Stages of Teacher Development conceptual systems, and paradigms for thinking about teaching; and (4) empirical knowledge,
conceptual systems, and paradigms for thinking about teaching; and (4) empirical knowledge, which comes from reading what the
The Survival Stage
This transition to the real world of teaching ushers in the first stage of teacher development, sometimes called the survival stage. The
distinguishing feature of the survival stage of teaching is that your concerns will focus on your own well-being more than on the teaching
task or your learners.
Will my learners like me? Will they listen to what I say? What will parents and teachers think of me? Will I do well when the principal
observes me? Will I ever have time to myself?
During this time you become so focused on behavior management concerns that you feel like you are struggling merely to survive the
day-to-day give and-take of classroom life.
The Task Stage What signals their end is the transition to a new set of concerns and a gradual diminishing of concerns about your own
well-being. This new set of concerns focuses on how best to deliver instruction. Fuller (1969) described this as the task stage: the stage in
which the new teacher focuses on the teaching task itself. At this stage you begin to feel confident that you can manage the day-to-day
routines of the classroom and deal with a variety of behavior problems. You are at the point where you can plan your lessons without an
exclusive focus on managing the classroom. Your focus turns toward improving your teaching skills and achieving greater mastery over the
content you are teaching.
How good are my instructional materials? Will I have enough time to cover all the content? How can I add variety to my presentations?
Where can I get some ideas for a learning center? What’s the best way to teach writing skills?
The Impact Stage The final stage of teacher growth and development is characterized by concerns that have to do less with management
and lesson delivery and more with the impact of your teaching on learners. This point in a teacher’s career is sometimes referred to as the
impact stage. At this time, you will naturally view learners as individuals and will be concerned that each of your students fulfills his or her
potential. At this stage, your principal concerns might be these:
How can I increase my learners’ feelings of accomplishment? How do I meet my learners’ social and emotional needs? What is the best
way to challenge my unmotivated learners? What skills do they need to best prepare them for the next grade?
Concerns theory Stated in its simplest terms, concerns theory conceptualizes the learning process for a prospective teacher as a natural
flow from concerns for self (teacher) to task (teaching) to impact (pupil). The physical, mental, and emotional states of the prospective
teacher play an important role in the shift of focus from self to task to impact. The lack of adequate knowledge or emotional support
during the critical preteaching and student teaching periods can result in a slower, more labored shift of focus to task. This, in turn, can
result in failure on the part of the teacher to reach a concern for his or her impact on students. Fuller’s concerns theory has several other
implications. A teacher may return to an earlier stage of concern, for example, from a concern for pupils back to a concern for task as a
result of suddenly having to teach a new grade or subject. Or,she may move from a concern for task back to a concern for self as a result
of having to teach in a different and unfamiliar school. Thus, teacher concerns may not always be determined developmentally but can be
context dependent as well. The time spent in a given stage the second time may be shorter than the first. Finally, the three stages of
concern need not be exclusive of one another. A teacher may have concerns predominately in one area and still have concerns of lesser
intensity in one or both of the other stages.
Educational Psychology and Teacher Growth and Development
Shulman (1992) identifies four types of knowledge that are crucial for teacher growth and development: (1) practical knowledge, which
comes from student field experiences, student teaching, and regular teaching; (2) case knowledge, which comes from reading about what
both successful and unsuccessful teachers have done; (3) theoretical knowledge, which comes from reading about important ideas,
research says about a particular subject and how to teach it.
Educational psychology is a discipline of inquiry that focuses primarily on the latter two categories of knowledge.
The Tasks of Educational Psychology
Under certain conditions, rewarding children for engaging in expected behavior has no harmful effects on intrinsic But under another set
of conditions, it does. Although some children benefit from retention, most do not The problem is knowing what learner characteristics
make them more or less likely to improve if they are retained in a grade. Finally, removing a student from a classroom for disruptive
behavior makes the behavior worse in some cases and decreases it in others The key is understanding the function of the disruptive
behavior. Although there are no clear-cut solutions to these and similar educational problems, this does not mean that any one approach
to dealing with them is as good as any other. Likewise, this lack of certainty does not relegate all your efforts to help learners to the level
of trial and error. It is possible to make informed decisions about the first steps to take in dealing with classroom challenges such as these.
This is where the study of educational psychology is of most benefit to teachers. While it may not give you a single “best” solution,
educational psychology will help you devise a plan of action and a rational way to go about accomplishing your classroom goals, whether
these goals involve teaching spelling, managing the behavior of a group of learners, helping learners who have learning problems,
changing disruptive behaviors, or enhancing self-esteem. By giving you a knowledge base for making intelligent choices and showing you a
process for making choices, educational psychology helps you improve and become more confident about your decision making. Thus, the
tasks of educational psychology and the goals of this textbook are twofold: (1) to present the knowledge necessary to effectively teach
diverse groups of learners and (2) to present a process by which this knowledge can be effectively implemented in the classroom. First,
let’s look at how this knowledge is constructed. Then we will describe the process for making the most use of it.
Asking Questions. The process of knowledge building in educational psychology begins with a question about what works best for
learners. In any case, formulating a question is the first step in the journey for knowledge.
Defining Variables. This process of clarifying exactly what you mean when you name a variable is called operationally defining a variable.
An operational definition involves describing a variable in the precise manner in which you will measure it or demonstrate it. Giving
variables operational definitions is essential if the research that studies that variable is to produce usable results. Consider the following
variables and reflect on how you might operationally define them: praising learners, learning ability, following rules, self-esteem, reading
achievement, knowledge of addition facts, cooperation.
Any variable can be defined as either a dependent or an independent variable.
The independent variable (IV) is the one you believe will produce the effect or bring about the outcome you desire. It is the variable you
manipulate, or change, in your experiment. The dependent variable (DV) is the presumed effect of the independent variable. In other
words, the independent variable is what the researcher believes will cause a change in the dependent variable. If the researcher is
interested in how rewards affect motivation to learn, then the type of reward is the independent variable, and learning is the dependent
variable. If we want to know the effect of grade retention on reading achievement, retention is the independent variable, and reading
achievement is the dependent variable. In our previous example of spelling tests, the manner of responding to mistakes is the
independent variable, and learning spelling words is the dependent variable.
Formulating Hypotheses. Once researchers have stated the question and operationally defined the variables, they are ready to pose their
research hypothesis. A hypothesis is a prediction of the way in which the variables are related to one another. In other words, the
hypothesis describes the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Below are some examples of hypotheses. As
you read them, notice how they differ from the questions from which the hypotheses were derived:
Learners learn unfamiliar spelling words (DV) better when spelling words are corrected (IV). Retaining learners (IV) in the first grade development, learning, motivation, and classroom management; and (2) they help us think about classroom problems in terms of
results in lower reading achievement (DV) than if they are passed on. Rewarding learners (IV) for behaviors they already perform makes previously discovered generalizations and principles that point the way to new solutions.
them less likely to perform those behaviors (DV) when the rewards are taken away.
The goal of educational psychology is to bring together the findings of many different research studies into a coherent body of theoretical
Testing the Hypothesis knowledge about development, learning, and motivation. The goal of this book is to teach you to approach classroom problems by means
of a problem-solving process that includes the following steps: (1) observing learner behavior, (2) understanding learner characteristics,
Educational psychologists can choose from among a variety of methods to test hypotheses. These methods can be grouped broadly into (3) reflecting on theoretical knowledge, (4) choosing and implementing a classroom strategy, and (5) evaluating the results of the chosen
two domains: qualitative research, which includes descriptive research, ethnography, and case studies; and quantitative research, which strategy.
includes correlational and experimental studies. The distinction between these two general methods is the role played by hypotheses.
Qualitative research is conducted primarily for the purpose of describing or creating hypotheses about the relationship between Randomization. A process to help insure experimental generalizability by giving large numbers of individuals an equal opportunity to be
independent and dependent variables. Quantitative research is conducted primarily for the purpose of testing previously stated included in a study in either the experimental or the control group.
relationships between independent and dependent variables, often formulated from the results of qualitative studies.
a. case study f. ethnographic study
Qualitative Research. The various types of qualitative studies include descriptive research, ethnographic research, and case studies.
b. control group g. experimental group
Descriptive Research. Let’s say that you are interested in studying your learners’ attitudes toward providing health care services to recent
c. correlational study h. generalizability
immigrants, or in your fellow teachers’ attitudes toward children with various types of disabilities, or in the grading methods used in your
school. The purpose of your study is to describe what people do, or how learners think about a specific issue in your class or school. Such d. dependent variable i. independent variable
research is called descriptive research.
e. descriptive study j. randomization
Ethnographic Research. Typically, ethnographic studies concentrate on life in a particular classroom or school. The researcher acts as
observer, recorder, and interpreter and makes explicit his or her point of view. The results of such studies help us understand how people _________ 1.A researcher selects 30 teachers for involvement in a study but, instead of providing them with the experimental program, he elects to use their
in that particular situation interpret and make sense of daily events or circumstances in their lives. student achievement as a measure against which to compare another group of 30 selected teachers who used the special treatment (program).

Case Studies. Case studies intensively study persons or situations singly or in small numbers. As such, they usually do not involve as many
individuals or as extensive a data-gathering process as ethnography.
Quantitative Research. Generalizability refers to theability to reproduce research results across contexts (e.g., laboratory conditions),
settings (e.g., schools or communities), and learners (e.g., high and low achievers). To show that the results of their research are
generalizable to a variety of settings, researchers must turn to quantitative research methods. We study two quantitative methods here:
correlational and experimental studies.
Correlational Studies. Research studies that seek to determine whether there is a relationship between two variables are called
correlational studies. Ex: a relationship between hours spent doing homework and learner performance in school, especially since you will
have to grade all that homework
_________ 2.To provide equal opportunity for students to participate in an innovative, computer-based writing and mathematics program in which
curriculum integration is featured, Principal Fran Smith draws the 60 students from a pool of all junior high students.
_________ 3.A researcher, interested in having his descriptive results represent what is currently occurring across the United States, carefully selects his
sample of elementary schools from each section of and type of school in the United States, ensuring that he has numbers proportionate to the larger
population.
_________ 4.Deciding to collect data about their new computer programming course in order to evaluate it, a teacher and principal discuss what effects
would be most appropriate, and they set out to investigate whether instruments have been developed to measure these effects.
_________ 5.Using a narrowly focused coding scheme, a researcher observes the teacher–student and student–student interaction involved in small-group
teaching in three social studies and three mathematics classes because she suspects major process differences.

Whenever you read or hear about a correlation, it is important to remember that correlations do not tell you whether one variable causes
the other. For example, a correlation between homework and learner performance does not mean that giving lots of homework will cause
increased performance. It simply means that some relationship between the two variables exists

Experimental Studies. In experimental studies, however, researchers directly change one of the variables of interest—the independent
variable—to see how the change influences another variable of interest—the dependent variable. Such studies use experimental groups
and control groups; learners are assigned to either group on a random basis. The experimental group is given a program of instruction—or
some other intervention—that presumably causes changes in the dependent variable.

These theories help researchers to organize information gained from their experiments and make decisions about other variables to
investigate, and they also help the nonresearcher, including the classroom teacher, in two ways: (1) They help organize many seemingly
unrelated facts about
Schemata. Elaborate cognitive structures or networks made up of ideas and concepts that are used to interpret one’s environment and guide behavior.
Behavioral schemata. Patterns of action or sequences of behavior that the child uses to explore and respond to objects in her environment.
Symbolic schemata. The mental representations of objects, events, and experiences without the need to perform some type of action on them.
Operational schemata. Mental operations performed on objects or events, the results of which lead to some logical outcome.
Organization. As a form of information processing, ordering and systematizing new information so that one can remember and use it efficiently.
Adaptation. As identified by Piaget, a central drive of humans to adapt to the world as they experience it.
Assimilation. Expanding or enriching cognitive structures with new information or perceptions.
Accommodation. Altering or adjusting cognitive structures affected by new information.
Equilibrium. The result of accommodation; the restoration of cognitive balance by altering cognitive structures to take into account new data.
Figure 2.3 Both assimilation and accommodation maintain or restore cognitive balance.
Sensorimotor stage. The first of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, characterized initially by only reflex actions but later by the learning of object
permanence and the beginnings of internal cognitive mediation.
Mediation. Thinking that uses symbols to represent objects or events in one’s environment.
Object permanence. The knowledge that objects that are not currently visible (such as a car that has passed) still exist. This knowledge typically develops
when a child has reached 6 months.
Altering schemata to assimilate new but cognitively compatible knowledge (top) or altering schemata to include incompatible knowledge (bottom) and
restore equilibrium.
Figure 2.5 Piaget’s concept of stages of cognitive development at various chronological age ranges.
Preoperational stage. The second of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development; characterized by egocentrism and the increasing ability to mediate, but with a
continued dependence on immediate experience.
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
Stage Approximate Age Characteristics
Sensorimotor 0–2 years Begins to make use of imitation, memory, and thought Begins to recognize that objects do not cease to exist when they are hidden
Moves from reflex actions to goal-directed activity
Preoperational 2–7 years Gradual language development and ability to think in symbolic form Able to think operations through logically in one direction. Has
difficulty seeing another person’s point of view
Concrete operational 7–11 years Able to solve concrete, handson problems in logical fashion Understands laws of conservation and able to classify and
seriate Understands reversibility
Formal operational 11–15+years Able to solve abstract problems in logical fashion Thinking becomes more scientific Develops concerns about social issues,
identity
Laws of conservation. The understanding that changes in certain properties of an object (e.g., shape) do not change other properties of the object (e.g.,
mass).
What role does active involvement in classroom activities by my learners play in enhancing cognitive development?
Figure 2.6 Different ways of determining whether a child has acquired the concept of conservation.
Concrete operational stage. The third of Piaget’s cognitive developmental stages, characterized by an understanding of the laws of conservation and a
readiness to engage in other mental operations using concrete stimuli. What adjustments must I make in the learning expectations and activities of my
learners when they are in the concrete operational stage of cognitive development?
Table 2.3
Major Characteristics of the Concrete Operational Stage
Operation Explanation Example
Decentration. Concrete operational learners gain freedom from stimulus control: they can consider several features of a task rather than focus on only the
one most obvious. Example: Ola recognizes that a change in one aspect of the grape drink (its depth) is compensated by a change in another aspect (its
width).
Reversibility. Learners can mentally go through a series of steps to solve a problem and then reverse their thinking to return to the starting point. Example:
Ola understands that if 7 baseball cards plus 8 new cards makes 15, then 15 minus 8 equals 7.
ConservationLearners
Hierarchical Learners
Seriation Learners
Transitive Learners
“George has more cards than you.”
Applying Your Knowledge:
Teaching Concrete-Operational Learners
Teaching Classroom Rules. Explain your classroom rules first by having learners role-play lining up properly to leave for lunch, demonstrate changing from one
learning center to another, or model how to work and play with materials. Concrete operational learners will internalize rules most quickly if they actually
perform the activities involved. Teaching Values. Stage classroom minidramas to teach values to concrete operational learners. For example, have them role-
play accepting of learners with disabilities, asking for permission before using someone’s property, or the appropriate reaction when someone says
something mean. Provide examples and demonstrations of appropriate actions before introducing the general principles from which they are derived.
Teaching Mathematical Concepts. Teach place value, or addition and subtraction facts, by having children work with manipulatives. For example, have them
discover the answer to 8plus6 by performing the operation with beans or pasta shapes. Have the entire class collect acorns, then have them arrange all the
acorns in groups of tens, the tens in groups of 100, and so on. Let the children see what 100 or 1,000 acorns looks like.
Formal operational stage. The fourth and final of Piaget’s developmental stages, characterized by abstract thinking, logical reasoning, and other forms of
higherorder conceptualization.
Hypothetico-deductive reasoning. The ability to pose hypotheses and draw conclusions from observations.
Approximately when can I expect most of my learners to be able to reason logically and abstractly?
Formal operational learners have complex thinking skills and can use learning strategies. This allows teachers to use learning techniques involving role-
playing, debates, the design of experiments, and logical analysis to enhance their learners’ cognitive development.
How will I know that my lessons include important facts, discriminations, concepts, rules, and strategies that the learner needs to master developmental
tasks?
Culture and social relationships are major stimuli to cognitive development. According to Vygotsky, cognitive development is characterized by a learner’s
increasing mastery of important cultural tasks presented by adults and peers.
Have I met my learners' needs for sufficient conversation, public reasoning, shared problem solving, and cooperative projects?
Zone of proximal development. Vygotsky’s metaphor describing the range of skills and abilities bounded by what a learner can do independently and what a
learner needs adult assistance in performing.
Should most of my instruction be targeted below, at, or slightly above my learners' current level of skill?