Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 43 (1990) 279-309 279

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

Petrology of Philippine geothermal systems and the applica-

tion of alteration mineralogy to their assessment

AGNES G. REYES

Geothermal Division, Philippine National Oil Company-Energy Development Corporation, Fort Bonifacio, Metro
Manila, Philippines

(Received February 13, 1989; revised and accepted December 20, 1989)

Abstract

Reyes, A.G., 1990. Petrology of Philippine geothermal systems and the application of alteration mineralogy
to their assessment. J. Volcanol. Geotherm Res., 43: 279-309.

Philippine geothermal systems occur in the vicinity of large Holocene calc-alkaline volcanic complexes.
Wells drilled in these areas encountered multiple intrusions; the latest dikes are the subsurface manifesta-
tions of the youngest heat source. Commonly, at least two hydrothermal regimes are juxtaposed in a single
area, with the latest being in equilibrium with the present temperature and chemical regime.
Alteration by neutral-pH water is pervasive and abundant. A contact-metamorphic aureole also occurs
near intrusives. Alteration due to acid-sulfate fluids is generally confined to permeable structures. Neutral-
pH alteration is divided into four zones on the basis of key clay minerals, and two subzones are defined by
calc-silicates. These are the smectite (ambient to 180°C) ', transition (180-230°C), illite (230-320°C) and
biotite (270-340 ° C) zones. Subzones are defined by epidote (250-340 ° C) and amphibole (280-340 oC). The
four main zones of acid alteration are: kaolinite (ambient to 120 ° C), dickite ± kaolinite (120- 200 ° C), dickite
+ pyrophyllite (200- 250 ° C), and pyrophyllite + illite (230- 320 ° C). Where relict high-temperature altera-
tion reaches the surface, the area being drilled is usually the outflow zone of the present system.
These hydrothermal mineral assemblages are used: (1) as geothermometers; (2) to assist in determining
the depth at which the production casing will be set during drilling; (3) to estimate fluid pH and other
chemical parameters; (4) to predict possible corrosion and scaling tendencies of the fluids; (5) as a measure
of permeability and possible cold water influx into wells; (6) as a guide to field hydrology; and (7) to estimate
roughly the thickness of the eroded overburden.

Introduction g e o t h e r m a l wells w i t h d e p t h s of >_ 1200 m (R.T.

T h i r t y g e o t h e r m a l s y s t e m s h a v e b e e n ex-
plored a n d a r e in v a r i o u s s t a g e s of d e v e l o p m e n t
in t h e P h i l i p p i n e s (Fig. 1) (Tolentino a n d Buffing,
1985; V a s q u e z , 1986). T h i r t e e n h a v e b e e n dril-
led: T o n g o n a n , P a l i n p i n o n ; Tiwi, M a k - B a n ,
Bacon-Manito, Biliran, Margaha, Acupan,
D a k l a n , D a v a o , Mt. Apo in C o t a b a t o , P i n a t u b o
in Z a m b a l e s , a n d N a t i b in B a t a a n . A b o u t 410
P a l a b a s a n , pers. c o m m u n . , 1990) h a v e b e e n
drilled in t h e c o u n t r y so far. T h e discussion in
t h i s p a p e r is m a i n l y r e s t r i c t e d to g e o t h e r m a l
a r e a s t h a t h a v e b e e n drilled, except for Tiwi a n d
M a k - B a n , w h i c h h a v e b e e n p r i v a t e l y developed.
T h e h i g h e s t m e a s u r e d well t e m p e r a t u r e of
3 3 9 ° C w a s r e c o r d e d in T o n g o n a n , L e y t e , at a
d e p t h of 2400 m w h i l e the d e e p e s t well is in
S o u t h e r n Negros, at 3329 m v e r t i c a l depth.

0377-0273/90/$03.50 (~ 1990 -- Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

280 ~ ( ; f~EYES

2o._: 1 I~ r I

le_°
0 I00
' I!200 Kin. II

~ DAKLAN /
SCALE I
16°

UBO

14 °

So

'l "l ll'l •

LEGEND:
PRESENTLYINACTIVEVOLCANO
~ ACTIVE VOLCANO
--~ PHILIPPINE FAULT
"v-v"v-v-TRENCHES
AREAS PRO~CING GEOTHERMAL POWER
0 AREAS UNDER EXPLORATION/DEVELOPMENT(w/ddllhole~)
[] AREAS UNDERGEE)SCIENTIFICSURFACEEXPLORATION
PROMISING THERMAL AREAS FOR FUTURE ASSESSMENT

Fig. 1. Philippine geothermal systems under exploration and development for power generation. A large percen-
tage of the geothermal areas is located within volcanic complexes and/or along major tectonic structures.

The geologic setting, stratigraphy, probable Geologic setting of Philippine geothermal

ages of hydrothermal activity and models of
typical Philippine geothermal areas are review-
ed and discussed, but the emphasis is on the ap-
plication of hydrothermal alteration to the ex-
ploration, assessment and modelling of Philip-
pine geothermal systems.
fields
Volcanism and geothermal activity
Moderate- to high-temperature Philippine
geothermal systems are usually associated with
PETROLOGY OF PHILIPPINE GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS 281

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II \x\x~-~ ...~. x x ,x~.:".;.. ~ , ~ x x ~ x ,,..
I( x,,,,~,,~x x ~x x ~ x x /~ ~ ~ \

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Ix x x x"~.~~'~--.x~_.~~6TPL]HAGAN ~. x ×/ x D U M A G U E T E ClTYI
~ X X X/ ~ ~ X ~ i ~ / X kx X/ X X

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Ih.o~,O~;mNx x x x x X M'ITTAUNES~., X~X,~X " I~,x./X X X X /

, , x , , x x , xXx ,'\,
x >. x x x x x x. x \x8 x x/x x x x"
x'~--..x.._x x x x x ~. x\x ~j.× x x × . /
x × ~ - ' x - ; - ~ - x ' - - ' ; ~ r . ~ ' ~ , ~ x x x x [~,.(
~ x × x × x x x x x ,,k ~ ~ x / ~

x x x x x x × x x x x'x~,× x / /
I

/
X X X X X X X X X X X X X

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cj
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I,OIO,OCOmN X X X :, , x x X X l

f'~ x x x x ex x x x /~
(~.-b. x ~ ~ ~ x x ,," ~ "

EXPLANATION :
[~Z]Cuernos volcanics formation Altered ground o zooo 4ooom.
J
~-~]Southern Negros f o r m a t i o n .... Geologic contact SCALE
, ~ F a u l t t r a c e showing dip 0 Thermal spring
------Fault a Volcanic center
.... , G r a v i t y failures . . . . . Boundary of volcanic complex
,~ Collapse ~mmm~m B o u n d a r y o f a r e a w i t h G e o t h e r m a l wel]s

Fig. 2. Geological map of the Palinpinon geothermal system in Southern Negros showing the stratovolcanic com-
plex believed to be associated with the present system. This is a composite map from Alincastre (1982), Tebar et
al. (1984) and the Bureau of Mines (Geological Map (1963).
282 ~.( ;R SYES

Late Pliocene to Recent calc-alkaline volcanism
of high-alumina affinity and are either:
(1) adjacent to, or flanked by, andesitic
stratovolcano complexes, e.g., Palinpinon (Fig.
2), Margaha, Bacon-Manito, Tiwi, Makban,
Biliran and Mt. Apo; or
(2) adjacent to small dacite or silicic andesite
plugs or domes with areas _< 9 km 2, e.g., Daklan
(Fig. 3), Davao and Acupan.
Areas in the the latter group are smaller and
therefore have a lower power production poten-
tial. This is well illustrated in Daklan where, for
example, isotherms dip steeply away from the
dacitic to silicic andesitic dome (Fig. 3). Further-
more, permeability is often low in such settings.
These areas are also proximal to mining districts
that are presently being exploited for base and
precious metals.
Volcanism and hydrothermal activity are not
always associated with each other, but in some
Philippine areas the most active (permeable and
high-temperature) portion of a geothermal
system is adjacent to the latest stage of
volcanism preceding Recent active volcanism
For example, in Tiwi, the geothermal system is
not associated with presently active Mt. Mayon
but rather with the older dormant Mt. Malinao
volcanic complex nearby (Obusan, 1979~.
The most active sites of volcanism and subse-
quent thermal activity may "migrate" parallel
to the major structural grain of an area. For ex-
ample, in Bacon-Manito, the earliest dated

q~
E
Z
©

<
?>

LU

>0

EXPLANATION :
I--- ] Daklan Dornal products ;:i:'~,!i~:;:~Hydrotherma ly e tered ground
Sub-intrusive andesite breccia O Hot spring
[ ~ Agno botholith " ~--~Faults(hdchured wheredownthrown}
v~_~
v~-~ ~,ndesite and basalt lava flaws ® Wells
~--L~ .Volcano-Sedimentaryformation ~, Dome
o 5~o 1,3~am.
i i J
SCALE

Fig. 3. The geology, structure and surface thermal manifestations of the Daklan geothermal system, Benguet (data
from PNOC-EDC Geothermal files). The isotherms in Daklan dip away from the dome.
PETROLOGY OF PHILIPPINE GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS 283

volcanism of 0.48 Ma lies to the west, and
becomes generally younger eastwards (_< 0.003
Ma), where it coincides with the site of the pre-
sent geothermal system (Tebar, 1988). Patches of
fossil hydrothermal alteration are present in the
western sector while a large percentage of
presently active thermal features occur in the
east.
There is surficial evidence in areas of geother-
mal activity of several volcanic stages t h a t vary
in age and sometimes composition. These stages
are also reflected in the subsurface geology.
Typically, deep wells intersect several phases of
igneous intrusives which vary in age, composi-
tion, texture, size, intensity of alteration, and
type and temperature of alteration. Some of
these phases may be genetically related to
m a g m a t i s m associated with the overlying
volcanics (e.g., Muffler, 1976). In most systems,
several large plutons have been encountered at
depth, and are cross-cut by dikes of various com-
positions. The plutons are usually diorite or
quartz monzodiorite with minor granodiorite
and rare monzogabbro. Dikes consist of diorite,
quartz diorite, monzonite, monzodiorite, and/or
diabase; these are manifestations of a much
deeper heat source.
Areal extent of geothermal areas
The surface extent of a geothermal system
(Table 1) may be estimated from the distribution
of active thermal manifestations. In some fields
however, young volcanic deposits have buried
surface features, e.g., Margaha in Northern
Negros and in Bacon-Manito. Most of the areas
in Table 1 are located within or adjacent to
stratovolcanic complexes except for Daklan and
Amacan which are adjacent to dacitic domes and
located in mining districts. In general, the area
of the t h e r m a l features in stratovolcanic terrain
is similar to the extent of the low-resistivity
anomaly. In mining districts however, the
widespread fossil alteration accompanying
mineralization, results in a wider low-resistivity
anomaly t h a n the area defined by the active
thermal manifestations.
Stratigraphy
In general, wells drilled in most Philippine
geothermal systems encounter a thick (> 2000
m), largely andesitic sequence ranging from
subaerial to subaqueous, a sedimentary se-
quence intercalated with the volcanics, dikes,

TABLE 1

The area covered by thermal manifestations in selected fields, as compared with the extent of iso-resistivity
anomalies at AB/2 = 500 m or 1000 m.

Estimated area in km 2

Area covered by Resistivity

Geothermal field thermal features anomaly area*

Tongonan, Leyte 37 36
Biliran, Leyte 16 15
Palinpinon, Southern Negros 19 16
Baslay-Dauin, Southern negros 9 8
Daklan, Benguet 4 8
Amacan, Davao 6 20

*Interpreted resistivity contours from PNOC-EDC geothermal files.

284 ~.,; REY~:~

and an intrusive complex (Fig. 4), e.g., lacustrine environment during the Late
Tongonan, Palinpinon, Bacon-Manito, Tiwi, Miocene to Early Pliocene, and perhaps Early
Biliran and Daklan; exceptions are Davao and Pleistocene (E.P. Ordofiez, pers. commun., 1981).
Acupan where the sediments are absent and the The sequence is overlain by andesitic
intrusive complex prominent. hyaloclastites with minor associated basalt
The intrusive complex typically consists of and/or dacite, deposited during the Early
several stages, and presumably the youngest Pliocene to Late Pleistocene. The marine
dikes are manifestations of the most recent heat deposits are separated from the latest andesite
sources. The main plutonic bodies may be as old and/or dacite lava flows by paleosols.
as Late Miocene (?) and the dikes as young as In Margaha, Northern Negros, the Eocene
Late Pleistocene. These younger dikes intrude sedimentary sequence (E.P. Ordofiez, pers. com-
into the overlying volcanics and sediments. As mun., 1980) is overlain unconformably by
shown in Figure 5, measured temperatures in waterlaid andesitic tuff breccias, hyaloclastites
Tongonan are highest where the youngest dikes and fresh palagonitic tuff. The intrusion en-
are intersected; this is probably caused by prox- countered in one of the wells, Mambucal-2, was
imity to the heat source as well as dike-related partly eroded prior to deposition of the overlying
permeability. volcanic sequence.
The sedimentary sequence is often a car- Davao and Acupan were drilled in mining
bonaceous fossiliferous calcisiltite, characteriz- districts where outcrops consist of dioritic to
ed by benthonic foraminifera (E.P. Ordofiez, granodioritic intrusives and andesitic to dacitic
pers. commun., 1981). This calcisiltite may be plugs and domes. The first deep well (2800 m) at
deposited in a euxinic neritic to bathyal or Acupan encountered granodiorite cut by

LITHOLOGIC DEPOSITION/U. AGE THICKNESS

LITHOLOGY (m)
COLUMN ENVIRONMENT
I

v v V v v v An'Jesite 13va floNs and tuff Sub3crijI Late Pleistocene 50-500

V
v
V
v
v
v
v
v
v
v
V breccia with minor d3citic to F,Pc : pt
v Vj w~=lded t u f f and basalt. !
V V v J
:vzVzVZ~zv=v
v:vzv-~: v:
Andesitic h~aloclostites with Subaquatic Early Pliocene to 1 0 0 0 - 2 0 0 0
v v ~ v V e
i
minor ~lacffe and basalt, late Pleistocene ~
May have thin sandstone/
v v ~ siltstone an'J limestone Enses.i
V v v v V

Fossjliferous lime .stoneusually. Shallow marine Late Miocene to 40-2000

IT- r 1 c/JrDonaceous c~¢isillites ana
I~.l/l~ to basal Pliocene.
siltstones and cGlcamnites b3thy31 Maybe Eocene
with intercalated andesites. as in Margoho.
~; '.i.[ ~ , [ , , Volclnics increasingly abundant l
v v i with depth. I
I F ~l ¢ ] -
±f" "

~vVv I i
Quartz monzodiorite to diorite Intrusive 'Late Miocene to _~1 0 0 0
plutons cut by dikes of diorite late Pleistocene
X x ~/ / monzodiorite and diabase, j
Monzogabbro and gmnodiorite
ore not c o m m o n

Fig. 4. Generalized s t r a t i g r a p h y of P h i l i p p i n e g e o t h e r m a l systems.

PETROLOGY OF PHILIPPINE GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS 285

NW SE

-;~4
v v V V ] V V
400 V V V v V V [~V V V
V V v v V V-. V

I
0
J
JIlL

-40( o5

-8o(
E

Z
0
V--moo
>
LLI
.-J + +
+ +
"' 1600
? ÷
+
.P

-2000

- 2400-
LEGEND:
Upper Boo volcanics Older diorite dikes
I ] Lower Boo volcanics Breccie
Younger diorite dikes Gronodiorite

Fig. 5. Cross-section of the Mahiao-Sambaloran sector of the Tongonan geothermal system, showing the geology
and isotherms (M.C. Zaide-Delfin, pers. commun., 1988).

microdiorite dikes throughout most of its length,
and bottomed out in dacitic breccia (M.C. Zaide
and J.J. Fragata, pers. commun., 1984). A
similar sequence was encountered in the deepest
well at Davao, except for sporadic appearances of
weakly altered to unaltered hornblende silicic
microdiorite dikes believed to be related to the
adjacent plug. Both areas have high
temperatures( - 280°C)but low permeabilities.
Sources of permeability
Normal faults with dips of 7 8 - 9 0 ° are the
most prominent structures in Philippine
geothermal areas and commonly provide the ma-
jor sources of permeability in the wells. Their
presence is defined by sheared rock and/or
mylonites and numerous veins (Zaide and
Bueza, 1985), intense rock alteration and the
presence of acid sulfate minerals, usually cor-
roborated by drilling data and aquifers iden-
tified during well tests. In some cases, surface
fault traces can be projected to match permeable
zones in wells (Alcaraz, 1985). Hydraulic fractur-
ing may be a cause of permeability in one
shallow well in Davao.
Reverse faults are rare and so far only one has
been documented at Tongonan. Its locus is defin-
ed by the presence of pseudo-tachylite (Reyes,
1979); however, this is impermeable.
Other sources of permeability consist of: (1)
fractures and joints due to intrusions and along
edges of plugs and domes; (2) lithological con-
tacts; (3)joints; (4) clast:matrix or fragment:frag-
ment contacts in some breccias, especially
hyaloclastites; and (5) rarely, paleosols.
Ages of hydrothermal activi(v
At least two hydrothermal regimes have occur-
red in most Philippine geothermal systems. The
latest (and active) thermal regime is often
associated with Pleistocene to Recent volcanism
and/or hydrothermal activity. Based on K/Ar
ages (Tebar, 1988; analyses by Gillot, 1983;
Hulston, 1984; and Bruinsma, 1985), ther-
moluminescence dating (I. Takashima, pets.
commun., 1988), and fossil evidence (E.P.
Ordofiez, pers. commun., 1978-1984; L.P.
Dizon, pers. commun., 1983-1989), the earliest
hydrothermal activity in some geothermal areas
began during Late Miocene. Examples are
Tongonan, Palinpinon, Bacon-Manito, Biliran,
Del Gallego, Acupan, and Amacan. However,
there is no evidence in any of the geothermal
areas that hydrothermal manifestations were
active continuously from Late Miocene; instead,
hydrothermal activity was probably episodic,
waning and "migrating" from one locality to
another.
Measured temperatures in wells are often
cooler in portions of geothermal systems, where
fossil hydrothermal alteration is extensively ex-
posed on the surface. Based on ther-
moluminescence data from surface silicified
andesites and a fresh dacite (I. Takashima, pers.
commun., 1988), there have been about 8
hydrothermal events in Palinpinon. The
youngest alteration event, dated at < 0.006 Ma,
coincides with the presently active portion of the
system. The oldest, at 0.99 Ma, is exposed in the
outflow region, to the west.
Baslay-Dauin is the only area recognized to
date, which shows evidence for a single
hydrothermal regime that is still heating up.
This is indicated by hydrothermal alteration
mineral geothermometers that occur at higher
measured temperatures than observed in most
Philippine geothermal systems (see below~; this
suggests that the minerals have not, as yet.,
equilibriated with present thermal gradients.
An example is the persistence of smectite in the
two drilled wells to depths where temperatures
are 240 ° C.
Hydrothermal alteration
Definition of terms
The formation of hydrothermal minerals is
dependent on the temperature, permeability,
pressure, fluid composition, the initial composL
tion of the rock system (important only at less
than 200°C for most rocks except perhaps
limestone), the duration of activity (Browne,
1978), and the number of hydrothermal regimes.
Products of hydrothermal activity in Philippine
geothermal systems have various occurrences:
!11) Rock alteration and minerals precipitated
in vugs and fractures caused by hydrothermal
fluids at depth and at the surface;
(2) Pipeline scales or blockages;
(3) Corrosion products of geothermal pipe~
lines, and to a lesser extent;
(4) Hydrous sulfates (e.g., halotrichite) and/or
iron hydroxides formed on cores or cuttings,
especially those rich in acid-sulfate alteration
stored at ambient temperatures.
Most of the discussion below will concern the
first type. Based on the composition of'
hydrothermal fluids, hydrothermal alteration is
divided into two suites neutral-pH and acid
alteration. Each suite is further divided into
zones, defined by the presence of certain
temperature-sensitive minerals such as clay,
ortho- and ring- calc silicates. An assemblage
consists of key zone minerals and associated
minerals.
Neutral-pH alteration is formed by hot, near
neutral-pH, alkali chloride fluids while acid
 ,.-]
o
0

:Z
0
o

TABLE2 c~
rx.j
A. Neutral-pH discharge fluid chemistry (all concentrations in ppm) from Palinpinon (PN-19D), Tongonan (213), and Bacon-Manito (PaI-10D)
B. Acid discharge fluid chemistry (all concentrations in ppm) from Palinpinon (PN-22D), Tongonan (402) and Bacon-Manito (Pal-2D). All data are from PNOC-EDC Geothermal files. ND =
not determined

Well Date Enthalpy Samp- pH Li Na K Ca Mg Fe Rb Cs CI F SO 4 B SiO 2 Total H2S Nil 3

kj/kg ling (25°C) HCO3
(p(MPaa)

m.
PN-19D 10-28-87 1250 1.22 6.69 19.10 4280 980 194.0 0.33 ND 5.84 4.05 8057 ND 27.0 89.0 678.0 35.0 4.60 5.89
213 6-29-87 1496 0.729 6.10 31.40 8256 2000 335.0 0.42 0.40 9.82 3.87 1 5 3 7 3 2.86 41.3 286.0 900,0 1.0 6.48 3.01
PAL-10D 1-14-86 1392 0.973 7.04 9.09 4195 962 170.0 0.43 0.30 3.70 0.75 8070 1,00 17.6 68.8 803.0 41.4 2.32 16.50

B.
PN-22D 2-13-84 1414 0.67 4.23 13,00 3120 727 70.9 2.77 6.61 3.99 2.77 5278 ND 129.0 70.2 853.0 0.0 2.30 13.90
402 12-22-80 1615 0,42 4.04 10.00 4041 617 58.0 68.0 ND 1.90 1.10 6500 ND 2270 109.0 522.0 0.0 1.00 ND
PAL-2D 1-24-87 1381 0.508 4.75 6.59 3193 498 57.5 22.40 15,3 2.00 0.53 5707 2.39 282.0 47.3 697.0 3.4 1,36 10.00

(30
-'.-3
288
alteration is formed by the passage of low-pH,
high sulfur-bearing (possibly gassy) fluids (Table
2); both types are silica-saturated. The neutral-
pH alteration suite is dominant and pervasive in
all the wells drilled, comprising 85 - 100% of the
secondary minerals, while acid minerals are con-
fined to narrow, often structurally controlled
bands, usually a few centimeters to less than 5 m
wide.
Although alteration in Philippine geothermal
systems is largely hydrothermal, this grades ira-
perceptibly into diagenesis in paleosols, shallow
volcanics and sedimentary rocks, and to contact
metamorphism along intrusive contacts.
Susceptibility of primary minerals to alteration
The predominant rock types encountered in
drill cores and cuttings include andesite and
diorite to quartz monzodiorite, with minor
dacite, basalt, diabase, serpentinite and
limestone. Shown below are the primary
minerals of the intermediate-composition ig-
neous rocks arranged according to decreasing
susceptibility to alteration by hydrothermal
fluids:
Glass > augite > hornblende > biotite =~
plagioclase > titanomagnetite > K-feldspar >
apatite = quartz = rutile = zircon
Under acid conditions apatite apparently
dissolves; and at low temperatures primary
cristobalite recrystallizes easily to quartz.
Secondary minerals in geothermal areas
Nearly a hundred secondary minerals have
been encountered in the various Philippine
geothermal systems. These are characterized ac-
cording to: (1) mineral suite; (2) abundance and
frequency of occurrence; (3) surface occurrences;
(4) subsurface occurrences; and (5) geothermal
significance, shown in Appendix 1.
In geothermal systems, hydrothermal miner-
als are used:
(1) As geothermometers.
~ ~; ~:~'~:~
(2) To assist in determining the depth at which
the production casing will be set during drilling.
(3) To estimate fluid pH and other chemical
parameters.
(4) To predict possible corrosion and scaling-
tendencies of the fluids.
(5) As a measure of permeability and to locate
possible cold water influx into wells.
(6) As a guide to field hydrology by:
(a) Determining the general location of a
well with respect to the upflow, outflow and
marginal zones of the system:
(b) Identifying the main structures that may
channel hot fluids into the system by using
heating and cooling trends and alteration
assemblages;
(c) Determining structures that may act as
possible conduits of acid fluids and/or cooler
groundwater into the system;
(d) Predicting possible boiling and/or high
gas zones in the well during drilling:
(e) Identifying past fluctuations in the ther-
mal system;
{7) To roughly estimate the thickness of the
eroded overburden.
The most basic aspects of alteration studies in
geothermal areas are the thermal and chemical
stability ranges of the minerals as well as
mineralogical indications for permeability (e.g.~
Browne and Ellis, 1970; Kristmannsdottir and
Tomasson, 1974; Browne, t978; Bird et ai.,
1984). The various other uses of alteration such
as field modelling, stem from these basic aspects
{e.g., Cathelineau et al., 1985; Hedenquist and
Browne, 1989).
Significance of hydrothermal alteration; ap-
plication to geothermal exploration
Alteration minerals and geothermometer.~
Hydrothermal minerals commonly used as
geothermometers in Philippine geothermal
systems are shown in Figure 6. The various types
of epidote refer to differences in crystallinity,
abundance and occurrences in the rock. "Inci-
PETROLOGY OF PHILIPPINE GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS 289

pient" epidote, which has the lowest
temperature of first appearance, is poorly
crystalline, sphene-like and brownish, growing
from titanomagnetite or the matrix of a volcanic
rock. Type i epidote is well crystalline but with
diameter _< 5 microns. It partially replaces
plagioclases, ferromagnesians and the matrix,
and comprises < 2% of the sample. Type 2
epidote has a similar occurrence as Type i but its
abundance increases to about 5 - 1 0 % of the sam-
ple. The highest temperatures are indicated by
Type 3 epidote which is abundant as rock altera-
tion and vein material.
For the neutral pH alteration suite, the
minerals are divided into four zones based on the
key clay minerals, and subzones defined by the
presence of calc-silicates. These consist, which
increasing temperature, of the smectite, transi-
tion, illite and biotite zones; and the epidote and
amphibole subzones (Fig. 7). The transition zone

M I N E R A L S T E M P E R A T U R E
100 200 :500 340°C
I , , ~ , I , , r , I , ,

A.NEU'I'RALpH ALTERATIONSUITE

SmectJte
Illite '
Biotite {>
Chlorite
C>
Prehnite mj

Opal ~
Cristobaiite I
Quartz'
Adularia |

Hyalophane
Loumontite I J

Wairakite
"incipient" E p i d o t e
E p i d o t e type1 L

Epidote t y p e 2
Epidote type3
Clin ozoisite
Sphene
Pure pellyite
Actin o lite -Tremolite
Dolomite I

Anhydrite
Ruffle

B.ACID ALTERATION SUITE

Kaolinite
Dickite
Pyrophyllite z t ,,

ill ire + Pyrophyllite

Diaspore
Andolusite
Zunyite i

Tourmaline
Lll i Lazulite I I I I I 1 i l i i I ~ i

Fig. 6. Common hydrothermal minerals used as geothermometers in Philippine geothermal systems. Notes:
1These minerals occur in both acid- and neutral-pH altered rock. 2pyrophyllite can occur on the surface
associated with hot spring systems where presumably it forms at 100 °C at high silica saturation. What is shown
above is its average first appearance in the subsurface.
290 ~x(;. REYES

merely separates the depths of the deepest ap-
pearance of smectite and the shallowest ap-
pearance of illite. Interlayered illite-smectite
may occur within the transition zone but then
illite-smectite may extend to higher
temperatures where permeabilities are low. The
biotite zone and amphibole subzone, except in
some wells in Palinpinon and Tongonan, usually
occur as thin horizons associated with dikes or
sills.
There are four main zones for the acid altera-
tion suite (Fig. 8): the kaolinite, dickite ~:
kaolinite, dickite -t- pyrophyllite, and pyrophyl-
lite _+ illite zones. The various silica polymorphs
(opal to quartz) can be used to further subdivide
the kaolinite zone.
The distribution of alteration zones in
Tongonan and Palinpinon are illustrated in
Figures 9a and 9b. The neutral-pH alteration
suite is distributed in horizons which generally
parallel measured isotherms, with draping
downwards of alteration on the margins of the

COMMONLY ASSOCIATED MINERALS

A LTERATION SUB-
ZONES ZONES

O-

40

80 bJ
I-

I.-
~ 120 u
bJ
W =E
0q
160

ne 200.
W
n

ILl 240.
I-- hi
p-

280 _J
.J
r,
!

L_

Fig. 7. The neutral-pH alteration zones and corresponding temperatures. Temperature stabilities have been
deduced from measured temperature and fluid-inclusion homogenization data.
PETROLOGY OF PHILIPPINE G E O T H E R M A L SYSTEMS 291

system. In contrast, acid a l t e r a t i o n cuts across inclusion h o m o g e n i z a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e s , are us-

t h e s e horizons, often e x t e n d i n g down f a u l t s f r o m
the surface.
Assisting in setting the production casing shoe
during drilling
T h e t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e s of m i n e r a l s (especial-
ly the clays a n d calc silicates), s u p p o r t e d by fluid-
ed to d e t e r m i n e t h e d e p t h t h a t the p r o d u c t i o n
casing is set d u r i n g drilling. In most P h i l i p p i n e
g e o t h e r m a l wells, t h e p r e s e n c e ofillite and/or a n
i n d i c a t i o n of t e m p e r a t u r e s > 230 ° C from fluid-
inclusion studies of vein a n h y d r i t e , calcite,
and/or q u a r t z are used for p r o d u c t i o n wells. This
e n s u r e s t h a t shallow cool zones are cased-off. As
m u c h as possible, acid zones are also cased-off.

LS
I

ALTERATION
,~lJ o -
ZONES W
t-'(JI..U
J O 0
._1 r ~

"~ 0 "r Z

1
40-
,ll

;I
80. ,_1
o
(0 !
I
I
120. I
I..U

D
I'- 160'

n,,
LU
0.. 2 0 0
=E
I,I
I.-
240
1 Id

...I
"1-
0-

b.I

.J
I
i
I
I
I
I
!
I
|
#
I
I
I X
X

m
.J
280

320
M I N E R A L OCCURENCES:
I Occurs in >10 of the wells, with acid alteration
I Occurs in 3 - 1 0 wells
i Occurs in 2- 3 wells
X Occurs in 1 well
Fig. 8. The acid alteration zones and corresponding temperatures. Temperature stabilities are based on
measured temperature and fluid-inclusion homogenization data as well as contiguous neutral-pH alteration
assemblages. In general, with increase in temperature and distance from the acid fluid channel, there is an in-
crease in dehydration, crystallinity and silica content of the clays and other aluminosilicates.
 bo
CO
bO

NW
1400!

1200
SE
--'~2R4D
I000 105 . . . . 2R3D
I05D 303
800
-214 508D~
~

E
v
Z
0

> \\
Ld
J
~J
• K\
\
\.
\
\ \\
\
\, \

i/'
LEGEND:
~ 7 ~ Smectite zone xxxxxxxxx FirstappeQrance of Epidote ~-~Fault
L[[ITfIllITI~ Transition zone
~" "- ~ - First appearance of Biotite Jt Major aquifer
r . . . . . ~ {Hite zone F{rst appearance of Amphibole ~ Minor aquifer
L__.~ Acid zone
L~ A c t i v e clcid s u l f a t e ] L Casing shoe

Fig. 9a. The distribution of alteration zones and measured isotherms in the Tongonan geothermal system, L e y t e
PETROLOGYOF PHILIPPINEGEOTHERMALSYSTEMS 293

SW NE

,2J ~ 'OK-5
~--- PN- 30D
k ~ - - P N - 19D

800
!yPN-,4
~'~ OK-2

400'

0
/"

- 40C

z
0
-800
,<
>
/ \
uJ
J
/
-1200- /
/
\
- 1600
I b

- 2 0 0 0 "
\

- 2400'

LEGEND:
i ~ Smectite zone ~o~x First qppearance of Epidote ~ Fault
r / / / / / / / ~ , ~ Transition zone z ~ -~ × First appearance of Biotite "IT Major aquifer
[ [ Illite zone First appearance of Amphibole T Minor aquifer
Acid zone 2 L C a s i n g shoe

Fig. 9b. The distribution of alteration zones and measured isotherms in the Palinpinon geothermal system,
Southern Negros.

Fluid chemistry and alteration high silica activity (Hemley et al., 1967).
Calcium is fixed in anhydrite while sodium and
Acid alteration is accompanied by intense magnesium do not form minerals except for rare
hydrogen metasomatism, base-cation leaching, natroalunite and lazulite.
and sulfate metasomatism (Hemley and Jones, "Incipient greisenization", characterized by
1964). In general, acid-altered rocks are compos- the presence of topaz, lazulite, zunyite, fluorite
ed of residual elements: aluminum, titanium, and/or tourmaline (Burt, 1981) is observed in
iron, silica, some potassium, and calcium, with several wells in Palinpinon, Bacon-Manito,
most of the base cations in the original rock Tongonan and Biliran, and suggests that
leached away. Potassium is relatively immobile fluorine may also affect fluid-mineral equilibria
compared to other base cations; it occurs in in acid altered assemblages.
alunite at low pH and high sulfate activity, and Aside from anhydrite and the silica
illite at higher temperatures, higher pH and polymorphs, the most common secondary
294 ~ ; REYgS

minerals in this suite in Philippine systems are
aluminum- and silica-rich, e.g., the kandite min-
erals, pyrophyllite and diaspore, and iron- or
titanium-rich e.g., pyrite, leucoxene and rutile.
Fluids are apparently saturated with respect to
quartz and/or anhydrite at temperatures _>
180°C (Reyes, 1986). The mineral stabilities as
a function of pH and log (H4SiO 4) are illustrated
in Figure 10.
By comparison, there is less hydrolysis in the
neutral-pH suite and cations are less mobile.
Alteration here largely involves the reshuffling
of elements in the original rock into secondary
minerals, and since replacement is often in-
complete, primary chemical trends are general-
ly retained (Fig, 11).
The various minerals belonging to the neutral
pH and acid alteration suites are noted in Appen-
dix 1.
Predicting the scaling and corrosion tendencies
of a well
Acid fluids in wells form scales primarily com-
posed of anhydrite, barite, pyrite, arsenopyrite
and tetrahedrite-tennantite, and corrode the
well liner and casings. Acid-sulfate fluids may
also attack the casing externally, reducing it
largely to iron oxides and oxyhydroxides. The
sulfides and iron oxyhydroxides in the formation
may also be used to determine the corroding
tendencies of fluids.
Limestone horizons, when coinciding with
aquifers with temperatures _< 200°C, usually
result in calcite, aragonite and/or rare siderite
scaling; aragonite forms where mass flows are
high, as in well Mambucal-1 in Margaha.
Where the well fluids are neutral pH and reser-
voir chloride concentrations are high ~>_ 6000

neutral pH---~ ___X_

\ ltl
........ -ll

-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -I 0

log a H4SiO 4

Fig. 10. Activity diagram ofpH vs log H4SiO4 of the acid sulfate alteration phases at 250°C (adapted from Aniceto
1982). Anhydrite saturation varies with activity of C a 2+. aK+ = 6.1 x 10 -3, a so4= = 2.19 x 10 n
a HSO4= 3.55 x 10 4. Triangle = neutral pH fluid discharge data from (1) well PN-19D, Palinpinon and (2) Weli
209, Tongonan. Circle = acid fluid discharge data from (1) well PN-22D, Palinpinon, (2) well MO-1, Bacon-Manito,
and (3) Well 402, Tongonan.
PETROLOGY OF PHILIPPINE GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS
_Arrows indicate cation
depletion
] FAcid alteration
- Neutral pH a l t e r a t i o n /
domain
0
CaO
Fig. 11. The distribution of oxides in altered rocks as compared to unaltered andesites in Bacon-Manito, plotted
in a ternary diagram with apices of A1203 + FeO t, CaO, and Na20 + K20.
ppm as determined from fluid inclusions or from
the well discharge), sphalerite/wurtzite,
chalcopyrite, galena, pyrite, calcite and
anhydrite are quite common as scales.
Minerals as permeability indicators
Apart from high-intensity alteration and the
presence of sheared rock and numerous veins,
the following hydrothermal minerals are used as
high-permeability indicators in Philippine
geothermal systems since they are commonly
found in or adjacent to aquifers penetrated by
wells: quartz, anhydrite, wairakite, illite,
adularia, hyalophane, abundant pyrite, and
abundant calcite. These minerals occur as
alteration of the rock and in veins, often as
coarse crystals. Anhydrite, pyrite, calcite and,
rarely, wairakite occur as scale deposits in
geothermal wells.
295
A2I03+FeOt
/
& 0
0 Neutral pH altered rocks
[ ] Acid altered rocks
z~ Unaltered samples
/ 0
0 0 0
0~
0
~ No20+K20
Indicators of poor permeability, aside from a
low intensity of alteration and the absence of the
above minerals, are: prehnite, pumpellyite, pyr-
rhotite, abundant laumontite, the presence of
abundant sphene instead of epidote occurring as
rock alteration or tight veinlets; the persistence
of smectite and illite-smectite beyond 230°C;
and the persistence of matrix dolomite,
unaltered or weakly recrystallized to calcite, at
temperatures > 180°C.
Prehnite, pumpellyite and sphene apparently
require little flow of geothermal fluids through
the rock to form as they appear to recrystallize
easily, with increase in temperature, from the
original ferromagnesians, e.g., pyroxenes for
prehnite and pumpellyite, and titanomagnetite
and pyroxenes for sphene.
Similarly, pyrrhotite apparently requires less
H2S to form than pyrite and may be the reason
why it forms in impermeable horizons (Browne
 t'~
r,D
Gz
.~ o~-'N ~ ~ SECONDARY MINERALS HOMOGFNIZATION Fluid inclusion Chloride (eq)
m ppm
~ "5 LITHOLOGY lli~ ~ ~ ~ -~ TEMPERATUREI°C) Measured Chloride in ppm
>~=< ~-~ ~ > ~,, - ~: o ~ o <~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ <i <= o~ g ~ ~, =~ ~ zoo 24o 2so HO0 2 2 0 0 3 3 0 0 4 4 0 0 5500
° I ~: [I - ' ' ' ' : . . . . . I ' ' ~ ' " . . . . , -- ' ' '

i , , ; !
' l " t

il , !I i\ /. w ,,

2ooo~ ............. ~- .......... T ............... . .................. ~- ............. ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . --. ...... i ! ,

f~O IO0 i50 200 250 300 ,140 4 6 0 400 500 520

MEASURED STABLE TEMPERATURE (°C) SiO 2 (ppm)

EXPLANATION i
Abundance of minerals,veins, LI THOLOGY OTHERS
sheared rock ~ Andesitelavo flow KT
Fluid inclusion homOgenization - - Measured temperature
- - Abundant temperature range and average
- Moderote ~ Andesite hyotoc~st it e
We0k ~ Dacite Fluid inclusion freezing point depressia~
temperature range and average
Alteration Intensity IT~ Basalt
Downhole Silica concentration ( ppm )
---- Complete alteration
F'JTTT1 Microdiorite Downhole Chloride concentration { ppnn )
- - 90-geJ'/o alteration
__ 20.90O/oOtterotion ~ Siltstone TT Aquifer
- 1 0 - 2 0 % alteration 1T~ Limestone Predicted inflow of cold end dilute
I - IO °/°alteration ~ Carbonaceous material fluids based or) alteration and fluid
inclusion data

Fig. 12. Cross-section of Well-Apo-lD, Cotabato, M i n d a n a o Island, showing lithology, the distribution of secondary minerals, fluid-inclusion
homogenization temperatures, aquifers, a n d zones of cold water influx. The increase in goethite, hematite, and the reappearance of smectite.
vermiculite and chlorite-vermiculite coincide with the presence of fluid inclusions with salinities of < 2200 ppm C1e ,, bimodal fluid-inclusion
homogenization temperatures, and a decrease in downhole fluid silica and chloride. M i n e r a l abbreviations: CH ~ chlorite; SM-CH = i n .
terlayered smeetite-chlorite; SW-CH -- i n t e r l a y e r e d chlorite-vermiculite: V = vermiculite; SM :~ smectite: I - S M , i n t e r l a y e r e d itlite-smectite:
I = illite; K = kaolinite; O .... opal; CR : - cristobalite; Q = quartz; AB albite; AD : adularia: LAU : l a u m o n t i t e : WAI ~ wairakite: EP
epidote; SPH = sphene: AL : alunite: AH ~ anhydrite: C T calcite: D O - dolomite: LX : leucoxene: GT = goethite: HM--: hematite:
SULF =: sulfides.
PETROLOGY OF PHILIPPINE GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS
and Ellis, 1970). The persistence of dolomite in
the matrix, especially at depths where
temperatures are greater than 180°C, suggests
that the Ca being contributed by the geothermal
fluids (which may be exchanged for the Mg) was
meager. Similarly, the presence of smectite and
illite-smectite beyond 230 °C may imply limited
interaction of potassium-containing and silicm
rich geothermal fluids within the formation.
Possible cold water influx is indicated by:
(1) Abundant goethite/hematite present in
veins, as clots in the matrix and as alteration of
the magnetite, ferromagnesians and glassy
matrix.
(2) The abundance of magnesium-rich
minerals such as vermiculite, vermiculite-talc,
dolomite, ankerite, magnesium-rich chlorite,
kerolite crystallizing to talc, and talc (without
any associated secondary amphibole).
The presence of iron oxyhydroxides suggests
the presence of oxygenated groundwaters rather
than hypogene geothermal fluids, the latter
generally being reduced. High magnesium con-
centrations suggest that w a t e r - r o c k interac-
tion occurred at relatively low temperatures
(Fournier, 1981) since groundwaters have much
higher Mg than geothermal fluids. Thus Mg-rich
phyllosilicates and carbonates are expected to
form at shallow and low-temperature depths or
at depths where structures channel these Mg-
rich groundwaters downwards.
These minerals may also be used to gauge the
extent of penetration of groundwater as well as
to locate possible temperature reversals in the
formation during drilling of a well.
Well Apo~lD drilled in Cotabato, Mindanao
Island, shows that cold fluids channelled along
two faults are associated with abundant goethite
and retrogradation of hydrothermal minerals
such as garnet and epidote. Fluid-inclusion data
(Fig. 12) also support the fault control to cold
water penetration, e.g., bimodality of
homogenization temperatures and the presence
of some near zero freezing temperatures, sug-
gesting the incursion of highly dilute, cooler
groundwaters into the system. The incursion of
297
cooler, more dilute fluids is also corroborated by
measured temperatures, silica temperatures
and decreasing chloride in downhole samples
(J.R. Ruaya, pers. commun., 1988).
Alteration as a guide to field hydrology
Introduction
The temperature ranges of hydrothermal
minerals, mineral permeability indicators,
minerals indicative of cold groundwater influx
and the presence of acid fluids assist in inter-
preting the hydrology of the system (in conjunc-
tion with data from the other disciplines) by (1)
locating the position of a well with respect to the
main upflow, outflow and margins of a system,
and (2) determining structures that act as the
main conduits for the upflow of hot fluids, chan-
nel cooler groundwaters to deeper levels, and
acid fluids.
In Bacon-Manito and Tongonan, there is a
general trend of decreasing anhydrite and in-
creasing calcite abundance away from the
upflow zone (Fig. 13). This pattern may be
related to the fact that the CO2/H2S ratio in-
creases away from the upflow of Philippine
geothermal systems (e.g., Lovelock et al., 1982
suggesting that H2S is higher at the upflow and
decreases outward. CO 2 in the outflow may be
higher due to mixing with steam condensates
(Hedenquist, 1990). In portions of Bacon-Manito
and Palinpinon, this pattern is complicated by
the presence of a limestone formation or by the
products of several superposed hydrothermal
regimes. Similarly, hematite, iron hydroxide,
and primary magnetite generally persist and the
sulfides decrease in relative abundance, away
from the upflow zone. This may be due to dilution
of the reservoir H2S and/or loss due to boiling
with distance from the upflow.
Cooling is more distinct towards the edges of
the main upflow zone. During exploration dril-
ling, this can be deduced from: a comparison of
mineralogy and fluid-inclusion data with
measured well temperatures (showing rever-
sals); the presence of abundant goethite; an in-
298 A(z, ~EYES
NW SE

400

-4oc
0
E

Z -8oo
0

LU -1200
--I

-160C

- 2000
CALCITE D O M I N A N T
CALCITE = A N H Y D R I T E
I ~ ANHYDRITE DOMINANT

Fig. 13. Cross-section of the Mahiao-Sambaloran sector of Tongonan showing the relative abundances of
anhydrite and calcite in the upflow and outflow regions of the system.

measured well temperatures (showing rever-
sals); the presence of abundant goethite; an in-
crease in calcite alteration; the persistence of
smectite, vermiculite, dolomite, ankerite, and
rarely, kerolite, to deeper levels; large overlaps
of the various neutral-pH alteration zones and
subzones; and the conversion of calc-silicates to
brown amorphous products and/or calcite, and
biotite to chlorite and/or leucoxene. Acid altera-
tion is more developed towards the outflow
regions of some Philippine geothermal systems,
e.g., Palinpinon in Southern Negros and
Tongonan in Leyte, or within the upflow region
as in Bacon-Manito in Albay/Sorsogon and Mt.
Apo in Cotabato. Acid and cool fluids are not
necessarily coincident.
Within the main upflow zone in Philippine
systems, temperature-sensitive minerals are
largely in thermal equilibrium with present-day
fluids, and fluid-inclusion homogenization
temperatures cluster within a narrow range,
within measured temperatures. If the outflow is
towards a paleo-regime, alteration minerals and
fluid-inclusion temperatures often record much
higher temperatures than measured. Where the
outflow is not through an area of paleo high-
temperature alteration, temperature-sensitive
minerals are in equilibrium with measured
temperatures, but occur at deeper levels com-
pared to occurrences in the upflow.
Structures that channel hot fluids
By using cooling and heating trends as discuss-
ed below, the main channels for the transport
and distribution of hot fluids may be identified,
e.g., the northeast-southwest-trending Lagu-
PETROLOGY OF PHILIPPINE GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS
nao Fault in Palinpinon (Figs. 2 and 14).
N o r t h - s o u t h - s t r i k i n g heating trends are also
observed in Tongonan, and these correlate with
surface-mapped structures.
Structures channelling acid and~or cooler
fluids into the system
Most of the permeable horizons in Philippine
wells can be correlated with surface mapped
structures (Zaide and Bueza, 1985) which in turn
may be correlated with alteration assemblages
at depth that may indicate either acid-sulfate
alteration or alteration due to cooler fluids. Fur-
thermore, structures which cut through acid-
altered patches on the surface usually carry acid
fluids downdip to a certain depth, usually <
500 m from the surface.
Predicting boiling and high gas zones in a well
Drusy quartz, anhydrite and wairakite are
sometimes associated with boiling in Philippine
geothermal wells and this is often corroborated
by the presence of some vapor-rich fluid inclu-
sions in hydrothermal crystals, e.g., in Bacon-
Manito (Reyes, 1985). The main evidence used to
predict high gas zones in a well prior to discharge
tests is from fluid-inclusion freezing point
depression (Tm), data wherein clathrates are
formed due to high CO 2 trapped in the inclu-
sions; this results in apparently positive ice-
melting temperatures (Collins, 1979; Heden-
quist and Henley, 1985) as noted in well Mo-1 in
Bacon-Manito, and wells Apo-lD and 2D in Mt.
Apo, Cotabato. In the Apo wells, high gas was
later corroborated by well tests and
geochemistry (J.R. Ruaya, pers. commun., 1988;
N.O. Rodis, pers. commun., 1988).
Temperature fluctuations
As mentioned earlier, most geothermal
systems in the Philippines have experienced at
least two distinct hydrothermal regimes. Fluid-
inclusion data as well as a comparison of altera-
tion mineral geothermometry with present
measured temperatures indicate cooling away
from the main upflow zone, by as much as 200 ° C,
299
although 8 0 - 1 0 0 ° C is more common in most
Philippine systems. Cooling of a geothermal
system may be: (1) caused by the natural collapse
of the thermal regime with time; (2) shifting of
the focus of fluid flow; and/or (3) the incursion of
cold groundwater through structures.
Mineral geothermometers have estimated er-
rors of ± 20°C compared with stable measured
temperatures. A mineral occurring where
temperatures are >_ 30°C below its temperature
stability range is considered relict and indicates
cooling; if measured temperatures are >_ 30°C
above its stability range, heating is postulated.
Plan views of cooling and heating trends based
on a combination of chlorite, biotite, illite,
quartz, epidote, sphene, garnet, opal, cris-
tobalite, smectite and actinolite-tremolite
geothermometers in Palinpinon are shown in
Figure 14. At about 1000 m below sea level, the
southeastern portion shows heating trends, cor-
roborating other indications (e.g., measured
temperature and fluid chemistry trends) that the
main upflow zone is located further south of the
system, towards Cuernos Volcano (Fig. 2). Cool-
ing trends persist to the west, away from the
main upflow. This is postulated to be due to the
incursion of cooler fluids in the western sector of
the system and is shown in a cross-section (Fig.
15). A T-shaped heating trend at 1500 m below
the surface (Fig. 14) is believed to be due to the
ascent of hot fluids along the northeast-trending
Lagunao Fault, identified as one of the principal
channels of fluids from the main upflow to the
south.
The Baslay-Dauin area in Southern Negros
(Fig. 2) is apparently still heating based on the
presence of clays and calc-silicates which have
not yet caught up with present-day tempera-
tures. For example, smectite persists to 240°C
although the formation is permeable; also,
epidote is weakly developed despite measured
temperatures that exceed 260°C.
Within individual wells, there are local tem-
poral fluctuations in temperatures usually
deduced from fluid-inclusion data from vein
material, wherein cooling is observed from the
300 ,,~; ~:~'~.s

.,u
5RO 5RD
'~ N-3 N-3
o

OK-8RO ~"4 / OK-SRD ,~ .._/.,,,3RD

%~,, ~ PUHAGAN
"o OK 4 - , 8 0 . ~ ~ .

s ...... ~';
~,~o "~'°°
30% ~ _ ~ ./.~
SG'3D:, :,.

+ 500m ELEVATION ~,OK-IID

t
Om E L E V A T I O N I,OK- IIo
~SRD N-3
o N-3
o
-~.zo /

i~
,ol<-~ / ~/ ~ PUHAGAN
~-W£°% )~ I (..£#~O"

3D~ )...

-5OOm ELEVATION ~,OK-IID lOOOm ELEVATION ""~OK-IID

. -~ sR~ _~.3/
l \ v ~C...,~// O l
LEGEND:

" ' Y, +$GU-'v- ~---] Alteration in equilibrium with present temperature

_ .., !o.:~ . ~ _ . 7-$~-r Cooling down
Heating up
'"-~#b%-:. "-OK-S'V" ~ J 4 ~ G . I f -1
-'~ '~fJJ#,'~ 2 ~':,...'~'t',<"r.\ c - - - 2 o - - - " l s o t h e r m s "(the difference between measured
stable temperature and temperatures
suggested by mineralogy).
.........~ ~ " ~---
t - . \', ',>/t ~ : , ,"~ p 1 ,' i a . Wellhead and welltrack
;a:~7,>f~ \., it." C "~:
0 I 2 4KM.
SCALE
~500m EL EVATI O~N / ~OK-IID "--

Fig. 14. Plan maps of cooling trends in the Palinpinon geothermal system, Southern Negros, at five elevations.
Trends are based on mineral geothermometers (i.e., first appearances of chlorite, quartz, sphene, illite, the
various epidote types, actinolite-tremolite, garnet, biotite; last appearances of opal, cristobalite, smectite) as
compared with present measured temperatures in wells. The - 1 5 0 0 m plan includes the distribution of faults.
 301
PETROLOGY OF PHILIPPINE GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS

C} ou
w ___
z ~
Q

Z L ~ - -
<[
o
(.9
<~ l - ~

:D [n
n Z

o,~
z
n~
F
(D

o
-8
I i
b0
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(,9 ©
0 OJ
O9
I
0')

%
..-)
",,,V-
(n
z

(n
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\ {n

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I I I
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(sJe~o,-) N 01 j.VA '::IT:I

'302
edge of the vein, inwards. An example is a core
from Well Pal-6D in Bacon-Manito where the
temperatures at the edge of a quartz vein are
280°C, but average 243°C in the middle.
Thickness of uplifted and eroded overburden
The amount of material eroded from an area of'
geothermal activity can be approximated from
the known temperature ranges of alteration
minerals combined with depths determined
from the boiling point for depth relationship.
This assumes t h a t the minerals were all formed
at temperatures close to boiling and the fluids
were low in salinity and gas. Most Philippine
geothermal systems have reservoir chloride
ranging from 3000 to 9000 ppm and nonconden-
sible gases are often < 8 wt.%. If the gas concen-
trations are near the upper end of this range, the
paleodepth estimates will be a minimum.
For example in the Malitbog area of the
Tongonan system, illite and quartz occur on the
surface. In this case, the depth of erosion is
estimated to be approximately 250 m. In con-
trast, epidote is present at the surface in the
eastern and western outflow regions of the Palin-
pinon system in Southern Negros indicating a
m i n i m u m of about 450 m has been eroded; if the
paleowater table was not at the surface, this
estimate would be larger.
Geologic and alteration model of a typical
Philippine geothermal system
The Philippines has several "geothermal pro-
vinces" t h a t are generally parallel to the
volcanic arcs. These may extend along strike as
much as 500 to 800 km, as in Bicol and Leyte.
Within these provinces are several geothermal
areas t h a t are often separated by 3 0 - 5 0 km
(R.O. Obusan, pers. commun., 1982).
Philippine geothermal systems (Fig. 16) are
usually situated on the flanks of andesitic
volcanic complexes, the latter characterized by
several periods of eruption and intrusion t h a t ex-
4 ~;, REYES
tend to Holocene times. Thermal activity shifts
from one locality to another usually along the
most prominent structures in the area, e.g., west
to east in Bacon-Manito, southwest to northeast
in Palinpinon and southeast to northwest in
Tongonan. These shifts and the waning of heat
sources lead to several centers of hydrothermal
activity of various ages. Thus, in the Palinpinon
outflow region alone, several hydrothermal ages
are recorded from thermoluminescence data.
ranging from 0.99 to 0.006 Ma (I. Takashima,
pers. commun., 1988).
The earliest hydrothermal activity in some of
the areas studied began during the Late
Miocene, as in Davao and Acupan, although this
activity has now waned. Present hydrothermal
activity in most studied systems probably dates
from Late Pleistocene to Holocene.
In general, the stratigraphy consists of I, ower
Pliocene to Holocene, submarine and terrestrial,
andesite lava flows, tuff breccias and
hyaloclastites with minor dacites and basalts.
These units are intercalated with Upper
Miocene to Lower Pliocene, fossiliferous, often
carbonaceous calcisiltites deposited in a
lacustrine or neritic to bathyal environment;
these are often intercalated with andesitic lava
flows. Intrusives underlying or intruding these
rocks are found in most areas. These occur as
plutons and dikes, ranging in age from Late
Miocene to Late Pleistocene. Compositions
range from diorite to quartz monzodiorite, with
minor occurrences of granodiorite, diabase and
monzogabbro.
Typical alteration patterns are shown in Fig.
16. There are at least two superposed hydrother-
mal regimes in most areas, one waning and cool-
ing while the alteration mineralogy of the
youngest is generally in equilibrium with pre-
sent temperatures. The principal mineral zona-
tion is based on the more pervasive neutral-pH
alteration suite. On the other hand, acid altera-
tion is often confined along structures and may
persist to deep levels, depending on the structure
it follows. Some of the acid alteration at shallow
levels may be buried solfataras or surfhce acid
PETROLOGY OF PHILIPPINE GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS 303

SURFACEI
ALTERATION
ASSEMBLAGE
'l 3 4 1
KAIPOHAN
p~
P-
~u
z YOUNGEST
w
L) LAVA FLOWS
o
.J hND
z VOLCANICLASTICS
wI4J
I-o
.jt~

uJw TERRESTIALLY
zz
LAID VOLCANICS

._lffl

HYALOCLASTITES
._11-

0
I- w LIMESTONE,
~z
zU3
SI~STONE,
w~
SANDSTONE,
R5 SEDIMENTARY
ww BRECCIAS
i.-I-
JJ

/
Unaltered rock
Smectite zone
Transition zone
.~llite zone
Acid alteration
/•+
+
+
+
+ L+AT~ST+INI-~LTSIt/E+EV*EN*r
÷ +

. . . . . . . .
+ + (4) + + + + ~
+ ÷ ~
+

. . . .
+\

\
5~ w ~ e-=
INTRUSIVES

~oo¢~)o~ First appearance of Epidote MAGMATIC EMISSIONS

\ "°"iw t
= = .~ x First appearance of Biotite
First appearance of Amphibole
# Deep acid fluid upflow
'i1 t Neutral pS chloride fluid flow
~, Acid sulfate fluid influx

Fig. 16. Geologic model, alteration patterns and stratigraphy typical of a Philippine geothermal system. The
numbers at the top indicate the surface alteration assemblage typical of the surface manifestations indicated
above: (1) cristobalite, kaolinite, pyrophyllite, minor native sulfur, quartz, pyrite; (2) native sulfur, opal,
cristobalite, tridymite, kaolinite, sulfate efflorescenses, marcasite, pyrite; (3) opal, cristobalite, alunite-
natroalunite, amorphous sulfur, pyrite; (4) opal, minor cristobalite, smectite, halite. The lateral dimension of this
model could range from - 2 to 15 km.

alteration related to previous hot spring activi- alteration, ascending hypogene acid fluids with
ty. probable magmatic components produce
For both alteration suites, altering fluids are minerals such as topaz, lazulite, andalusite, and
evolved meteoric waters (Ellis, 1979) probably zunyite, often associated with diaspore,
with some magmatic components rising from pyrophyllite, quartz, alunite, anhydrite, pyrite
deep levels (hypogene) as well as steam-heated and sometimes, native sulfur. In contrast, acid
acid waters channelled from the surface to alteration caused by descending steam-heated
deeper levels by structures. In the case of acid acid waters comprises an assemblage of
304
kaolinite, dickite, pyrophyllite, pyrophyllite +
illite, diaspore, quartz, opal, cristobalite,
tridymite, natroalunite, alunite, anhydrite,
pyrite and native sulfur, depending on
temperature and distance from the acid channel.
Surface alteration assemblages vary with the
type of thermal activity and the composition of
the thermal springs. Thus at high elevations,
where manifestations are mainly cold gas
(although fumarolic activity may have once been
present), areas of alteration consist of
cristobalite, kaolinite, pyrophyllite, native
sulfur, pyrite and quartz recrystallizing from
opal. Such patches are locally called kaipohan
(Seastres, 1982; Bogie et al., 1987).
At lower elevations from the kaipohan there
are fumaroles which sublimate native sulfur,
and whose acid condensates completely leach the
country rock to opal, cristobalite, tridymite;
marcasite and pyrite also occur and hydrous
sulfate efflorescences such as pickeringite,
halotrichite, copiapite, etc., form from the reac-
tion of groundwaters with sulfur. Acid-sulfate
springs usually have in association opal,
cristobalite, alunite, pyrite and amorphous
sulfur.
Neutral-pH chloride hot springs alter the sur-
rounding rock to opal, cristobalite, and smectite
and deposit opal (as sinters), halite (forms during
the dry season on the edges of high chloride
springs or during drying of samples from such
springs) and rarely, thenardite and rhodochro-
site. At high mass flows, bicarbonate thermal
springs usually deposit aragonite and calcite; on-
ly calcite deposits from bicarbonate springs of
low flow.
Where high-temperature fossil hydrothermal
alteration is extensive at the surface, the subsur-
face temperatures are sometimes lower t h a n in
areas where relict alteration is absent, and
sometimes the area being drilled is on the
outflow zone of the present system. Examples in-
clude Tongonan and Palinpinon. Malitbog in
Tongonan is characterized by areas of surface
alteration of the illite zone. This sector of the
geothermal system is still viable, but well
~ ~ ~v:y>.
temperatures to the south and southwest of the
sector are generally lower compared with the ad-
jacent Mahiao-Sambaloran area to the north~
west. Similarly, in Southern Negros, relict
alteration at the surface is not prominent in the
Puhagan area, where the main upflow is located,
but is widespread to the west and east, where
isotherms dip on the margins of the system.
Geothermal systems related to small domes
and plugs such as at Acupan and Daktan
(Benguet), and Amacan (Davao) are usuall3
limited in extent. Although temperatures may
be high, permeabilities are often low. Isothermal
contours often dip sharply away from the dome
or plug.
Conclusions
Petrology and the study of hydrothermal
alteration mineralogy are important in the ex-
ploration and development of Philippine
geothermal systems, as elsewhere. Specifically,
detailed alteration mineralogy and other
petrography studies in co,junction with other
sources of data (such as measured well and reser-
voir conditions, discharge fluid chemistry, struc-
tural geology, stratigraphy, etc.) can assist in:
(1) modelling geothermal systems by defining
zones of upflow, outflow, areas of cold ground-
water incursion, structures that channel acid
fluids, main channels or structures tbr the
upflow of hot fluids, and horizons of high gas or
near boiling conditions;
(2) identifying future problems in the well or
geothermal field such as casing corrosion and
subsequent failure, acid inflow, cold water i n c u r
sions, and scaling tendencies;
(3) setting the production casing shoe during
drilling using alteration and fluid-inclusion
studies by considering temperature, presence of
possible acid fluids, and high gas horizons;
(4) exploring new geothermal systems by iden-
tifying the extent of alteration and their altera-
tion assemblages, hot spring scales, predicting
possible acid influx into future wells, predicting
the possible upflow sector, etc.; and
PETROLOGYOF PHILIPPINE GEOTHERMALSYSTEMS 305

(5) siting the first few wells in a new geother-
mal ar ea for exploration and later assisting in
planning the reinjection and production sectors
in a geothermal field.
Acknowledgments
I would like to t h a n k the following for review-
ing this paper and providing useful comments:
Drs. J.W. Hedenquist, P.R.L. Browne, S.F. Sim-
mons, J.R. Ruaya, Messrs. H.P. Ferrer, A.P.
Alcaraz, L.F. Bayrant e, H.J. Tebar, Ms. M.C.
Zaide-Delfin and two anonymous reviewers of
this paper. I am grateful to Messrs. F.S.
Ahumada, V.O. del Carmen, and W.S. C a r m e n
for drafting all the figures; and PNOC-EDC
Geothermal for allowing me to publish this
paper.

Appendix 1

Minerals 1 2 3 4 5

1. Sheet silicates
Smectite N XXX P,W Fp,Fs,V Gt,Gc
Illite N,A XXX Fs,Fp,V Gt,Gp
Paragonite N R Fp,Mx Gt,Gc
Biotite N,C XX Fp,Fs,V Gt
Chlorite N XXX Fp,Fs,V Gt,Gc
Vermiculite N XX W,P Fp,Fs,V Gc,Gt
Talc N X Fp,Fs,V Gc,Gt
Prehnite N X Fp,V Gt,Gc
Illite-smectite N XXX Fp,Fs,V Gt, Gc
Rectorite N XX Fp,V Gc
Chlorite-vermiculite N XX Fp,V Gc,Gt
Smectite-chlorite M XX W Fp,V Gc

Corrensite N X W Fp,V ac
Chlorite-illite N R Fp,Mx Gc
Vermiculite-talc N R Fp,Fs,Mx Gc
Halloysite N,A X W,S Fp,Mx Gt
Kaolinite A,N XXX W,S Fp,Mx,V Gc,Gt
Dickite A X Fp,Fs,V Gt,Gc
Pyrophyllite A XX S Fp,Fs,V Gc,Gt

2. Framework silicates
Opal N,A XXX S,P Fp,Mx,V Gt,Gf
Alpha-cristobalite N,A XX S,P Fp,Fs,Mx.V Gt,Gs
Tridymite N,A R S Fp,V Gs,Gt
Quartz N,A XXX Fp,Mx,V Gt,Gf
Albite I N XXX Fp,V Gt
Adularia N XX V Gp,Gc,Gt
Andesine C X Fp,V
Hyalophane N X Fp,V Gp,Gt,Gc
Heulandite N R Fp,V Gt
Stilbite N R Fp,V Gt
Laumontite N XX Fp,V Gt,Gf
Wairakite N XX P Fp,V Gp,Gt,Gf

1 Albite is a useful geothermometer only when it occurs in veins. Otherwise the albitization of plagioclases occurs
within a wide range of temperatures
306 .,.~ ~EY~:

Minerals 1 2 3 4 5

3.0rtho- and ring silicates

Epidote N XXX Fp,Fs,Mx,V Gt,Gf
Zoisite N R Fp,Fs Gt
Clinozoisite N X Fs,Fp,V Gt
Andradite N X Fp,Fs,V Gt
Hydrogrossular N R Fp,Fs,V
Pumpellyite N X Fp,V Gt,Gc
Sphene N XX Fp,Fs,Mx,V Gt
Tourmaline A,N X Fp,Mx Gc,Gt
Andalusite A R Fp,Fs,V Gt,Gc
Zunyite A R Fp,Fs,V Gc
Topaz A R Fp Gc

4. Chain silicates
Actinolite-tremolite N,C XX Fp,Fs,Mx,V Gt
Wollastonite C,N R Fp
Clinopyroxene C,N R Fp,V Gt

5. Sulfates~sulfur
Gypsum N XXX S,E Fp,Fs,V Gt,Gc
Anhydrite N,A XXX P Fp,Fs,V Gt,Gf, Gc
Barite N X P Fp,Fs,V Gc
Celestite A R Fp,V
Thenardite N R S
Alunite A XXX S Fp,Fs,V Gc,Gf
Natroalunite A X S Fp,Fs,V Gt,Gc
Jarosite A,N X S,W V
Natrojarosite A R P
Ammoniojarosite A R P
Kieserite A R S
Tamarugite A R S
Halotrichite A R S,E
Alunogen A X S
Copiapite A R S
Pickeringite A R S
Jurbanite A R S
Native Sulfur A X S V Gc

6. Carbonates
Calcite N XXX S,P Fp,Fs,Mx,V Gc
Aragonite N X S,P V Gc,Gt
Dolomite N XX Fp,Fs,V Gc,Gt
Ankerite N R Fp,V Gt
Siderite N R P Fp,V Gt
Magnesite N R S
Rhodochrosite N R S
Teschemacherite N R P Gc

7. Phosphates
Apatite N,A X Fp,V
Lazulite A R Fp,V Gt,Gc
PETROLOGY OF PHILIPPINE GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS 307

Minerals 1 2 3 4 5

8. Oxides
Geothite N,A XXX S,P,W Fp,Mx,V Gc
Lepidocrocite N,A X S,P Fp,V
Maghemite N XX P Fp Gc
Hematite N XXX P,W Fp,V Gc
Magnetite N,C X Fp,V Gc
Ilmenite N R Fp,Fs,V
Rutile N,A XX Fp,Fs,V Gt
Leucoxene N,A XXX W,S Fp,Fs,V
Diaspore A XX Fp,Fs,V Gt,Gc

9. Sulfides
Pyrite N,A XXX S,P Fp,Fs,V
Marcasite A X S Fp,FS,V Gc
Pyrrhotite N X P Fp Gc,Gs
Chalcopyrite N X P Fs,Fp,V Gt,Gc
Bornite N R Fp,V Gt
Chalcocite A R Fp,V Gc
Covellite A,N R Fp,V Gc
Enargite A R V Gc
Arsenopyrite N,A X P Gc
Galena N X P V Gt,Gc
Sphalerite N X P V Gt,Gc
Wurtzite N X P Gc
Tennantite/ N R P V Gc
Tetrahedrite

10. Others
Halite N X S,P Gc
Sylvite N X P
Electrum N X P
Gold N R P

Explanation of symbols used:

1. Alteration suite: A = Acid hydrothermal mineral; N = Neutral pH hydrothermal mineral; C - Contact
metamorphic.
2. Abundance and frequency of occurrence: XXX = Commonly-occurring and abundant in most areas; XX =
Moderate frequency and abundance; X = Present in some fields but sparsely; R = Rare.
3. Surface occurrences: S = Precipitates, sublimates, and/or alteration products associated with thermal
manifestations; P = scales and corrosion products in the wellbore, wellhead, and/or pipelines; W = weathering pro-
duct; E = efflorescence formed during storage of rock samples.
4. Subsurface occurrences: Fp = Alteration of primary minerals; Fs = Alteration of secondary minerals; Mx =
Alteration of matrix; V = Precipitation in vugs and veins.
5. Geothermal significance: Gt = geothermometer; Gp = Permeability indicator; Gc = Indicates fluid chemistry;
Gf = used in fluid-inclusion studies; Gs = suggests high steam to water ratio.
308
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