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Module No. 4
Irrigation water management begins with knowing how much water to apply based on
how much the crop needs. Thus, measuring flow is imperative, which is useful to: (a) check
irrigation efficiency by allowing accurate measurement of water applied; (b) determine
pumping efficiency to allow water to be supplied as inexpensively as possible; and (c) detect
well-pump and other irrigation system problems. These redound to decreased water losses and
improved application efficiency, which can be translated into reduced pumping cost and
hence more profit for the farmers.
There are several methods to measure flow in open channels as part of monitoring and
evaluation of irrigation canal system. These include the use of flow regime variations principle,
that is, by simulating a critical flow created by hydraulic structures known as weirs and flumes.
There are also conventional techniques such as the float method and the velocity head rod
method, which are given as Laboratory Exercise No. 3.
Flow over a sufficiently high obstruction in an open channel is always critical. When
placed intentionally to measure the flow rate, they are called weirs. A weir is a common and
simple hydraulic structure used by hydrologists and engineers to measure the volumetric flow
rate or discharge in small to medium-sized streams and rivers.
Weir is basically a barrier, a miniature dam across the flow path in an open channel,
which alter the flow characteristics of the water and usually results in a change in the depth of
flow. As water passes over the crest and drops downstream, the flow velocity increases. This
acceleration creates a known relationship between the height of water (h) and the flow rate or
discharge (Q).
Aside from measuring Q with relatively high accuracy of +/- 2 percent (Sutherland &
Taylor, 2014), weirs are also used to impound water in order to increase its h and this change in h
can then be used to power waterwheels. In addition, weirs are commonly used to control Q of
rivers during periods of high discharge thus preventing flooding downstream. On larger rivers, a
weir can alter the flow characteristics of the waterway to the point that vessels are able to
navigate areas previously inaccessible due to extreme currents or eddies (Wikipedia, 2018).
In this module, only the flow regimes of different type of weirs as used to measure flow
rate or discharge in open channels are discussed. Flumes will be covered in the next module.
After thorough and diligent study of this module, you should be able to:
a. Distinguish the different types of weir according to crest construction and geometric
shape;
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b. Derive the equation for sharp-crested rectangular weir when the effects of viscosity (Kb)
and surface tension (Kh) are neglected;
c. Determine the rates of flow over sharp-crested rectangular, V-notch and Cipolletti weirs
including broad-crested rectangular weirs; and
I. Types of Weir
There are several types of weir (Figure 1) according to crest construction and geometric
shape. The crest refers to the top of the weir, where the water flows over it. It can be either
sharp-crested (Figure 2), broad-crested (Figure 3), or ogee-shaped (Figure 4). Weirs also come in
different geometric shapes, such as rectangular (Figure 5), triangular (Figure 6), and trapezoidal
(Figure 7). Further, rectangular weirs can be either suppressed or contracted as shown Figure 8.
The height of water above the crest is called the head over the weir and is shown as
capital letter “H” in Figure 2 and 3, or small letter “h” in Figures 4, 5, 6 and 7 above. According to
Bengtson, H or h is the parameter that is measured and used to determine the flow rate or
discharge (Q). Depending on the crest construction and geometric shape, there are equations
to calculate Q over the weir for a given H or h, and vice versa wherein Q can be experimentally
correlated with H or h (2010).
In sharp-crested weir (see Figure 2), the crest of the weir is very sharp such that the water
will spring clear of the crest. The weir plate is bevelled at the crest edges to obtain necessary
thickness, and should be made of smooth, rust-free metal. Flow over sharp-crested weir is similar
to rectangular weir.
Broad-crested weirs (see Figure 3) are constructed in rectangular shape only and are
suitable for larger flows. Head loss is small.
Generally, ogee-shaped weirs (see Figure 4) are provided for the spillway of a storage
dam. The crest slightly rises and falls into parabolic form. Flow over ogee weir is similar to flow
over broad-crested rectangular weir thus only the latter is discussed.
(Eq. 1)
The International Standards Organization (1980), American Society for Testing and
Materials (1993) and United States Department of Interior – Bureau of Reclamation (1997) all
recommend using the Kindsvater-Carter method (Eq. 1) for all rectangular weirs.
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Figure 9. Discharge coefficient (Ce) of rectangular weir as functions of b/B and h/P
Figure 10. Effect of viscosity (Kb) for rectangular weir as a function of b/B
Head (h) should be measured upstream from the weir at a distance of 4 to 5 times the
maximum head. The weir crest should be between 1 and 2 mm thick in the opening or notch
(see b in Figure 2). Water surface downstream of the weir should be at least 0.06 m below the
weir crest or below the bottom of the notch.
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The measured head (h) should be ≥ 0.03 m. The height from bottom of channel to
bottom of weir (P) is measured from the upstream channel and should be ≥ 0.1 m. The notch
width (b, see Figure 2) and channel width (B, see Figures 5, 6 and 7) should be ≥ 0.15 m. If b < B
(see Figure 8a, contracted weir), then (B-b) ≥ 0.2 m.
Solution:
Therefore, the flow rate over the 1.8 m sharp-crested rectangular weir is 1.78 m3/sec when the
head is 0.625 m above the crest bottom.
The V-notch design causes small changes in discharge to have a large change in depth
allowing more accurate head measurement than with a rectangular weir. A V-notch weir is well
suitable for measuring discharge over small flows. The discharge of a triangular weir is estimated
using the Kindsvater-Shen equation (LMNO Engineering, Research and Software, Ltd., 2014):
(Eq. 2)
The International Standards Organization (1980), American Society for Testing and
Materials (1993), and United States Department of Interior – Bureau of Reclamation (1997) all
suggest using the Kindsvater-Shen method (Eq. 2), wherein Q should be in cfs and heights in ft
units.
The equations have been developed for h < 0.38 m and h/P < 2.4, and h/B should be ≤
0.2. The average width of the approach channel (B) should be > 0.91 m. The bottom of the V
should be at least 0.45 m above the bottom of the upstream channel.
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Solution:
Therefore, the flow rate over the 900 sharp-crested triangular weir is 0.043 m3/sec when the
head is 0.25 m.
The sides are inclined outwards with a slope of 1 horizontal to 4 vertical. Both sides of a
Cipolletti weir should have equal slope. To find the discharge, the following equation is used
(LMNO Engineering, Research and Software, Ltd., 2013):
(Eq. 3)
The head (h) should be measured at a distance of at least 4h upstream of the weir. The
weir should be between 0.8 to 2 mm thick in the opening or notch. Water surface downstream
of the Cipolletti weir should be at least 0.06 m below the weir crest or below the bottom of the
opening.
Measured head (h) should be greater than 0.06 m but less than L/3. P is measured from
the bottom of the upstream channel and should be greater than 2hmax, where hmax is the
maximum expected head. b should be greater than 2hmax. Note that this b is not the crest
bottom width of a rectangular weir (see Figure 5) but the distance of the top opening of
trapezoidal weir from the sides of the channel (see Figure 7).
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Solution:
Therefore, the flow rate over the sharp-crested Cipolletti weir is 0.70 m3/sec when the head
is 0.4 m and bottom width is 1.5 m.
A solid broad-crested weir works on the principle that the flow over the weir must go
through the critical depth as shown in Figure 11. Critical depth is the height of a weir that
determines whether or not the flow goes critical.
As there is drawdown close to the weir, the head must be measured a few meters
upstream where the water level is unaffected by the weir. Downstream of the weir, a hydraulic
jump occurs. Once critical flow and hydraulic jump happen, a formula for discharge can be
developed using the concept of specific energy and the special conditions that occur at the
critical depth. The following formula relates the channel discharge with the upstream water
depth measured above the weir crest (Claydon, 2011):
Q = CLh1.5 (Eq. 4)
Since Equation 4 is based on critical depth, it is not dependent on the shape of the weir.
Therefore, Equation 4 can be used for any critical depth weir and not just for broad-crested
weirs. Only the value of C changes to take account of the different geometric shapes of the
weir. Other geometric shapes of critical depth weir is shown in Figure 12.
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C = 0.9 + 0.147 [h / (h + P)] 0.1 < h/L < 0.4 Azimi & Rajaratnam (2009)
Broad-crested weir with
(Eq. 7) rounded entrance
Solution:
Q = CLh1.5
Q = 0.9361637256 (8 m)(1.5 m)1.5 = 13.76 m3/sec
Q = CLh1.5
Q = 0.998 (8 m) (1.5 m)1.5 = 14.67 m3/sec
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Therefore, the flow rates of broad-crested rectangular weirs when viscosity effect is
considered is 13.56 m3/sec; 13.76 m3/sec when viscosity is neglected; and 14.67 m3/sec
when the weir has rounded entrance.
1. The connection between the weir and the channel should be watertight. The joint
between the weir plate and the channel should be packed with chemically inert
cement or asphalt-type roofing compound.
2. The weir should be ventilated, if necessary, to prevent a vacuum from forming on the
underside of the nappe. The ventilated air pocket formed under the nappe insures that
atmospheric pressure is present on all sides of the nappe.
3. The height of the weir from the bottom of the channel to the crest should be at least 2
times the maximum expected head of liquid above the crest. This is necessary to lower
the velocity of approach.
4. The approach section upstream from the weir should be straight for a distance of at least
20 times the maximum expected head of liquid and should have little or no slope. In a
relatively large channel, water velocity approach should be less than
0.15 m/sec.
5. The crest must be set higher than the maximum downstream elevation of the water
surface; otherwise, a submerged flow condition will occur instead of the free-flow
condition required for reliable measurement.
6. A stilling pond or basin may be required to reduce velocity and the effects of flow
turbulence of the liquid upstream of the weir.
7. A drop of about 0.15 m or more in the channel is needed to establish free-flow conditions
over the weir. This required fall of water surface makes it impracticable to use a weir in
areas having level land.
8. The head measuring point of the weir should be located upstream of the weir crest at a
distance of at least three and preferably four times the maximum expected head of the
weir. It should be located in a quiet section of the channel away from all disturbances,
preferably in a stilling well. Also, the zero point of the head-measuring device must be set
exactly level with the weir crest.
9. For a triangular or rectangular weir with end contraction, the minimum distance of the
sides of the weir from the channel banks should be at least twice the maximum
expected head on the weir.
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10. Avoid deposition of gravel, sand, and silt above the weir so that accurate water
measurements can be obtained.
11. The velocity of approach of water should not exceed 0.15 m/sec. This is accomplished
by setting the weir at the lower end of a long pool, which is wide and deep enough to
give an even, smooth current.
12. The longitudinal axis of the weir should be perpendicular to the direction of the flow. If a
weir box is used, the center line of the weir box should be parallel to the direction of the
flow.
13. The face of the weir should be vertical and at a right angle to the direction of the flow.
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If space is not enough, continue at the left-side directly opposite the item being answered.
1. In the world-wide-web (www) and/or elsewhere, find actual pictures (not drawings or
illustrations) of the different types of weir according to crest construction and geometric
shape. (10 pts)
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2. What would be the equivalent form of Equation 1 (sharp-crested rectangular weir) when the
effects of viscosity (Kb) and surface tension (Kh) are neglected? (5 pts)
3. Determine the discharge of a sharp-crested rectangular weir (Kh = 0.001 m) with the
following characteristics: height of crest = 0.75 m; head = 1.31 m; bottom width of crest = 2.5
m; and width of channel = 3.57 m. (15 pts)
4. In Q3 above, what would be the head if the crest bottom is shortened by 0.5 m and
neglecting the effects of viscosity (Kb) and surface tension (Kh)? (15 pts)
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5. What is the rate of flow over a 1200 sharp-crested V-notch when the head is 0.52 m? (15 pts)
6. In Example 3, the flow rate over the sharp-crested Cipolletti weir is 0.70 m3/sec when the
head is 0.4 m and the bottom width is 1.5 m. What would be the head if the bottom of the
crest is increased by 0.2 m and assuming the same discharge? (15 pts)
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8. In not more than 200 words, summarize the installation, maintenance and operational
requirements of weirs. (10 pts)
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American Society for Testing and Materials. (1993). Standard method for open-channel flow
measurement of water with thin-plate weirs. ASTM D5242. Retrieved from Global
Engineering Documents at http://global.ihs.com
Azimi, A.H. & Rajaratnam, N. (2009). Discharge characteristics of weirs of finite crest length.
Journal of Hydraulic Engineering. 135(12):120-125.
Bengtson, H. (2010). Open channel flow measurement 1: Introduction to the weir and flume. In
Bright Hub Engineering. Stonecypher, L. (Ed.). Retrieved from
https://www.brighthubengineering.com/hydraulics-civil-engineering/51435-introduction-
to-the-weir-and-flume/
International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage. (n.d). ICID [Logo]. Retrieved from
https://icid2019.com/international-commision-on-irrigation-and-drainage/
International Standards Organization. (1980). Water flow measurement in open channels using
weirs and venturi flumes - Part 1: Thin plate weirs. ISO 1438/1-1980(E). Retrieved from
Global Engineering Documents at http://global.ihs.com
Kindsvater, C.E. & Carter, R.W. (1959). Discharge characteristics of rectangular thin-plate weirs.
American Society of Civil Engineers. Vol. 24, p. 3001.
LMNO Engineering, Research and Software, Ltd. (2013). Cipolletti (trapezoidal) weir calculator:
Discharge, head and weir length calculations, equations and installation guidelines.
Retrieved from http://www.LMNOeng.com
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine. (n.d). NASEM [Logo]. Retrieved
from http://sites.nationalacademies.org/PGA/biso/SS/index.htm
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Sabia Landscaping and Tree Service. (n.d). SLTS [Logos]. Retrieved from
http://www.sabialandscaping.com/landscaping/seasonal-yard-garden-services/ and
http://www.sabialandscaping.com/irrigation-drainage/
Salmasi, F., Poorescandar, S., Dalir, A.H. & Zadeh, D.F. (2012). Discharge relations for rectangular
broad-crested weirs. Journal of Agricultural Sciences. Tabriz University, Tabriz, Iran.
Retrieved from www.agri.ankara.edu.tr/journal
The Constructor: Civil Engineering Home. (n.d). What is a weir? Types of weirs and flow over weirs.
Retrieved from https://theconstructor.org/water-resources/what-is-weir-types-
flow...weirs/11873/