CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

Basics of Operation and In-Service Testing

Norbert J. Ackermann, Jr.

CEO, Spinlab

1. INTRODUCTION

Current transformers are used in electric metering for large load situations to reduce the current
level presented to the metering circuit in order to make it more manageable and safe. This paper
presents the basics of operation of current transformers and discusses the in-service testing of
current transformers to assure accurate performance.

2. BASICS OF OPERATION

2.1 Ratio

A current transformer (henceforth called a CT) is designed to produce a secondary current, Is,
that is directly proportional to its primary current, Ip, which is also called the load current. In
metering this proportionality is called the ratio of the CT and is represented by:

Ip
Ratio = x 5
Is

2.2 Rated Ratio

The ratio of a CT is referenced to a 5 amp secondary output for nominal full value input current
such that a CT ratio of 200 to 5 means that the CT would produce a secondary current of 5 amps
when exposed to a primary current of 200 amps. The CT manufacturer classifies its CT’s by its
ratio value called the rated ratio which is stamped on the nameplate of the CT and that is the
certified operating value of the CT.

2.3. Accuracy Class

The CT accuracy is determined by its certified accuracy class which is also stamped on its
nameplate. For example, a CT accuracy class of 0.3 means that the CT is certified by the
manufacturer to be accurate to within 0.3 percent of its rated ratio value for a primary current of
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100 percent of rated ratio. For primary currents of 10 percent of rated ratio the specified accuracy
for a given classification is double that of the 100 percent value or 0.6 percent for the above-
stated case. The accuracy is relatively linear between these two points. Hence a CT with a rated
ratio of 200 to 5 with accuracy class of 0.3 would operate within 0.45 percent of its rated ratio
value for a primary current of 100 amps. To be more explicit, for a primary current of 100.00
amps it is certified to produce a secondary current between 2.489 amps and 2.511 amps.

2.4. Rating Factor

Some CT’s are certified to be accurate for primary current values greater than 100 percent of the
rated ratio, called over-range. This over-range is designated by a rating factor representing the
factor by which the upper limit of the primary current can be increased and still remain within
certified accuracy. Hence a 200 to 5 rated ratio CT with a rating factor of 2 will remain within its
accuracy certification up to 400 amps (200 amps times 2). The rating factor of the CT is stamped
on the nameplate of the CT. Typical rating factors are 1, 1.5, 2, 3, and 4.

2.5. Burden

When a CT is used in a metering circuit it will have a secondary current loop connecting its
output through a test block to a meter . This current loop will consist of a secondary wire from its
X1 terminal to a test block and go through a shorting switch. From the shorting switch the
current loop will have a wire connection over to the meter, go through the meter, and have a wire
connection back to the test block. From there the current loop will go through the secondary
current test switch and have a wire connection return to the X2 terminal of the CT with a
connection to neutral either at the output of the current test switch or at the X2 terminal of the
CT . This secondary current loop has an electrical impedance called its burden. This burden will
have a resistance component and may have an inductance component. Usually the inductance
component is small and is treated as negligible. The burden of the secondary circuit, as installed,
is designated the natural burden of the circuit. If installed properly the natural burden should be
less than a few milliohms. The CT is designed to operate accurately under certain burden
conditions as specified. The accuracy class certification of a CT is presented for a stated upper
value of burden, called the CT’s rated burden. For example it may have an accuracy class of 0.3
for burden of 1, meaning that the CT’s rated burden is 1 ohm and the CT will maintain accurate
rated ratio performance within 0.3 percent for secondary circuit burdens up to 1 ohm. This rated
burden classification is also stamped on the CT nameplate. If the natural burden of the secondary
circuit is larger than the rated burden, then the CT is not certified to have accurate performance.
For this condition, called over-burdened, the secondary current will not be accurate tending to be
somewhat less to significantly less than the accurate value causing the metering to be in error in
favor of the customer. Furthermore, secondary circuits may have burden build up as they age due
to loose connections, corrosion, broken stranded wires, etc. CT’s, as installed, need to have
enough excess burden capacity over the natural burden to allow accurate performance over time
even if there is additional burden build up in the secondary circuit.
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3. IN-SERVICE TESTING OF CT-METERED INSTALLATIONS

3.1. Introduction

Electrical utilities have significant concerns about revenue loss due to inaccuracies from
metering. Metering inaccuracies are caused by installation errors, aging and environmental
failures, and theft. Studies have consistently shown that the majority of revenue loss in their
system comes from their CT-metered installations. This occurs because these are the larger
customers of the utility such that an error will create obviously a much larger loss and because
CT installations are more complex and comprise more components resulting in a higher
probability of failures. The attached Table presents the 32 different failure modes that you can
have in a CT-metered installation. In nearly all cases these failure modes result in errors in favor
of the customer resulting in under-billing of the customer. To protect against this revenue loss,
utilities have implemented in-service testing of their CT-metered installations. These test
programs may consist of ratio testing, burden testing, ratio/burden testing, and wire verification
testing.

3.2. Ratio Testing

Ratio testing involves simultaneously measuring the primary current and the secondary current in
order to calculate the operating ratio of the circuit. This ratio value is compared to the rated ratio
to determine the percent error for that CT. Ratio values greater than the rated ratio result in
under-billing and ratio values less than the rated ratio result in over-billing. As presented in the
Table, ratio errors can be caused by manufacturer error, shorting bar left connected at the CT,
shorted primary turns, shorted secondary turns, magnetization, etc. Most utilities use an error
threshold of plus or minus 2 percent to determine adequate ratio performance of installed CT’s.
Others choose to have an error threshold of 1 percent for their large CT customers and 2 percent
for their smaller CT customers.

3.3. Burden Testing

Burden testing of CT-metered installations involves measuring the secondary current of the CT
circuit while introducing additional burden in graduated steps, usually up to the rated burden of
the CT, into the circuit and assuming constant customer load during the duration of the test. If
the measured secondary current remains constant during the duration of the test then the CT is
deemed to have passed the burden test as rated. This allows the determination of the performance
of the CT under the build up of additional burden in order to evaluate future performance if such
additional burden does occur. If the customer load does change sometime during the burden test
then the secondary current will correspondingly change giving a false indication of burden error.
This is a major limitation of burden testing. As presented in the Table, burden errors can be
caused by excessively long secondary wires, wrong wire gauge, loose connections, corroded
connections, etc. In a majority of cases, burden errors are caused by loose or corroded
connections in the secondary circuit. Hence when a burden error is detected a tightening of the
screws in that circuit will usually correct the error. Otherwise, a search for and elimination of the
high burden component will be necessary.
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3.4. Ratio/Burden Testing

The dependence on constant customer load during the duration of the test is a major limitation
for burden testing. To overcome this limitation, a technique called ratio/burden testing is
recommended. Ratio/burden testing involves measuring the CT ratio while imposing a series of
additional burdens into the secondary circuit usually up to the rated burden of the CT. In this test
any customer load change will create a corresponding change in both the primary current and the
secondary current so that the ratio should be unaffected. Hence any change in the ratio value
during the test will unquestionably be due to burden error.
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3.5. Wire Verification

Wiring errors in CT-metered installations are detected through use of phase angle analysis of the
primary current signal, secondary current signal, and secondary voltage signal. For a particular
meter type and secondary wiring network there will be an appropriate phase angle relationship
among these signals. Errors in wiring such as CT reversal, CT cross phasing, or CT-PT cross
phasing will introduce particular additional phase shifts that are readily identifiable indicating the
presence of a wiring error.

3.6 Comprehensive CT-System Testing

To assure the absence of all of the possible 32 failure modes that can occur in a CT-metered
installation (see Table) a comprehensive in-service test is required that comprises ratio testing,
ratio/burden testing, and wire verification testing in tandem. Passing a comprehensive test
assures accurate CT and secondary circuit performance at that site.

4. EXAMPLES OF CT CIRCUIT FAILURES

4.1 CT with Shorted Turns

4.2 Wrong Selection of Dual Ratio CT

4.3 Magnetized CT

4.4 Burden Failure in Secondary Circuit

4.5 Wiring Error

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TABLE. CT System Failure Modes

Failue Mode Test Technique Possible Cause
for Failure Mode of Failure Mode
Wiring Problems
1 Cross Phasing of a CT Wire Verification Installation Error
2 Cross Phasing of a CT/PT Wire Verification Installation Error
3 X1X2/H1H2 Reversal of a CT Wire Verification Installation Error
4 X1X2/H1H2 Reversal of a PT Wire Verification Installation Error
5 Meter Socket Wire Error Wire Verification Installation Error
6 Loose Connections Burden Test Vibration/Wind/Installation Error
7 Corroded Connections/Terminals Burden Test Moisture
8 Insulation Stripping Error Burden Test Installation Error
9 Excessive Wire Length/Small Wire Burden Test Installation Error
10 Broken Wire Strands Burden Test Installation Error
11 Meter Overburdened Burden Test Installation Error

Primary/Secondary Current Shunt Problems

12 Shorted Turns (Wiring & Leakage Current) Ratio/Burden Test Lightning/Ground Fault
13 Shorted Turns (Turn to Turn) Ratio/Burden Test Lightning/Ground Fault
14 Shorted Turns (Turn to Ground) Ratio/Burden Test Lightning/Ground Fault
15 Theft (Secondary Shunt) Ratio/Burden Test Tampering
16 Theft (Primary Shunt) Ratio/Burden Test Tampering
17 Theft (CT Wrap) Ratio/Burden Test Tampering
18 Theft (Primary Tap) Ratio/Burden Test Tampering
19 Theft (Secondary Tap) Ratio/Burden Test Tampering

Current Transformer Problems

20 Open Secondary Ratio Test Installation Error/Tampering
21 Shorted Secondary Ratio Test Installation Error/Tampering
22 Magnetized CT Ratio/Burden Test Lightning/Ground Fault
23 Dual Ratio Error Ratio Test Installation Error
24 Inaccurate Ratio on CT Ratio Test Manufacturer Defect
25 Wire Wrap Error on CT Ratio Test Manufacturer Defect
26 Inaccurate Rated Burden on CT Burden Test Manufacturer Defect
27 CT Burden Manufacturer Error Burden Test Manufacturer Defect
28 CT Mounted Backwards Wire Verification Installation Error
29 Polarity Dot on Wrong Side of CT Wire Verification Manufacturer Defect
30 Overburdened CT Ratio/Burden Test Secondary Burden
31 Overdriven CT Ratio/Burden Test Excessive Current
32 CT Phase Shift Wire Verification Harmonic Loading