MUSCULAR SYSTEM Connective tissue coverings
Esther Sunday C. Faller, RMT, MD, APCP epimysium – A connective tissue sheath that surrounds
FUNCTIONS OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
1. MOVEMENT OF THE BODY – contraction of skeletal
muscle is responsible for the overall movements
of the body
2. MAINTENANCE OF POSTURE – skeletal muscle
constantly maintains tone
3. RESPIRATION – thoracic muscles are responsible
4. PRODUCTION OF BODY HEAT – muscle contraction’s
by-product is heat
5. COMMUNICATION – skeletal muscles are involved in
all aspects of communication
6. CONSTRICTION OF ORGANS AND VESSELS – helps in
some physiologic processes in the body
7. CONTRACTION OF THE HEART – causes the heart to
beat
CHARACTERISTICS OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
 Skeletal muscle constitutes approximately 40% of
body weight
 Skeletal muscles are so named because most of
it are attached to the skeletal muscle system
 Four major functional characteristics:
1. CONTRACTILITY – ability to shorten with force
2. EXCITABILITY – capacity to respond to a stimulus
3. EXTENSIBILITY – means stretchability
4. ELASTICITY – ability to recoil to their original resting
length after they have been stretched
each skeletal muscle
perimysium – a long connective tissue that subdivides
each whole muscle
fasciculi – the perimysium divides into numerous visible
bundles called muscle
endomysium - a loose connective tissue that
subbevides each fascicle
muscle fibers - separate muscle cells that subdivide from
each endonysium. A muscle fiber is a single cylindrical
fiber, with several nuclei
periphery – these are several nuclei inside each muscle
fiber
sarcolemma - The cell membrane of the muscle fiber
transverse tubules or T tubules - Along the surface of the
sarcolemma are many tubelike, invaginations which
occur at regular intervals
sarcoplasmic reticulum - associated with T tubules, these
are a higly organized smooth endoplasmic reticulum
sarcoplasm – the cytoplasm found inside each muscle
fiber.
myofibrils – the sarcoplasm contains numerous
threadlike structures that extend from one end of the
muscle fiber to the other
Myofibrils consist of 2 major kinds of protein:
 actin myofilaments
 myosin myofilaments
sarcomeres – are arranged into highly ordered,
repeating units of the 2 major types of protein of
Myofibrils
Three components Actin myofilaments, or thin filaments
1. Actin – resemble 2 minute strands of pearls
twisted together, have attachment sites for the
myosin filaments
2. Troponin – attached at specific intervals along
the actin myofilaments
3. Tropomysosin – located along the groove
between the twisted strands of actin
myofilament subunits
myosin heads - Myosin myofilaments, or thick
myofilaments that resemble bundles of minute golf
clubs.
Sarcomere - is the basic structural and functional unit of
skeletal muscle because it is the smallest portion of the
skeletal muscle capable of contracting
Each sarcomere extends from one Z disk to an adjacent
Z disk
Z disk - a network of protein fibers forming an
attachment site for actin myofilaments
light I band - consists only of actin myofilaments, spans
each Z disk and ends at the myosin filaments
A band - a darker, central region in each sarcomere
that extends the length of the myosin myofilaments
H zone - light zone, which consists of myosin
myofilaments, the center of each sarcomere
M line - a dark-staining band at the center of the
sarcomere that anchores myosin myofilaments
Most cells in the body have an electrical charge
difference across their cell membranes:
POLARIZED STATE - The inside of the membrane is
negatively charged while the outside of the cell
membrane is positively charged
RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL - occurs because there is
an uneven distribution of ions across the cell membrane
DEPOLARIZATION - occurs when the inside of the cell
membrane becomes more positive than the outside of
the cell
REPOLARIZATION - The change back to the resting
membrane potential
ACTION POTENTIAL - The rapid depolarization and
repolarization of the cell membrane
Skeletal muscle fibers do not contract unless they are
stimulated by motor neurons, which are specialized
nerve cells that stimulate muscle to contract
Axons - of the neurons enter muscles and send out
branches to several muscle fibers
neuromuscular junction - a junction with a muscle fiber
formed from each branch.
synapse - refers to the cell-to-cell junction between a
nerve cell and either another nerve cell or an effector
cell, such as in a muscle or a gland
neuromuscular junction - formed by a cluster of
enlarged axon terminals resting in indentations of the
muscle fiber’s cell membrane
enlarged axon terminal - the presynaptic terminal
synaptic cleft – the space between the presynaptic
terminal and the muscle fiber membrane is the
postsynaptic membrane – the muscle fiber membrane
Muscle twitch - the contraction of a muscle fiber in
response to a stimulus
3 phases of muscle twitch:
1. Lag or latent phase – time between the
application of a stimulus and the beginning of a
contraction
2. Contraction phase – time during which the
muscle contracts
3. Relaxation phase – time during which the muscle
relaxes

postsynaptic membrane - each presynaptic terminal Summation - the force of contraction of individual
contains many small vesicles muscle fibers is increased by rapidly stimulating them

acetylcholine or Ach – contained in each vesicle which Tetanus - is a sustained contraction that occurs when
functions as a neurotransmitter, a molecule released by the frequency of stimulation is so rapid that no relaxation
a presynaptic nerve cell that stimulates or inhibits a occurs
postsynaptic cell
Recruitment - the number of muscle fibers contracting is
The acetylcholine released into the synaptic cleft increased by increasing the number of motor units
between the neuron and the muscle fiber is rapidly stimulated, and the muscle contracts with more force
broken down by an enzyme, acetylcholinesterase
CHARACTERISTICS OF SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBER TYPES
Muscle Contraction
Fast-Twitch
Fast-Twitch
Slow-Twitch Oxidative
Glycolytic
(Type I) Glycolytic
(Type IIb)
(Type IIa)

Fiber diameter
Smallest Intermediate Largest

Myoglobin
content High High Low

Mitochondria
Many Many Few

High
High anaerobic Highest
Metabolism anaerobic capacity; anaerobic
capacity Intermediate capacity
anaerobic

Fatigue
resistance Low Intermediate low

Myosin head
activity Slow Fast Fast

Glycogen
concentration Low High High

Endurance Rapid,
Maintenance
activities in intense
of posture;
Functions endurance- movement
endurance
trained of short
activities
muscles duration

Energy Requirements for Muscle Contraction
Muscle fibers - are very energy-demanding cells
whether at rest or during any form of exercise
This energy comes from either aerobic (with O2) or
anaerobic (without O2) ATP
Generally, ATP is derived from 4 processes in skeletal
muscle:
1. Aerobic production of ATP during most exercise
and normal conditions
2. Anaerobic production of ATP during intensive
short-term work
3. Conversion of a molecule called creatine
phosphate to ATP
4. Conversion of two ADP to one ATP and one AMP
(adenosine monophosphate) during heavy
exercise
Types of Muscle Contraction
 Most muscle contractions are a combination of
isometric and isotonic contractions
Isometric contractions - the length of the muscle does
not change, but the amount of tension increases during
the contraction process – responsible for the constant
length of the body’s postural muscles (muscles of the
back)
Isotonic contractions - the amount of tension produced
by the muscle is constant during contraction, but the
length of muscles decreases (movement of the arms or
fingers
 Concentric contractions - are isotonic
contractions in which muscle tension
increases as the muscle shortens
 Eccentric contractions - are isotonic
contractions in which tension is maintained in
a muscle, but the opposing resistance causes
the muscle lengthens

Aerobic respiration, which occurs mostly in Muscle Tone

mitochondria, requires O@ and breaks down glucose to
produce ATP, CO2, and H2O; can also process lipids or
amino acids to make ATP
Anaerobic respiration, which does not require O2,
breaks down glucose to produce ATP and lactate
Slow-twitch fibers - work aerobically, whereas fast-twitch
fibers are more suited for working anaerobically
Fatigue
- Is the constant tension produced by body
muscles over long periods of time
- Responsible for keeping the back and legs
straight, the head in an upright position, and the
abdomen from bulging
- Depends on a small percentage of all the motor
units in a muscle being stimulated at any point in
time

Is a temporary state of reduced work capacity

Without fatigue, muscle fibers would be worked to the

point of structural damage to them and their supporting
tissues

Mechanisms underlying muscular fatigue:

1. Acidosis and ATP depletion due to either an

increased ATP consumption or a decreased ATP
production

2. Oxidative stress, which is characterized by the

buidup of excess reactive oxygen species

3. Local inflammatory reactions

physiological contracture – condition where under

conditions of extreme muscular fatigue, muscle may
become incapable of contracting or relaxing, this
condition. Occurs when there is too little ATP to bind
to the myosin myofilaments.

psychological fatigue - the most common type of

fatigue.involves the CNS rather than the muscle
themselves
SKELETAL MUSCLE ANATOMY
General Principles

Tendons - connect each muscle head to the bone

Aponeuroses - are broad, sheet-like tendons
Retinaculum - is a band of connective tissue that holds
down the tendons at each wrist and ankle
Muscle contraction - causes most body movements
Note: some muscles are not attached to bone at
both ends (e.g. some facial muscles attach to
the skin)
The 2 points of attachment of each muscle are its:
1. origin (head; most stationary)
2. insertion (attached to bone; undergoes the
greatest movement)
Belly - is the part of the muscle between the origin and
the insertion
Note: some muscles have multiple origins (e.g.
Many muscles are members of more than one
biceps brachii (2), triceps brachii (3) )
group, depending on the type of movement being
Muscles are typically grouped so that the action of one produced (e.g. deltoid + biceps brachii + pectoralis
muscle or group of muscles is opposed by that of
major = shoulder flexion)
another muscle or group of muscles (e.g. biceps brachii
flexes the elbow, triceps brachii extends the elbow) Synergists - are members of a group of muscles
Agonist- is a muscle that accomplishes a certain working together to produce a movement
movement
Prime mover - is the one muscle among a group of
Antagonist - is a muscle acting in opposition to an
agonist synergists that plays a major role in accomplishing a
desired movement (e.g. brachialis is the primer
Muscles also tend to function in groups to accomplish
mover in elbow flexion)
specific movements
Fixators - are muscles that hold one bone in place
relative to the body while a usually more distal is
moved (e.g. muscles of the scapula)

Nomenclature

Most muscles have descriptive names

Muscles are usually named according to their:
1. Location – pectoralis (chest)
2. Origin & insertion – brachioradialis (spans from
the arm to the radius)
3. Number of origins – biceps (bi = 2, ceps = head)
4. Function – flexor digitorum (flexes the digits)
5. Size – vastus (large)
6. Shape – deltoid, triangular
7. Fasciculi orientation – rectus, straight
Muscles of the Head and Neck

Include those involved in forming facial expressions, chewing,

moving the tongue, swallowing, producing sounds, moving the
eyes, and moving the head and neck

FACIAL EXPRESSION

 Occipitofrontalis - raises the eyebrows (occipital and

frontal portions are connected by the epicranial
aponeuroses

 Orbicularis oculi - encircle the eyes, tightly close the

eyelids, and cause “crow’s feet” wrinkles in the skin at
the lateral corners of the eyes

 Orbicularis oris - (encircles the mouth) and the

buccinator are sometimes called the kissing muscles
(pucker the mouth)

 Buccinator - flattens the cheeks as in whistling or

blowing a trumpet and is sometimes called the
trumpeter’s muscle

 zygomaticus muscles - accomplished primarily by

smiling

 levator labii superioris - accomplished by sneering i

 depressor anguli oris - frowning and pouting are

largely performed by the

MASTICATION (CHEWING)

 The 4 pairs of muscles for chewing are some of the

strongest muscles in the body:
 temporalis
 masseter
 pterygoids (2)

Buccinator – retracts angle of the mouth and flattens cheeks

Depressor anguli oculis – depresses angle of the mouth
Levator labii superioris – elevates upper lip
Occipitofrontalis – moves scalp and elevates eyebrow
Orbicularis oculi – closes eyes
Orbicularis oris – closes lip
Zygomaticus major – elevates and abducts upper lip and
corner of the mouth
Zygomaticus minor – elevates and abducts upper lip
 Intrinsic tongue muscle – changes shape of the tongue
Temporalis – elevates and retracts mandible; involved in
Extrinsic tongue muscle – moves tongue
excursion
Suprahyoid muscle (geniohyoid, stylohyoid, hypoglossus) –
Masseter – elevates and protracts mandible; involved in
elevates or stabilizes hyoid
excursion
Infrahyoid muscle (thyrohyoid) – depresses or stabilizes hyoid
Lateral pterygoid – protracts and depresses mandible;
Soft palate – moves soft palate, tongue, or pharynx
involved in excursion
Pharyngeal muscles (elevators, constrictors, superior, middle,
Medial pterygoid – protracts and elevates mandible; involved
inferior) – elevates and constricts pharynx
in excursion

NECK MUSCLES
TONGUE & SWALLOWING MUSCLES

Tongue is very important in mastication and speech
Moves food around in the mouth and (with the buccinators
muscle) holds the food in place while the teeth grind the food
 pushes food up to the palate and back toward the pharynx
to initiate swallowing
 Intrinsic muscles - of the tongue, located entirely
within the tongue and changes its shape
 Extrinsic muscles - located outside of the tongue but
are attached to and move the tongue
 Swallowing involves a number of structures: hyoid
muscles, soft palate, pharynx (throat), and larynx
(voicebox)
The deep neck muscles include neck flexors, located along
the anterior surfaces of the vertebral bodies, and neck
extensors, located posteriorly
Rotation and lateral flexion of the head are accomplished by
lateral and posterior neck muscles
Sternocleidomastoid (SCM) muscle - prime mover of
the lateral muscle group, is easily seen on the anterior
and lateral sides of the neck
- Contraction of one SCM = rotates the head
- Contraction of two SCM = flexes the neck or
extends the head
Torticollis (wry neck) - results from injury to one of the
SCM muscles

Hyoid muscles are divided into a suprahyoid group and

infrahyoid group

Muscles of the soft palate close the posterior opening to the

nasal cavity during swallowing, preventing food and liquid
from entering the nasal cavity

Pharyngeal elevators - elevate the pharynx

Pharyngeal constrictors - constrict the pharynx

Pharyngeal muscles also open the auditory tube,

which connects the middle ear to the pharynx

Deep neck muscles (flexors and extensors) – flex and extend

head and neck
Sternocleidomastoid – individually rotate head; together flex
neck
Trapezius – extends and laterally flexes neck

Trunk Muscles
 Include those that move the vertebral column, the
thorax and abdominal wall, and the pelvic floor
MUSCLES MOVING THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Back muscles are very strong to maintain erect
posture
Erector spinae group of muscles - on each side of the back
are primarily responsible for keeping the back straight and the
body erect
Deep back muscles, located between the spinous and
transverse processes of the adjacent vertebrae, are
responsible for several movements of the vertebral column
Superficial (erector spinae divides into 3 columns: iliocostalis,
longissimus, spinais) – extends vertebral column
Deep back muscles – extend vertebral column and help bend
vertebral column laterally
Superficial (erector spinae divides into 3 columns: iliocostalis,
longissimus, spinais) – extends vertebral column
Deep back muscles – extend vertebral column and help bend
vertebral column laterally
THORACIC MUSCLES
Involved entirely in the process of breathing
External intercostals - elevate the ribs during inspiration
Internal intercostals - contract during forced expiration,
depressing the ribs
Major movement produced in the thorax during quiet
breathing is accomplished by the dome-shaped diaphragm
Scalenes – inspiration; elevate ribs
External intercostals – inspiration; elevate ribs
Internal intercostals – forced expiration; depress ribs
Diaphragm – inspiration; depress floor of the thorax
ABDOMINAL WALL MUSCLES
Muscles of the anterior abdominal wall flex and rotate the
vertebral column, compress the abdominal cavity, and hold in
and protect the abdominal organs
Linea alba - a tendinous vertical indentation, extending
from the sternum through the navel to the pubis; white
connective tissue rather than muscle
Rectus abdominis - muscle, located laterally to the linea
alba
Tendinous intersections cross the rectus abdominis at 3 or
more locations
Lateral to the rectus abdominis are 3 layers of muscles:
(superficial to deep)
(1) External abdominal oblique
(2) Internal abdominal oblique
(3) Transverse abdominis
Rectus abdominis – flexes vertebral column; compresses
abdomen
External abdominal oblique – compresses abdomen; flexes
and rotates vertebral column
Internal abdominal oblique – compresses abdomen;
compresses abdomen; flexes and rotates vertebral column
Transversus abdominis – compresses abdomen
PELVIC FLOOR AND PERINEAL MUSCLES
Pelvis is a ring of bone with an inferior opening that is close by
a muscular floor through which the anus and the openings of
the urinary tract and reproductive tract penetrate
Levator ani muscle - Pelvic floor, also referred to as the
pelvic diaphragm
Perineum - is the area inferior to the pelvic floor –
contains a number of muscles associated with the
male or female reproductive structures
Help regulate urination and defecation
 UPPER LIMB MUSCLES
Include those that attach the limb and pectoral girdle to the
body and those in the arm, forearm, and hand
SCAPULAR MOVEMENTS
Muscles that attach the scapula to the thorax and move the
scapula:
(1) trapezius,
(2) rhomboids
(3) serratus anterior
4) pectoralis
Said muscles act as fixators – hold the scapula firmly in
position when the muscles of the arm contract
Moves the scapula in different positions – increasing the
range of movement of the upper limbs

Levator scapulae – elevates, retracts, and rotates scapula;

laterally flexes neck
Pectoralis minor – depresses scapula or elevates ribs
Rhomboid major – retracts, rotates, and fixes scapula
Rhomboid minor – retracts, slightly elevates, rotates, and fixes
scapula
Serratus anterior – rotates and protracts scapula; elevates ribs
Trapezius – elevates, depresses, retracts, rotates, and fixes
scapula; extends neck

ARM MOVEMENTS

Arm is attached to the thorax by the pectoralis major and

latissimus dorsi muscles

Rotator cuff muscles - attaches the humerus to the

scapula and forms a cuff of cap over the proximal
humerus – stabilize the joint by holding the humeral head
in the glenoid cavity during arm movements

Deltoid muscle - attaches the humerus to the scapula and

Pelvic floor (levator ani) – elevates anus; supports pelvic
viscera
Clavicle – major abductor of the upper limb
Perineum
1. Bulbospongiosus – constricts urethra; erects penis or
Pectoralis major - forms the upper chest, and the deltoid
clitoris
forms the rounded mass of the shoulder
2. Ischiocavernosus – compresses base of penis or clitoris
Deltoid is a common site for administering injections
3. External anal sphincter – keeps orifice of anal canal
closed
4. Transverse perenei – deep: supports pelvic floor;
superficial: fixes central tendon

Deltoid – flexes and extends shoulder; abducts and medially
and laterally rotates arm
Latissimus dorsi – extends shoulder; abducts and medially
rotates arm
Pectoralis major – flexes shoulder; extends shoulder from flexed
position; adducts and medially rotates arm
Teres major – extends shoulder; adducts and medially rotates
arm
ROTATOR CUFF
Infraspinatus – stabilizes and extends shoulder and laterally
rotates arm
Subscapularis – stabilizes and extends shoulder and medially
rotates arm
Supraspinatus – stabilizes shoulder and abducts arm
Teres minor – stabilizes and extends shoulder; adducts and
laterally rotates arm
FOREARM MOVEMENTS
Arm can be divided into anterior and posterior
compartments
Triceps brachii - the primary extensor of the elbow,
occupies the posterior compartment
The anterior compartment is occupied by the biceps
brachii and brachialis, the primary flexors of the
elbow
Brachioradialis - which is actually a posterior forearm
muscle, helps flex the elbow
Biceps brachii – flexes elbow; supinates forearm; flexes
shoulder
Brachialis – flexes elbow
Triceps brachii – extends elbow; extends shoulder;
adducts arm
SUPINATION AND PRONATION
Supination of the forearm, or turning the flexed
forearm so that the palm is up is accomplished by
the supinator and biceps brachii
Pronation, turning the forearm so that the palm is
down, is a function of two pronator muscles
WRIST AND FINGER MOVEMENTS
20 muscles of the forearm can also be divided into
anterior and posterior groups
Anterior forearm muscles – responsible for flexion of
the wrist and fingers
Posterior forearm muscles – cause extension
Retinaculum
Strong band of fibrous connective tissue
Covers the flexor and extensor tendons and holds
them in place around the wrist so that they do not
“bowstring” during muscle contraction
Flexor carpi muscles - flex the wrist
Extensor carpi muscles - extend the wrist
Tendon of the flexor carpi radialis serves as a
landmark for locating the radial pulse
flexor digitorum - flexion of the fingers
extensor digitorum - extension of the fingers is
accomplished by the
19 muscles, called intrinsic hand muscles, are located
within the hand
Interossei muscles - located between the metacarpal
bones, are responsible for abduction and adduction
of the fingers
Gluteus maximus - functions optimally to extend the hip when
the thigh is flexed at a 45-degree angle
Gluteus medius - is a common site for injections in the buttocks
because the sciatic nerve lies deep to the gluteus maximus
and could be damaged during an injection
In addition to the hip muscles, some of the thigh muscles
also attach to the coxal bone and can move the thigh
3 groups of thigh muscles:
1. Anterior thigh muscles – flex the hip
2. Posterior thigh muscles – extend the hip
3. Medial thigh muscles – adduct the thigh

LEG MOVEMENTS

Anterior thigh muscles - quadriceps femoris and the sartorius

Quadriceps femoris muscles - are the primary extensors of the
knee and they have a common insertion, the patellar tendon,
on and around the patella
1. Rectus femoris
2. Vastus lateralis – intermuscular injection site
3. Vastus medialis
4. Vastus intermedius
Patellar ligament - is an extension of the patellar tendon onto
the tibial tuberosity
Sartorius - the longest muscle in the body, is called the “tailor’s
muscle” because it flexes the hip and knee and rotates
Anterior forearm
Palmaris longus – tightens skin of palm the thigh laterally
Flexor carpi radialis – flexes and abducts wrist Posterior thigh muscles - are called hamstring muscles, and
Flexor carpi ulnaris – flexes and adducts wrist
are responsible for flexing the knee
Flexor digitorum profundus – flexes fingers and wrist
Flexor digitorum superficialis – flexes fingers and wrist A “pulled hamstring” results from tearing one or more of these
Pronator quadratus – pronates forearm muscles or their tendons
Pronator teres – pronates forearm Medial thigh muscles - the adductor muscles, are primarily
Posterior forearm
Brachioradialis – flexes elbow involved, in adducting the thigh
Extensor carpi radialis brevis – extends and abducts wrist
Extensor carpi radialis longus – extends and abducts wrist
Extensor carpi ulnaris – extends and adducts wrist
Extensor digitorum – extends fingers and wrist
Supinator – supinates forearm (and hand)

LOWER LIMB MUSCLES

Include those located in the hip, the thigh, the leg, and the
foot
THIGH MOVEMENTS
Several hip muscles - originate on the coxal bone and
insert onto the femur
Iliopsoas (anterior muscle) - flexes the hip
The posterior and lateral hip muscles consist of the gluteal
muscles and the tensor fasciae latae (tenses a thick band
of fascia on the lateral side of the thigh called the iliotibial
tract)
Gluteus maximus - extends the hip and abducts and
laterally rotates the thigh
Gluteus medius - abducts and medially rotates the thigh
 Deep muscles of the posterior compartment plantar flex
and invert the foot and flex the toes
Lateral muscles of the leg, called the fibularis muscles, are
primarily everters of the foot, but they also aid in plantar
flexion
The 20 muscles located within the foot
- intrinsic foot muscles - flex, extend, abduct, and adduct
the toes

Thigh
Iliopsoas – flexes hip
Gluteus maximus – extends hip; abducts and laterally rotates
thigh
Gluteus medius – abducts and medially rotates thigh
Gluteus minimus – abducts and medially rotates thigh
Tensor fasciae latae – steadies femur on tibia thru iliotibial tract
when standing; flexes hip; medially rotates and abducts thigh
Leg
Anterior compartment
Quadriceps femoris
Anterior compartment
1. Rectus femoris – extends knee; flexes hip
2. Vastus lateralis – extends knee
3. Vastus medialis – extends knee Extensor digitorum longus – extends four lateral toes;
4. Vastus intermedius extends knee dorsiflexes and everts the foot
Sartorius – flexes hip and knee; laterally rotates thigh Extensor halluces longus – extends great toe; dorsiflexes
Medial compartment and inverts foot
Adductor longus – adducts and laterally rotates thigh; flexes Tibialis anterior – dorsiflexes and inverts foot
hip Fibularis tertius – dorsiflexes and everts foot
Adductor magnus – adducts and laterally rotates thigh;
Posterior compartment
extends knee
Gracilis – adducts thigh; flexes knee
Posterior compartment
Superficial
Biceps femoris – flexes knee; laterally rotates leg; extends hip
Semimembranous – flexes knee; medially rotates leg; extends Gastrocnemius – plantar flexes foot; flexes leg
hip Soleus – plantar flexes foot
Semitendinosus – flexes knee; medially rotates leg; extends hip
Deep
ANKLE AND TOE MOVEMENTS
Flexor digitorum longus – flexes four lateral toes; plantar
13 muscles in the leg, with tendons extending into the foot,
flexes and inverts foot
can be divided into 3 groups:
(1) anterior, (2) posterior, and (3) lateral
Flexor hallucis longus – flexes great toe; plantar flexes
Anterior muscles – extensor muscles involved in dorsiflexion and inverts foot
of the foot and extension of the toes Tibialis posterior – plantar flexes and inverts foot
The superficial muscles of the posterior compartment of Lateral compartment
the leg, the gastrocnemius and the soleus, form the bulge Fibularis brevis – everts and plantar flexes foot
of the calf (posterior leg) – they form the common Fibularis longus – everts and plantar flexes foot
calcaneal (heel) tendon or Achilles tendon
These muscles are flexors and involved in plantar flexion of
the foot
DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM EFFECTS OF AGING ON SKELETAL MUSCLE

CRAMPS  Aging skeletal muscle undergoes several changes that

 Painful, spastic contractions of a muscle
 Usually due to a build-up of lactic acid
FIBROMYALGIA
 Non-life-threatening, chronic, widespread pain in
muscles with no known cure
 Also known as chronic muscle pain syndrome
HYPERTROPHY
 Enlargement of a muscle due to increased
number of myofibrils
 Occurs with increased muscle use
ATROPHY
reduce muscle mass, increase the time a muscle
takes to contract in response to nervous stimuli,
reduce stamina, and increase recovery time
 Loss of muscle fibers begins as early as 25 years of
age, and by age 80 the muscle mass has been
reduced by approximately 50%
 Most of the loss of strength and speed is due to the loss
of muscle fibers particularly fast-twitch ones
 Neuromuscular junction surface area decreases 
slow neuronal action potential  slower muscle cell
action potential  fewer action potentials in muscle
fibers
 Motor neurons decreases  remaining neurons
innervate more muscle fibers  decreased number of
motor units in the skeletal muscle  less precise
muscle control

 Decrease in muscle size due to a decreased  Many of the age-related changes in skeletal muscle
number of myofilaments can be slowed dramatically if people remain
physically active
 Occur due to disuse of a muscle, as in paralysis

MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY

 Group of genetic disorders in which all types of

muscle degenerate and atrophy

1. Duchenne muscular dystrophy

- Results from an abnormal gene on the X

chromosome and is therefore a sex-linked (X-
linked) condition

- Progressive muscular weakness and muscle

contractures

2. Myotonic muscular dystrophy

- Muscles are weak and fail to relax following

forceful contractions

- Affects the hands most severely; dominant trait in

1/20,000 births

MYASTHENIA GRAVIS

 Autoimmune disorder in which antibodies are formed

against acetylcholine receptors

 Muscle weakness and fatigue

TENDINITIS

 Inflammation of a tendon or its attachment point due

to overuse of the muscle