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Contextual Outline
Multicellular organisms have specialised organ systems that are adapted for the
uptake and transport of essential nutrients from the environment, the utilisation or
production of energy and the removal of waste products arising from cellular
activities.
The basis of healthy body-functioning in all organisms is the health of their cells. The
physical and chemical factors of the environment surrounding these cells must remain
within narrow limits for cells to survive. These narrow limits need to be maintained
and any deviation from these limits must be quickly corrected. A breakdown in the
maintenance of this balance causes problems for the organism.
The nervous and endocrine systems in animals and the hormone system in plants
bring about the coordinated functioning of these organ systems. They are able to
monitor and provide the feedback necessary to maintain a constant internal
environment. Enzyme action is a prime example of the need for this balance. Enzymes
control all of the chemical reactions that constitute the body’s metabolism. As
enzymes normally function only within a narrow temperature range, even a small rise
in body temperature can result in the failure of many of the reactions of metabolism
that are essential to life.
This module increases students’ understanding of the applications and uses of
biology, implications for society and the environment and current issues, research and
developments in biology.
Identify the role of enzymes in metabolism, describe their chemical composition and
use a simple model to describe their specificity on substrates.
Things to consider:
- What does identify mean?
- What does describe mean?
- Understand what you are going to write before you write your answer down.
All chemical reactions taking place within a cell and all chemical processes within the
organism is known as its metabolism. The organism’s metabolism is maintained by
special large proteins called enzymes. The role of these enzymes is to catalyse steps
in metabolic pathways as well as produce essential molecules for cells. (Maintaining a
balance)
Other facts about enzymes:
They can be used over and over again
Only small quantities required in cells
Made by the cell and controlled by nucleus
Different cells make different enzymes
The major chemical composition of enzymes is proteins. These proteins are made up
of amino acids which are joined by peptide bonds. Certain amino acids code for
certain proteins. The chemical composition can determine the active site, which binds
to the substrate.
Enzymes are highly specific which means that enzymes have a specific substrate and
that substrate only can incur a reaction. The models below illustrate enzymes
specificity to a substrate.
LOCK AND KEY MODEL
The above model shows that the enzyme is specific for only one type of substrate. The
enzyme can only react with a substrate which is the reciprocal to its shape. The
substrate binds to the enzyme at the active site whereby a reaction occurs. Once the
reaction is complete the enzyme returns to its regular state and two products are
formed.
It is called the lock and key model due to the substrate fitting to the enzyme like a key
going into a lock.
The above model shows that an enzyme is adaptable to the shape of the substrate.
Once the substrate has attached itself to the enzyme at the active site the reaction
occurs and the once complete the enzyme returns to its regular state and two
products are formed.
It is called the induced fit model due to the enzyme changing its shape to
accommodate the substrate. (Inducing itself)
Things to consider:
- What does identify mean
- Be succinct in your answer
The pH scale is a scale which illustrates the hydrogen ion concentration within a
substance. Acidity is when a substance has a large amount of hydrogen ions present
in solution. Acidic substances fall between the pH ranges of 1 – 7. If a substance is
neutral it is said to have a pH of 7. Alkalinity or a base is a substance that contains
very little hydrogen ion’s. Basic substances fall between the pH range of 7 -14. If we
use this scale we can determine how many hydrogen ions are present in a substrate
therefore determining the optimum pH range for an enzyme.
Explain why the maintenance of a constant internal environment is important for
optimal metabolic efficiency
the rate of reactions that are
catalysed by enzymes decreases. This can then affect entire pathways that are
required to make essential compounds (for example, haemoglobin).
Things to consider:
- What does explain mean?
- Underline key words
- Define key words. Know what they mean!
There are three main factors that affect the enzymes there activity and hence
metabolic efficiency. These factors are:
Temperature
pH
Substrate concentration
All enzymes have a specific temperature in which they function the best, (optimum
temperature.) If the temperature is low enzymes are “sluggish,” and reactions occur
at a slow rate. When the temperature increases, reaction rates increase until the
enzyme is at its optimum temperature. If the temperature continually increases
reactions rates dramatically decrease. This increase in temperature causes the
peptide bonds to break, which in turn makes the active site inactive, effectively
destroying the enzyme. This process is called denaturation.
All enzymes have an optimum pH. This means that if an enzyme carries a pH level of
6 it needs to be in an environment which has a pH of around 6. Changing the pH
slightly will change the enzyme activity, while changing the pH dramatically will cause
irreversible changes in the enzyme.
Substrate concentration also affects metabolic activity. If we increase the substrate
concentration the enzyme activity increases to a certain point until all active sites are
being occupied by a substrate. So how does the substrate concentration stay at a
level which enables the enzyme to continually function at the optimum level?
Enzymes are continually reacting with substrates to produce a product, these products
are then metabolised by another enzyme. A process called feedback regulates
enzyme activity, a key factor in metabolic efficiency. Feedback also controls
temperature and pH.
Things to consider:
- A definition of homeostasis
- What does describe mean?
- Underline key words
- Be succinct in your answer
No matter what is happening on the external environment, the human body is capable
of maintaining a constant internal environment. For example our blood sugar remains
fairly constant, (90mg/100mL) body temperature (37 degrees Celsius) and pH of the
blood (7.38 – 7.42). This constant internal environment is known as homeostasis.
Homeostasis is the constant internal composition of a cell or an organism and the
mechanisms that maintain it. In simple terms homeostasis is the steady state of an
organism. Homeostasis does not merely occur. Certain stimuli that cause an
imbalance will in effect illicit a response, in turn returning the organism to its steady
state.
OTHER FACTS:
Idea of homeostasis introduced by Claude Bernard in 1859, did not call the
process homeostasis.
Term homeostasis first coined by Walter Cannon (1929.)
Explain that homeostasis consists of two stages:
- Detecting changes from the stable state
- counteracting changes from the stable state
Things to consider:
- What does explain mean?
- Determine the best way to answer the question
- Diagram?
The human body uses the homeostatic response to maintain a balance in a variety of
ways including body temperature. The homeostatic system has three main parts; the
receptor (detector), the control centre and an effector. The role of the receptor
(detector) is to detect changes within the surrounding internal and external
environment. These changes are known as stimuli. When and if a change takes place
the receptor relays a message to the control centre. The control centre then
determines whether or not to illicit a response or maintain the balance. This response
or maintaining a balance is carried out by the effector. This process is known as
feedback:
Receptor/detector control centre effector.
Therefore, homeostasis is a two stage process whereby receptors detect changes from
the stable state and counteract these changes to return to the stable state. (e.g.
shivering/sweating)
Outline the role of the nervous system in detecting and responding to environmental
changes.
Things to consider:
- What does outline mean?
- What does the nervous system contain?
- Underline key words and be succinct
The nervous system consists of two parts the central nervous system (CNS) and the
peripheral nervous system (PNS). The role of the central nervous system is to
coordinate all the organisms’ responses. The CNS receives the information, interprets
the information and initiates a response. The PNS is a system of nerves that branches
out and around the body. These nerves are connected to receptors and effectors.
When the PNS detects a stimuli it rapidly relays the message to the CNS and to the
control centre to illicit a response.
The endocrine system also plays a pivotal role in maintaining a balance. The
endocrine system secretes certain hormones in response to certain stimuli.
e.g. Thermoreceptors detect a change in the surrounding air temperature, (hot). A
message from the PNS is relayed to the CNS which in turn interprets the message. The
CNS then initiates a response. Effectors start to produce sweat and dilate blood
vessels in order to lose heat, and therefore maintain a balance.
Identify the broad range of temperatures over which life is found compared with the
narrow limits for individual species.
Things to consider:
- What does identify mean?
- What does compare mean?
- Be succinct, make sure in your answer you include a variety of species
On Earth organisms face a vast variety of temperatures ranging from over 100
degrees to -70 degrees Celsius. All organisms have a certain optimum temperature
range. When out of their temperature range the organism risks death or damage to
their cells. For example, most terrestrial organisms are found to function best between
0 – 45 degrees Celsius. Any higher or lower and the organism risks their cells and
proteins denaturing, or their cells becoming frozen. In comparison thermoacidophiles
love a hot climate around 100 degrees Celsius. If the temperature drops below 55
degrees Celsius the thermoacidophiles will eventually become inactive and die.
Things to consider:
- What does compare and explain mean?
- Know the key words in this statement such as ectothermic and endothermic.
Things to consider:
- What does identify mean?
- Be succinct
Desert plants or plants which are exposed to high temperatures elicit a few responses
due to temperature change. For example, due to increasing temperature a desert
plant will have smaller leaves which in turn decreases their surface area which leads
to a decrease in water loss and solar radiation.
An Australian example where a plant reacts to temperature change is the eucalypt.
The eucalypts leaves hang down, vertical in nature. This in turn provides a large
surface area for the rising sun, and at this time of the day it is generally cool in
nature. When the sun is higher in the sky around midday, the ambient temperature
generally increases. At this time the eucalypts leaves are still hanging vertically which
in turn reduces the surface area of the leaf as well as maximising water retention. In
some very dry and hot conditions the eucalypt may even close its stomates in order to
stop transpiration from occurring.
Therefore, particularly in Australia, there are numerous responses of plants to
temperature change.
Identify data sources, plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a first-hand
investigation to test the effect of:
– increased temperature
– change in pH
– change in substrate concentrations on the activity of named enzyme(s)
Things to consider:
- What does identify mean?
- This experiment is referred to frequently in past HSC papers. Understand the
task when it is performed in class.
- Underline key words and know their definitions.
EQUIPMENT:
You need to know what equipment was used in this experiment, as this dot point asks
you to “choose equipment.” Refer to page 8 for the equipment list.
METHOD:
Ensure you have written your own method. This dot point asks you to PLAN your
experiment so in the HSC there is no reason why they can’t ask you to re-write the
method you followed. Refer to pages 8-9 of the textbook.
RESULTS:
Ensure that you have a table of results
Construct a graph of your results and answer the following questions.
QUESTIONS:
– Did the enzyme cause a reaction in any of the control tubes? Explain why you
used the controls.
– At what temperature was the enzyme most active? What is your evidence for
this?
– Explain why the observation or measurement that you recorded in your result
was in fact a valid indication that enzyme activity had taken place.
– (a) Describe the shape of your graph.
– (b) What conclusion can you draw about the effect of temperature on enzyme
activity?
– Explain the effect on the enzyme action of:
o low temperatures
o high temperatures. Include possible reasons as to why low temperature
and high temperature did no bubble as well as the phrases, “optimum
temperature” and “denaturation.”
– Briefly describe your predicted results if you placed the tubes that did not show
enzyme activity into the bath at the optimum temperature. Suggest an
explanation for these results.
– Discuss whether this investigation is best undertaken individually or by a team.
– Evaluate the ways in which reliability and accuracy have been attained.
– Write down ONE safe working practice you used throughout this experiment.
– Write a conclusion. (Did your experiment answer your aim?)
EQUIPMENT:
You need to know what equipment was used in this experiment, as this dot point asks
you to “choose equipment.” Refer to The Student Resource CD for the equipment list.
METHOD:
Ensure you have written your own method. This dot point asks you to PLAN your
experiment so in the HSC there is no reason why they can’t ask you to re-write the
method you followed. Refer to Refer to The Student Resource CD and pages 8-9 of the
textbook.
RESULTS:
Ensure that you have a table of results
Construct a graph of your results and answer questions.
EQUIPMENT:
You need to know what equipment was used in this experiment, as this dot point asks
you to “choose equipment.” Refer to The Student Resource CD for the equipment list.
METHOD:
Ensure you have written your own method. This dot point asks you to PLAN your
experiment so in the HSC there is no reason why they can’t ask you to re-write the
method you followed. Refer to Refer to The Student Resource CD and pages 8-9 of the
textbook.
RESULTS:
Ensure that you have a table of results
Construct a graph of your results and answer questions.
Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available
evidence to develop a model of a feedback mechanism.
Things to consider:
- What does gather, process and analyse information mean?
- What does use available evidence mean?
- Underline key words and be succinct in your answer, if you are unsure of what
your answer should be ask another student or the teacher.
http://www.unisanet.unisa.edu.au/Information/12924info/Lecture%20Presentation%20-
%20Homeostasis.ppt#264,9, Positive Feedback Systems good site
Analyse information from secondary sources to describe adaptations and responses
that have occurred in Australian organisms to assist temperature regulation.
Things to consider:
- What does analyse mean?
- What does describe mean?
- What is an adaptation
- Underline key words and be succinct in your answer, if you are unsure of what
your answer should be ask another student or the teacher.
Blue Ectotherm Sun baking The blue tongue lizard will generally
Tongue sun bake in the sun when its core body
Lizard temperature needs to be increased.
This is due to the fact that the lizard is
cold blooded. Due to the body shape of
the lizard it will flatten itself out in
order to increase its surface area and
therefore increase its body
temperature. In order to maintain its
body temperature the lizard will move
out of the sun into the shade. The lizard
will repeat this process in order to
regulate its own body temperature.
2. Plants and animals transport dissolved nutrients and
gases in a fluid medium.
Identify the form(s) in which each of the following is carried in mammalian blood:
– carbon dioxide
– oxygen
– water
– salts
– lipids
– nitrogenous waste
– other products of digestion
Things to consider:
- What does identify mean?
- Make sure you know all means of transport as the statement is form(s)
SUBSTANCE FORM(S) IN WHICH IT IS CARRIED IN
MAMMALIAN BLOOD
CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) - Dissolved in blood plasma
- Bind to haemoglobin. Forming
carbaminohaemoglobin.
- Hydrogen carbonate ions. (HCO3)
OXYGEN (O2) - Oxygen is carried by haemoglobin
in red blood cells.
WATER (H2O) - Dissolved in blood plasma.
SALTS - Dissolved in blood plasma.
LIPIDS - Carried in a package called a
chylomicron.
NITROGENOUS WASTE - Nitrogenous waste such as urea,
uric acid and creatinine is
dissolved in blood plasma.
OTHER PRODUCTS OF - Dissolved in blood plasma.
DIGESTION
Things to consider:
- What does explain mean?
- Be succinct in your answer
Compare the structure of arteries, capillaries and veins in relation to their function
Things to consider:
- What does compare mean?
- What is the best way to represent this answer?
- Make sure you know the differences between the relative structures
Describe the main changes in the chemical composition of the blood as it moves
around the body and identify tissues in which these changes occur.
Things to consider:
- What does describe mean?
- What does identify mean?
- Understand what it means by chemical composition.
The main changes in the chemical composition of the blood as it moves around the
body are due to two systems, the pulmonary system and the systemic system.
In the pulmonary system the blood flows from the heart to the lungs then back to the
heart. The flow of blood is at a fast rate and is usually under low pressure. The blood
has just returned from the body and contains large amounts of carbon dioxide. This
carbon dioxide is then released from the blood into the alveoli of the lungs.
Subsequently the carbon dioxide is breathed out. Oxygen, however, is diffused from
the alveoli into the red blood cells. This oxygenated blood is then carried back to the
heart. Therefore, as part of the pulmonary circuit, carbon dioxide levels are decreased
and oxygen levels increased.
The systemic system pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body except the
lungs. During this process oxygen is delivered to cells so they can function efficiently,
while carbon dioxide is picked up. Urea is also picked up by the blood from the liver
and is transported to the kidneys. Products of digestion are also picked up and
returned to the liver for metabolising. The deoxygenated blood is then returned to the
heart. Therefore, as part of the systemic system oxygen levels decrease as it is
delivered to certain tissues and cells, carbon dioxide levels increase as they it needs
to be removed from the blood, urea levels increase until they are delivered and
filtered by the kidneys and products of digestion increase until they are delivered and
metabolised by the liver.
Outline the need for oxygen in living cells and explain why removal of carbon dioxide
from cells is essential
Things to consider:
- What does outline mean?
- What does explain mean?
- Underline key words
It is essential for cells to breakdown glucose in order to obtain energy. However as the
equation indicates a by – product of this process is carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is
no longer required by the cell and must be removed from the cell and tissue in order
to maintain a balance. Carbon dioxide is removed by the blood in the body in three
main ways, dissolved in plasma, attached to haemoglobin or as hydrogen carbonate
ions in plasma. The blood carries these forms to the lungs where carbon dioxide is
breathed out. On the other hand if carbon dioxide is not removed there can be severe
effects on body chemistry. For example, if carbon dioxide is not removed it will affect
the pH of blood; this in turn effects the ability of haemoglobin to bind to oxygen, a
necessity for cellular respiration. Therefore, it is essential that the body maintains a
balance by removing all carbon dioxide from cells and tissue.
Describe current theories about processes responsible for the movement of materials
through plants in xylem and phloem tissue.
Things to consider:
- What does describe mean?
- Identify the correct theories and identify the characteristics as well as their
differences.
The two processes responsible for the movement of materials through plants in xylem
and phloem are the transpiration stream in the xylem and translocation in phloem.
BACKGROUND:
Transpiration is the loss of water through the leaves of plants. Water moves up the
plant against gravity from the roots to the leaves. This process is known as the
transpiration stream. Water enters the plant roots by osmosis and continues to move
through the roots cells until it has reached the xylem. There is continual movement of
water in xylem due to two reasons:
- There is a continual water potential meaning that water is constantly moving
through the root cells due to the concentration gradient. (Moving from high to
low.)
- Root pressure pushes the water towards the centre of the plant towards the
xylem.
Things to consider:
- Underline key words
- Write out an experiment that is controlled as well as an experiment that
illustrates validity, reliability and accuracy.
- Identify variables
- Identify safe work practices
PRACTICAL INVESTIGATION
HYPOTHESIS:
I think that the dissolved carbon dioxide will cause the water to turn acidic.
EQUIPMENT/MATERIALS:
Solid calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
Dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Distilled water
A 100 mL measuring cylinder
2 test tubes
Cork and bent glass tubing
Test tube rack
Universal indicator and a card to check the pH
Lime water solution (calcium hydroxide = Ca(OH)2
Straw
METHOD:
COMPLETE TASK 1 FIRST: Detecting carbon dioxide
To ensure that the reaction we are performing contains carbon dioxide we must
complete BOTH of the following depending on the reaction we choose:
Limewater solution.
(TASK 1 Part A)
Distilled water and
universal indicator.
(TASK 2 Part A)
Figure 1: Limewater turns milky due a chemical reaction with carbon dioxide.
PART B:
1. Using a measuring cylinder measure out 10 ml of distilled water and add it to a
test tube. Add 2 – 3 drops of universal indicator to the test tube. Using a pH card
determine the pH of the distilled water and record your result in the results table
below.
2. Using a straw continually exhale into the distilled water solution for a total of 5
minutes. At 30 second intervals note the colour change. Using your pH card
determine the pH of the solution and record your results in the results table
below.
3. Repeat steps 1 – 2 three times to gather reliable results.
RESULTS:
PART 1:
TIME (minutes/seconds)
0 0:3 1:0 1:3 2:0 2:3 3:0 3:3 4:0 4:3 5:0
pH 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 7 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
PART 2:
TIME (minutes/seconds)
0 0:3 1:0 1:3 2:0 2:3 3:0 3:3 4:0 4:3 5:0
pH 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 7 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5
DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS:
It is important that the body “gets rid” of this waste. This is done exhalation. This in
turn maintains a steady chemical state within the human body.
c.) Would the change in pH be dangerous for the body? Explain.
A change in the pH of blood composition would be detrimental to the human body.
Excess carbon dioxide causes the bloodstream to turn more acidic, it also affects the
binding of oxygen to haemoglobin to drop. Cells require oxygen to respire. If this can
no longer occur cells will no longer function. On a larger scale excess carbon dioxide in
the body will cause the person to die.
d.) If so, how does the body solve the problem?
The body solves this problem in a simple matter. As carbon dioxide is a waste product
of the cell it is quickly diffused into the bloodstream. Carbon dioxide can be carried
three ways in the blood; it can be carried dissolved in plasma, as carbonic acid or as
carbaminohaemoglobin (attached to haemoglobin). As carbon dioxide diffuses in the
bloodstream it is carried via the pulmonary circuit to the lungs. Here the carbon
dioxide diffuses into the alveoli of the lungs and is subsequently breathed out.
3. What essential measurement did you have to make before testing the
effect of carbon dioxide on the water? Why?
The essential measurement that we took before testing the effect of carbon dioxide
was the pH of the distilled water. This was performed to ensure and to illustrate a pH
change. If the original pH was not recorded we would not know if the carbon dioxide
affected the pH of the dissolved water.
4. Having designed and performed this experiment, what do you think are
the key points about it – assume you are explaining it to another student
who has not done it before.
The key points from this experiment would be:
Carbon dioxide does effect the pH of water
We ensured that our chemical reactions were producing carbon dioxide. This
was illustrated by testing our experiments with limewater which turns milky in
the presence of carbon dioxide.
This experiment can be linked to the human body.
We repeated the experiment and got similar results. (Reliability)
CONCLUSION
The experiment performed illustrates that carbon dioxide has a direct effect on the pH
of distilled water. This fact can be linked with the human body. We know that the pH of
the human blood is in a narrow range being 7.35 - 7.45. This pH range is similar to
that of the distilled water. The experiment therefore shows what could happen if
carbon dioxide levels were too high in the bloodstream.
Perform a first-hand investigation using the light microscope and prepared slides to
gather information to estimate the size of red and white blood cells and draw scaled
diagrams of each
Things to consider:
- Before undertaking this experiment ensure you can estimate the size of red and
white blood cells. There is no point performing this experiment if you can not
calculate the size of the cells.
- Refer to pages 37 to 39 of the text book.
To perform this experiment accurately you need to refer to the method on page
37 to 39 of the text book.
The method tells you exactly what to do as well as how to measure the size of
red and white blood cells. Ensure you know how to calculate the and draw a
scaled diagram of red and white blood cells because there is no reason why in
the HSC they can’t ask you to draw a scaled diagram or calculate the size of the
cell based a diagram they give you.
According to https://histo.life.uiuc.edu/histo/lab/lab1/text.htm red blood cells are
6 – 8 micrometres (µm) and white blood cells vary from 6 – 12 micrometres
(µm).
Analyse information from secondary sources to identify current technologies that
allow measurement of oxygen saturation and carbon dioxide concentrations in blood
and describe and explain the conditions under which these technologies are used
Things to consider:
- What does analyse mean?
- What does identify mean?
- What does describe mean?
- What does explain mean?
- Ensure you account for all the verbs in your answer.
The two main current technologies that allow measurement of oxygen and carbon
dioxide concentrations in blood are the blood gas analyser and the pulse oximeter.
Their function(s) are outlined below.
Analyse information from secondary sources to identify the products extracted from
donated blood and discuss the uses of these products.
Things to consider:
- What does analyse mean?
- What does discuss mean?
- What does identify mean?
- Determine whether the products from donated blood are a benefit or not.
Things to consider:
- What does present mean? Choose whatever means you think is appropriate for
this set of information.
- Break to question into two parts.
- In the second half of your answer refer reliable resources as to why artificial
blood requires further research
It is only early days when it comes to artificial blood. Currently scientists have only
developed “parts” of the blood (haemoglobin and perfluorocarbons) and used them as
substitutes. These substitutes only account for the oxygen carrying characteristics of
blood. Scientists are yet to create a whole artificial blood component which accounts
for all characteristics of blood. Further research is needed in the development of
artificial blood for the following reasons:
It enables hospitals to have an ample supply of blood, not merely the blood
supplied by donors.
It can be used as a treatment tool. e.g. to increase oxygen carrying levels in the
blood.
Universally if it is successful donations would not be required.
It could be mass produced
Used in emergencies
Maintaining organs before transplant
These reasons outline the prospects of further research and development of artificial
blood and its benefits.
Choose equipment or resources to perform a first-hand investigation to gather first-
hand data to draw transverse and longitudinal sections of phloem and xylem tissue
Things to consider:
- Choose your own resources for this experiment.
- Decide what data you need to collect in order to draw a transverse and
longitudinal section of phloem and xylem tissue.
To perform this experiment accurately you need to follow the method on page
68 to 69 of your textbook; titled: Investigating xylem and phloem in plants
(using a light microscope).
You must draw a longitudinal section and transverse section of phloem and
xylem tissue. A longitudinal section is the equivalent of a SIDE VIEW. A
transverse section is the equivalent of a TOP VIEW.
You need to know the difference between side views and top views because in
the 2009 HSC they had a diagram of a longitudinal section of a plant and
students had to identify the structure(s) of the plant.
Transverse section (top view) of a plant cell. Note the xylem which looks like a big x.
The phloem bundles are indicated by the‘s.’
Longitudinal section (side view) of a plant cell. The xylem and phloem are indicated
by different stains. Pink = xylem Black/purple = phloem.
3. Plants and animals regulate the concentration of gases,
water and waste products of metabolism in cells and in
interstitial fluid
Explain why the concentration of water in cells should be maintained within a narrow
range for optimal function.
Things to consider:
- What does explain mean?
- Break down the question so you understand what it is asking.
- Underline/understand key words, such as optimal.
Water makes up a large proportion of all living things. The concentration of water in
cells should be kept within a narrow range for the following reasons:
- It is an excellent solvent which means it can break down or suspend complex
organic and inorganic molecules such as sugars in solution. Too much or not
enough water can lead to slower reactions.
- For larger molecules such as proteins water acts as a hydration layer preventing
the protein from breaking down. This is called a colloid.
- Water needs to be within a narrow range of concentration (Osmotic Balance)
in order for cells to function efficiently. Too much water within the cell
(hypotonic) causes the cell to swell and burst. Not enough water within the cell
(hypertonic) causes the cell to shrivel. The correct concentration is called
isotonic where the normal concentration of water is the same out of the cell as it
is in the cell.
- Water is a lubricating substance. Right concentrations leads to the production of
substances such as mucus.
- Water is important in metabolism. e.g. Hydrolysis.
- Water is the major transport medium for products around the body.
- Water plays an important role in maintaining body temperature.
- Water has a cushioning effect for the body.
From the points above it is necessary for water to be at its optimum level in order for
chemical reactions and certain functions to take place. If this level is uneven reactions
are too slow, cells becomes damaged (shrivelled/lysed) or reactions do not take place
at all.
Explain why the removal of wastes is essential for continued metabolic activity.
Things to consider:
- What does explain mean?
- Underline key words
- Metabolic????
The removal of wastes is essential for continued metabolic activity for the following reasons:
CAUSE EFFECT
1. Wastes affect enzyme 1. Optimum enzyme activity not
activity. reached. Enzymes not catalysing
reactions. Disrupts metabolism.
2. Organelles damaged to the extent
2. Damage to cellular that they no longer function. Damage
components. to organelles cause organelles to illicit
no/incorrect response. Excessive
damage may cause cell death.
3. Makes surrounding ion increase in
acidity. This in turn affects the
3. Excess Hydrogen ions. reaction rate of enzymes and the
saturation rate of haemoglobin.
4. Brain associated problems.
Identify the role of the kidney in the excretory system of fish and mammals.
Things to consider:
- What does identify mean?
- Underline key words → role?
- Be succinct; maybe use a table to represent your information.
Things to consider:
What does explain me?
What is diffusion and osmosis?
Underline key words, understand the question
The processes of diffusion and osmosis are inadequate in removing nitrogenous waste
in many organisms. Firstly diffusion and osmosis are slow processes. In order for
organisms to function efficiently the quick removal of nitrogenous waste is a necessity.
Diffusion and osmosis do not offer an efficient and fast removal system of nitrogenous
wastes. Secondly nitrogenous wastes are predominately made up of large complex
protein molecules. These molecules need to be broken down by the liver into simpler
products such as urea. (This process is known as deamination.) Once broken down
into simple substances diffusion may take place usually within the kidney, due to the
nature of smaller molecules. Thirdly osmosis is the transport of water across a semi-
permeable membrane. As nitrogenous wastes are a waste product they are not made
up of water. Only products of metabolic reactions within the body that produce water
would require osmosis. Therefore, diffusion and osmosis are inadequate in removing
dissolved nitrogenous waste.
Distinguish between active and passive transport and relate these to processes
occurring in the mammalian kidney.
Things to consider:
What does distinguish mean?
Ensure you relate these terms to only the mammalian kidney.
Be succinct
Passive and active transport play an important role in the mammalian kidney.
Filtration and reabsorption occur in thousands of tiny units known as nephrons. It is in
these nephrons that active and passive transport take place. Active transport occurs
in the proximal tubule, the ascending loop of henle and the distal tubule. It is at these
areas that important nutrients are filtered and reabsorbed. Passive transport occurs in
the proximal tubule, the descending loop of henle, the ascending loop of henle, the
distal tubule and the collecting duct. Passive transport plays an important role in the
mammalian kidney in removing waste and reabsorbing essential nutrients. (See
kidney diagram.)
Explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorption in the mammalian nephron
regulate body fluid composition.
Things to consider:
- What does explain mean?
- What is filtration and reabsorption?
- What is the nephron?
- Refer answer back to question.
Filtration in the mammalian nephron regulates body fluid composition in the following
ways:
- Blood crosses from the glomerulus to the Bowman’s capsule by the process
known as filtration.
- Blood pressure forces small molecules such as urea, amino acids, salts and
water across and into the capsule.
- Blood cells and proteins are too large and are filtered out.
- When small molecules are filtered across they form glomerular fluid.
Filtration is essential in the mammalian kidney as it controls what molecules enter the
nephron as well as regulating glomerular fluid composition.
Outline the role of the hormones, aldosterone and ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) in the
regulation of water and salt levels in blood.
Things to consider:
- What does outline mean?
- Know and understand the difference between aldosterone and ADH.
- Relate these hormones to salt and water.
Things to consider:
- What does define mean?
- What does discuss mean?
- Underline key words
- Split the question into two separate parts. One for definition the other for
discussion.
Marine fish and fresh - water fish are constantly maintaining their internal
environment according to their external environment. Marine fish drink large amounts
of water and excrete small amounts of concentrated urine. Fresh – water fish gain
large amounts of water so they excrete copious amounts of dilute urine and absorb
salts across the gills. As both marine and fresh – water fish regulate salt and water
between their internal and external environments they are known as
osmoregulators, meaning their internal environment differs to that of their external
environment.
Another group of fish called the osmoconformers maintain their internal fluids at
approximately the same concentration as their external environment.
Things to consider:
- What does describe mean?
- Underline key words
- Understand what the question is asking before you write an answer.
AUSTRALIAN ADAPTATION
PLANT
Banksia A range of banksias contain woody fruits. These woody fruits are
fire resistant enabling the banksia to survive tough dry seasons.
The fruit is not fleshy which also enables the banksia to reduce
water loss.
Hakeas The hakea has an unusual adaptation in that it has sunken
stomates. The stomates allow humid air to be concentrated above
the stomate in turn reducing water loss.
Baobab The baobab tree has a unique storage system. A baobab will store
a large proportion of its water in the trunk, and sometimes the
leaves. This allows conservation of water.
Eucalypt Eucalypts have a variety of adaptations one of them being
vertically hanging leaves. This allows the leaf to reduce its
exposure to the sun and hence reducing water loss.
Mulga The mulgas structure is unique as the stems and leaves are
shaped in such a way that water runs down their surface towards
the root of the plant, therefore optimising water consumption.
Things to consider:
- What does gather, process, analyse and compare mean?
- Be succinct
- Ensure you know what dialysis is.
Things to consider:
- What does present mean?
- What does outline mean?
- Underline key words?
- What is the question asking?
People who do not secrete or secrete insufficient amounts of the hormone aldosterone
usually suffer from the disease known as Addison’s disease. Addison’s disease is an
inability of the adrenal cortex to secrete sufficient amounts of hormone, in this case
aldosterone.
People who can not secrete aldosterone in sufficient amounts undergo hormone
replacement therapy. The purpose of this therapy is to replace the hormone
aldosterone. This is performed by the patient who takes a mineralocorticoid known as
fludrocortisones (Florinef) orally once a day. People who suffer from Addison’s disease
are also encouraged by their doctor to increase their salt intake.
If a patient has an Addisonian crisis, which can be life threatening, the patient is
administered with hydrocortisone injections, saline solution and dextrose. Usually the
patient recovers and is returned to their usual therapy which is fludrocortisones
tablets.
Therefore it is important for patients who suffer from aldosterone secretion
inefficiency to partake in hormone replacement therapy.
Analyse information from secondary sources to compare and explain the differences
in urine concentration of terrestrial mammals, marine fish and freshwater fish.
Things to consider:
- What does analyse mean?
- What does compare and explain mean?
- What would be a good way to present this information?
Things to consider:
- What does explain mean?
- Underline key words?
- Be succinct. Understand what the question is asking so that you can answer the
question correctly
Things to consider:
- What does process mean?
- What does analyse mean?
- What does discuss mean?
- Read and re-read the question until you understand what the question is asking.
Mangroves play an important role in the life of an estuary. The majority of Australian
waters contain mangroves. These mangroves are well adapted to survive within their
ecosystem. This is due to many ingenious adaptations which enable the different
species of mangroves to cope with varying salt and oxygen levels. All mangroves have
adapted for the lack of oxygen within the soil. You may have seen the small protruding
stumps that surround mangroves. These are called pneumatophores and their role is
to absorb oxygen from the air. Mangroves in general have also adapted to the range in
salt levels within their environment. The following are some different species of
mangroves and their processes used for salt regulation:
The Grey Mangrove: The Grey mangrove (Avicennia marina) has special tissues in
their roots and lower stems which prevent the uptake of salt but increase the uptake
of water. This process is known as exclusion as the grey mangrove excludes the
uptake of salt.
The River Mangrove: The River mangrove (Aegiceras corniculatum) is able to
concentrate and excrete salt through special glands on the leaves. The salt then
begins to build up on the outside of the leaf where it washed off the leaf during
periods of rain. This process is known as secretion as the river mangrove secretes the
salt out of their leaves.
The Milky Mangrove: The Milky mangrove (Excoecaria) accumulates salt in older
tissues such as leaves, which is then discarded. This process of salt regulation is
known as accumulation and it enables the Milky mangrove to accumulate large
amounts of salts and then discard the large amounts of salts therefore maintaining a
healthy level of salt.
Things to consider:
- What does perform mean?
- What does gather mean?
- Ensure you draw/outline the structures in plants that assist in the conservation
of water.