship,
a worship rendered to local deities, the "Baalim" or "lords" of this and that neighborhood,
whose ancient altars stood "on the high mountains, and on the hills, and under every green
tree" (Deuteronomy 12:2). The god imported from Phoenicia by Jezebel bore also the title
Baal; but his character and his worship were worse and more debasing than anything that had
before been known. Resistance offered by the servants of Yahweh to the claims of the queen's
favored god led to persecution, rightly ascribed by the historian to Jezebel (1 Kings 18:4). In
the face of this danger, the differences between the worship of Yahweh as carried on in the
Northern Kingdom and the same worship as practiced at Jerusalem sank out of sight. The work
of Elijah was to recall the people from the worship of Baal to worship of Yahweh, the God of
their fathers. The vitality of belief in Yahweh in the crisis is shown by the fidelity of such a man
as Obadiah (1 Kings 18:3,4), or by the perseverance of a righteous remnant of 7,000, in spite
of all that had happened of persecution (1 Kings 19:18). The work begun by Elijah was
finished, not without blood, by Jehu; we hear no more of the worship of Baal in Israel after that
anointed usurper's time (2 Kings 9; 10). The direction given to Elijah was that he should anoint
one man to seize the throne of Syria, another to seize that of Israel, and a prophet to continue
his own work; with the promise and prediction that these three forces should unite in executing
upon guilty Israel the judgment still due for its apostasy from Yahweh and its worship of a false
god. Elijah was not a reformer of peace; the very vision of peace was hidden from his eyes,
reserved for later prophets for whom he could but prepare the way. It was his mission to
destroy at whatever cost the heathen worship which otherwise would have destroyed Israel
itself, with dire consequences. Amos and Hosea would have had no standing-ground had it not
been for the work of Elijah and the influences which by Divine direction he put in operation.

III. Character of the Prophet.

It is obvious that the Scripture historian does not intend to furnish us with a character-study of
the prophet Elijah. Does he furnish even the material upon which such a study may profitably
be attempted? The characterization found in James 5:17, "Elijah was a man with a nature like
ours," is brief indeed. Is not the sufficient explanation to be reached by observing that the
historian's purpose was not to give a complete biography of any individual, whether prophet or
king, but to display the working of Yahweh upon and with the kingdoms of Israel and Judah
through the prophets? Few personal details are therefore to be found recorded concerning
even such a prophet as Elijah; and none at all, unless they have a direct bearing upon his
message. One may seek, and prize, what seems to lie upon the surface of the narrative: faith
in Yahweh as God of all the earth and as covenant God of the patriarchs and their
descendants; consuming zeal against the false religion which would seek to displace Yahweh
from the place which must be His alone; keen vision to perceive hypocrisy and falsehood, and
sharp wit to lash them, with the same boldness and disregard of self that must needs mark the
true prophet in any age.
IV. Miracles in the Elijah Narratives.

The miraculous element is prominent in the experiences and works of Elijah. Each miraculous
event was another example of the exercise of the power of Yahweh over all things as was to
be seen in the supply of food by ravens and meal and oil for the prophet and the widow of
Zarephath, the raising from the dead of the widow's son, the fire from heaven, the parting of
the Jordan, and the ascension of the prophet by whirlwind into heaven.

V. Elijah in the New Testament.

Malachi (4:5) names Elijah as the forerunner of "the great and terrible day of Yahweh," and the
expectation founded upon this passage is alluded to in Mark 6:15 parallel Luke 9:8; Matthew
16:14 parallel Mark 8:28 parallel Luke 9:19; Matthew 27:47-49 parallel Mark 15:35,36. The
interpretation of Malachi's prophecy foreshadowed in the angelic annunciation to Zacharias
(Luke 1:17), that John the Baptist should do the work of another Elijah, is given on the authority
of Jesus Himself (Matthew 11:14). The appearance of Elijah, with Moses, on the Mount of
Transfiguration, is recorded in Matthew 17:1-13 parallel Mark 9:2-13 parallel Luke 9:28-36, and
in Matthew 11:14 parallel Mark 9:13 Jesus again identifies the Elijah of Malachi with John the
Baptist. The fate of the soldiers of Ahaziah (2 Kings 1) is in the mind of James and John on
one occasion (Luke 9:54). Jesus Himself alludes to Elijah and his sojourn in the land of Sidon
(Luke 4:25,26). Paul makes use of the prophet's experience at Horeb (Romans 11:2-4). In
James 5:17,18 the work of Elijah affords an instance of the powerful supplication of a righteous
man.

LITERATURE.

The histories of Israel and commentaries on Kings are many. Those which tend to rationalizing
tend also to decrease the importance of Elijah to the history. F. W. Robertson, Sermons, 2nd
series, V; Maurice, Prophets and Kings of the Old Testament, Sermon VIII; Milligan, Elijah
("Men of the Bible" series); W. M. Taylor, Elijah the Prophet.

Reading: Elisha by J. J. Reeve

ELISHA

e-li'-sha 'elisha`, "God is salvation".

A prophet, the disciple and successor of Elijah. He was the son of Shaphat, lived at Abel-
meholah, at the northern end of the Jordan valley and a little South of the Sea of Galilee.
Nothing is told of his parents but the father's name, though he may have been a man of some
wealth. No hint is given of Elisha's age or birth-place. From his work on his father's farm he
was called to his training as a prophet and successor of Elijah.

I. His Call and Preparation.

The first mention of him occurs in 1 Kings 19:16. Elijah was at Horeb, learning perhaps the
greatest lesson of his life; and one of the three duties with which he was charged was to anoint
Elisha, the son of Shaphat of Abel-meholah, as prophet in his stead.

1. His Call:
Elijah soon went northward and as he passed the lands of Shaphat he saw Elisha plowing in
the rich field of his father's farm. Twelve yoke of oxen were at work, Elisha himself plowing with
the twelfth yoke. Crossing over to him Elijah threw his cloak upon the young man (1 Kings
19:19). Elisha seemed to understand the meaning of the symbolic act, and was for a moment
overwhelmed with its significance. It meant his adoption as the son and successor of Elijah in
the prophetic office. Naturally he would hesitate a moment before making such an important
decision. As Elijah strode on, Elisha felt the irresistible force of the call of God and ran after the
great prophet, announcing that he was ready to follow; only he wished to give a parting kiss to
his father and mother (1 Kings 19:20). Elijah seemed to realize what it meant to the young
man, and bade him "Go back again; for what have I done to you?" The call was not such an
urgent one as Elisha seemed to think, and the response had better be deliberate and
voluntary. But Elisha had fully made up his mind, slew the yoke of oxen with which he was
plowing, boiled their flesh with the wood of the implements he was using, and made a farewell
feast for his friends. He then followed Elijah, making a full renunciation of home ties, comforts
and privileges. He became Elijah's servant and assisted him. It says in 2 Kings 3:11 that he
"poured water on the hands of Elijah."

2. His Preparation:

They seem to have spent several years together (1 Kings 22:1; 2 Kings 1:17), for Elisha
became well known among the various schools of the prophets. While ministering to the needs
of his master, Elisha learned many deep and important lessons until he was ready for the
prophetic service himself. It seems almost certain that they lived among the schools of the
prophets, and not in the mountains and hills as Elijah had previously done. During these years
the tie between the two men became very deep and strong. They were years of great
significance to the young prophet and of careful teaching on the part of the older. The lesson
learned at Horeb was not forgotten and its meaning would be profoundly impressed upon the
younger man, whose whole afterlife shows that he had deeply learned the teaching.

3. The Parting Gift of Elijah:

The final scene shows the strong and tender affection he cherished toward his master. Aware
that the end was near, he determined to be with him until the last. Nothing could persuade him
to leave Elijah. When Elijah asked what should be done for him before he (Elijah) was to be
taken away, Elisha asked for the elder son's portion, a double portion, of his master's spirit (2
Kings 2:9). The request shows how much he looked up to his master. His great teacher
disappeared in a whirlwind, and, awestruck by the wonderful sight, Elisha tore his clothes, took
up the garment of Elijah, retraced his steps to the Jordan, smote the waters to test whether the
spirit of Elijah had really fallen upon him, and as the water parted, he passed over. The sons of
the prophets who had been watching the proceedings from the hills, at once observed that the
spirit of Elijah rested upon Elisha, and they bowed before him in reverence and submission (2
Kings 2:12-15). Elisha now began his prophetic career which must have lasted 50 years, for it
extended over the reign of Jehoram, Jehu, Jehoahaz and Joash. The change in him was so
clear that he was universally recognized as Elijah's successor and the leader of the prophetic
schools. The skepticism of the young prophets regarding the translation of Elijah found little
sympathy with Elisha, but he is conciliatory and humors them as we read in 2 Kings 2:16-18.

II. His Prophetic Career.

1. Record of His Career:

As we study the life of Elisha we look first at the record of his career. The compiler of these
records has followed no strict chronological order. Like other scripture writers he has followed
the system of grouping his materials. The record in 2 Kings 2:19-5:27 are probably in the order
of their occurrence. The events in chapters 6-9 cannot be chronologically arranged, as the
name of the king of Israel is not mentioned. In 6:23 we are told that the Syrians came no more
into the land of Israel, and 6:24 proceeds to give an account of Ben-hadad's invasion and the
terrible siege of Samaria. In chapter five Gehazi is smitten with leprosy, while in chapter eight
he is in friendly converse with the king. In chapter thirteen the death of Joash is recorded, and
this is followed by the record of his last interview with Elisha (2 Kings 13:14-19) which event
occurred some years previously.

2. His Ministry in a Private Capacity:

Elisha carried the walking-staff of ordinary citizens, using it for working miracles (2 Kings 4:29).
He seemed to have lived in different cities, sojourning at Bethel or Jericho with the sons of the
prophets, or dwelling in his own home in Dothan or Samaria (2 Kings 6:24,32). He passed
Shunem so frequently that a prophet's chamber was built for his special use (2 Kings 4:8-11).

(1) Elijah's ministry began by shutting up the heavens for three and a half years; Elisha's began
by healing a spring of water near Jericho (2 Kings 2:21). One of the springs possessed certain
noxious qualities, and a complaint was made to Elisha that it was unfit for drinking and injurious
to the land (2 Kings 2:19). He took salt in a new vessel, cast it into the spring and the waters
were healed so that there was not "from now on neither death nor miscarriage" (2 Kings 2:21).

(2) Leaving Jericho, `a pleasant situation,' he passed up to the highlands of Ephraim, doubtless
by the Wady Suweinit, and approached Bethel, a seat of Baal worship and headquarters of
idolatry. The bald head of Elisha provoked the ridicule of some "boys... out of the city" who
called after him, "Go up, you baldhead!", their taunt manifested the most blatant profanity and
utter disregard of God or anything sacred. Elisha, justly angered, turned and cursed them in
the name of Yahweh. Two bears came from the woods of that wild region and made fearful
havoc among the boys. Elisha may have shown severity in this, but he was not the one who
chose the punishment which overtook the boys.

(3) From Bethel Elisha passed on to Mt. Carmel, the home of a school of the prophets, spent
some time there and returned to Samaria the capital (2 Kings 2:25). His next deed of mercy
was to relieve the pressing needs of a widow of one of the prophets. The name of the place is
not given (2 Kings 4:1-7).

(4) On his many journeys up and down the country, he frequently passed by the little village of
Shunem, on the slopes of "Little Hermon." It was about three miles from Jezreel. Accustomed
to accept hospitality of one of the women of the place, he so impressed her with his sanctity
that she appealed to her husband to build a chamber for the "holy man of God who is
continually passing our way." This was done, and in return for this hospitality a son was born to
the woman. He suddenly died in early boyhood and was restored to life by Elisha (2 Kings 4:8-
37).

(5) Elisha is next at Gilgal, residing with the sons of the prophets. It is a time of famine and they
are subsisting on what they can find. One of them finds some wild gourds (paqqu`oth), shreds
them into the pot and they are cooked. The men have no sooner begun to eat than they taste
the poison and cry to Elisha, "O man of God, there is death in the pot." Throwing in some meal,
Elisha at once renders the dish harmless and wholesome (2 Kings 4:38-41).

(6) Probably at about the same time and place and during the same famine, a man from Baal-
shalishah brought provisions as a present to Elisha--twenty loaves of fresh barley bread and
fresh ears of grain. Unselfishly Elisha commanded that it be given to the people to eat. The
servant declared it was altogether insufficient for a hundred men, but Elisha predicted that
there would be enough and to spare (2 Kings 4:42-44) (This miracle closely resembles the two
miracles of Jesus).

(7) The next incident was the healing of Naaman, the leprous commander of the Syrian army
(2 Kings 5:1-19). He is afflicted with leprosy, and it was the most malignant kind (2 Kings 5:27).
A Jewish maiden, captured in one of their numerous invasions of Eastern Palestine, and sold
into slavery with a multitude of others, told her mistress, the wife of Naaman, about the
wonder-working Elisha. The maiden told her mistress that Elisha could heal the leprosy, and
Naaman resolved to visit him. Through the king he obtained permission to visit Elisha with a
great train and rich presents. The prophet sent his servant to tell him to dip seven times in the
Jordan and he would be healed. Naaman was angered at the lack of deference on the part of
Elisha and turned away in a rage to go home. Better counsels prevailed, and he obeyed the
prophet and was cured. Elisha absolutely refused the rich presents Naaman offered, and
permitted the Syrian to take some earth from Yahweh's land, that he might build an altar in
Syria and worship Yahweh there. The idea was that a God was localized and could be
worshipped only on his own land. Elisha grants Naaman permission apparently to assist his
master and bow in the house of Rimmon while avowedly he is a worshiper of Yahweh. The
prophet appreciates the difficulties in Naaman's path, believes in his sincerity, and by this
concession in no way proves that he believes in the actual existence of a god named Rimmon,
or that Yahweh was confined to his own land, or in any way sanctions idolatrous worship. He is
conciliatory and kind, making the best of the situation.

(8) An act of severity on the part of Elisha follows, but it was deserved. Gehazi's true character
now manifests itself. He covets the rich presents brought by Naaman, runs after him, and by a
clever story secures a rich present from the general. Elisha knows his trick and dooms him and
his family to be afflicted with Naaman's leprosy forever (2 Kings 5:19-27).

(9) A group of the sons of the prophets, finding their quarters too small, determined to build
new quarters near the Jordan. While felling the timber the ax-head of one, a borrowed tool, fell
into the water and disappeared. It would have been useless to have attempted to search for it
in that swift and muddy stream, so he cried in distress to the prophet. Elisha cut off a stick, cast
it in the spot where the ax fell, and made the iron swim on the surface (2 Kings 6:1-7).

3. His Ministry in a Public and National Capacity:

Elisha's services to his king and country were numerous and significant.

(1) The first one recorded took place during the attempt of Jehoram to resubjugate Moab which
had revolted under King Mesha. In company with Jehoshaphat and the king of Edom, his
southern allies, the combined hosts found themselves without water in the wilderness of Edom.
The situation was desperate. Jehoram appealed to Jehoshaphat, and on discovering that
Elisha was in the camp all three kings appealed to him in their extremity. He refused any help
to Jehoram, bidding him appeal to the prophets of his father Ahab and his mother Jezebel. For
Jehoshaphat's sake he did help. He called for a musician, and while the music was played the
LORD gave Elisha his message. He ordered them to dig many trenches to hold the water
which would surely come on the morrow from the land of Edom and without rain. He moreover
predicted that Moab would be utterly defeated. These predictions are fulfilled, Mesha was shut
up in his capital, and in desperation sacrificed his firstborn son and heir on the walls in sight of
all Israel. In great horror the Israelites withdraw, leaving Mesha in possession (2 Kings 3:4-27).

(2) His next services occurred at Samaria. The king of Syria found that his most secret plans
were divulged in some mysterious way, and he failed more than once to take the king of Israel.
He suspected treachery in his army, but was told of Elisha and how he was telling the king of
Israel what the king of Syria was planning. Elisha was living at Dothan; and so the king of Syria
sent a large army to capture him. Surrounded by night, Elisha was not terrified as his servant
was, but prayed that the young man's eyes would be opened to see the mountains full of the
chariots and horses of Yahweh. Going forth to meet the Syrians as they closed in, Elisha
prayed that they may be stricken with blindness. The word "canwerim" is used only here and in
Genesis 19:11. He then told them that they had come to the wrong place, but he would lead
them to the right place. They followed him into the very heart of Samaria and into the power of
the king of Israel. The latter would have smitten them, but was rebuked by Elisha who
counseled that they be fed and sent away (2 Kings 6:8-23). Impressed by such mysterious
power and strange clemency the Syrians ceased their marauding attacks.

(3) The next incident must have occurred some time previous, or some time after these events.
Samaria was besieged, the Israelites were encouraged to defend their capital to the last,
famine prices prevailed, and mothers began to cook their children and eat them. The king in
horror and rage planned wreak vengeance on Elisha. The latter knew his purpose, anticipating
any action on the king's part, and predicted that there would be abundance of food on the
morrow. That night a panic seized the Syrian host. They imagined they heard the Hittites and
Egyptians coming against them, and fled in headlong rout toward the Jordan. Four lepers
discovered the deserted camp and reported the fact to the king. He suspected an ambush, but
was persuaded to send a few men to reconnoiter. They found the camp deserted and
treasures strewn in the path right to the Jordan. The people lost no time in plundering the camp
and Elisha's predictions were fulfilled to the letter (2 Kings 6:24-7:20).

(4) The prophet's next act was one of great significance. It was the carrying out of the first
order given to Elijah at Horeb, and the time seemed ripe for it. He proceeded north to
Damascus and found Ben-hadad sick. Hearing of his presence the king sent a rich present by
the hands of his chief captain Hazael and inquired whether he would recover. Elisha gave a
double answer. He would recover, the disease would not be fatal, yet he would die. Fixing his
eyes on Hazael, Elisha saw a fierce and ruthless successor to Ben-hadad who would be a
terrible scourge to Israel. The man of God wept, the fierce captain felt ashamed, and when told
of what he would do, represented himself as a dog and not able to do such things. But the
prospect was too enticing; he told Ben-hadad he will recover, and on the morrow smothered
him and succeeded to the throne (2 Kings 8:7-15).

(5) The next, move of Elisha was even more significant. It was the fulfilling of the second order
given Elijah at Mt. Horeb. The Israelites were fighting the Syrians in defense of Ramoth-gilead.
The king, Jehoram, was wounded and returned home to Jezreel to recover. Elisha seized on
the opportune moment to have the house of Ahab avenged for its many sins. He dispatched
one of the young prophets with a vial of oil to Ramoth-gilead with orders to anoint Jehu, one of
the captains of the army, as king over Israel. The young prophet obeyed, delivered his
message and fled. Jehu tried to conceal the real nature of the interview, but was forced to tell,
and was at once proclaimed king. He leapt into his chariot, drove furiously to Jezreel, met the
king by the vineyard of Naboth, sent an arrow through his heart, trampled to death the queen,
Jezebel, butchered the king's sons and exterminated the royal family. He then murdered the
priests of Baal and the revolution was complete; the house of Ahab was destroyed, Baal
worship overthrown and an able king was upon the throne (2 Kings 9; 10).

(6) Elisha retained his fervent and patriotic spirit until the last. His final act was in keeping with
his long life of generous deeds and faithful patriotic service. He was on his death bed, having
witnessed the fearful oppressions of Israel by Hazael who made Israelites as dust under his
feet. The young king Joash visited him, wept over him. The dying prophet bid him take his bow
and arrow and shoot eastward, an act symbolic of his victory over Syria. Being then
commanded to smite upon the ground, he smote three times and stopped. The prophet was
angry and told him he should have smitten many times, then he would have smitten Syria
many times, but now he shall smite her only thrice (2 Kings 13:14-19).
(7) The last wonder in connection with Elisha occurred after this death. His bones were
reported to have resurrecting power, "and as soon as the man touched the bones of Elisha, he
revived and stood on his feet." (2 Kings 13:20-21).

4. Characteristics of His Ministry:

(1) In Comparison with Elijah.

In many respects Elisha is a contrast to his great predecessor. Instead of a few remarkable
appearances and striking events, his was a steady lifelong ministry; instead of the rugged hills
his home was in the quiet valley and on the farm; instead of solitariness he loved the social life
and home. There were no sudden appearances and disappearances, people always knew
where to find him. There were no long seasons of hiding or retirement, he was constantly
moving about among the people or the prophetic schools. There were no spectacular
revolutions, only the effect of a long steady ministry. His career resembled the latter portion of
Elijah's more than the earlier. Elijah had learned well his lesson at Horeb. God is not so much
in the tempest, the fire and the earthquake, as in the "still small voice" (1 Kings 19:11-12).
Elijah was a prophet of fire, Elisha more of a pastor. The former called down fire out of heaven
to consume those sent to take him; Elisha anticipates the king when he comes to take him (2
Kings 6:32,33) and gives promises of relief. He merely asks for blindness to come upon the
army which surrounded him at Dothan, and spares them when the king would have smitten
them (2 Kings 6:18-23). Elijah was austere and terrible, but Elisha was so companionable that
the woman at Shunem built him a chamber. His prophetic insight could be helped more by
strains of music than by mountain solitude (2 Kings 3:15). Some of his miracles resemble
Elijah's. The multiplication of the oil and the cruse is much like the continued supply of meal
and oil to the widow of Zarephath (1 Kings 17:10-16), and the raising of the Shunammite's son
like the raising of the widow's son at Zarephath (1 Kings 17:17-24).

(2) General Features of His Ministry.

His services as a pastor-prophet were more remarkable than his miracles. He could be very
severe in the presence of deliberate wrongdoing, stern and unflinching when the occasion
required. He could weep before Hazael, knowing what he would do to Israel, yet he anointed
him king of Syria (2 Kings 8:11-15). When the time was ripe and the occasion opportune, he
could instigate a revolution that wiped out a dynasty, exterminated a family, and caused the
massacre of the priests of Baal (2 Kings 8; 9). He possessed the confidence of kings so fully
that they addressed him as father and themselves as sons (2 Kings 6:21; 13:14). He
accompanied an army of invasion and three kings consulted him in extremity (2 Kings 3:11-19).
The king of Syria consulted him in sickness (2 Kings 8:7,8). The king of Israel seems to blame
him for the awful conditions of the siege and would have wreaked vengeance on him (2 Kings
6:31). He was something of a military strategist and many times saved the king's army (2 Kings
6:10). The king of Israel goes to him for his parting counsel (2 Kings 13:14-19). His advice or
command seemed to be always taken unhesitatingly. His contribution to the religious life of
Israel was not his least service. Under Jehu he secured the destruction of the Baal worship in
its organized form. Under Hazael the nation was trodden down and almost annihilated for its
apostasy. By his own ministry many were saved from bowing the knee to Baal. His personal
influence among the schools of the prophets was widespread and beneficial. He that escaped
the sword of Hazael was slain by Jehu, and he that escaped Jehu was slain by Elisha. Elisha
finished the great work of putting down Baal worship begun by Elijah. His work was not so
much to add anything to religion, as to cleanse the religion already possessed. He did not
ultimately save the nation, but he did save a large remnant. The corruptions were not all
eradicated, the sins of Jeroboam the son of Nebat were never fully overcome. He passed
through a bitter and distressing national humiliation, but emerged with hope. He eagerly
watched every turn of events and his counsels were more frequently adopted than those
perhaps of any other prophet. His was a contest between Yahweh worship and Baal worship.
The corrupted form of Yahweh worship was a problem which Amos and Hosea had to face
nearly a century later.

III. General Estimate.

He was a friend and benefactor of foreigners as well as of the people of Israel. He was large-
hearted and generous, tolerant to a remarkable degree, courageous and shrewd when the
occasion required, a diplomat as well as a statesman, severe and stern only in the presence of
evil and when the occasion demanded. His was a strenuous prophet's life. A homeloving and
social man, his real work was that of teaching and helping, rather than just working of miracles.
He continually went about doing good. He was resourceful and ready and was gifted with a
sense of humor. Known as "the man of God," he proved his right to the title by his zeal for God
and loving service to man.

LITERATURE.

Driver, LOT, 185; W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel, 85; Cornill, Isr. Prophets, 14, 33; Farrar,
Books of Kings; Kuenen, Religions of Israel, I, 360; Montefiore, Hibbert Lectures, 94; Maurice,
Prophets and Kings, 142; Liddon, Sermons on Old Testament Subjects, 195-334.