CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO BHEL

1. Introduction

BHEL, to capitalize opportunities, focused on manufacturing capacity

expansion, innovation, and manpower augmentation as identified in fifth
strategic plan 'Strategic Plan 2007' applicable for 2002 -07.

Figure 1.1: Bharat Heavy Electric Limited

Bharat Heavy Plates and Vessels (BHPV) at Visakhapatnam was merged with
BHEL to become the 17 th manufacturing unit, Heavy Plates and Vessels
Plant. More than 20,000 people were recruited during 2007 -12 taking manpower
to around 50,000 as of March 2012. In response to natural resource scarcity and
climate change compulsions, BHEL forged technology collaboration agreements
with Alstom-USA and Siemens-Germany for bringing energy and fuel -efficient
supercritical technology to India. Innovation was identified as the key strategy to
stay competitive in market.

1.1 Vision & Mission

1.1.1 Vision
To be the best mechanical engineering firm and center of excellence within Ethiopia.

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1.1.2 Mission
Creating dynamic company for the continuous exploration and development of opportunities,
locally and abroad, for growth within the field of mechanical engineering through the
maximization of added values from all its assets.

1.2 Product
BHEL is one of the largest engineering and manufacturing companies of its kind in India
engaged in design, engineering, construction, testing, commissioning and servicing of a wide
range of products and services with over 180 product offerings to meet the ever-growing
needs of the core sectors of economy.

As of 2017, BHEL supplied equipment contributed to about 55% of the total installed power
generation capacity of India. The company has also supplied thousands of Electric
Locomotives to Indian Railway as well as defence equipment such as the Super Rapid Gun
Mount (SRGM) naval guns and Defence Simulators to the Indian Armed Forces.

1.3 Operations
BHEL is engaged in the design, engineering, manufacturing, construction, testing,
commissioning and servicing of a wide range of products, systems and services for the core
sectors of the economy, viz. power, transmission, industry, transportation, renewable energy,
oil & gas and defence.

It has a network of 17 manufacturing units, 2 repair units, 4 regional offices, 8 service

centres, 8 overseas offices, 15 regional centres, 7 joint ventures, and infrastructure allowing it
to execute more than 150 projects at sites across India and abroad. The company has
established the capability to deliver 20,000 MW p.a. of power equipment to address the
growing demand for power generation equipment
BHEL has retained its market leadership position during 2015-16 with 74% market share in
the Power Sector. An improved focus on project execution enabled BHEL record its highest
ever commissioning/synchronization of 15059 MW of power plants in domestic and
international markets in 2015-16, marking a 59% increase over 2014-15. With the all-time
high commissioning of 15000 MW in a single year FY2015-16, BHEL has exceeded 170 GW
installed base of power generating equipments.

It also has been exporting its power and industry segment products and services for over 40
years. BHEL's global references are spread across over 76 countries across all the six
continents of the world. The cumulative overseas installed capacity of BHEL manufactured

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power plants exceeds 9,000 MW across 21 countries including Malaysia, Oman, Iraq, UAE,
Bhutan, Egypt and New Zealand. Their physical exports range from turnkey projects to after
sales services.

1.4 Initiatives
BHEL's investment in R&D is amongst the largest in the corporate sector in India.
During the year 2012-13, the company invested about Rs. 1,252 Crore on R&D efforts, which
corresponds to nearly 2.50% of the turnover of the company, focusing on new product and
system developments and improvements in existing products for cost competitiveness, higher
reliability, efficiency, availability and quality etc. To meet customer expectations, the
company has upgraded its products to contemporary levels through continuous in-house
efforts as well as through acquisition of new technologies from leading engineering
organizations of the world. The IPR (Intellectual Property Rights) capital of BHEL grew by
21.5% in the year, taking the total to 2170.

The Corporate R&D division at Hyderabad leads BHEL’s research efforts in a number of
areas of importance to BHEL’s product range. Research & product development (RPD)
Groups for each product group at the manufacturing divisions play a complementary role.
BHEL has established Centres of Excellence for Simulators, Computational Fluid Dynamics,
Permanent Magnet Machines, Surface Engineering, Machine Dynamics, Centre for Intelligent
Machines and Robotics, Compressors & Pumps, Centre for Nano Technology, Ultra High
Voltage Laboratory at Corporate R&D; Centre of Excellence for Hydro Machines at Bhopal;
Power Electronics and IGBT & Controller Technology at Electronics Division, Bengaluru,
and Advanced Fabrication Technology and Coal Research Centre at Tiruchirappalli
Significantly, BHEL is one of the only four Indian companies and the only Indian Public
Sector Enterprise figuring in 'The Global Innovation 1000' of Booz & Co., a list of 1,000
publicly traded companies which are the biggest spenders on R&D in the world.

1.5 Products Profile

1.5.1Thermal Power Plant
Steam Generators, Steam Turbines, Turbo Generators along with regenerative feed cycle up to
800 MW capacities for fossil-fuel, and combined-cycle applications, capability to design and
manufacture Steam Generators, steam turbines with supercritical steam cycle parameters and
matching Turbo Generators of up to 1000 MW unit size.
Condensers, Condensate Extraction Pumps, Boiler Feed Pumps, Valves and Heat Exchangers
meeting above requirement of TG Sets up to 1000 MW.

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1.5.2 Nuclear Power Plant
Steam generator & Turbines and matching Turbo-Generators, Condensers up to 700 MW
capacity.
Heat exchangers
Pressure vessel
Reactor vessels

1.5.3 Gas- Based Power Plant

Gas turbines and matching generators ranging from 25 to 292 MW (ISO) rating.
Gas turbine- based co-generation and combined-cycle systems for industry and utility
applications.

1.5.4 Hydro Power Plant

The most common type of hydroelectric power plant is an impoundment facility. An
impoundment facility, typically a large hydropower system, uses a dam to store river water in
a reservoir. Water released from the reservoir flows through a turbine, spinning it, which in
turn activates a generator to produce electricity. The water may be released either to meet
changing electricity needs or to maintain a constant reservoir level.

1.5.5 DG Power Plant

Conventional power stations, such as coal-fired, gas, and nuclear powered plants, as well
as hydroelectric dams and large-scale solar power stations, are centralized and often require
electric energy to be transmitted over long distances. By contrast, DER systems are
decentralized, modular, and more flexible technologies, that are located close to the load they
serve, albeit having capacities of only 10 megawatts (MW) or less. These systems can
comprise multiple generation and storage components; in this instance they are referred to
as hybrid power systems.

1.6 Casting and Forgings

1.6.1 Casting
Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold,
which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The
solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to
complete the process.

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 Figure 1.2: Casting Process

1.6.2 Forging
Forging is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of metal using localized
compressive forces. The blows are delivered with a hammer (often a power hammer) or a die.
Forging is often classified according to the temperature at which it is performed: cold forging
(a type of cold working), warm forging, or hot forging (a type of hot working). For the latter
two, the metal is heated, usually in a forge. Forged parts can range in weight from less than a
kilogram to hundreds of metric tons. Forging has been done by smiths for millennia; the
traditional products were kitchenware, hardware, hand tools, edged

Figure 1.3: Forging Process

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 CHAPTER 2
BOILER

2.1 Boiler
A boiler is a closed vessel in which fluid (generally water) is heated. The fluid does not
necessarily boil. (In North America, the term "furnace" is normally used if the purpose is not
to boil the fluid.[citation needed]) The heated or vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in
various processes or heating applications, including water heating, central heating, boiler-
based power generation, cooking, and sanitation.
2.2 Heat Sources
In a fossil fuel power plant using a steam cycle for power generation, the primary heat source
will be combustion of coal, oil, or natural gas. In some cases by product fuel such as the
carbon-monoxide rich off gasses of a coke battery can be burned to heat a boiler; biofuels
such as bagasse, where economically available, can also be used. In a nuclear power plant,
boilers called steam generators are heated by the heat produced by nuclear fission. Where a
large volume of hot gas is available from some process, a heat recovery steam generator or
recovery boiler can use the heat to produce steam, with little or no extra fuel consumed; such
a configuration is common in a combined cycle power plant where a gas turbine and a steam
boiler are used
2.3 Materials

The pressure vessel of a boiler is usually made of steel (or alloy steel), or historically of
wrought iron. Stainless steel, especially of the austenitic types, is not used in wetted parts of
boilers due to corrosion and stress corrosion cracking. However, ferritic stainless steel is
often used in super heater sections that will not be exposed to boiling water, and electrically-
heated stainless steel shell boilers are allowed under the European "Pressure Equipment
Directive" for production of steam for sterilizers and disinfectors.

In live steam models, copper or brass is often used because it is more easily fabricated in
smaller size boilers. Historically, copper was often used for fireboxes (particularly for steam
locomotives), because of its better formability and higher thermal conductivity; however, in
more recent times, the high price of copper often makes this an uneconomic choice and
cheaper substitutes (such as steel) are used instead.

For much of the Victorian "age of steam", the only material used for boiler making was the
highest grade of wrought iron, with assembly by riveting. This iron was often obtained from
specialist ironworks, such as those in the Cleator Moor (UK) area, noted for the high quality
of their rolled plate, which was especially suitable for use in critical applications such as
high-pressure boilers. In the 20th century, design practice moved towards the use of steel,

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with welded construction, which is stronger and cheaper, and can be fabricated more quickly
and with less labour. Wrought iron boilers corrode far more slowly than their modern-day
steel counterparts, and are less susceptible to localized pitting and stress-corrosion. That
makes the longevity of older wrought-iron boilers far superior to that of welded steel boilers.

Cast iron may be used for the heating vessel of domestic water heaters. Although such heaters
are usually termed "boilers" in some countries, their purpose is usually to produce hot water,
not steam, and so they run at low pressure and try to avoid boiling. The brittleness of cast iron
makes it impractical for high-pressure steam boilers.

2.4 Energy
The source of heat for a boiler is combustion of any of several fuels, such as wood, coal, oil,
or natural gas. Electric steam boilers use resistance- or immersion-type heating elements.
Nuclear fission is also used as a heat source for generating steam, either directly (BWR) or, in
most cases, in specialised heat exchangers called "steam generators" (PWR). Heat recovery
steam generators (HRSGs) use the heat rejected from other processes such as gas turbine.

2.5 Boiler Efficiency

There are two methods to measure the boiler efficiency:

Direct method

Indirect method

Direct method: Direct method of boiler efficiency test is more usable or more common.

Boiler efficiency = power out / power in = (Q * (Hg - Hf)) / (q * GCV) * 100%

Q = rate of steam flow in kg/h

Hg = enthalpy of saturated steam in kcal/kg

Hf = enthalpy of feed water in kcal/kg

q = rate of fuel use in kg/h

GCV = gross calorific value in kcal/kg (e.g. pet coke 8200 kcal/kg)

Indirect method: To measure the boiler efficiency in indirect method, we need a following
parameter like:

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Ultimate analysis of fuel (H2,S2,S,C moisture constraint, ash constraint)

Percentage of O2 or CO2 at flue gas

Flue gas temperature at outlet

Ambient temperature in deg c and humidity of air in kg/kg

GCV of fuel in kcal/kg

Ash percentage in combustible fuel

GCV of ash in kcal/kg

2.5 Configurations

Pot boiler or Haycock boiler/Haystack boiler: A primitive "kettle" where a fire heats a
partially filled water container from below. 18th century Haycock boilers generally produced
and stored large volumes of very low-pressure steam, often hardly above that of the
atmosphere. These could burn wood or most often, coal. Efficiency was very low.

Fire-tube boiler: Here, water partially fills a boiler barrel with a small volume left above to
accommodate the steam (steam space). This is the type of boiler used in nearly all steam
locomotives. The heat source is inside a furnace or firebox that has to be kept permanently
surrounded by the water in order to maintain the temperature of the heating surface below the
boiling point. The furnace can be situated at one end of a fire-tube which lengthens the path
of the hot gases, thus augmenting the heating surface which can be further increased by
making the gases reverse direction through a second parallel tube or a bundle of multiple
tubes (two-pass or return flue boiler); alternatively the gases may be taken along the sides and
then beneath the boiler through flues (3-pass boiler). In case of a locomotive-type boiler, a
boiler barrel extends from the firebox and the hot gases pass through a bundle of fire tubes
inside the barrel which greatly increases the heating surface compared to a single tube and
further improves heat transfer. Fire-tube boilers usually have a comparatively low rate of
steam production, but high steam storage capacity. Fire-tube boilers mostly burn solid fuels,
but are readily adaptable to those of the liquid or gas variety. Fire-tube boilers may also be
referred to as "scotch-marine" or "marine" type boilers.

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 Figure 2.1: Fire-tube boiler

Water-tube boiler: In this type, tubes filled with water are arranged inside a furnace in a
number of possible configurations. Often the water tubes connect large drums, the lower ones
containing water and the upper ones steam and water; in other cases, such as a mono-tube
boiler, water is circulated by a pump through a succession of coils. This type generally gives
high steam production rates, but less storage capacity than the above. Water tube boilers can
be designed to exploit any heat source and are generally preferred in high-pressure
applications since the high-pressure water/steam is contained within small diameter.

Figure 2.2: Water-tube boiler

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Flash boiler: A flash boiler is a specialized type of water-tube boiler in which tubes are close
together and water is pumped through them. A flash boiler differs from the type of mono-tube
steam generator in which the tube is permanently filled with water. In a flash boiler, the tube
is kept so hot that the water feed is quickly flashed into steam and superheated. Flash boilers
had some use in automobiles in the 19th century and this use continued into the early 20th
century

Fire-tube boiler with Water-tube firebox. Sometimes the two above types have been
combined in the following manner: the firebox contains an assembly of water tubes, called
thermic siphons. The gases then pass through a conventional firetube boiler. Water-tube
fireboxes were installed in many Hungarian locomotives,[citation needed] but have met with
little success in other countries.

Sectional boiler: In a cast iron sectional boiler, sometimes called a "pork chop boiler" the
water is contained inside cast iron sections.[citation needed] These sections are assembled on
site to create the finished boiler.

2.6 Superheated Steam Boiler

Superheated steam boilers evaporate the water and then further heat the steam in a super
heater, causing the discharged steam temperature to be substantially above the boiling
temperature at the boiler's operating pressure. As the resulting "dry steam" is much hotter
than needed to stay in the vaporous state it will not contain any significant un evaporated
water. Also, higher steam pressure will be possible than with saturated steam, enabling the
steam to carry more energy. Although superheating adds more energy to the steam in the
form of heat there is no effect on pressure, which is determined by the rate at which steam is
drawn from the boiler and the pressure settings of the safety valves.[10] The fuel
consumption required to generate superheated steam is greater than that required to generate
an equivalent volume of saturated steam. However, the overall energy efficiency of the steam
plant (the combination of boiler, super heater, piping and machinery) generally will be
improved enough to more than offset the increased fuel consumption.

Super heater operation is similar to that of the coils on an air conditioning unit, although for a
different purpose. The steam piping is directed through the flue gas path in the boiler furnace,
an area in which the temperature is typically between 1,300 and 1,600 degrees Celsius (2,372
and 2,912 degrees Fahrenheit). Some super heaters are radiant type, which as the name
suggests, they absorb heat by radiation. Others are convection type, absorbing heat from a
fluid. Some are a combination of the two types. Through either method, the extreme heat in
the flue gas path will also heat the super heater steam piping and the steam within.

The design of any superheated steam plant presents several engineering challenges due to the
high working temperatures and pressures. One consideration is the introduction of feed water
to the boiler. The pump used to charge the boiler must be able to overcome the boiler's
operating pressure, else water will not flow. As a superheated boiler is usually operated at
high pressure, the corresponding feed water pressure must be even higher, demanding a more
robust pump design.

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 Figure 2.3: Superheated Steam Boiler

2.7 Supercritical steam generator

Supercritical steam generators are frequently used for the production of electric power. They
operate at supercritical pressure. In contrast to a "subcritical boiler", a supercritical steam
generator operates at such a high pressure (over 3,200 psi or 22 MPa) that the physical
turbulence that characterizes boiling ceases to occur; the fluid is neither liquid nor gas but a
super-critical fluid. There is no generation of steam bubbles within the water, because the
pressure is above the critical pressure point at which steam bubbles can form. As the fluid
expands through the turbine stages, its thermodynamic state drops below the critical point as
it does work turning the turbine which turns the electrical generator from which power is
ultimately extracted. The fluid at that point may be a mix of steam and liquid droplets as it
passes into the condenser. This results in slightly less fuel use and therefore less greenhouse
gas production.

Figure 2.4: Supercritical steam generator

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2.8 Accessories
Boiler fittings and accessories

 Pressuretrols to control the steam pressure in the boiler. Boilers generally have 2 or 3
pressuretrols: a manual-reset pressuretrol, which functions as a safety by setting the upper
limit of steam pressure, the operating pressuretrol, which controls when the boiler fires to
maintain pressure, and for boilers equipped with a modulating burner, a modulating
pressuretrol which controls the amount of fire.
 Safety valve: It is used to relieve pressure and prevent possible explosion of a boiler.
 Water level indicators: They show the operator the level of fluid in the boiler, also known
as a sight glass, water gauge or water column.
 Bottom blow down valves: They provide a means for removing solid particulates
that condense and lie on the bottom of a boiler. As the name implies, this valve is usually
located directly on the bottom of the boiler, and is occasionally opened to use the
pressure in the boiler to push these particulates out.
 Continuous blow down valve: This allows a small quantity of water to escape
continuously. Its purpose is to prevent the water in the boiler becoming saturated with
dissolved salts. Saturation would lead to foaming and cause water droplets to be carried
over with the steam – a condition known as priming. Blow down is also often used to
monitor the chemistry of the boiler water.
 Try cock: a type of valve that is often use to manually check a liquid level in a tank. Most
commonly found on a water boiler.
 Flash tank: High-pressure blow down enters this vessel where the steam can 'flash' safely
and be used in a low-pressure system or be vented to atmosphere while the ambient
pressure blow down flows to drain.
 Automatic blow down/continuous heat recovery system: This system allows the boiler to
blow down only when makeup water is flowing to the boiler, thereby transferring the
maximum amount of heat possible from the blow down to the makeup water. No flash
tank is generally needed as the blow down discharged is close to the temperature of the
makeup water.
 Hand holes: They are steel plates installed in openings in "header" to allow for
inspections & installation of tubes and inspection of internal surfaces.
 Steam drum internals, a series of screen, scrubber & cans (cyclone separators).
 Low-water cut off: It is a mechanical means (usually a float switch) that is used to turn
off the burner or shut off fuel to the boiler to prevent it from running once the water goes
below a certain point. If a boiler is "dry-fired" (burned without water in it) it can cause
rupture or catastrophic failure.
 Surface blow down line: It provides a means for removing foam or other lightweight non-
condensible substances that tend to float on top of the water inside the boiler.
 Circulating pump: It is designed to circulate water back to the boiler after it has expelled
some of its heat.
 Feed water check valve or clack valve: A non-return stop valve in the feed water line.
This may be fitted to the side of the boiler, just below the water level, or to the top of the
boiler.
 Top feed: In this design for feed water injection, the water is fed to the top of the boiler.
This can reduce boiler fatigue caused by thermal stress. By spraying the feed water over a
series of trays the water is quickly heated and this can reduce lime scale.

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 De super heater tubes or bundles: A series of tubes or bundles of tubes in the water drum
or the steam drum designed to cool superheated steam, in order to supply auxiliary
equipment that does not need, or may be damaged by, dry steam.
 Chemical injection line: A connection to add chemicals for controlling feed water pH

Steam accessories

 Main steam stop valve:

 Steam traps
 Main steam stop/check valve: It is used on multiple boiler installations.

Combustion accessories

 Fuel oil system fuel oil heaters

 Gas system:
 Coal system:
 Soot blower

Other essential items

 Pressure gauges:
 Feed pumps:
 Fusible plug:
 Inspectors test pressure gauge attachment:
 Name plate:
 Registration plate

2.9 Draught
A fuel-heated boiler must provide air to oxidize its fuel. Early boilers provided this stream of
air, or draught, through the natural action of convection in a chimney connected to the
exhaust of the combustion chamber. Since the heated flue gas is less dense than the ambient
air surrounding the boiler, the flue gas rises in the chimney, pulling denser, fresh air into the
combustion chamber.
Most modern boilers depend on mechanical draught rather than natural draught. This is
because natural draught is subject to outside air conditions and temperature of flue gases
leaving the furnace, as well as the chimney height. All these factors make proper draught
hard to attain and therefore make mechanical draught equipment much more reliable and
economical.
Types of draught can also be divided into induced draught, where exhaust gases are pulled
out of the boiler; forced draught, where fresh air is pushed into the boiler; and balanced
draught, where both effects are employed. Natural draught through the use of a chimney is a
type of induced draught; mechanical draught can be induced, forced or balanced.

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There are two types of mechanical induced draught. The first is through use of a steam jet.
The steam jet oriented in the direction of flue gas flow induces flue gases into the stack and
allows for a greater flue gas velocity increasing the overall draught in the furnace. This
method was common on steam driven locomotives which could not have tall chimneys. The
second method is by simply using an induced draught fan (ID fan) which removes flue gases
from the furnace and forces the exhaust gas up the stack. Almost all induced draught furnaces
operate with a slightly negative pressure.
Mechanical forced draught is provided by means of a fan forcing air into the combustion
chamber. Air is often passed through an air heater; which, as the name suggests, heats the air
going into the furnace in order to increase the overall efficiency of the boiler. Dampers are
used to control the quantity of air admitted to the furnace. Forced draught furnaces usually
have a positive pressure.

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 CHAPTER 3
INTRODUCTION TO TURBINE

Turbine can be used for generating electrical power when combined with a generator. A
turbine is a turbo machine with at least one moving part called a rotor assembly, which is a
shaft or drum with blades attached. Moving fluid acts on the blades so that they move and
impart rotational energy to the rotor. Early turbine examples are windmills and waterwheels.

Figure 3.1: Turbine

Gas, steam, and water turbines have a casing around the blades that contains and controls the
working fluid. Credit for invention of the steam turbine is given both to British engineer Sir
Charles Parsons (1854–1931) for invention of the reaction turbine, and to Swedish engineer
Gustaf de Laval (1845–1913) for invention of the impulse turbine. Modern steam turbines
frequently employ both reaction and impulse in the same unit, typically varying the degree of
reaction and impulse from the blade root to its periphery .

3.1 TYPES OF TURBINES

 Steam turbine
 Gas turbine
 Contra-rotating turbine
 Transonic turbine

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 Stator less turbine
 Wind Turbine
 Water Turbine
 Bladeless turbine
 Cross-flow turbine
 Screw turbine

3.2 Steam turbine

A steam turbine is a device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam and uses it to
do mechanical work on a rotating output shaft. Its modern manifestation was invented by Sir
Charles Parsons in 1884.

Because the turbine generates rotary motion, it is particularly suited to be used to drive an
electrical generator – about 90% of all electricity generation in the United States in the year
1996 was by use of steam turbines. The steam turbine is a form of heat engine that derives
much of its improvement in thermodynamic efficiency from the use of multiple stages in the
expansion of the steam, which results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible expansion
process.

Figure 3.2: Steam turbine

3.3 Gas turbine

A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of continuous combustion, internal
combustion engine. There are three main components:

1. An upstream rotating gas compressor;

2. A downstream turbine on the same shaft;

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3. A combustion chamber or area, called a combustor;

A fourth component is often used to increase efficiency , to convert power into mechanical or
electric form , or to achieve greater power to mass/volume ratio.

The basic operation of the gas turbine is a Brayton cycle with air as the working fluid. Fresh
atmospheric air flows through the compressor that brings it to higher pressure. Energy is then
added by spraying fuel into the air and igniting it so the combustion generates a high-
temperature flow. This high-temperature high-pressure gas enters a turbine, where it expands
down to the exhaust pressure, producing a shaft work output in the process. The turbine shaft
work is used to drive the compressor; the energy that is not used for shaft work comes out in
the exhaust gases that produce thrust. The purpose of the gas turbine determines the design so
that the most desirable split of energy between the thrust and the shaft work is achieved. The
fourth step of the brayton cycle is omitted, as gas turbines are open systems that do not use
the same air again.

Figure 3.3: Gas Turbine

3.4 Contra-Rotating Turbine

Contra-rotating, also referred to as coaxial contra-rotating, is a technique whereby parts of a
mechanism rotate in opposite directions about a common axis, usually to minimise the effect
of torque.

Contra-rotating turbines. With axial turbines, some efficiency advantage can be obtained if a
downstream turbine rotates in the opposite direction to an upstream unit. However, the

17
complication can be counter-productive. A contra-rotating steam turbine, usually known as the
Ljungström turbine, was originally invented by Swedish Engineer Fredrik Ljungström in
Stockholm, and in partnership with his brother BirgerLjungström he obtained a patent in 1894.
The design is essentially a multi-stage radial turbine offering great efficiency, four times as
large heat drop per stage as in the reaction. turbine, extremely compact design and the type
met particular success in back pressure power plants. However, contrary to other designs,
large steam volumes are handled with difficulty and only a combination with axial flow
turbines admits the turbine to be built for power greater than ca 50 MW. In marine
applications only about 50 turbo-electric units were ordered during 1917-19, and during 1920-
22 a few turbo-mechanic not very successful units were sold. Only a few turbo-electric marine
plants were still in use in the late 1960s while most land plants remain in use 2010.

3.5 Transonic turbine

In aeronautics, transonic flight is flying at or near the speed of sound (1,235 km/h (767 mph)
at sea level under average conditions), relative to the air through which the vehicle is
traveling. A typical convention used is to define transonic flight as speeds in the range of
Mach 0.8 to 1.0 (965–1,235 km/h (600–767 mph) at sea level).

This condition depends not only on the travel speed of the craft, but also on the temperature of
the airflow in the vehicle's local environment.

Transonic turbine. The gas flow in most turbines employed in gas turbine engines remains
subsonic throughout the expansion process. In a transonic turbine the gas flow becomes
supersonic as it exits the nozzle guide vanes, although the downstream velocities normally
become subsonic. Transonic turbines operate at a higher pressure ratio than normal but are
usually less efficient and uncommon.

3.6 Stator less Turbine

Multi-stage turbines have a set of static (meaning stationary) inlet guide vanes that direct the
gas flow onto the rotating rotor blades. In a stator-less turbine the gas flow exiting an
upstream rotor impinges onto a downstream rotor without an intermediate set of stator vanes
(that rearrange the pressure/velocity energy levels of the flow) being encountered.

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 Figure 3.4 Stator less Turbine

3.7 Wind Turbine

A wind turbine is a device that converts the wind's kinetic energy into electrical energy.

Wind turbines are manufactured in a wide range of vertical and horizontal axis. The smallest
turbines are used for applications such as battery charging for auxiliary power for boats or
caravans or to power traffic warning signs. Slightly larger turbines can be used for making
contributions to a domestic power supply while selling unused power back to the utility
supplier via the electrical grid. Arrays of large turbines, known as wind farms, are becoming
an increasingly important source of intermittent renewable energy and are used by many
countries as part of a strategy to reduce their reliance on fossil fuels. One assessment claimed
that, as of 2009, wind had the "lowest relative greenhouse gas emissions, the least water
consumption demands and... the most favourable social impacts" compared to photovoltaic,
hydro, geothermal, coal and gas.

Figure 3.5: Wind Turbine

3.8 Water Turbine

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A water turbine is a rotary machine that converts kinetic energy and potential energy of
water into mechanical work.

Water turbines were developed in the 19th century and were widely used for industrial power
prior to electrical grids. Now they are mostly used for electric power generation. Water
turbines are mostly found in dams to generate electric power from water kinetic energy.

Figure 3.6: Water Turbine

3.9 Bladeless turbine

The Tesla turbine is a bladeless centripetal flow turbine patented by Nikola Tesla in 1913. It
is referred to as a bladeless turbine. The Tesla turbine is also known as the boundary layer
turbine, cohesion-type turbine, and Prandtl layer turbine (after Ludwig Prandtl) because it uses
the boundary layer effect and not a fluid impinging upon the blades as in a conventional
turbine. Bioengineering researchers have referred to it as a multiple disk centrifugal pump.
One of Tesla’s desires for implementation of this turbine was for geothermal power, which
was described in Our Future Motive Power.

3.10 Cross-flow turbine

A cross-flow turbine, Banki-Michell turbine, or Ossberger turbineis a water turbine developed
by the Australian Anthony Michell, the Hungarian Don’t Banki and the German Fritz
Ossberger. Michell obtained patents for his turbine design in 1903, and the manufacturing
company Weymouth made it for many years. Ossberger's first patent was granted in 1933, and
he manufactured this turbine as a standard product. Today, the company founded by Ossberger
is the leading manufacturer of this type of turbine.

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Unlike most water turbines, which have axial or radial flows, in a cross-flow turbine the water
passes through the turbine transversely, or across the turbine blades. As with a water wheel,
the water is admitted at the turbine's edge. After passing to the inside of the runner, it leaves
on the opposite side, going outward. Passing through the runner twice provides additional
efficiency. When the water leaves the runner, it also helps clean it of small debris and
pollution. The cross-flow turbine is a low-speed machine that is well suited for locations with
a low head but high flow.

Figure 3.7: Cross Flow Turbine

3.11 Screw turbine

The screw turbine is a water turbine which uses the principle of the Archimedean screw to
convert the potential energy of water on an upstream level into work. It may be compared to
the water wheel. The turbine consists of a rotor in the shape of an Archimedean screw which
rotates in a semi-circular trough. Water flows into the turbine and its weight presses down
onto the blades of the turbine, which in turn forces the turbine to turn. Water flows freely off
the end of the turbine into the river. The upper end of the screw is connected to a generator
through a gearbox.

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 Figure 3.8 Screw Turbine

3.12 APPLICATION
Almost all electrical power on Earth is generated with a turbine of some type. Very high
efficiency steam turbines harness around 40% of the thermal energy, with the rest exhausted
as waste heat.

Most jet engines rely on turbines to supply mechanical work from their working fluid and fuel
as do all nuclear ships and power plants.

Turbo expanders are widely used as sources of refrigeration in industrial processes.

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 CHAPTER 4
MACHINING AND ASSEMBLY SEQUENCE OF VARIOUS
COMPONENTS OF TURBINES

The project given to me in my summer internship is to know about various machining

processes and assembly involved in various turbines mainly steam turbine.

My training location is HEAVY MACHINING SHOP, BAY-2, BLOCK-3 BHEL

(HARIDWAR) where the machining and assembly line is present. There is different section
which we have to cover in our whole two month training. The different sections are :-

1. ROTOR ASSEMBLY
2. GAS TURBINES
3. OVER SPEED BALNCED TURNEL (OSBT)
4. NEW TURBINE SHOP (NTS)
5. ASSEMBLY (BAY-1)
6. MILLING (BAY-3)
7. TURNING (BAY-3)
8. LINEAR AND DIAPHRAM (L&D)
9. LOWER MACHING SHOP (LMS)
10. HEAVY MACHING SHOP (HMS)

4.1 MANUFACTURING PROCESS

4.1.1 INTRODUCTION

Manufacturing process is that part of the production process which is directly concerned with
the change of form or dimensions of the part being produced. It does not include the
transportation, handling or storage of parts, as they are not directly concerned with the
changes into the form or dimensions of the part produced. Manufacturing is the backbone of
any industrialized nation. Manufacturing and technical staff in industry must know the various
manufacturing processes, materials being processed, tools and equipment for manufacturing
different components or products with optimal process plan using proper precautions and
specified safety rules to avoid accidents. Beside above, all kinds of the future engineers must
know the basic requirements of workshop activities in term of man, machine, material,
methods, money and other infrastructure facilities needed to be positioned properly for
optimal shop layouts or plant layout and other support services effectively adjusted or located
in the industry or plant within a well planned manufacturing organization. competitive
manufacturing era of high industrial development and research, is being called the age of

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mechanization, automation and computer integrated manufacturing. Due to new researches in
the manufacturing field, the advancement has come to this extent that every different aspect of
this technology has become a full-fledged fundamental and advanced study in itself. This has
led to introduction of optimized design and manufacturing of new products. New
developments in manufacturing areas are deciding to transfer more skill to the machines for
considerably reduction of manuallabor.

4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MANUFACTURINGPROCESSES

For producing of products materials are needed. It is therefore important to know the
characteristics of the available engineering materials. Raw materials used manufacturing of
products, tools, machines and equipment in factories or industries are for providing
commercial castings, called ingots. Such ingots are then processed in rolling mills to obtain
market form of material supply in form of bloom, billets, slabs and rods. These forms of
material supply are further subjected to various manufacturing processes for getting usable
metal products of different shapes and sizes in various manufacturing shops. All these
processes used in manufacturing concern for changing the ingots into usable products may be
classified into six major groups as:-

1. Primary shaping processes

2. Secondary machining processes
3. Metal forming processes
4. Joining processes
5. Surface finishing processes
6. Processes affecting change in properties

4.2.1 PRIMARY SHAPING PROCESSES

Primary shaping processes are manufacturing of a product from an amorphous material.

Some processes produces finish products or articles into its usual form whereas others do not,
and require further working to finish component to the desired shape and size. The parts
produced through these processes may or may not require to under go further operations.
Some of the important primary shaping processes are:

1. Casting
2. Powder metallurgy
3. Plastic technology
4. Gas cutting
5. Bending
6. Forging

4.2.2 SECONDARY OR MACHININGPROCESSES

As large number of components require further processing after the primary processes. These
components are subjected to one or more number of machining operations in machine shops,
to obtain the desired shape and dimensional accuracy on flat and cylindrical jobs. Thus, the

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jobs undergoing these operations are the roughly finished products received through primary
shaping processes. The process of removing the undesired or unwanted material from the
work-piece or job or component to produce a required shape using a cutting tool is known as
machining. This can be done by a manual process or by using a machine called machine tool
(traditional machines namely lathe, milling machine, drilling, shaper, planner, slotter).

In many cases these operations are performed on rods, bars and flat surfaces in machine shops.
These secondary processes are mainly required for achieving dimensional accuracy and a very
high degree of surface finish. The secondary processes require the use of one or more machine
tools, various single or multi-point cutting tools (cutters), jobholding devices, marking and
measuring instruments, testing devices and gauges etc. forgetting desired dimensional control
and required degree of surface finish on the work-pieces. The example of parts produced by
machining processes includes hand tools machine tools instruments, automobile parts, nuts,
bolts and gears etc. Lot of material is wasted as scrap in the secondary or machining process.
Some of the common secondary or machining processes are:

1. Turning
2. Threading
3. Knurling
4. Milling
5. Drilling
6. Boring
7. Planning
8. Shaping
9. Slotting
10. Sawing
11. Hobbing
12. Broaching
13. Grinding
14. Gear cutting
15. Thread cutting
16. Unconventional machining processes namely machining with Numerical control (NC)
machines tools or Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machine tool using ECM, LBM,AJM,
USM setups.

4.3 CLASSIFICATION OF BLOCK 3

4.4 BAY-1 IS FURTHER DIVIDED INTO THREE PARTS

4.4.1 HMS

In this shop heavy machine work is done with the help of different NC &CNC machines
boring machine is installed here and CNC horizontal boring milling machines from Skoda of
Czechoslovakia.

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4.4.2 Assembly Section (of hydro turbines)

In this section assembly of hydro turbines are done. Blades of turbine are1st assemble on the
rotor & after it this rotor is transported to balancing tunnel where the balancing is done. After
balancing the rotor, rotor &casings both internal & external are transported to the customer.
Total assembly of turbine is done in the company which purchased it by B.H.E.L.

4.4.3 OSBT (Over Speed Balancing Tunnel)

In this section, rotors of all type of turbines like LP(low pressure), HP(high pressure) &
IP(Intermediate pressure) rotors of Steam turbine ,rotors of Gas & Hydro turbine are balanced
.In a large tunnel, Vacuum of 2 torr is created with the help of pumps & after that rotor is
placed on pedestal and rotted with speed of 2500-4500 rpm. After it in a computer control
room the axis of rotation of rotor is seen with help of computer & then balance the rotor by
inserting the small balancing weight in the grooves cut on rotor.

For balancing and over speed testing of rotors up to 320 tons in weight, 1800 mm in length
and 6900 mm diameter under vacuum conditions of 1 Torr.

4.5 BAY 2 IS DIVIDED IN TO 2PARTS:

4.5.1 HMS

In this shop several components of steam turbine like LP, HP & IP rotors, Internal & external
casing are manufactured with the help of different operations carried out through different NC
& CNC machines like grinding, drilling, vertical & horizontal milling and boring machines,
center lathes, planer, Kopp milling machine.

4.5.2 Assembly Section

In this section assembly of steam turbines up to 1000 MWIs assembled. 1st moving blades are
inserted in the grooves cut on circumferences of rotor, then rotor is balanced in balancing
tunnel in bay-1.After is done in which guide blades are assembled inside the internal casing &
then rotor is fitted inside this casing. After it this internal casing with rotor is inserted into the
external.

4.6 BAY 3 IS DIVIDED INTO 3PARTS:

4.6.1 Bearing Section:-

In this section Journal bearings are manufactured which are used in turbines to overcome the
vibration & rolling friction by providing the proper lubrication.

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4.6.2 Turning Section:-

In this section small lathe machines, milling & boring machines, grinding machines &
drilling machines are installed. In this section small jobs are manufactured like rings, studs,
disks etc.

4.6.3 Governing Section:-

In this section governors are manufactured. These governors are used in turbines for
controlling the speed of rotor within the certain limits. 1st all components of governor are
made by different operations then these all parts are treated in heat treatment shop for
providing the hardness. Then these all components are assembled into casing. There are more
than 1000 components of Governor.

4.7 BAY-4 IS DIVIDED INTO 3 PARTS:

4.7.1 TBM (Turbine Blade Manufacturing Shop)

In this shop solid blade of both steam & gas turbine are manufactured. Several CNC & NC
machines are installed here such as Copying machine, Grinding machine, Rhomboid milling
machine, Duplex milling machine, T- root machine center, Horizontal tooling center, Vertical
& horizontal boring machineetc.

4.7.2 Turning Section:-

Same as the turning section in Bay-3, there are several small Machine like lathes machines,
milling, boring, grinding machines etc.

4.7.3 Heat Treatment Shop:-

In this shop there are several tests performed for checking the Hardness of different
components. Tests performed are Sereliting, Nitriding, DPTest.

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 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

Gone through rigorous 4 Weeks training under the guidance of capable engineers and
workers of BHEL Haridwar in Block- 3 TURBINE SHOP.

The training was specified under the Turbine Manufacturing Department. Working under the
department I came to know about the basic grinding, scaling and machining processes which
was shown on heavy to medium machines. Duty lathes were planted in the same line where
the specified work was undertaken.

The training brought to my knowledge the various machining and fabrication processes went
not only in the manufacturing of blades but other parts of the turbine.

The training give me the knowledge about the whole manufacturing processes of different
turbines specially steam turbine. We learnt about the different finishing and testing processes
involved in rotor assembly live over speed balanced tunnel (OSBT) where the inspection
processes of rotor is carried out and corrective action is taken out when required. we got the
knowledge out the antifriction lubricating bearing used in turbine shaft in milling shop.

Overall this training help me to boast my knowledge about turbines, to know how the work is
done in industries and the quality assurances and maintainance done in industries.

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REFRENCES
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_turbine.
 Turbine – Wikipedia en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbine
 www.slideshare.net/rajputdc...
 Company booklet and manual

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