CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE RELATED THEORIES

A. Theoretical Review

1. Reading Comprehension

a. The Concept of Reading Comprehension

Reading cannot be separated from comprehension because the

purpose or the result of reading activity is to comprehend what has been

read. Reading without understanding what has been read is useless. In

reading comprehension as one of integrated skill attracts many experts to

highlight their opinion about the definition of reading comprehension.

John, Allan and Kathleen said that reading comprehension is focusing in

getting information and knowledge from text.1 It means that reading

comprehension means construct the meaning from text that they have

read and it is not just imitate the word by word. Moreover, in this case

emphasize in knowledge, John, et.al in Mintzes said knowledge is so

influence the comprehending because knowledge can represented new

meaning by connecting the word. 2

Then, According to Karen and Graham that reading comprehension

is a long process to get information and it involved many interactions

1
John Guthrie T. et.al, Motivating Reading Comprehension, (London: Lawrence
Eilbaum Associates, 2004), P. 246
2
Ibid. P. 229
 9

3
between reader and related to the text itself. Based on the statements

above it could say that reading comprehension means that to get an idea

the reader have to concentrate and connect with their knowledge.

Next, in a book Teaching Adult to Read, Mary and John said

reading comprehension is the process of making comprehend the

meaning of the text. 4 The other meaning that reading comprehension is

one of activity to get more information and knowledge base on the text.

In this contexts, comprehending means understanding the text until finish

reading.5

Meanwhile, Talal said that reading comprehension is process that

needs some concentrates to guess some decode through the development

meaning of vocabulary words that find in the texts, and learning how to

summarize meaning from text.6 It could say that reading comprehension

is how we could recognize the meaning of the text with some strategies

and process of it.

Moreover, in Teaching Reading to English Language Learner

book Kristin Lems said reading comprehension is about how we can get

3
Karen R Harris and Steve Graham. Teaching Reading Comprehension to Students with
Learning Difficulties,( New York: The Guilford Press, 2007), p. 8
4
Mary E. Curtis and John R. Kruidenier, Teaching Adult to Read, (Wangshiton DC:
National Institute for Literary, 2005) ,p. 9
5
Barbara J Guzzetti, Literacy in America,(California: Library of congress Catalogy,
2002), p. 354
6
Abd Al Hameed Al Odwan Talal. “The Effect of The Directed Reading Thinking
Activity Through Cooperative Learning On English Secondary Stage Students’ Reading
Comprehension In Jordan.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science vol 2, 2012:
140
 10

comprehend from the text not how we can read the text.7 Base on the

definition above it could say that reading comprehension is not just

competence in reading because there are interactions between text and

background knowledge.

Base on the some definition above the researcher conclude that

reading comprehension is a process to understand information and idea

of the author within the text, which involves the experience and

knowledge of the reader. Reading comprehension has more deep

meaning than reading because in reading comprehension need long

process to comprehend the text and it involved previous knowledge then

reading is just convey the message from the text.

b. Strategy of Reading Comprehension

Comprehension strategy is the strategy that used by reader such as

cognitive and metacognitive strategy to achieve the goal of

comprehension.8

1) Cognitive Strategy

Cognitive strategy concern direct interaction of task and help to

simplify comprehension, deal with directly on getting information,

manipulating it in ways that increase learning. Cognitive strategies can

7
Kristin Lems, et.al, Teaching Reading To English Language Learner, (New York: The
Guilford Press, 2010), p. 170
8
NSW Department of Education and Training. Teaching Comprehension Strategies.
(New South Wales: NEALS, 2010), p.2
 11

be classified as the following components such as recognizing, using

topics, guessing from the context, using a dictionary, writing down,

imagery, activating background information, summarizing, using

linguistic clues, using text markers, skipping the difficult parts’ and

repeating words or phrases.

2) Metacognitive strategy

There are three essential skills of metacognitive reading strategy

such as planning, monitoring, and evaluation. Metacognitive

awareness concerns to personal perception and capability to reflect on

one’s understanding and learning.9

c. Reading Comprehension Levels

According to Alice C. Omagio in Sanggam’s book, there are four

different levels of proficiency readers as follow:10

1) Novice-level readers

Novice-level readers, the readers that are able to recognize the writing

symbol, words, and expression that is used in some texts containing

general topics of their common experiences, such as basic classroom

objects, colors, numbers, telling times and dialogues with a

comprehension at minimal except for simple memorized material.

2) Intermediate-level reader

9
Crown. Understanding Reading Comprehension, ( Norwich: Sure Raising Standards,
2005), p.5.
10
Sanggam Siahaan, Issues in Linguistics, (Yogyakarta: Graha Ilmu, 2008), p.106
 12

Intermediate-level readers, the readers that are able to find the main

gist, key ideas, and some supporting details of narrative text types on

familiar topics such as simple instructions, general information,

meeting arrangements, well with some common misunderstanding of

finer point.

3) Advanced-level reader

Advanced-level reader refers to the reader that have capability to

comprehend main ideas, most supporting details of the abstract and

factual topics with familiar context in description, narrations and non-

technical prose which contain newspaper accounts, directions,

academic texts, current events, press, politics, economics, with an

enhancement of detail comprehension, but still not totally precise.

4) Superior-level reader

Superior-level reader refers to the readers that have capability to

comprehend most materials on concrete and abstract topics, get main

idea and most of supporting details, and understand new vocabulary in

context through contextual guessing strategies.

Based on the explanation above, the students of Senior High

School included in advanced-level readers, they must be able to

comprehend main ideas, most supporting details of the abstract and

factual topics with familiar context in description, narrations and non-

technical prose.
 13

d. Comprehension Difficulties in Reading

Comprehension relies on mastery of decoding, students who

struggle to decode find it difficult to understand and remember what has

been read. Because their efforts to grasp individual words are so

exhausting, they have no resources left for understanding.

Signs of comprehension difficulty:11

1) Confusion about the meaning of words and sentences.

2) Lack of reading causes us difficulty interpret new words encountered

or unfamiliar to them.

3) Reading difficulties experience significant language and cultural

differences between home and school.

4) Inability to connect ideas in a passage.

5) Omission of or glossing over detail.

6) Difficulty distinguishing significant information from minor details.

7) Lack of concentration during reading.

e. Reading Comprehension Ability

Comprehension ability is an activity that students complete for the

purpose of learning about features of text like main idea or cause and

effect. Comprehension ability lessons may be disconnected from text and

may involve the completion of worksheets or graphic organizers that

require lower level thinking. Comprehension abilities led to the testing

11
Wooley G, Reading Comprehension Assisting Children with Learning Difficulties,
(Hardcover, 2011), p. 259
 14

and teaching. These following ability associated with reading

comprehension:12

1. Getting the main idea

The main idea is what the passage is about. In paragraphs, it is often

contained in the first sentence. In longer passages, the main idea may be

in the title, chapter headings, proposed solutions to problems or in

concluding statements.

2. Identifying cause and effect

Cause and effect is about how events relate to one another. Words

which indicate this are: because, as a result, due to.

3. Identifying fact and opinion

Facts can be verified from other sources. Whereas, opinions are

personal judgements and are often expressed by comparisons (strongest,

best) or adjectives (brilliant, untrustworthy).

4. Making inference

Information is not clearly stated but is implied by the context.

5. Comparing and contrasting

- Comparing focuses on similarities: similarly, likewise, just as, in the

same way, both.

- Contrasting focuses on differences: on the other hand, however,

conversely, yet, nevertheless, although.

12
State of NSW Department of Education and Communities. Reading Comprehension
Ability. 2011, p.1NSW through the Department of Education and Communities 2011.
 15

6. Sequencing

To understand and follow a passage well, the reader needs to know the

order in which things happened. Examples of words which indicate

sequence are: first, then, fi nally,at last.

7. Drawing conclusion

The aim is to consider all that has been said and interpret what it is

about. This may include a summary statement at the end or the author’s

point of view throughout a passage.

f. Assessment Reading Comprehension

There are several reasons for assessing reading comprehension and

the skills and knowledge that are involved in reading. They include

assessing to encourage learning, assessing to monitor progress and

provide feedback, assessing to diagnose problems, and assessing to

measure proficiency.13 Typically comprehension questions are used as

the major means of focusing on comprehension of the text. The learners

read a text and then answer questions about the content of the text. There

is a variety of question types that can be used.

1) Pronominal Questions

These questions beginning with who, what when, how, why, etc.

These questions often test writing ability as well as reading ability

because the learners must write the answers. The questions can ask

13
I.S.P. Nation, Teaching ESL/EFL Reading and Writing, (New York and London:
Routledge, 2009), p. 75
 16

for one-word answers, or ask the learners to copy the answers

directly from the passage. This makes them easier to mark. The

learners can also answer questions using their first language. Instead

of questions, commands may be used.14

2) Alternative Questions ( Yes/No)

This question forms are all grouped together because the answer

to the question is contained within the question or instructions, and

thus the learners do not have to compose their answer. This question

only need short answer. Thus, the students do not have to need a

high level of writing skill.15

3) True/false sentences

These questions are similar to yes/no questions. As with yes/no

questions the students have a 50 percent chance of guessing

correctly. The students look at each sentence and decide if it is true

or false according to the passage. The students answer by writing

True or False, or by copying the sentences that are true and not

copying the false sentences. This last way provides an opportunity

for more learning to take place. The learners may also be asked to

rewrite the false sentences making changes so that they are now true.

4) Multiple-choice sentences

These questions are easy to mark. If four choices are given, the

students have only a 25 percent chance of guessing correctly. If the

14
ibid, p. 77
15
ibid, p. 78
 17

questions are not well made, often the students’ chances are higher.

Good multiple-choice questions are not easy to make and often they

are more difficult than they should be. This is because the wrong

choices must seem possible and not stupid. If they are possible then

they might be partly correct.

5) Sentence completion

The students complete sentences by filling the empty spaces to

show that they understand the reading passage. The sentences come

after the reading passage. There are four different types of sentence

completion. The students are helped if there is a short line for each

letter of the missing word, if the first letter is given and so on.

6) Information Transfer

This question can be used to measure comprehension of the

text. The students read the text and fill in the diagram with short

note. The learners complete an information transfer diagram based

on the information in the text.

7) Translation

The students must translate the passage into another language.

Although translation is often a special skill, it can also show areas of

difficulty that the learners have in reading. It also shows clearly

where the learners do not have any difficulty. It is a very searching

test of understanding, but it includes other skills besides reading.16

16
ibid
 18

Later on, in Teaching Reading book said that text comprehension is

usually assessed through questions. Questions should focus on main

ideas and viewpoints, not minor details. These are called higher order

questions. Methods of assessment vary with the types of responses

students make to the questions. The students’ responses can be spoken or

written. Written responses can be in the form of a multiple-choice

response, short answers or extended pieces of writing.17

This typically can be done by asking students to read and answers

the question about what they have read. Formats include multiple choice,

short answer, and cloze or fill in the blank questions. Teachers can assess

learners’ knowledge of comprehension strategies, such as asking

questions while reading, writing summaries, or creating outlines, by

observing students while they read or by asking them about the strategies

they use.18

2. Directed Reading Thinking Activity Strategy

a. The Concept Directed Reading Thinking Activity Strategy

There are many strategies in teaching learning especially in reading

comprehension. Based on the background above the researcher wants to

focus in directed reading thinking activity strategy.

DRTA is stand from Directed Reading Thinking Activity was

developed by Russell Stauffer, Directed Reading Thinking Activity is a

17
Elizabeth S. Pang, et.al Teaching Reading,(Switzerland 2003), p. 18
18
Curtis E. Mary, Teaching Adult., p. 9
 19

strategy that guides the students in asking questions about a text,

making prediction and then reading to confirm or refute their

predictions.19 We can say directed reading thinking activity provides

the teacher and opportunity to guide students to think like good reader

do by anticipating, predicting, and then confirming and modifying their

ideas with the story

Next, In the Literacy in America book, Barbara in Widomski said

directed reading thinking activity is designed to help students build

their purposes for reading, to analyze, comprehend and add information

critically and reflectively. And to use in higher levels of cognitive

reasoning.20 We could say that, directed reading thinking activity is

strategy that can stimulate the students to read critically to get

comprehend and information of the text.

Moreover, Judy, Raymond and Charlene said directed reading

thinking activity is an activity to help the students comprehend in every

section and guess in the next section that will happened in the story of

the text.21 It means that directed reading thinking activity is an activity

to encourage the students to be active to comprehend the text. It is

include allowing students to create their own purpose.22

19
M.Nazari and M. R. Hashemi, (2012).Cooperative directed reading-thinking activity
and referential-inferentialreading comprehension skills. The Iranian EFL Journal, 8(5). Retrieved
on Jan. 12, 2013
20
Barbara J Guzzetti, Litaracy in America, (California: Library of congress
Catalogy,2002), p. 134
21
Judy S Richardo, Raymond, Charlene, Reading to Learn in the Content Areas,
(Wadsworth Cengange Learning, 2009), p. 108
22
Ibid, p. 111
 20

Later on, in I Don’t Get It book Judi Tilton Brunner gives

definition that directed reading thinking activity is strategy to give a

way for comprehending and analyzing the text base on their reading

purpose.23 In other hand directed reading thinking activity is a strategy

to improve their ability in comprehending the text with some activities.

Next, Muhammad Mehdi Yazdani said directed reading thinking

activity is a strategy to encourage the students in asking question,

making prediction and prove their prediction with their previous

statement.24 In simply that directed reading thinking activity is an

activity or strategy focus in student’s activity in produces their

argument or prediction about the text to get information of it.

Directed reading thinking activity strategy is also motivates

students to apply the students’ metacognitive skill because students

think appropriate with train of thought themselves. If the students are

not able yet to predict such as what it is expected, the teacher can help

students accepts all predictions that are suggested by students.

b. The Purpose of Directed Reading Thinking Activity Strategy

Directed Reading Thinking Activity strategy involved the student

with their intensive reading. Judy T. Brunner in Stauffer the purpose of

directed reading thinking activity is to help the students in

23
Judy T. Brunner, I don’t Get It, (America: Rowman and Littlefield Press, 2011),p.56
24
Mohammad Mehdi Yazdani, “The Explicit Instruction of Reading Strategy: Directed
Reading Thinking Activity vs. Guided Reading Strategies.” International journal of Applied
Linguistics & English Literature vol.4 (2015) : 54
 21

comprehending the text and thinking what they have read. 25 It could say

that directed reading thinking activity has function to give motivate to

thinking critically with their own word. It is also directed reading

thinking activity build reader concept.26 It means when the reader

understand automatically the reader has comprehend the text.

Directed reading thinking activity strategy is also asks the

students to be active reading and analyzing the text by the teacher as a

facilitator.27 In this strategy emphasize in thinking critically with

students’ prior knowledge so that the teacher should guide the students

thinking as they read the text.

Talal Abd Al Hameed in Almasi state that directed reading

thinking activity has purpose to help the students in reading and ask the

students to be active in learning process with improve their ability and

own ideas.28 In other hand, directed reading thinking activity strategy has

a purpose encourage students to be active and thoughtful readers,

enhancing their comprehension.

c. The Steps of Using Directed Reading Thinking Activity Strategy

Directed reading thinking activity strategy is two- part strategy in

teaching. The first phase, the teacher guide the students to thinking and

25
Brunner, I don’t Get It in Stauffer, p. 56
26
Judy S. Richardo, Raymond, Charlene, Reading to Learn in the Content Areas, p.114
27
Barbara J Guzzetti, Literacy in America, p. 135
28
Talal Abd Al Hameed Al Odwan. “The Effect Of The Directed Reading Thinking
Activity Through Cooperative Learning On English Secondary Stage Students’ Reading
Comprehension In Jordan, in Alamsi (2003) p. 141
 22

the second phase the teacher clarify the difficult vocabulary.29 It means

the students and the teacher should be active in teaching process.

Next, Judy S. Richadson in Stauffer said that directed reading

thinking activity has three steps: predicting, reading, and proving.30

1) Predicting

In directed reading thinking activity strategy class begin with

teacher’s reading title of the text and asking the students to predict

what will happen next.31 It involves the students about the text that

they have read and related with their background knowledge to

guess what the material is going to be about.32 It means the teacher

makes sure that the students are actively in understanding each

segment before continuing to the next.

2) Reading

The prediction step of the directed reading thinking activity

33
strategy makes purpose for reading. So that in this section the

students have to read the text to involve their own reading. After

reading the teacher asks if anyone is correct with their prediction

and whether they like the story.34 In other hand, both teacher and

students have to make conditionally class with their interaction.

29
Guzzetti J Barbara, Literacy in America, p. 134
30
Judy S. Richardo, et.al, Reading to Learn in the Content Areas, in Stauffer (1969)
p.108
31
Barbara J Guzzetti, Literacy in America, p. 134
32
Judy S. Richardo, et.al, Reading to Learn in the Content Areas, p. 109
33
ibid
34
Ibid p. 112
 23

3) Proving

In this last section the students have to make conclusion about

what the text base on their prediction and reading in the first section.

The function of proving is to make the students confident about their

reading even though their prediction appropriates with the text itself.35

It means that proving is just to give encourage the students find the

information of the text with their own word and background

knowledge, also give chance to improve their ability in opinion.

Base on the explanation above by using directed reading

thinking activity strategy in a three steps towards greater reading

comprehension and in involving in cognitive of the students. The

power of the directed reading thinking activity strategy improves

when the teacher guides students to check their predictions after

reading.

d. The Benefits of Directed Reading Thinking Activity Strategy

1) It is not difficult in implementation

2) Need active participant from the reader

3) Only need preparation from the teacher

4) Improving student’s attitude toward strategy

5) Improving silent reading

35
ibid p. 114
 24

6) Helping in classroom management like individually, small group,

and whole class.

7) Easy is implementation with fiction and nonfiction text.36

Those benefits are making easy in teaching process when class

condition can be controlled by the teacher and also participant all of the

students.

B. Action Hypothesis

C.R. Kothari defines hypothesis is a formal question that the researcher’s

purpose in their resolve.37Based on the frame of theories and assumption the

research formulates the hypotheses as follows: “by using directed reading

thinking activity strategy, it will be able to improve students’ reading

comprehension ability on the eleventh graders at MA Jauharotul Mualimin

Seputih Agung Central Lampung”.

36
Judy T. Brunner , I don’t Get It, p. 57
37
C.R. Kothari, Research Methodology, (New Delhi: New Age International (P) Limited
Publisher, 2004), p. 184