References

Blum, D., & Jaworski, C. (2016). From Suicide and Strain to Mass Murder. Society, 53(4), 408–413.

https://doi-org.libproxy.howardcc.edu/10.1007/s12115-016-0035-3

This journal article explores risk factors found in common between the perpetrators of

three high-profile mass shootings.The case studies revealed that all three men were

suicidal, suffered from strain, and did not have strong relationships. The researchers

concluded that there are three types of psychological strain that can be stressors for a

mass shooting: chronic strain, uncontrolled strain, and acute strain. Chronic strain is a

prolonged series of negative experiences in social relationships in one’s daily life.

Uncontrolled strain is chronic strain that persists despite the support of strong

relationships. Finally, acute strain is one specific stressor, like a devastating, catastrophic

loss. The lack of a strong support system exacerbates strain and also contributes to

suicidal ideation. Author Dinur Blum is a sociology and criminology professor at the

University of California Los Angeles whose research specializes in mass shootings.

Christian Gonzalez Jaworski unfortunately does not have an online presence stating his

credentials. However, the fact that the article was published in a reputable journal is

sufficient evidence for its legitimacy and accuracy. This article is intended to inform

educated researchers and mental health professionals about the importance of a strong

support system for at-risk individuals. Blum and Jaworski’s claim that social strain is a

factor in mass shootings is corroborated by a Psychiatric Times article.

Lin P-I, Fei L, Barzman D, Hossain M (2018) What have we learned from the time trend of mass

shootings in the U.S.? PLoS ONE 13(10): e0204722.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0204722
 This study contrasts most other sources, citing data that suggests mental illness may not

have such a profound impact on mass shooters as many believe. It also states that people

often oversimplify the issue, without looking at factors like types of mental illness and

psychiatric medication non-adherence. It also mentions poverty rates, gun ownership, and

contagion as factors correlated with mass shootings. The authors are four accomplished

researchers specializing in several different fields, including psychiatry, all over the

world. The first named author, Lin Ping-I, is the head of the Department of Health

Sciences at Karlstad University in Sweden. Further, the research was approved for

publication in the Public Library of Science after being edited by a University of

California Irvine professor, and the authors declared no competing interests or outside

funding. This article is distributed with open access, broadening the intended audience

from just researchers to anyone interested in the topic. This article mentions contagion, a

factor which is corroborated by the article “Contagion in Mass Killings and School

Shootings”.

Metzl, J. M., & MacLeish, K. T. (2015). Mental Illness, Mass Shootings, and the Politics of

American Firearms. American Journal of Public Health, 105(2), 240–249. https://doi-

org.proxy-um.researchport.umd.edu/10.2105/AJPH.2014.302242

Like the Public Library of Science Source, this source is hesitant to say definitively that

mental health is a large factor influencing the perpetrators of mass shootings. It states that

less than 3 to 5% of US crimes involve the mentally ill. The National Center for Health

Statistics found that less than 5% of gun-related killings in the US were perpetrated by

the mentally ill. The authors argue that the issues often oversimplified as “mental illness”

are really a reflection of the issues of society as a whole. Author Jonathan M. Metzl is a
 professor of psychiatry and the Director of the Center for Medicine, Health, and Society

at the University of Vanderbilt. Kenneth MacLeish is an assistant professor of medicine,

health, and society, also at the University of Vanderbilt. The article was published in the

American Journal of Public Health, a widespread journal that would influence many of

those in public health and public policy. The source’s claim that the oversimplification of

mental illness as a factor in mass shootings is inaccurate is corroborated by the article,

“What have we learned from the time trend of mass shootings in the U.S.?”.

Taxman, J. (2016). Gun Violence in America - A Tri-Vector Model. International Journal of

Applied Psychoanalytic Studies, 13(2), 113–123. https://doi-

org.libproxy.howardcc.edu/10.1002/aps.1490

This article, published in the International Journal of Applied Psychoanalytic Studies,

presents a new perspective on the cause of mass shootings. It argues a tri-vector model,

meaning that developmental, cultural, and social forces influence individuals who

commit these crimes. It discusses FBI reports on the demographic profile of mass

shooters; the data shows no connection between the race, age, or location of the

perpetrators. The only common demographic characteristic found was that they are

overwhelmingly male. The developmental vector relies on attachment theory, a widely

accepted psychiatric idea that a child can not develop empathy or social skills if their

parents neglect them at a young age. If the child grows up in an abusive or negligent

home, they will lack the ability to perceive the world and emotions accurately. This

article was published in a reputable journal with an extensive vetting process. The author

of the article, Jeffrey Taxman, is the medical director at the Mequon Clinic and

specializes in psychotherapy. Since the article was published in a research database that
 requires a paid subscription, the intended audience is limited to educated researchers and

professionals. The source’s claim that a lack of strong social interaction in childhood may

be a factor in mass shootings is corroborated by the journal article “From Suicide and

Strain to Mass Murder”.

Terrades, V. (2017). Mass Shootings and Offenders’ Motives: A Comparison of the United States

and Foreign Nations. ILSA Journal of International & Comparative Law, 23(3), 399–423.

Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com.proxy-

um.researchport.umd.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=asn&AN=125729300&site=ehost-

live

This article was written by a Vanessa Terrades, a law student with a Bachelor of Science

in Criminal Justice. It was published in the ILSA Journal of International & Comparative

Law, a prestigious and reputable peer-reviewed publication. It contains a detailed

comparative analysis of mass shootings in different countries, followed by proposed

resolutions to prevent mass shootings. The author gives the example of the Columbine

shooters, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold. They both exhibited warning signs of severe

mental illness, including writing violent stories and expressing their desire to go on a

killing spree in a journal. Harris was also on medication for obsessive compulsive

disorder. James Holmes, the perpetrator of the shooting in a movie theater in Aurora,

Colorado, also saw a psychiatrist and exhibited symptoms of severe depression. The

author cites the National Alliance on Mental Illness stating that “violent acts by mentally

ill individuals occur due to the lack of effective mental health treatment”. The article

resides in a paid research database, limiting its intended audience to educated researchers

and professionals who can effect the change the article calls for. This article’s claim that
 mental illness is a common factor among mass shooters is corroborated by the article,

“Gun Violence in America- A Tri-Vector Model”.

Towers, S., Gomez-Lievano, A., Khan, M., Mubayi, A., & Castillo-Chavez, C. (2015). Contagion in

Mass Killings and School Shootings. PLoS ONE, 10(7), 1–12. https://doi-

org.libproxy.howardcc.edu/10.1371/journal.pone.0117259

This article, published jointly by Arizona State University and Northeastern Illinois

University, examines data on contagion in mass killings. They found that in the wake of a

publicized mass killing, suicides, homicides, and mass killings increase. Further, these

resulting incidents even follow patterns similar to the spread of infectious disease.

Contagion models have been successfully applied financial markets, the spread of

YouTube videos, burglary, and terrorist attacks. Author Sherry Towers has written a

myriad of articles on mass killings and contagion. The article was edited by Dr. Joshua

Yukich, a health economics professor at Tulane University. Additionally, the authors

received no funding or support for the article and declared they had no competing

interests. This article is intended to inform researchers and mental health professionals

about contagion in mass killings, an aspect often overlooked. This helps shed light on the

causes of mass killings, and therefore gets researchers closer to a solution. This article’s

claim that mass shooting incidents are becoming increasingly common is corroborated by

other sources, including an article by a UCLA professor whose research specializes in

mass shootings.