See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/303805699

Implementing Clean Coal Technology in India

Chapter · January 2010

CITATION READS

1 1,479

1 author:

Malti Goel
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
57 PUBLICATIONS   351 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Malti Goel on 05 June 2016.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 13 Implementing Clean Coal
Technology in India
Barriers and Prospects
Malti Goel

Introduction
It is not use of coal, but how coal is used that must be the focus Table 13.1 Coal Production and its Share in
of action. Total Electricity for Selected Countries
—World Coal Institute Country Coal production Share of coal in electricity
in 2006 (Mt) generated in 2007
Coal as a fuel meets 29 per cent of the global primary (in per cent)
energy needs and 39 per cent of the global electricity PR China 2380.0 81
requirements. The total global coal resource is estimated USA 1053.6 49
to be 11,000 billion tonnes (Bt) and the extractable India 447.3 68
reserve at 909 Bt is less than 10 per cent. In 1992, about Australia 373.2 76
2,000 million tonnes (Mt) of coal was used for 850 GW
Russia 309.8 70
of electricity production worldwide. Total coal and lignite
South Africa 256.9 94
production in 2007 rose to 6,475 Mt. Coal productions in
select countries and share of coal in electricity generation Germany 197.2 49
are shown in Table 13.1. Evidently, coal is a key fuel option Poland 156.1 93
to overcome energy shortages in the foreseeable future. Source: World Coal Institute (2008).
As world’s third largest producer of coal, India has a
share of about 8 per cent of the global coal reserves.1 The total coal-bearing area is estimated to be 16,000 sq km,
resources, however, are much less, at about 2.5 per cent mostly in the south-eastern and north-eastern parts of the
of global resources. The coal inventory for India as on country. The lignite resource is 39 Bt with recoverable
January 2010, down to the depth of 1200 m is shown in reserves of 3.9 Bt. It is found mainly in Tamil Nadu, with
Figure 13.1. Total coal resources and recoverable reserves small quantities in Rajasthan, Kerala, Jammu & Kashmir,
are 270.9 Bt and 92.4 Bt respectively. Over 90 per cent Pondicherry, and Kutch regions of the north-west.
of proven reserves are available up to a depth of 600 m. Nearly 85 per cent of coal produced in India is for elec-
The majority of these (almost 96 per cent) belong to tricity generation. Coal-based power generation capacity
the Permian category (Gondwana coal). The remaining at 81000 MW in 2009 constituted about 53 per cent
are in Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary categories. The of the total installed capacity at 153,000 MW and will

1
A reserve is that part of resources that is extractable with existing technology.

Figure 13.1 Coal Resources and Reserves in India
Source: State-wise Breakup of Indian Coal Resource.
continue to retain its dominant share in the decades
to come. Total coal requirement for 2024–5 has been
assessed as 1267 Mt with indigenous production of
1086 Mt. Coal use implies emission of high levels of
carbon dioxide, oxides of sulpur, and oxides of nitrogen,
as well as huge solid waste generation. One tonne of coal
combustion per day (equivalent to about 0.4 GW of in-
stalled electricity capacity) generates 0.9 tonne of carbon
dioxide. Inert matter is intermeshed with coal structure,
which is difficult to remove and gets converted into ash
during combustion.
Coal Energy in India
India has a vast energy infrastructure of coal, starting from
coal mining to extraction, and coal transport to coal utili-
zation in power plants.
Coal Extraction
Coal extraction deploys both underground and open-cast
mining techniques. Underground mining allows access to
deeper coal seams (up to 600 m depth). The techniques
Implementing Clean Coal Technology in India 209
widely used for underground mining are board and pillar,
arc’s wall shearer, shortwall and longwall face mining.
Hydraulic mining, shield mining, and blasting gallery
mining have also been tried for increasing coal production.
Other specialized techniques need to be pursued for im-
provement in productivity and conservation of resources.
Open-cast mining, on the other hand, is a technique for
mining at shallow depths of up to 150 m through removal
of overburden. Large-scale blasting and emulsion-based
composite explosives are used for breaking the ground.
Coal is extracted using a combination of scraper, dragline
and shovel dumpers. Open-cast mining consumes a
comparatively large surface area of the earth, leading to
increasing risk of land subsidence and land degradation.
The coal quality is also inferior. This aspect needs to
be addressed.
Coal Transport
Coal, a bulk commodity, is transported from the mine
to the place of its utilization using surface transportation
and is a high energy consuming process. Rail over road
210 India Infrastructure Report 2010
is the preferred mode of coal transport and constitutes a
significant part of coal delivery. It is said that transport-
ing the annual production of coal would require as many
numbers of rail wagons as required to encircle the earth
once. About 56 per cent of the country’s coal is trans-
ported by rail, 19 per cent by road, and 23 per cent by
other means.
Application of coal water slurry transported through
underground pipelines, wherever feasible, can reduce
the need for surface transportation infrastructure and
is also environmentally less onerous. Ways to minimize
long distance transport need to be look into. Global coal
movement depends on ships, and with growing coal
imports in India it is crucial that the existing port capacity
is expanded and infrastructure of Offshore Stockyard &
Berths (OSBs) created, for handling bulk cargo of up to
4 to 5 Mt at a time. Presently, of the 12 major ports in the
country, only Mundra can handle cape-size vessels.
Coal Power
In view of India’s rapid economic growth at 8–10 per cent,
the energy requirement to meet the basic needs of its peo-
ple is also growing. Power generation is majorly depend-
ent on coal. The projected growth in the use of fossil fuels
in 2031–2 (the installed capacity approaching 800 GW
as per the Integrated Energy Policy of India 2006) indi-
cates coal requirements for three different scenarios––coal
dominant, reference, and renewable dominant scenarios,
with coal demand in 2031–2 expected to grow up to
2.6 Bt, 2.0 Bt, and 1.6 Bt respectively.
Power generation is the major source of carbon emis-
sions, which accounted for about 38 per cent of total
GHG emissions in 2007. Emission from a power plant
depends on total generation, fuel consumption efficiency,
and fuel quality. Of the 200 thermal power plants of
different size and capacity about 40 per cent are older
than 20 years and would cause more pollution. Most
of the installed coal-based power plants up to 500 MW
are based on pulverized fired units. A few circulating
fluidized bed boilers using high sulphur lignite are also
being operated.
The clean coal technology is of the utmost importance
because: (i) coal is abundant and will remain a major
source of energy for future years, (ii) emission from coal-
based generation is a matter of serious concern. Thus,
clean coal research has begun to:
• Improve the quality of non-coking coal at the pre-
combustion stage for use in power generation by
value addition,
• Adopt new coal combustion and conversion technol-
ogy for improving efficiency of coal utilization, and
• Reduce carbon dioxide and other pollutant emissions
in the environment through Renovation and Moderni-
zation (R&M).
Clean Coal Technology for Power
Coal produced from mines is termed as run-of-mine
(ROM) coal. Coal usually occurs as large-size shales of
200 mm, found at up to 500 m depth and has mineral or
inorganic matter as extraneous and inherent impurities,
which needs to be removed. For commercial applications,
high grade coal is a preferred option, but it is generally low
grade coals that are available in large quantities. Hence,
technology advancements are taking place in the use of
low grade coals. Clean coal technologies are categorized
into: (i) Coal beneficiation, (ii) Coal combustion, (iii)
Coal conversion, and (iv) Post-combustion.
Coal Beneficiation Technology
Coal beneficiation enables value addition in coal, mainly
by reducing the percentage of ash generated on combus-
tion. Each type of coal has its own ‘washability’ criteria,
depending on the chemical composition of coal. Extrane-
ous impurities are easier to remove by mechanical means
as the specific gravity of coal is lower than the impurities,
so that upon washing, these impurities sink while the coal
floats on the water surface. However, a part of extrane-
ous impurities is intimately inter-meshed with ROM coal
and is difficult to remove only by mechanical means. It
requires chemical and biological methods of cleaning.
Therefore, both dry and wet coal beneficiation technolo-
gies have evolved. Coal is broken down into specified sizes
according to the washing technology applicable. Coarse
coal is handled by dry separation in air jigs or hydrau-
lic jigs, while cyclones and concentrators are used for
medium-size coal, and coal fines are separated by flotation
or agglomeration. By-products of the beneficiation proc-
ess are clean coal, middling, and rejects. In a dry cleaning
process, water and energy use is conserved. Techniques for
dry coal cleaning and coal particle size are provided in
Table 13.2.
In the case of coal containing heavy metal as intermeshed
impurities, only 7 to 8 per cent reduction in ash is possible
through conventional methods of beneficiation. Advanced
techniques of coal cleaning such as heavy media cyclone,
barrel-cum-cyclone, and vorsyl separator are customized
to suit such types of indigenous coal. In a wet process,
water or a dense medium like oil is used for preparing
finely meshed coal (Table 13.3). Higher efficiency can be
achieved by washing as compared to dry cleaning.
For difficult-to-wash coals, advanced coal beneficiation
technologies under development include enhanced gravity
 Implementing Clean Coal Technology in India 211

Table 13.2 Dry Coal Beneficiation

Dry Process Principle Particle Size
Photometric Ore Sorter Difference in light reflectance coal and mineral water 100–50 mm
Dry Shale Extractor Difference in specific gravity of coal and impurities 50–20 mm
Dry Separator by Dr Otto-gold It is also based on specific gravity principle and uses vibrating screens 35–15 mm
Radiometric Mass Determination cum It uses radioactive attenuation to determine different specific ~ 100 mm
Automatic Removal of Stone/Shale (RAMDARS) gravities for separation

Table 13.3 Wet Coal Beneficiation Processes

Wet Process Principle
Baum Jig Medium and coarse coal are layered by specific gravity with the help of water propelled through a fixed sieve.
Particle size (50–20 mm)
Batac Jig Improvement on Baum Jig, uses automatic controls and can be used for both coarse and fine coal washing
(20–0.5 mm).
Water Cyclone Cyclone washer uses a centrifugal force which can be up to 1000–2000 times greater than ‘g’.
Heavy Media Cyclone For imbedded impurities in coal, use of oil as heavy media in place of water. Particle size (13–0.5 mm).
Reduction in coal size gives better efficiency.
Spiral Concentrator Under the influence of centrifugal force, coal particles migrate to the outer rim of the spiral while denser
impurities go to the inner part and get discharged in two separate streams.
Vorsyl Separator Improvement on spiral concentrator with a vortex finder which prevents short-circuiting of the feed directly
into the overflow. More suited to fine coals of 3 mm to 0.15 mm in size.
Froth Flotation It relies on hydro-phobicity properties of coal and is suited for coal fines of <0.5 mm. Chemical reagents
are used to enhance recovery of coal. Coal has a naturally oily surface and when air bubbles are passed, coal
particles form bubbles and are buoyed to the surface as froth. The two main techniques are: mechanical cell
flotation and column flotation. Column flotation uses long columns with air sparger and allows extended
retention time in the cell for achieving higher efficiency.
Oleo Flotation Similar to froth flotation but uses high doses of specified oils such as diesel oil or tar oil. It requires very fine
mesh of coal 0.1 mm and is not suitable for low grade coals.
Oil Agglomeration Finer coal particles get agglomerated, forming large globules that become oil-coated coal particles and
coalesce. Globules are easier to separate while tailings remain in water as sludge.

separators, multi-stage density separators, and microbial
leaching.
In India, coal beneficiation has been a key infrastructure
issue between coal producers and coal users. The policy
guidelines restricting the use of unwashed coal in thermal
power plants situated more than 1,000 km away from
the mine site as well as those located in critical, sensitive,
and urban areas were introduced in 1997. Advanced coal
cleaning processes to suit the indigenous coal for power
generation have been developed. These are cost-effective
and can reduce the ash content by about 10 per cent
or more. Use of washed coal is expected to reduce CO2
emissions from 0.326 to 0.266 kg/kWh of electricity
generation, besides other benefits. Research has been
initiated and field trials were made for ROMJIG and
RAMDARS systems for cleaning and deshaling of coal
at the Bina and Yellandu mines, respectively. From a coal
handling plant producing 4.5 Mt coal per annum installed
at Bina, it was reported that for coal having up to 44 to
45 per cent ash, the ROMJIG can give 67 per cent yield
with ash content of 31.6 per cent. Field trials were initiated
to demonstrate the application of vorsyl separators for
recovery of clean coal from middling and rejects from
Dugda Coal Washery. Coal majors have targeted the use
of 100 per cent washed coal in thermal power generation
by 2017.
Coal Combustion Technology
Pulverized Coal (PC) firing is the oldest method of ther-
mal power generation. Hot flue gases are used to heat
water in a boiler. The steam produced is used to drive the
steam turbine. The waste heat from the turbine is allowed
to condense. It can use any type of coal and is relatively
insensitive to the quality of coal burnt. Until the twentieth
212 India Infrastructure Report 2010
century most thermal power generation around the world
was from direct combustion of coal in boilers. In India too,
most coal-based power generation with installed capacity
up to 500 MW is based on pulverized coal-fired units,
while some use gas turbines. Average gross efficiency of
generation from coal-based power plants is 30.5 per cent.
Efforts have been made to render coal combustion more
efficient and less polluting. Fluidized Bed Combustion
(FBC) uses a fluidized bed of fine coal particles suspended
in air. At high pressures solid coal behaves like a fluid and
allows rapid transfer of heat. The efficiency of the burning
process gets enhanced because the motion of coal brings a
constant supply of hot particles to the surface. The heat is
extracted and utilized in a conventional power generation
cycle. It works at lower temperatures than the Pulverized
Fuel (PF) process, and hence, reduces NOx emissions in
the atmosphere.
Two operating versions of FBC are Circulating Fluid-
ized Bed Combustion (CFBC) and Pressurized Fluidized
Bed Combustion (PFBC). In Circulating Fluidized Bed
Combustion coal particle size is reduced to 0.07–0.3 mm
and the fluidization velocity is kept at 5–10 m/sec, so that
the particles are ablated in the steam gas. Since the gasifier
is compact, higher heat release rate per unit area can be
achieved. The CFBC can utilize low grade coal with high
ash, or even lignite, and has been adopted in India. Pres-
surized Fluidized Bed Combustion uses crushed coal with
a limestone suspension as a sorbent (to absorb the sulphur
content in the coal). As air pressure inside the boiler is
increased to 16 to 20 bars at a temperature around 850°C,
the limestone sorbent captures the sulphur in the coal and
forms a dry paste, which gets collected at the bottom of
the boiler and can be removed. This technique is particu-
larly suitable for high sulphur coals.
Super-Critical combustion and Ultra-Super-Critical
combustion are thermo-dynamic cycles that improve
thermal efficiency of coal combustion. A steam cycle with
pressure above 226 bars and temperature above 537oC
is called supercritical. Ultra-super critical combustion
technology, operating at 357 bars/625oC, is also being
developed. It is expected to achieve 55 per cent efficiency
by 2020.
In India CFBC has been developed for high ash coals
having high heat value less than 3000 kcal/kg. The first
CFBC boiler of 175 t/h capacity was commissioned by
BHEL at Sinarmas Pulp and Paper (India) Ltd. in Pune.
It has proved to be a promising technique for increasing
efficiency of power generation, and its use in commercial
systems is growing rapidly. India has also embarked on
a major plan to introduce super-critical combustion
technologies. Nine super-critical coal pulverization units
of 660 MW, in addition to seven ultra mega-power plants
using super-critical technology, are in different stages
of construction.
Coal Conversion Technologies
The third category of clean coal infrastructure comprises
the technology of converting coal into gas through gasifi-
cation and into oil through liquefaction. Coal conversion
processes reduce pollution and increase efficiency, but
adds to infrastructure needs for coal suppliers/users.
Coal Gasification
Coal gasification is considered an important strategy
for low carbon energy development. The product of the
gasification process is a producer gas, which is a mixture of
carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and some methane. It can be
utilized in ways similar to natural gas in an environment-
friendly manner. Its calorific value (33.12 MJ/cu. m.) is
lower than natural gas (49.0 MJ/cu. m.). Gasification
reactors are designed to suit coal characteristics. Three
well-known configurations are the fixed bed, fluidized
bed, and entrained bed systems.
• Fixed Bed Gasifier reactor has different zones for each
operation such as drying, devolatilizing, gasification,
and combustion. Coal of 10–50mm size is fed from
the top and air or oxygen is blown through the fuel
bed. The crude gas leaves the gasifier from above. This
type of gasifier obviates the need for a heat exchanger,
has lower oxygen consumption, and has the lowest
energy requirement of all gasification processes. This
technology has been commercialized and about 200
fixed bed gasifiers are operating around the world. The
best-known name commercially is Lurgi Process or
British Gas Lurgi.
• Fluidized Bed Gasifier works on the counter-current
principle and allows coal particles to move vigorously.
It consists of a vertical cylindrical refractory lined vessel
with recycle cyclone. The temperature in the reactor
goes up to 850–1,050°C. It is a non-slagging gasifier
and has been tested with all types of coal and lignite,
and is found attractive for high ash coals as well as high
reactive coals. The chemical reaction in this gasifier
is accelerated by turbulent mixing and close contact.
There are no separate de-gasification and gasification
zones. Dust-laden gas leaves the reactor at the top, and
is cooled and purified before use.
• Entrained Bed Process is the third configuration. Finely
ground coal of 0.1 mm is entrained at high temperatures
of the order of 1,400 to 1,600°C. Coal gasifies instantly
and volatile matter in coal also contributes to the gas at

the reaction temperatures. The product gas has almost
80 per cent of the energy of the feed coal. The ash in
the coal melts and runs down the refractory-lined walls
of the gasifier as liquid slag in the water tank. Different
versions of entrained bed gasifiers have been developed
as Koppers-Totzek and five different versions of it are
Shell, Texaco, Dow, Prentflo, and Destec.
The first coal gasification test facility in India came
up when a 10 MW captive power plant used gas from
coal washery rejects by Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd.
(BHEL) at the TISCO Jamadova Colliery in 1987. A
number of trials have been made subsequently. Fertilizer
plants at Ramagundum and Talcher installed entrained
bed gasification technology for utilizing indigenous
coal for production of ammonia. However, these plants
have encountered some practical difficulties. From the
experience gained from operating and testing facilities,
two CFB gasifiers of 390 tonnes/(t/h)/capacity have been
installed successively at Gujarat Industries Power Co. Ltd.
for their Surat Lignite Power Plant (SLPP). The Neyveli
Lignite Corporation Ltd. has also installed a circulating
fluidized bed gasifier based on the Wrinkler process
to demonstrate the use of lignite. Coal India and Gas
Authority India Ltd. have jointly started work in 2010 to
set up a large surface coal gasification plant.
Coal Liquefaction
Coal liquefaction is possible by raising the hydrogen-to-
carbon ratio. It can be achieved either by direct conversion
or by indirect conversion of coal through the gasification
route. In the direct process hydrogen is dissolved in coal
in the presence of a catalyst and the process is known
as hydrogenation. In the indirect method, coal is first
gasified and the hydrogen produced during gasification
is converted to oil in a catalytic converter. This produces
hydrocarbons such as methanol, ethanol, and diesel oil
and methane-rich gas as by-products. The genesis of
the indirect process (called Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis)
took place as a result of the discovery by F. Fischer and
H. Tropsch in 1925.
The most important property of coal in order to predict
liquid yield from coal is the percentage of volatile material
in it. The ratio of liquid yield from coal varies between
35 and 45 per cent. One tonne of coal can produce about
one to three barrels of oil and 200 to1,000 cu.m. of gas.
Wide ranges of by-products are obtained in different lique-
faction processes. These can be used as chemical feedstock
or for industrial process heating. The biggest coal liquefac-
tion plant based on the Fischer–Tropsch synthesis is oper-
ated by South Africa Synthetic Ltd. at its Sasol Plant. It
Implementing Clean Coal Technology in India 213
has a production capacity of about 150 thousand barrels of
oil per day.
In India, laboratory-scale investigations on coal liq-
uefaction began in the 1950s at the Indian Institute of
Technology, Kharagpur, with the objective of developing
indigenous catalysts. In the Fischer–Tropch synthesis
‘syngas’ was first produced using fixed bed gasification
process at 800–900oC. A number of chemicals as cata-
lysts were tested, including zeolite supported iron catalyst
and resulted in the output of 4 litres of oil per day. Coal
liquefaction research has also been pursued in R&D
laboratories on a bench scale unit of 2 kg/h. Indian Oil
Corporation Ltd. at Duliajan, in Assam has put up a pilot
plant for conversion of low sulphur Assam coal to oil in
2005. Assam coal with its low ash content show better
liquefaction characteristics. A contract has been signed
recently with Coal India to set up a commercial-scale coal
liquefaction plant of 3.5 Mt per annum coal capacity.
Post-combustion Technology
Post-combustion technology is the fourth stage alternative
in which end-of-pipe pollutants such as SOx, NOx, and
CO2 are captured and removed from the atmosphere. Des-
ulphurization and de-NOx operations have been tested
in conventional power generation plants. Advanced clean
coal technologies (CCT) are also perspective greenhouse
gas mitigation technologies. These are discussed below.
The CO2 capture technologies are also discussed.
Perspective Clean Coal Technology
Advanced CCTs for substantive improvement in coal
combustion efficiencies, underground coal gasification,
methane extraction from coal bed and mines, and CO2
sequestration are to be pursued in mission mode. These
advanced CCTs are:
• Combined Cycle Technologies
• Underground Coal Gasification
• Coal Bed Methane
• Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
• Magneto Hydro Dynamics
• Advanced Combustion Technologies
• Carbon Capture and Storage
Combined Cycle Technologies
Co-generation in the power sector has been suggested as
means of reducing emissions of pollutants and achiev-
ing better energy output. Co-generation technologies
could be:
• A topping cycle, in which electricity is generated first
and waste heat utilized later.
214 India Infrastructure Report 2010

• A bottoming cycle, in which heat utilization is followed Pressurized Pulverized Coal-fired Combined Cycle (PPCC)
by electricity generation. uses pulverized coal firing in gas turbines. The gas is
• A combined cycle, which uses both topping and cleaned at very high temperatures of 1400–1600oC and
bottoming cycles for achieving maximum efficiency. a high pressure of 18 bar. The molten ash accumulates on
Examples of combined cycle power generation tech- the edge of the slagging chamber due to the centrifugal
niques are IGCC, IGHAT, and PPCC, etc. force. Low grade fuels, including biomass or lignite, or a
mixture of both, can be used to enable combined heat and
Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) has two power generation. In combined heat and power genera-
main components: (i) Coal gasifier system and (ii) Com- tion with a waste heat recovery system, the efficiency is
bined cycle power generation cycle, with gas turbine and expected to reach 46–47 per cent, along with reduction of
steam turbine for coal gas and steam, respectively. Coal is CO2, NOx, and SO2 by 10, 20, and 30 per cent respec-
gasified in the presence of oxygen/air under high pressure tively. The economics and efficiency of five main advanced
(30 bars) maintained above 1000oC. Synthetic or syngas clean coal technologies is depicted in Table 13.4.
comprising mainly of CO and H2 is produced, which
needs to be cooled and cleaned of impurities before it is Table 13.4 Expected Efficiency, Cost of Clean Coal
burnt in the gas turbine. The heat from the gasifier and Technologies, and Future Projections
hot gases is recovered in the heat recovery steam generator Technology Installed Efficiency in the Capital Cost in
and used to run the steam turbine in a combined cycle. Capacity year in per cent ECU /kW
Mineral matter in the coal is separated as slag from the in MW 2000 2030 2000 2030
bottom of the gasifier. The overall efficiency is high Ultra 650 44 49–52 1268 968
and pollution is less due to reduction in emission of Super-critical
NOx, SOx, and CO2. The first IGCC plant of 250 MW (USC-PF)
capacity using the shell gasification process came up in IGCC 760 46 50–53 1370 900
1994 in the Netherlands at Buggenum. So far 28 demon- IGHAT 400 40 44–46 1300 900
stration and pilot plants of capacity up to 300 MW have PFBC 550 43 44–46 1030 900
been installed worldwide and a few others using coal or
PPCC 40 46 50–52 1200 950
refinery residue are in the pipeline. Efforts to commercial-
ize IGCC are on.
In 1988, India became the first country in Asia to con- Underground Coal Gasification
struct a 6.2 MW IGCC demonstration plant. This closed Underground coal gasification (UCG) is in-situ gasification
loop combined cycle unit with air-blown fluidized-bed of coal/lignite deposits to produce clean energy in the
gasifier was put up by BHEL. It was unique in terms of form of gaseous fuel from unmineable, deep coal seams.
testing coal with up to 40 per cent ash at temperatures The UCG research began in Russia in 1931 based on the
of 960oC and 1050oC at 0.8 MPa in a fluidized bed principle of creation of a sustained burn-zone inside the
gasifier. These early studies are forming the basis of scale- coal bed and recovery of gas through injection of fluid to
up and a demonstration power plant of 125MW capacity create an artificial fracture. It requires creation of enough
is planned to be set up in the near future. Gujarat Sanghi permeability in the coal seams so that a stream of air could
Steam Works and Ahmedabad Electric Co., have also flow from one point to another, allowing combustion to
developed IGCC technology. take place. The coal is then ignited at either end to allow
for burn-zone growth in the upstream direction. Desirable
Integrated Gasification Humid Air Turbine (IGHAT) is drilling depths for UCG are in the range 100 to 600 m to
an advanced version of the IGCC technology. It uses a extract energy from coal seams that are too thick or too
humid air turbine and intercoolers on a multi-stage thin. The gas can be burned as fuel directly. The process
compressor, to produce low grade heat. Warm water is used of gas recovery is similar to oil or gas recovery from the
to humidify air in the turbine. The latent heat in the moist interior of the earth. Four major technical steps involved
air is released and provides increased mass flow, resulting in UCG recovery are:
in higher efficiency. The IGHAT cycle is proposed to
eliminate the steam turbine and utilize heat to warm water • Drilling a pair of vertical holes or breaking the ground
in various heat recovery sections. A combined process of with explosives
integrated gasification with humid air turbine increases • Linking boreholes by reverse combustion, horizontal
the net power output, thereby reducing emissions. drilling, or high power lasers

• Igniting coal seam using Controlled Refractory Injec-
tion Point (CRIP) technology
• Injecting gasifying fluids such as air, oxygen, or steam
for the recovery of coal gas.
Though technology- and cost-intensive, UCG has tre-
mendous economic significance; it does not require coal
beneficiation and there is no problem of ash disposal.
Through this method huge quantities of coal deposits
located at great depths, which cannot possibly be extracted
by conventional coal mining methods, can be utilized.
The technology has been pursued in several countries,
including India. In India prospects of development of
UCG technology are high, with total energy potential of
UCG estimated at 15,000 billion cu. m. of gas. Gujarat
coal and lignite deposits with an estimated resource of
63 billion tonnes, the South Karanpura coal fields, as
well as the lignite fields in Rajasthan appear suitable for
this from geological and hydrological survey data consid-
erations. Detailed physico-mechanical measurements and
borehole data have also been acquired for carrying out
feasibility studies at promising lignite sites.
Coal Bed Methane
Coal bed methane (CBM) is a process of recovering meth-
ane gas trapped inside the coal seam, as coal matures. The
gas is attached to coal at the molecular level and is not
a free gas. Almost all coal deposits contain methane in
some quantity, which is released when coal is extracted,
or even after the mine is abandoned or closed. During
underground coal mining, it is considered a serious hazard
as it may explode and cause fire. Five major geological
formations containing coal bed methane content are
shown in Table 13.5. Methane content can vary from
2 to 20 tonnes of coal. It is highest in Permo-carboniferous
coal deposits and minimum in Tertiary coals. World
coal bed methane extractable resources are assessed at
about 135 Terra cu. m.
Table 13.5 Methane Content in Different Coal Types
Geological Coal Category Methane content
in cu.m./tonne
Permo-carboniferous 20
Perminian (Gondwana) 8.5
Jurassic 5.5
Cretaceous 10.5
Tertiary 2.8
For CBM recovery, water in the coal bed must
be removed so as to reduce the pressure on methane
Implementing Clean Coal Technology in India 215
molecules. Different methods are adopted for extracting
methane. If a source is detected in an operational mine,
conventional techniques such as open hole, vertical jet
slot, hydraulic fracturing, and perforation type of drilling
at the coal seam depths, can be used for draining the gas
before the mining starts. In an abandoned mine, carbon
dioxide sequestration by pumping flue gas from a power
plant (containing CO2) into the coal seam under pressure
is being considered a possibility. The carbon dioxide
molecules get attached to coal and the trapped methane
molecule is released. Those mines graded as saturated
CBM reservoirs require better understanding of the
reservoir mechanism for a controlled drainage of gas, as
they may contain five times the amount of gas available
in an ordinary coal mine. With the advancement in the
technology of gas recovery from underground, CBM
mining is becoming feasible. Several coal basins are
currently being developed for CBM around the world.
Coal found in India mostly belongs to the Gondwana,
Cretaceous, and Tertiary deposits, which contain medium
level methane. Gondwana coal deposits may have 8.5
cu. m. of CBM per tonne of coal, while Tertiary deposits
of coal have 2.8 cu. m. per tonne. Coal India has offered
26 blocks for CBM exploration covering 13,600 sq. km.
of area with estimated CBM reserves of 1,374 billon
cu. m. The first CBM recovery was demonstrated in
2009 with the Great Eastern Energy Corporation Ltd.
(GEECL), an energy company signing contract for
commercial production from the Raniganj coalfields near
Burnpur. Recovery of coal mine methane (CMM) has
been attempted for producing 500 kW of power through
underground boreholes in Bharat Coking Coal Ltd.
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) technology uses
fuel cell, an electrochemical device that converts chemi-
cal energy directly to electrical energy. It derives its name
from the electrolyte used—a molten mixture of lithium
and potassium carbonates. The direct current (DC)
output of the fuel cell is converted to alternate current
(AC), through a DC-to-AC converter. The product of
coal gasification is used to generate electricity without
going through mechanical conversion. Overall efficiency is
expected to be of the order of 55 per cent. The waste heat
from the hot fuel cell gas stack exhaust can be recovered
in the bottoming cycle and used to produce additional
electricity. In this process CO2 emissions from coal use are
considerably reduced.
The first pressurized MCFC stack was successfully
tested in 1980 in Japan. IGFC of 100 kW was demon-
strated at the Kawageo Thermal Power Station in 1990s.
216 India Infrastructure Report 2010
The Kentucky Pioneer Energy project has subsequently
operated a 2 MW carbonate fuel cell in USA. Integrated
with an IGCC plant, IGMCFC is under development.
Research and development of 1 kW MCFC using coal gas
was also initiated in India.
Magneto-hydro-dynamic Power
In a magneto-hydro-dynamic (MHD) power system
exceedingly high temperatures are needed so that the fuel
gets ionized. In the presence of oxygen-enriched air, at
high temperatures of 2,000oC coal gas turns into plasma
gas and electrical energy is produced without using a
mechanical turbine. The construction of a generator
requires a long duct or channel with both side walls
made of metal. The bottom is made of an insulator. The
electrically conducting plasma gas fluid is passed through
a duct. A strong transverse magnetic field applied across
the duct, induces a magnetic field in the moving fluid.
According to Faraday’s law a moving conductor in a
magnetic field produces an electric current in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of motion. When the
electrical power density of the plasma gas is equal to
the maximum achievable power density, the efficiency
of the MHD generator becomes 50 per cent. Higher
efficiency can be obtained if the waste heat coming out of
the duct is further utilized to run a steam turbine.
The feasibility of a coal-based MHD generator has
been established. Cost-effective, high-strength magnets
capable of generating a high magnetic field are the prime
requirements for commercial deployment. The length of
the generator decreases as the magnetic field increases.
Three types of MHD generator cycles have been concep-
tualized: (i) open cycle, (ii) close cycle, and (iii) liquid
metal generator. Development of high temperature super-
conducting magnets and attainment of high temperatures
are some of the challenges which are being addressed.
MHD research facilities exist in Russia (then USSR), as
well as in many other countries, namely, USA, Germany,
Australia, Poland, China, Japan, the Netherlands, and
India. In India, an experimental 5 MW water-gas fired
open cycle generator was built in collaboration with USSR
at Tiruchirapally a few years ago at the Bhabha Atomic
Energy Research Centre jointly with other academic and
research institutions.
Advanced Combustion Technologies
In oxy-fuel technology coal combustion takes place in the
presence of 100 per cent oxygen. Combustion in pure
O2 results in CO2/H2O mixture in the flue gas with CO2
content up to 90 per cent. The CO2 can be sequestered
without stripping from the flue gas stream. A further
advantage revealed in pilot-scale tests is substantially
reduced NOx emissions. For coal-fired combustion, the
oxy-fuel technology was suggested in the1980s. However,
there are no full-scale plants using oxy-fuel combustion in
operation yet. The cost of producing oxygen for combustion
is high. Theoretical studies combined with laboratory and
pilot-scale studies (typically 30–100 MWe) have been
announced or are planned. With the introduction of
CO2 sequestration technology, oxy-fuel has become the
centre of renewed interest. In India BHEL proposes to
establish a pilot plant on oxy-fuel combustion. Sufficient
experience exists in the Indian industry on atmospheric or
circulating fluidized bed coal combustion processes to be
able to integrate these efforts towards oxy-fuel and make
it a business proposition.
Another promising development in coal combustion
that needs to be mentioned is Chemical Looping technol-
ogy. This has a fuel recycle option, while reducing the cost
of oxygen separation. Chemical Looping has two reactors;
a fuel reactor, where a metal oxide is reduced by reaction
with coal. Reduced metal oxide is circulated to an air
reactor where it is oxidized and regenerated. Exit gases
from the fuel reactor contain CO2 and H2O, from which
pure CO2 can be separated, while H2 is combusted. Flue
gas from the air reactor contains N2 and unreacted O2.
Tested on the laboratory scale, Chemical Looping in a
circulating fluidized bed combustion process (which has
already been tested on indigenous coal) appears to facili-
tate a better CO2 capture option as compared to IGCC.
However, this area needs further investigation.
Carbon Capture and
Storage Technology
CO2 Sequestration—Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)
technology is one of the emerging clean coal technolo-
gies to meet the global emission stabilization targets while
meeting the national energy needs. It involves capture of
CO2 in the atmosphere and its permanent fixation away
from the atmosphere. If the power plant and the storage
sites are not near each other, it will involve transport of
CO2 in liquid form over longer distances. Essentially,
the CCS has three main components, starting with
capture of CO2 in the atmosphere emitted from large
point sources; fixing it or transporting it to a possible
location where it can be safely stored; and finally process
of fixation.
Recent developments and progress made in CCS
technology are discussed below.

Carbon Capture
CO2 capture technology as an end-of-pipe solution
to power generation is based on chemical absorption,
membrane separation, physical adsorption, and cryo-
genic separation methods. Chemical absorption process
requires the use of chemical solvents. Mono-ethanolamine
(MEA), diethanolamine (DEA), mixed amines, and terti-
ary amines have been investigated. Notwithstanding the
regenerative capability of the solvent, the energy penalty
and additional equipment requirements for circulating
large volumes of liquid absorbents add significantly to the
cost, thus limiting applications of the process.
Physical processes are based on cryogenic cooling or
solid adsorbents. Solid adsorbents have better promise
as they reduce regeneration and recirculation costs and
increase binding capacity for CO2. The adsorption of
CO2 gas by use of molecular sieves (zeolites) is based
on significant intermolecular forces between gases and
surfaces of certain solid materials. Both Pressure Swing
Adsorption (PSA) and Temperature Swing Adsorption
(TSA) have been attempted; however, the efficacy of
the process depends on plant parameters with variation
in pressure in one case and temperature in other. These
early efforts are aimed at development of cost-effective
regenerative adsorbents and membrane materials.
CO2 Bio-Sequestration
Application of the flue-gas treatment using algae bio-
processes for the absorption of CO2 is a growing field of
research. Triangular air-lift bioreactors have been designed
as the most suited for algae growth. From the first series
of experimental data obtained for two different algal spe-
cies in a pilot-scale unit supplied with flue gases from a
small power plant, removal efficiency of CO2 was reported
as approximately 80 per cent. Preliminary cost analysis
suggested that micro algae biofixation from a 550 MW
coal-fired power plant could sequester 25 per cent of the
CO2 cost-effectively, if the value recovered from the har-
vested algae was priced at approximately $100 per tonne.
Design of a solar bioreactor has been proposed that uses
computational fluid dynamics. In this case scaling-up can
be done much more easily than using algae biofixation,
which requires thousands of acres of space to soak up the
CO2 from one coal plant.
Terrestrial Sequestration
The terrestrial biosphere is estimated to sequester large
amounts of carbon dioxide and is thought to be one of the
2
Yadava (2010).
Implementing Clean Coal Technology in India 217
most cost-effective means of reducing atmospheric levels
of CO2. Terrestrial storage would result in afforestation
and can also enhance crop productivity. Advance crop
species and cultivation practices could be designed to
increase the uptake of CO2 by terrestrial as well as coastal
ecosystems through enhanced rate of photosynthesis.
Studies are underway to optimize resource use with a
view to quantifying the impact of defined changes in land
use on carbon sequestration. Assessment of carbon pool
and sequestration in the soil and vegetation in the forest
ecosystems of Manipur and north-eastern India reveal that
soil carbon stock ranged from 27.73 to 48.03 tonnes of
carbon per hectare and emission of carbon dioxide from
the soils varied from 1.697 to 4.462 tonnes of CO2 per
hectare per year in different forest ecosystems. The carbon
stock in the vegetation ranged from 9.89 tonnes of carbon
per hectare to 295.50 tonnes of carbon per hectare in the
different forest types of Manipur. The study shows that soil
carbon pool and emission of CO2 are highly influenced by
vegetation types and environmental factors.2
CO2 Storage
The idea to cage CO2 in natural geological surroundings
for its storage has taken shape as a means to permanently
removing it from the atmosphere. Both active and passive
underground trapping of CO2 are envisaged. It can be
done by burying it in deep saline aquifers and in rocks
and minerals. Rapid developments are taking place in
evaluation of results of CO2 storage in the underground
deep aquifers and in the sedimentary basins under the sea
bed. Sleipner, Norway has achieved tremendous success in
this. It has injected 1Mt of CO2 every year in saline aquifers
under the sea bed, since 1996. To understand the reaction
taking place between CO2 and mineral rocks, active storage
in basaltic rocks is being pursued for better integrity for
CO2 storage. Calcium and magnesium silicates react
to form carbonate minerals. A process of geochemical
trapping can effectively eliminate risk of CO2 leakage.
Each geological setting is different and underground CO2
trapping studies require geomorphology studies. There is
a need to develop methodologies for long-term tracking
of CO2, once injected.
Energy Fuels by CO2 Sequestration
The process of underground storage of CO2 and conse-
quent changes in the viscosity of fluids in depleting oil
reservoirs can provide additional fuel for energy. The
CO2 will mix with the crude and by changing the oil
218 India Infrastructure Report 2010
properties will help flush out remaining reserves making
it flow easily. At the surface the gas mixture containing
both CO2 and natural petroleum gas will have to be
separated from the oil before it is sent for refining. The
stripped CO2 can be recycled back into the oil fields to
extract more oil. CO2 management through this approach
will be a highly challenging task. It will have to be adopted
when all the conventional methods of enhanced oil
recovery have failed. A CO2-EOR (CO2-Enhanced Oil
Recovery) project designed to minimize CO2 emissions
back to the atmosphere with appropriate incentives would
have an important role in assuring energy security. Like oil
fields, unmineable coal seams can also prove to be potential
reservoirs for CO2 storage. On average three molecules of
CO2 are absorbed for displacing one molecule of methane
(CH4). By injecting CO2 in coal seams, coal bed methane
recovery can be enhanced.
Globally, research in CCS has grown by almost 100
per cent in the past five years as compared to first five
years of the current decade. In India, research is still in
its infancy. Under the National Programme on CO2
Sequestration (NPCS), research started in DST in 2006;
the following thrust areas are identified:
• CO2 Sequestration through Micro-algae Bio-fixation
• Carbon Capture Process Development
• Terrestrial Agro-forestry Sequestration Modelling
Network
• Policy Development Studies
CCS Policy Development Studies
Towards policy development studies, the feasibility of
CO2 sequestration in deep underground saline aquifers
and inter-layered sedimentary sequences in denser low-
permeability basalts and the sequential basalt are being
tested. CO2 sequestration through mineralization has been
proposed in certain rocks such as basalts and laboratory
studies conducted in select regions of the Deccan Volcanic
Province have shown formation of secondary carbonates
on the surface upon reaction with CO2 in the super-
Table 13.6 Economics of Post-combustion CO2 Capture Options
Technology/Parameter CO2 recovery CO2 purity achieved
(in per cent)
Chemical absorption 90
Physical adsorption 90
Membrane separation 90
Source: IPCC report (2005).
critical phase (Prasad et al. 2008). Recent experiments are
reported in the southwest Atlantic sector jointly by the
National Institute of Oceanography, India and the Alfred
Wegener Institute, Germany. LOHAFEX (LOHA—iron,
FEX—Fertilization Experiment) experimentally tests the
efficacy of iron fertilization in southern oceans by CO2
sequestration. Exploratory investigation of gas hydrates as
future CO2 absorbers in the marine environment, as well
as modelling and simulation studies for producing diethyl
ether as fuel are underway.
There is a need to begin geo-modelling of terrestrial
and geological sequestration of CO2. In terrestrial seques-
tration, development of technologies for quantifying
carbon stored in a given ecosystem and manipulation
of ecosystems to increase the carbon sequestration rate
beyond current conditions require modelling research.
For underground sequestration modelling of geo-chemi-
cal, geophysical and hydrodynamic trappings processes,
which are unique to local condition, form a pre-requisite
for CO2 storage site-selection.
Capture and Storage Costs
CO2 capture results in significantly high energy penalty in
a power plant and reduces it by as much as 15 per cent.
The estimate of cost of post-combustion CO2 capture and
storage has also been worked out. Best available technology
suggests $40–80 per tonne CO2. The application of CCS
may however double the cost of electricity generation,
depending on the technology used. The CO2 capture is
estimated to cost about 70 to 80 per cent of the total cost.
A comparison of recovery and capture cost according to
capture technology used is given in Table 13.6.
In transportation, pipeline costs are $ 2–8 per tonne
and injection costs are of the order of $5–20 per tonne.
Storage capacity of different underground locations and
cost is shown in Table 13.7.
In a conventional coal-based plant CO2 is captured
from the outgoing flue gas, which comprises many other
impurities. But in IGCC for CO2 capture, the syngas
produced in the gasifier is passed through a water shift
Energy penalty Capture cost
(in per cent) (in per cent) $/tonne CO2
> 98 36 47
44 47 61
43 52 78

Table 13.7 Storage Capacity of CO2 in Possible
Underground Locations and the Cost per Tonne*
Probable storage site Potential IEA* Estimates
CO2 storage of storage
capacity in Gt in $/t
Depleted oil fields 126 Net cost saving
Depleted gas fields 800 7–17
Unmineable coal beds 150 20
Deep saline formations 400–10,000 5–17
Source: *IEA—International Energy Agency.
reactor and converted into CO2 and H2. The CO2 is then
separated (present in high concentration) and can be fixed
away from the atmosphere at the pre-combustion stage
itself. This reduces the cost of capture and also the energy
penalty. Preliminary economic assessments of capture
costs show that IGCC costs become 63 per cent higher
with capture than without capture. (For IGCC and high
ash coal without capture, cost is 21 per cent higher than
pulverized coal firing and 12 per cent higher than ultra-
super-critical.)
Large-scale CCS projects are infrastructure-intensive.
The plants are located farther than possible locations for
storage. We cannot afford such a steep increase in the
price of electricity, unless learning curves bring down
the cost through R&D support and success is achieved
in the recovery of a value added products through CO2
sequestration.
CCT Roadmapping Studies in India
In India, thrust to R&D on Coal Beneficiation, Coal Gasi-
fication, Liquefaction, and IGCC began early in 1980s. A
Pre-Combustion Technology Assessment Study conducted
by the Technology Information, Forecasting and Assess-
ment Council (DST) in 1996. It provided specific insights
into measures to be adopted by power companies and oth-
er major coal-consuming industries like steel and cement
for technology up-gradation. Joint technology research in
sectoral applications began. The in-depth study on Clean
Coal–Energy Cycle was conducted in the Department of
Science & Technology in 2006 with the aim to give thrust
to R&D and developing a future road map for CCT (see
Box). These efforts have culminated into giving importance
to introduction, adaptation, and development of clean
coal through policies and programmes. A National Clean
Coal Technology Centre (NCCTC) as a Centre of Excel-
lence for continuance of dedicated research and develop-
ment on indigenous coal and application of CCTs has
been set up.
Implementing Clean Coal Technology in India 219
Proposed CCT Roadmap
A time-bound CCT Road Map drawn to establish the re-
quired R&D infrastructure for implementing it with the
ultimate goal of achieving emission-free electricity genera-
tion. The proposed is as follows:
Ongoing and near-term (up to 2012):
• Improved coal recovery, coal beneficiation, reduction
in cost.
• More emphasis on fluidized bed combustion; super-
critical power plant boilers, IGCC demonstration.
• Enhanced energy recovery from coal: CBM, CMM, etc.
• Pilot scale studies on coal liquefaction.
Medium-term (2012–17):
• IGCC, PFBC, Ultra-super-critical power plants.
• Enhanced energy recovery from coal: CBM, UCG.
• Commercial-scale coal liquefaction.
• Zero Emission Technologies (ZETs) pilot scale.
• Carbon sequestration pilot scale.
Long-term (2017 and beyond)
• Zero Emission Technologies (ZETs)––
commercialization.
• Carbon sequestration demonstration plant.
• IGFC and production of hydrogen fuels from coal.
Source: CCT Initiative—Roadmap for future development,
CCT DST-BHEL Workshop, 26–7 Ocotober 2006.
Barriers to Implementation
On a world-wide basis, prospects of CCT are good in
view of the advantages such as higher efficiency of power
generation and lower GHG emissions per kW of installed
capacity. The clean coal technology has been advancing
rapidly to achieve goals of zero emission technology. In
India efforts towards clean coal technology development
began more than two decades ago, but have not kept pace
with the global developments. Research efforts carried
out in the country for the past several years have shown
that as compared to IGCC, the quality of coal require-
ment in CFBC is less demanding. Yet IGCC has been
given highest attention. There have been other barriers
and constraints in the advancement of CCT, such as (i)
High cost involved to support development of Clean Coal
Technology to proving stage, (ii) Amenability of advanced
technologies to available coal with high ash content (iii)
Inadequate R&D infrastructure in academic institutions
and national laboratories, (iv) Lack of academic–industry
interaction for new coal-based technology, (v) Constraints
in development of coal blocks in the absence of adequate
equipment infrastructure and (vi) lack of sufficient coal
evacuation facilities, among others.
220 India Infrastructure Report 2010
Although policies have been introduced from time to
time suggesting creation and implementation of R&D
Fund for energy, key questions are: who should invest and
why invest in clean coal technology development, is it the
responsibility of the coal producer or coal user? Capacity
building efforts have also not kept pace with the rapid
developments taking place elsewhere. Moreover, many
CCTs are proprietary and protected by strong patent
regimes. New coal technologies are not proven and involve
higher capital investment. In the absence of appropriate
marketing strategies for adoption of clean coal for power
generation, many new researches have not moved out of
the laboratory.
Conclusion
This article provides brief description of various coal
processes and technologies, explores early initiatives,
bottlenecks and current status of clean coal technology in
India. Coal is a dominant resource for electricity in India.
At present nearly 85 per cent of the coal produced is
consumed in the power sector. Opportunities are explored
in coal extraction, coal transport, and coal beneficiation
and critical clean coal technologies with the progress made
in them are described. Research efforts have been initiated
in India in almost all coal utilization technologies. Carbon
capture and storage research has also begun as CCT
enabler, its policy and cost implications are discussed.
A clean coal technology R&D roadmap for identifying
near and medium-term priorities towards zero emission
technology as long-term solution is presented.
The challenge of implementing CCT on large scale
however, remains as daunting as ever. There are many bar-
riers. Coal gasification and coal liquefaction are less pollu-
tion emitting technologies, but for their implementation
on industrial scale a number of trade-offs between finan-
cial and technological considerations continue, mainly
arising from quality of coal resource. There are financial,
infrastructural, and regulatory barriers to be tackled in
almost entire coal chain starting from coal extraction to
coal utilization and pollution abatement.
References
CCT Initiative—Roadmap for future development (2006).
CCT DST-BHEL Workshop, 26–7 October.
Goel, Malti (2007). ‘Barriers to Deployment of Clean Coal
Technology: Key Issues and Perspectives’, 6th Annual
Conference on Carbon Sequestration, 7–11 May, Pittsburg,
USA.
———— (2008). ‘Carbon Capture and Storage, Energy Future
and Sustainable Development: Indian Perspective’, in
Way Forward
Nevertheless prospects of CCTs are becoming high as a
result of global warming concerns. Actually both local as
well as global environmental concerns can be addressed
better through the use of CCT. The costs are coming down,
although it may take long to establish their economic
competitiveness. A long-term clean coal policy to address
the issues of installation of thermal power plants based on
CCTs, R&D, and transfer of technology are imperatives
for growth. Most CCTs are research intensive and are
still evolving, therefore, joint research ventures should
be considered for technology transfer. In super-critical
and ultra-super-critical coal fired plants, much higher
efficiency can be achieved. The super-critical technology
is already under development in our country. These efforts
need to be augmented for ultra-super-critical combustion
capabilities.
Technology Transfer under Climate Protocols
To address climate change concerns, CCTs have come up
with new agenda for growth towards low carbon economy.
Adoption of CCT offers a unique opportunity for tech-
nology transfer. The mechanisms introduced under the
Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) are
Kyoto Protocol, Emissions Trading, and Clean Develop-
ment Mechanism among others. New mechanisms like
NAMAs have been proposed. The CCT can become an
instrument for transfer of technology in such bilateral and
international agreements.
To fully exploit potential of CCT, appropriate policy
incentives and more capacity building efforts are must. An
integrated inclusive growth perspective would be required
in their adoption, aiming at full utilization of by-products
at each stage. Different entities and stake-holders would
need to work together for realization of this goal. Hence,
there is a need for strategic planning to achieve clean
energy infrastructure-based growth.
Malti Goel, B. Kumar, and S.N. Charan (eds) Carbon
Capture and Storage R&D Technologies for Sustainable
Energy Future, Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi,
pp. 3–14.
———— (2009). ‘Recent Approaches in CO2 Fixation Research
in India and Future Perspective towards Zero Emission
Coal Based Power Generation’, Current Science, 97, pp.
1625–33.

Goel, Malti (2010). ‘Perspectives in CO2 Sequestration Tech-
nologies and An Awareness Programme’, in S.Z. Qasim
and Malti Goel (eds). CO2 Sequestration Technologies for
Clean Energy, Daya Publishing House, p. 205.
———— (2009). ‘Climate Change, Carbon Capture and
Storage Technologies and Carbon Trading’, in B. Das,
S.K. Ghosh, S.K. Banerjee, H.S. Ray, and S.P. Mukherjee
(eds), Carbon Capture, Sequestration & Trading, Indian
Association for Productivity, Quality Reliability (IAPQR),
Kolkata, pp. 1–20.
———— (2010). ‘Technologies for Carbon Dioxide Sequestra-
tion’, in Krishan Saigal (ed.), Climate Change: The Human
Aspect, Kalpaz Publications, New Delhi, pp. 71–90.
Government of India and Ministry of Coal (2006). Integrated
Energy Policy 2008, Report of the Expert Committee,
Annual Report, Government of India.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2005).
Bert Metz, Ogunlade Davidson, Heleen de Coninck,
Manuela Loos, and Leo Meyer (eds), Cambridge University
Press, United Kingdom, p. 431.
International Energy Agency (2008). Carbon Capture and
Storage Technologies.
Majumdar A.K., H. Shah, and J.P. Burnwal (2006). ‘Com-
parative Study on Magnetite Medium Stability in a Vorsyl
Separator and in a Heavy Medium Cyclone’, Coal Prepara-
tion, 26, pp. 165–79.
View publication stats
Implementing Clean Coal Technology in India 221
Ministry of Power (2008). All India Electricity Statistics, General
Review, CEA, Government of India.
Prasad P.S.R., D. Sarma, L. Sudhakar, U. Basavaraju, R.S. Singh,
Z. Begum, K.B. Archana, C.D. Chavan, and S.N. Charan
(2008). ‘Geological Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide in
Deccan Basalts: Preliminary Laboratory Study’, Current
Science, 996, pp. 288–91.
‘Recent Developments in Carbon Dioxide Capture Materials
and Processes in Energy Industry’ (2009). in N.R.
Neelameggham, R.G. Reddy, C.K. Belt, and E.E. Vidal
(eds) Energy Technology Perspectives: Conservation, Carbon
Dioxide Reduction and Production from Alternate Sources,
JWS Wiley Publications, pp. 53–62.
State-wise Breakup of Indian Coal Resource (2010). Available
at http://www.gsi.gov.in and http://www.coal.nic.in.
Verma V.S. (2010). ‘CO2 Mitigation: Strategies and Issues’,
in S.Z. Qasim and Malti Goel (eds), CO2 Sequestration
Technologies for Clean Energy, Daya Publishing House,
New Delhi, p. 205.
World Coal Institute (2008). Coal Statistics, available at www.
worldcoal.org.
Yadava P.S. (2010). ‘Soil and Vegetable Carbon Pool and
Sequestration in the Forest Ecosystems of Manipur’, in
S.Z. Qasim and Malti Goel (eds), CO2 Sequestration
Technologies for Clean Energy, Daya Publishing House,
New Delhi, p. 205.