1.

Successful aquaculture depends on providing animal with a satisfactory environment in

which to grow.  Good initial condition for aquaculture can be assured by a selecting a
site with suitable soil and a high quality water supply. Soil is a key factor in aquaculture.
Most of the pond is built from in a soil.  Many dissolved and suspended substances are
derived from contact with soil.  Pond soil are store house for many substance that
accumulate in the pond ecosystem and chemical and biological process occurring in the
surface layer of pond soil influences water quality and aquaculture.  Hence an
understanding of soil properties and process in soil can be useful in pond aquaculture.
2. 3. POND SOIL  Material composing the bottom of streams, lake and ponds are known
as sediment, mud or soil.  The pond bottom is originally made of terrestrial soil and
when the pond is filled with water the bottom becomes wet.  Mixture of solid materials
and with water is called ‘ ‘mud ’ ’.  Solids settle from the pond water and cover the pond
bottom is ‘ ‘sediment ’ ’
3. 4. CONT…  Basic function of pond soil is an embankment that impound water and
forms barrier to seepage so that pond will hold the water.  Substances continually settle
from pond water into the pond bottom.  For example - suspended solid, particles of soil
and organic matter that eroded from pond bottom and insides of levees by water current
and wave action, manure and uneaten feed from management inputs and remains of
plants and animals produced with in the pond.  Substances also enter from solid phase
of soil from the aqueous phase through ion exchange, adsorption and precipitation.  For
example - potassium can be exchanged for other cation on the soil, phosphorus can be
adsorbed by soil and CaCO3 may precipitate from solution and become a part of the
bottom soil matrix.
4. 5. CONT…  Organic matter deposited on the pond bottom is decomposed to inorganic
carbon and released to the water as carbon dioxide.  Nitrogen compound may be
denitrified by pond soil microorganism and lost to the atmosphere as nitrogen gas. 
Microbial decomposition is extremely important because organic matter is oxidized to
CO2 and ammonia and other nutrient element is released.  Carbon dioxide and
ammonia are highly soluble and quickly enter the water.
5. 6. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL 1. Soil Texture 2. Soil Structure 3. Soil Colour 4.
Soil Porosity 5. Soil Colloids
6. 7. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL 1. Soil pH 2. Organic Matter 3. Calcium
Carbonate 4. Soil Salinity 5. Redox Potential 6. C:N Ratio 7. Nutrients Status
7. 8. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER 1. Water Temperature 2. Turbidity 3. Water
Colour 4. Light penetration
8. 9. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER 1. Dissolved Oxygen 2. Carbon Dioxide 3. pH
4. Alkalinity 5. Hardness 6. Salinity 7. Hydrogen Sulphide 8. Redox Potential 9. Ammonia
9. 10. REALATIONSHIP OF THE DIFFERENT PARAMETER
10. 11. SOME IMPORTANT REACTION AND PROCESSES CONTROLLING POND- SOIL-
WATER INTERACTION  Dissociation: CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O Ca2+ + 2HCO3 - 
Precipitation: Al3+ + H2PO4 + 2H2O Al(OH)2H2PO4 +2H+  Hydrolysis: Al3+ + 3H2O
Al(OH)3 + 3H+  Neutralization: HCO3 - + H+ H2O + CO2  Oxidation: NH4 + + 2O2
NO3 - +2H+ + H2O  Reduction: SO4 2+ + 4H2 S2- +4H2 O  Complex Formation: Cu2+
+ CO3 2- CuCO3
11. 12. CONT…  Adsorption: Adsorption of phosphorus on soil colloids.  Cation Exchange:
K (Soil) K+ (Water)  Hydration: Al2O3 + 3H2O Al2O3.3H2O  Sedimentation: Soil
particles in runoff settle to pond bottom.  Decomposition: Microorganisms break down
soil organic matter. CH2O + O2 CO2 + H2O  Photosynthesis: Benthic algae produce
organic matter release oxygen. 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H6O6 + 6O2  Diffusion : Oxygen
diffuses into bottom soil from water above.  Seepage: Water carrying dissolved
substance seeps downward into the pond soil.  Erosion: Water current in pond erode
the bottom soil.  Suspension: Particulate matter eroded from the bottom is suspended in
pond water.
13. OPTIMUM LEVEL OF PHYSICO CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILAND WATER S. No.
Properties Optimum level/Type Measurement technique 1. Soil Texture Clay loam soil
By visual observation/Glassware 2. Soil p H 7 and a little above pH paper/meter 3. Soil
organic matter 1.5-2.5% Gaudette et al. Method 4. Free calcium carbonate 2 - 5% - 5.
Soil C:N ratio 10:1 to 15:1 - 6. Nutrient status 8:4:2 (N:P:K) Spectrophotometer/
Calorimeter/ kits 7. Water temperature 24 -30OC Thermometer 8. Turbidity 30 -40cm
transparency Secchi disc 9. Water colour Light or bright green
Spectrophotometer/visual observation 10. Dissolved oxygen 5.0mg/litre Wrinklers
methods/ Multiparameter analyser kit 11. Carbon dioxide Below 5.0ppm Titrime tric
method/kits 12. pH 7.5 – 8.5 pH paper/meter 13. Total alkalinity 75 -300mg/litre
Titrimetric method/kits 14. Total hardness 60mg/litre Titrimetric method/kits 15.
Salinity Depends on water body and species Refractometer 16. Hydrogen sulphide Nil
Spectrophotometer/ Calorimeter/ kits 17. Ammonia 0.02 -0.05mg/litre
Spectrophotometer/ Calorimeter/ kits
12. 14. Water quality analysis by using kit Water quality analysis by titration method pH
analysis by strip Analysis of organic carbonAnalysis of soil textureGrinding of soil
WATER & SOIL QUALITY PARAMETER ANALYSIS

Soil-water-contaminant interaction

Under normal conditions, water molecules are strongly adsorbed on soil particle surface.
Unbalanced force fields are generated at the interface of soil-water which increases soil-water
interaction. When particles are finer, magnitude of these forces are larger than weight of these
particles. This is mainly attributed to low weight and high surface area of fine particles. Before
discussing the concepts of soil-water interaction, a brief discussion is given on forces between soil
solids.
Forces between soil solids
There are essentially two type of bonding: (1) Electrostatic or primary valence bond and
(2) Secondary valence bond. Atoms bonding to atoms forming molecules are termed as primary
valence bond. These are intra-molecular bonds. When atoms in one molecule bond to atoms in
another molecule (intermolecular bond), secondary valence bonds are formed. What is more
important in terms of soil solids is the secondary valence bonds. van der Waals force and hydrogen
bonds are the two important secondary valence forces. Secondary valence force existing between
molecules is attributed to electrical moments in the individual molecules. When the centre of action
of positive charge coincide with negative charge, there is no dipole or electric moment for the
system and is termed as non-polar. However, for a neutral molecule there can be cases where the
centre of action of positive and negative charge does not coincide, resulting in an electric or dipole
moment. The system is then termed as polar. For example: water is dipole. Also, unsymmetrical
distribution of electrons in silicate crystals makes it polar. Non-polar molecules can become polar
when placed in an electric field due to slight displacement of electrons and nuclei. This is induced
effect and the extent to which this effect occurs in molecule determines its polarisability.
van der Waals force is the force of attraction between all atoms and molecules of matter.
This force comes into effect when the particles are sufficiently close to each other. Hydrogen bond
is formed when a hydrogen atom is strongly attracted by two other atoms, for example: water
molecules. This bond is stronger than van der Waals force of attraction and cannot be broken
under stresses that are normally experienced in soil mechanics. These secondary valence bonds
play a vital role in understanding soil-water interactions. Essentially, the forces dealt in soil
mechanics may be grouped as gravitational forces and surface forces. From classical soil mechanics
perspective, gravitational forces which are proportional to mass are more important. However, in
geoenvironmental engineering surface forces are important. Surface forces are classified as
attractive and repulsive forces. Attractive forces include (a) Van der Waals London forces (b)
hydrogen bond (c) cation linkage (d) dipole cation linkage (e) water dipole linkage and (f) ionic
bond. van der Waals London force is the most important in soils and becomes active when soil
particles are sufficiently close to each other. For example, fine soil particles adhere to each other
when dry. Cation linkage acts between two negatively charged particles as in the case of illite
mineral structure. Other types of forces are less important and will not be explained in this section.
Repulsive forces include like charge particle repulsion and cation-cation repulsion.

2.2.1 Soil-water interaction

Water present in pore spaces of soil is termed as soil water or pore water. The quantity of
water present in the pores will significantly influence its physical, chemical and engineering
properties. It can be classified as (a) free water or gravitational water and (b) held water or
environmental water. As the name suggests, free water flows freely under gravity under some
hydraulic gradient and are free from the surface forces exerted by the soil particle. This water can
be removed by laboratory oven drying procedure. Environmental water is held under the influence
of surface forces such as electrochemical forces or other physical forces. Both type of water are
important in geoenvironmental engineering. There are many cases like seepage and infiltration
problems whose solution necessitates the knowledge of free water. However, these concepts are
discussed in detail in classical soil mechanics text books. At the same time, there are several
phenomena, which will be discussed in detail in this course, where the understanding of held water
becomes essential. The mechanism of soil-held water interaction is complex and influenced by soil
type, mineralogy, current and past environmental conditions, stress history etc.
Held water can be further subdivided into structural water, adsorbed water and capillary
water. Structural water is present within the crystal structure of mineral. This water is not very
important as far engineering property of soil is concerned. For finding solution to several problems
in geoenvironmental engineering, it is essential to understand in detail adsorbed water and
capillary water.
Adsorbed water
Adsorbed water is strongly attracted to soil mineral surfaces especially clays. Dry soil mass
can adsorb water from atmosphere even at low relative humidity and it is known by the name
hygroscopic water content. For the same soil, hygroscopic water content will vary depending on
relative humidity and temperature. Adsorptive forces between soil and water is polar bond and
depends on specific surface area of soil. Adsorbed water or bound water behaves differently from
the normal pore water. It is immobile to normal hydrodynamic forces and its density, freezing
point etc. are different from free water.
Possible mechanisms for water adsorption (Low 1961)
a) Hydrogen bond and dipole attraction: Soil minerals are essentially made up of oxygen or
hydroxyls, facilitating easy formation of hydrogen bonds. Surface oxygen can attract positive
corner of water molecules (H+) and H+ present in OH- can attract negative corner (O-2) of water
molecules as depicted in Fig. 2.6.

Fig. 2.6 Water adsorption by hydrogen bond in soil minerals

b) Hydration of cations: Every charged soil surface has affinity towards ions, specifically cations.
These cations get hydrated by water dipole due to the formation of hydrogen bond as shown in
Fig. 2.7. Therefore, cations present in the soil would contribute to the adsorbed water. In dry
clays, these cations occupy in the porous space of clay mineral. During hydration, these cations
engulfs with water molecules and move towards centre space between two clay particles. The
discussion on hydration of cations is very vast and its significance will be dealt in detail, after this
section.

Fig. 2.7 Water adsorption by ion hydration

b) Osmosis: Concentration of cations increases with proximity to clay surface. The relatively high
concentration would induce osmotic flow of water to neutralize the high concentration of cations.
Such an osmotic phenomenon is true in the case of clays which act as semi-permeable membranes
(Fritz and Marine 1983).
c) Attraction by Van der Waals-London forces causes attraction of water molecules towards clay
surface.
d) Capillary condensation: A range of pore size is possible in soils due to the different particle size
distribution and packing density. For saturation less than 100 percent, water and water vapour
can get retained in soil pores by capillary forces and attraction to particle surfaces.

Properties of adsorbed water

Several studies have been conducted to understand structural, chemical, thermodynamic
and mechanical properties of soil water by using different techniques such as X-ray diffraction,
density measurements, dielectric measurement, nuclear magnetic resonance etc.
Density: At low water content, less than that needed to form three layers on clay surfaces, the
density of adsorbed water is greater than that for normal water. For higher water content the
density variation with reference to free water is less.
Viscosity: There is not much difference in viscosity between adsorbed and free water. This is a
very important observation relative to analysis of seepage, consolidation etc. for unsaturated soils.

Dielectric constant: Dielectric property of a material depends on the ease with which the molecules
in the material can be polarized. It is observed that dielectric constant of adsorbed water is less
(50) as against 80 for free water.
Freezing of adsorbed water: Adsorbed water exhibit freezing point depression as compared to free
water. This is mostly attributed to the less molecular order of adsorbed water as compared to free
water.
Other properties: Energy is released when water is adsorbed by clay surface. There is a time-
dependent increase in moisture tension of water after mechanical disturbance of at-rest structure
of clay-water. The thermodynamic, hydrodynamic and spectroscopic properties of adsorbed water
vary exponentially with distance from particle surface. The surface interaction effect is evident to
a distance of 10 nm from the surface. This corresponds to around 800 percent water content in
smectite and 15 percent in kaolinite (Mitchell and Soga 2005).

Cation exchange capacity

From previous discussion, it is clear that clay surface adsorbs specific amount and type of
cations under a given environmental conditions such as temperature, pressure, pH and pore water
chemistry. The adsorbed cations can get partly or fully replaced by ions of another type subject to
changes in the environmental condition. Such changes can alter the physico-chemical
characteristics of soil. The most common cations present in the soil are sodium, potassium, calcium
and magnesium. Marine clays and saline soils contain sodium as the dominant adsorbed cation.
Acidic soils contain Al+3 and H+. The most common anions are sulphate, chloride, phosphate and
nitrate.
Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is defined as the sum of exchangeable cations soil can
adsorb per 100 g of dry soil. Its unit is meq./100 g and normally its value ranges between 1 and
150 meq./100 g. The value represents the amount of exchangeable cations that can be replaced
easily by another incoming cation. The replaceability of cations depends on valency, relative
abundance of different ion type and ion size. All other factors remaining same, trivalent cations
are held more tightly than divalent and univalent ions. A small ion tends to replace large ions. It
is also possible to replace a high replacing power cation by one of low replacing power due to the
high concentration of latter in the pore solution. For example: Al+3 can be replaced by Na+ due to
its abundance. A typical replaceability series is given as follows: (Mitchell and Soga 2005)
Na+ < Li+ < K+ < Cs+ < Mg+2 < Ca+2 < Cu+2 < Al+3 < Fe+3
In kaolinite, the exchange reaction takes place quickly. In illite, a small part of the exchange sites
may be between unit layers of minerals and hence would take more time. In smectite minerals,
much longer time is required because the major part of exchange capacity is located in the
interlayer region.
For a pore solution containing both monovalent and divalent cations, the ratio of divalent
to monovalent cations is much higher in adsorbed layer than in the equilibrium solution. If M and
N represent monovalent cation concentrations, P the concentration of divalent ions, subscript s
and e represent adsorbed ions on soil and that in equilibrium solution, respectively, then

2.17

2.18

where k1 and k2 are selectivity constants, which can be obtained experimentally. Following, Eq.
2.18 it can be further written as

2.19
The concentration of cation is in milliequivalents per litre. The quantity is
termed as sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) in (meq./litre)1/2. If the composition of pore fluid and k is
known, the relative amounts of single and divalent cations in the adsorbed cation complex can be
determined. The details of selectivity constants for a wide variety of clays are reported by
Bruggenwert and Kamphorst (1979).

Sodium present in the adsorbed layer is normalized with respect to total exchange capacity as
represented by Eq. 2.20 and is termed as exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP).

ESP = ((Na+)s / (total exchange capacity)) X 100 2.20

ESP and SAR are considered to be a reliable indicator of clay stability against breakdown and
particle dispersion especially for non-marine clays (Mitchell and Soga 2005). Clays with ESP > 2
percent is considered as dispersive.
Other quantitative attributes of cation exchange in soils is the property known as “the
percentage base saturation” (Eq. 2.21), which denotes the measure of the proportion of
exchangeable base on the soil exchange complex.

2.21

Factors influencing CEC of the soil

a. pH of the soil
It is observed that CEC of the soil increases with an increase in pH. Therefore, it is
recommended to maintain a neutral pH (= 7.0) for determining CEC of the soil.
b. Presence of organic matter
The presence of organic carbon in clays reduces its CEC (Syers et al., 1970). However,
some studies report an increase in CEC with increasing organic matter contents and this effect
was more pronounced in coarser fractions.
c. Temperature
The ion exchange capacity decreases with an increase in temperature.
d. Particle size
It is observed that CEC increase with decreasing particle.
e. Calcium carbonate contents (CaCO3)
Higher amount of CaCO3 in soil leads to higher CEC.
f. Mineralogy
Active clay minerals increase CEC of the soil.
Determination of CEC by Ammonium replacement method
Horneck et al. (1989) have proposed a method for determining the CEC of soils by using
ammonium replacement technique. This method involves saturation of the cation exchange sites
on the soil surface with ammonium, equilibration, and removal of excess ammonium with ethanol,
replacement and leaching of exchangeable ammonium with protons from HCl acid. It must be
noted that this method is less suited for soils containing carbonates, vermiculite, gypsum and
zeolite minerals. The procedure is discussed as follows:
1. Take about 10 g of soil, in 125 ml flask, add 50 ml of ammonium acetate solution and place the
flask in reciprocating shaker for 30 min. The shaking process is repeated with blank solution as
well.
2. 1 liter vacuum extraction flask is connected to a funnel with Whatman no.5 filter paper. The soil
sample is then transferred to the funnel and leached with 175 ml of 1 N ammonium acetate. The
leached solution is analyzed for extractable K, Ca, Mg, and Na.
3. The soil sample in the funnel is further leached with ethanol and the leachate is discarded.
4. Transfer the soil to a 500 ml suction flask and leach the soil sample with 225 ml of 0.1N HCl to
replace the exchangeable ammonium. Make up the leachate to a final volume of 250 ml in a
standard flask using deionized water.
5. The concentration of ammonium in the final leachate is measured, and CEC is calculated using Eq.
2.22.

2.22

IS code (IS 2720, Part 24 1976) and USEPA (EPA SW-846) also provide alternate methods for
determining CEC of the soil. The range of CEC values for different soil minerals are listed in Table
2.3 (Carroll 1959). It can be noted that highly active soil minerals such as montmorillonite and
vermiculite exhibit high CEC. Therefore, CEC is important in assessing the chemical properties of
the soil in terms of its reactivity, contaminant retention mechanism etc.

Table 2.3 CEC values of common soil minerals

Mineral CEC (meq./100g) at pH 7
Kaolinite 3-15
Illite 10-40
Montmorillonite 70-100
Vermiculite 100-150
Halloysite 2H2O 5-10
Halloysite 4H2O 40-50
Chlorite 10-40
Allophane 60-70

oil and Water Relationships

By Jeff Ball

Posted Sep. 1, 2001

Soil moisture limits forage production potential the most in semiarid regions. Estimated water use
efficiency for irrigated and dry-land crop production systems is 50 percent, and available soil
water has a large impact on management decisions producers make throughout the year. Soil
moisture available for plant growth makes up approximately 0.01 percent of the world's stored
water.

By understanding a little about the soil's physical properties and its relationship to soil moisture,
you can make better soil-management decisions. Soil texture and structure greatly influence
water infiltration, permeability, and water-holding capacity.

Soil texture refers to the composition of the soil in terms of the proportion of small, medium, and
large particles (clay, silt, and sand, respectively) in a specific soil mass. For example, a coarse
soil is a sand or loamy sand, a medium soil is a loam, silt loam, or silt, and a fine soil is a sandy
clay, silty clay, or clay.

Soil structure refers to the arrangement of soil particles (sand, silt, and clay) into stable units
called aggregates, which give soil its structure. Aggregates can be loose and friable, or they can
form distinct, uniform patterns. For example, granular structure is loose and friable, blocky
structure is six-sided and can have angled or rounded sides, and platelike structure is layered
and may indicate compaction problems.

Soil porosity refers to the space between soil particles, which consists of various amounts of
water and air. Porosity depends on both soil texture and structure. For example, a fine soil has
smaller but more numerous pores than a coarse soil. A coarse soil has bigger particles than a
fine soil, but it has less porosity, or overall pore space. Water can be held tighter in small pores
than in large ones, so fine soils can hold more water than coarse soils

Water infiltration is the movement of water from the soil surface into the soil profile. Soil texture,
soil structure, and slope have the largest impact on infiltration rate. Water moves by gravity into
the open pore spaces in the soil, and the size of the soil particles and their spacing determines
how much water can flow in. Wide pore spacing at the soil surface increases the rate of water
infiltration, so coarse soils have a higher infiltration rate than fine soils.

Permeability refers to the movement of air and water through the soil, which is important because
it affects the supply of root-zone air, moisture, and nutrients available for plant uptake. A soil's
permeability is determined by the relative rate of moisture and air movement through the most
restrictive layer within the upper 40 inches of the effective root zone. Water and air rapidly
permeate coarse soils with granular subsoils, which tend to be loose when moist and don't
restrict water or air movement. Slow permeability is characteristic of a moderately fine subsoil
with angular to subangular blocky structure. It is firm when moist and hard when dry.
Water-holding capacity is controlled primarily by soil texture and organic matter. Soils with
smaller particles (silt and clay) have a larger surface area than those with larger sand particles,
and a large surface area allows a soil to hold more water. In other words, a soil with a high
percentage of silt and clay particles, which describes fine soil, has a higher water-holding
capacity. The table illustrates water-holding-capacity differences as influenced by texture.
Organic matter percentage also influences water-holding capacity. As the percentage increases,
the water-holding capacity increases because of the affinity organic matter has for water.

Water availability is illustrated in the figure by water levels in three different soil types. Excess or
gravitational water drains quickly from the soil after a heavy rain because of gravitational forces
(saturation point to field capacity). Plants may use small amounts of this water before it moves
out of the root zone. Available water is retained in the soil after the excess has drained (field
capacity to wilting point). This water is the most important for crop or forage production. Plants
can use approximately 50 percent of it without exhibiting stress, but if less than 50 percent is
available, drought stress can result. Unavailable water is soil moisture that is held so tightly by
the soil that it cannot be extracted by the plant. Water remains in the soil even below plants'
wilting point.

One can see from the table that soil texture greatly influences water availability. The sandy soil
can quickly be recharged with soil moisture but is unable to hold as much water as the soils with
heavier textures. As texture becomes heavier, the wilting point increases because fine soils with
narrow pore spacing hold water more tightly than soils with wide pore spacing.

Soil is a valuable resource that supports plant life, and water is an essential component of this
system. Management decisions concerning types of crops to plant, plant populations, irrigation
scheduling, and the amount of nitrogen fertilizer to apply depend on the amount of moisture that
is available to the crop throughout the growing season. By understanding some physical
 characteristics of the soil, you can better define the strengths and weaknesses of different soil
types.

The table and figures were originally published by the Institute of Agriculture and Natural
Resources at the University of Nebraska - Lincoln.
TAGS:

 soil texture
 nitrogen
 fertilizer
 water
 soils
 clay
 silt
 sand
 soil mass
 soil particles
 soil porosity
 soil strucutre
 soil moisture
 forage production
 permeability
 water-holding capacity
 water infiltration
 water availability

WATER AND SOIL QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN PONDS AND OTHER MARICULTURE

FACILITIES

2 Water properties and environmental parameters -affect the choice of an aquaculture site and
the cultured species Reverse effect of Fish culture -oxygen consumption and metabolic
byproducts such as ammonia and carbon dioxide- Water quality standards for aquaculture are
presented in the following table-

3 PARAMETERCONCENTRATION (mg/L except for pH) Alkalinity100-400 Ammonia

(NH3)<0.02 Ammonia (TAN)<1.0 Calcium4-160 Carbon dioxide0-10 Dissolved oxygen5 to
saturation Hardness, Total10-400 Hydrogen sulfide<0.003 Iron<0.01 Magnesium<15
Manganese<0.01 Nitrogen gas<110% total gas pressure <103% as nitrogen gas Nitrite<0.1
Nitrate0-3 PCB’s<0.002 pH6.5-8.0 Potassium<5 Salinity15-35 ppt. Total suspended solids<80
Zinc<0.005

4 Temperature: Has greatest effect on fish - poikilotherms Temperature also affects oxygen
solubility and causes interactions of several other water quality parameters Also influence
physiological processes such as respiration rate, efficiency of feeding and assimilation, growth,
behaviour and reproduction A temperature increase of 10°C will generally cause rate of chemical
and biological reactions to double or triple

5 Because of this dissolved oxygen requirements are more critical in warm water than in cold
water Optimum temperature varies with the species Within a species’ tolerable limits growth will
increase with increasing temperature Fish -healthiest - optimum temperature
6 Salinity Salinity - measure of the concentration of dissolved ions in water expressed as parts
per thousand (ppt) Seawater salinity - 33 to 37 ppt with an average of about 34 Estuarine and
brackish waters - from full strength seawater to about 3 ppt. The composition and concentration
of dissolved salts in the body fluids of fish and invertebrates must be maintained within fairly
narrow limits to buffer against changes that can cause physiological disruptions

7 Fish maintain homeostasis through osmoregulation which is influenced by salinity of water

Species tolerating wide rage of salinity - ‘Euryhaline’ Limited tolerance to salinity changes -
‘stenohaline’ Euryhaline species (Asian sea bass) can be cultured in a broad range of salinity
from fresh to seawater but stenohaline fish (cobia) can be cultured only in full strength seawater

8 Turbidity Turbidity -measure of light penetration in water It is produced by dissolved and

suspended substances such as clay particles, humic substances, plankton, coloured compounds
etc. Excessive turbidity can be troublesome in fish ponds and flow-through systems Turbidity by
plankton -desirable since it enhances fish production Turbidity due to clay and other colloidal
particles - undesirable since it can choke the gills of fish and shellfish; can also restrict the growth
of phytoplankton Water turbidity in ponds - measured with the Secchi disc

9 Is a round disk having a diameter of 30 cm The disk is divided into quadrants, two opposite
quadrants are painted white and the other two black The disc is attached to a rope or cable
marked in increments A measurement is taken by lowering the disk into water body until it just
disappears from sight The depth at which the disk disappears is the Secchi disc visibility usually
expressed in centimeters Optimum Secchi disc visibility in extensive and semi-intensive ponds is
25 to 40 cm

10 Chemical variables Dissolved oxygen: Dissolved oxygen - controls the metabolism of fish
and invertebrates Main source - dissolution from the atmosphere Phytoplankton and
macrophytes - through photosynthesis Increase in temperature and salinity reduce the saturation
point of DO in water Fish oxygen consumption rates - vary with water temperature, DO
concentration, fish size, level of activity, time after feeding and other factors

11 Small fish consume more oxygen per unit weight than larger fish of the same species
Oxygen consumption increases when fish are forced to exercise, and metabolic energy demands
can cause oxygen consumption to double from one to six hours after feeding Warm water
species tolerate lower DO concentration than cold water fish Warm water fish die after short term
exposure to less than 0.3 mg/L DO To support life for several hours, a minimum of 1.0 mg/L is
required, and 1.5 mg/L is required to support fish for several days Optimum DO levels should be
above 5.0 mg/L

12 Total alkalinity: Total alkalinity is the total amount of titratable bases in water expressed as
mg/L of equivalent calcium carbonate The principal ions contribute to alkalinity are carbonate and
bicarbonate and, to a lesser degree, hydroxides, ammonium, borate, silicates and phosphates
Alkalinity is a measure of pH buffering capacity or acid neutralizing capacity Natural seawaters
have a mean total alkalinity of about 116 mg/L Alkalinity below 30 mg/L is considered poorly
buffered against pH changes

13 pH: pH - indicator of hydrogen ion concentration in water The mean pH of ocean is about 8.3
and remains fairly constant because of the great buffering capacity of the oceans Carbon
dioxide: The main source of carbon dioxide to water is by respiration of organisms and biological
oxidation of organic matter Carbon dioxide is not particularly toxic to fish provided sufficient
dissolved oxygen is available A CO₂ concentration of 10-15 mg/L is recommended as maximum
for fish culture
14 Ammonia: Ammonia exists in water in two states - ionized ammonia, also called the
ammonium ion (NH4+) and un-ionized ammonia (NH3) The sum of two is called total ammonia
or simply ammonia The toxicity of total ammonia depends on what fraction of the total is in the
un- ionized form, since this form is by far the more toxic of the two Which fraction dominates
depends on the pH, temperature and salinity of water; out of this water pH has the strongest
influence At higher pH un-ionized ammonia dominates and hence more toxic A maximum
concentration of 0.01mg/L is recommended for marine fish

15 Nitrite: Nitrite -toxic to fish Nitrite levels in fish ponds typically range from 0.05 to 5 mg/L,
probably due to reduction of nitrate under anaerobic conditions The toxicity of nitrite is due to its
effect on oxygen transport and tissue damage Fish deaths increase when low dissolved oxygen
is coupled with higher nitrite concentrations DO levels should be higher than 6 mg/L when fish
are affected by nitrite toxicity At higher levels of chloride the toxicity of nitrite is reduced. Hence
nitrite toxicity in seawater is not as serious as in freshwater systems.

16 Nitrate: Nitrates are the least toxic of the inorganic nitrogenous compounds Nitrates are
more of a problem in recirculatory systems and the problem is controlled with daily water
exchanges Hydrogen sulphide: Hydrogen sulphide is generated by certain heterotrophic bacteria
under anaerobic conditions The distribution of hydrogen sulphide and other sulphur species is
regulated by water pH The un-ionized form accounts for about 99% of the total sulphide As the
value of pH rises, the percent of hydrogen sulphide decreases Un-ionized hydrogen sulphide is
toxic to fish and invertebrates at low concentrations. Therefore, detectable concentrations should
be considered as hazardous