ADC Updated New

Advance Communication Lab (15ECL76) SVCE, Bengaluru
Cycle-1
Experiment no: 1
TDM of Two Band Limited Signals
1.1Aim: To design and demonstrate the working of TDM and Recovery of two band limited
signals.
1.2 Components Required: IC-HCF4051B, Resistors, capacitors, Function generator,

Regulated DC power supply, Bread board, CRO
1.3 Theory: Multiplexing is a method by which multiple analog message signals or digital
data streams are combined into one signal over a shared medium. The aim is to share an
expensive communication channel resource. The multiplexed signal is transmitted over a
communication channel, which may be a physical transmission medium. The multiplexing
divides the capacity of the high-level communication channel into several low-level logical
channels, one for each message signal or data stream to be transferred. A reverse process,
known as de-multiplexing, can extract the original channels on the receiver side. A device that
performs the multiplexing is called a multiplexer (MUX), and a device that performs the
reverse process is called a de-multiplexer (DEMUX).
Multiplexing technologies may be divided into several types, all of which have
significant variations: Space-division multiplexing (SDM), Frequency-division multiplexing
(FDM), Time-division multiplexing (TDM), and Code division multiplexing (CDM).
Space-Division Multiplexing (SDM) simply implies different point-to-point wires for

different channels. Examples include an analogue stereo audio cable, with one pair of wires for
the left channel and another for the right channel, and a multi-pair telephone cable.
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technology. FDM achieves the

combining of several digital signals into one medium by sending signals in several distinct
frequency ranges over a single medium.
Code division multiplexing (CDM) or spread spectrum is a class of techniques where several
channels simultaneously share the same frequency spectrum, and this spectral bandwidth is
much higher than the bit rate or symbol rate
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a type of digital multiplexing in which two or more
signals are transferred appearing simultaneously as sub-channels in one communication
channel, but are physically taking turns on the channel. The time domain is divided into several
recurrent time slots of fixed length, one for each sub-channel. A sample byte or data block of
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sub-channel 1 is transmitted during time slot 1, sub-channel 2 during time slot 2, etc. One TDM
frame consists of one time slot per sub-channel plus a synchronization channel and sometimes
error correction channel before the synchronization. After the last sub-channel, error
correction, and synchronization, the cycle starts all over again with a new frame, starting with
the second sample, byte or data block from sub-channel 1, 2 and so on.
Fig no. 1.1
Here carrier used is a square wave, like in pulse modulation techniques. When the
carrier is on, one of the message signal get sampled and is multiplexed, similarly when the
carrier is off another message signal get sampled and is multiplexed. The amplitude of a
periodic train of pulses is varied in proportion to the message signals. Thus TDM provides an
effective method for sharing a communication channel.
1.4 Design:
1.4.1 Demultiplexer:
a. For Sine wave
100 , Let RC  1m sec , C  0.1F 𝑅 = 10𝐾Ω (Pot)

1  RC  1 1⁄ ≪ 𝑅𝐶 ≪ 1⁄
fC fm 2𝐾
b. For Triangle wave
500 , Let RC  1m sec , C  0.1F 𝑅 = 10𝐾Ω (Pot)

1  RC  1 1⁄ ≪ 𝑅𝐶 ≪ 1⁄
fC fm 2𝐾
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1.5 Circuit Diagram:
1.5.1 Multiplexing (Using IC)
Fig no. 1.2
1.5.1 De-multiplexing (Using IC)
Fig no. 1.3
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1.5.2 Multiplexing (Using Transistor)
Fig no. 1.4
1.5.3 De-multiplexing(Using Transistor)
Fig no. 1.5
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1.6 Procedure:
1. Rig up the multiplexer circuit as shown in figure 1.2(using IC) or in figure 1.4(using
transistor).
2. Feed the input message signal m1 t  (sinusoidal wave) and m2 t  (triangle wave) of
2v p  p , 100Hz and 500Hz signals respectively.
3. Feed high frequency square-wave carrier signal of 5v p  p at 2 KHz.
4. Observe the multiplexed signal with respect to the square wave and plot the waveform.
5. Rig up the Demultiplexer circuit as shown in figure 1.3(using IC) or in figure 1.5(using
transistor) and feed the multiplexed output as input for the Demultiplexer and apply the
same carrier signal from same function generator.
6. Observe the Demultiplexer output and plot the waveforms.
1.7 Expected Waveforms:
1.7.1 Time Division Multiplexing
Fig no. 1.6
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1.7.2 De-multiplexed Waveforms
Fig no. 1.7
1.8 Conclusion:
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Experiment no: 2
ASK Generation and Detection
2.1 Aim: Design and study an Amplitude Shift Keying system to transmit the digital data of
500bits/sec, using a suitable carrier signal and demodulate the same.
2.2 Components Required: Transistor SL100, Op-Amp µA741, diode IN4007,

capacitors, resistors, Function generator, Regulated DC power supply, Bread board, CRO
2.3 Theory: The analog signals are often converted to digital signals by means Pulse Code
Modulation (PCM) before transmission. The transmission of digital signal is more efficient
when compared to the direct transmission of analog signal. These digital source signals are
generally referred to as baseband signals. We can send analog and digital signals directly over
a medium. From electro-magnetic theory, for efficient radiation of electrical energy from an
antenna it must be at least in the order of magnitude of a wavelength in size; c = fλ, where c is
the velocity of light, f is the signal frequency and λ is the wavelength. For a 1kHz audio signal,
the wavelength is 300 km. An antenna of this size is not practical for efficient transmission.
The low-frequency signal is often frequency-translated to a higher frequency range for efficient
transmission. The process is called modulation i.e. the process of changing the characteristics
of a carrier signal in accordance with the modulating message signal. The use of a higher
frequency range reduces antenna size. The modulation techniques are divided into the two
methods Analog Modulation and Digital Modulation Techniques. In case of analog modulation
techniques the base band signal is analog in nature where as in digital the base band message
signal is digital in nature.
The various digital modulation techniques are
 Amplitude Shift Keying(ASK)

 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 Frequency Shift Keying(FSK)
Amplitude Shift Keying: The binary ASK system was one of the earliest form of digital
modulation technique used in wireless telegraphy. In binary ASK symbol 1 is represented by
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transmitting a sinusoidal carrier wave of fixed amplitude and frequency for the entire duration
of the bit 1 for Tb seconds and binary 0 is represented by switching off the carrier for Tb seconds.
the context of digital communications is a modulation process, which imparts to a sinusoid two
or more discrete amplitude levels. These are related to the number of levels adopted by the
digital message. This signal can be generated simply by turning carrier of a sinusoidal oscillator
ON and OFF for the prescribed periods indicated by the modulating pulse train. For this reason
it is called as ON-OFF keying. The message signal must be represented in Non return to zero
(NRZ) uni-polar format only. Binary ASK system has the largest probability of bit error when
compared to FSK and PSK systems.
One of the disadvantages of ASK, compared with FSK and PSK, for example, is that it has not
got a constant envelope. This makes its processing (eg, power amplification) more difficult,
since linearity becomes an important factor. However, it does make for ease of demodulation
with an envelope detector.
2.4 Design:
2.4.1 Modulation
Let VBE  0.7V , VCE  0.3V , I C  1mA and   50 , I E  I C
Applying the KVL to the carrier-collector-emitter-ground of SL100
VC  peak  VCE  I E RE  0
2  0.3  1x103 RE  0
RE  1.7k  1.8k
Applying the KVL to the message source-base-emitter-Ground of SL100

I
Vm peak  I B RB  VBE  I E RE  0 , I B  C  1m  20 X 10 6 and I E RE  1mX1.7 X 103  1.7
 50
3  RB 20 x106  0.7  1.7  0 Solving for RB

RB  30k  33k
2.4.2 De-modulation
1  R C  1 , 1⁄ ≪ 𝑅𝐶 ≪ 1⁄ , Let R C  1m sec , C  0.1F
f C
1 1 f m
2𝐾 500 1 1 1
𝑅 = 10𝐾Ω (Pot)
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2.5.1 ASK Modulation
Fig no. 2.1
2.5.2 ASK-Demodulation
Block Diagram:
Fig no. 2.2
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Circuit Diagram:
Fig no. 2.3
2.6 Procedure:
1. Rig-up the modulation circuit as shown in the figure 2.1.

2. Apply the message signal of frequency of 250Hz 6Vp-p and carrier signal of
frequency 1 KHz 4Vp-p.
3. Observe ASK signal at the emitter of SL100 and display in the CRO with respect to
the square message (binary data ‘1’ and ‘0’) signal.
4. Plot the modulated waveform w.r.t. message signal
5. Rig-up the demodulated circuit as shown in figure 2.3, step by step, apply the ASK
signal and observe the waveforms and plot, after the diode and envelope detector.
6. Adjust the pot of the comparator circuit to get the demodulated wave at the pin no 6
of Op-Amp.
7. Note down the peak to peak output voltage and plot the waveforms.
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2.7 Expected waveforms:
2.7.1 ASK Modulation
Fig no. 2.4
2.7.2 ASK Demodulation
Fig no. 2.5
2.8 Conclusion:
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Experiment no: 3
Yagi-Uda Antenna
3.1 Aim: To measure the Directivity and gain of the Microstrip Yagi-Uda antenna.
3.2 Components Required: VCO, Microwave source, Microstrip Standard Dipole

antenna, Co-axial wave guide adapter, BNC-BNC cable CRO, Active filter.
3.3 Theory: The Yagi-Uda antenna or Yagi Antenna is one of the most brilliant antenna
designs. It is simple to construct and has a high gain, typically greater than 10 dB. The Yagi-
Uda antennas typically operate in the HF to UHF bands (about 3 MHz to 10 GHz), although
their bandwidth is typically small, on the order of a few percent of the center frequency. The
Yagi antenna was invented in Japan, with results first published in 1926. The work was
originally done by Shintaro Uda, also work was presented for the first time in English by Yagi,
so the antenna is called as Yagi-Uda antenna.
Yagi-Uda antennas consist of arrays of independent antenna elements, with only one of the
element driven to transmit electromagnetic waves. The number of elements determines the gain
& directivity. Yagi antennas are not as directional as parabolic dish antennas, but more
directional than flat panel antennas. The simplest practical antenna is the half wave dipole. In
its original form it consists of two thin straight wires, each λ/4 in lengths, by a small gap. For
this simple antenna, under fairly realistic approximations, closed form expressions are available
for radiated fields, power, directivity etc.
The important feature of Yagi antenna is that it is an end-fire antenna, i.e. the direction of
maximum radiation is tangential to the plane formed by the parallel antenna elements.
The design of a rectangular microstrip patch antenna begins with (a) choice of a substrate, (b)
selecting the feed mechanism, (c) determining patch length L, (d) determining patch width w
and (e) selecting the feed location.
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Fig. no.3.1
3.4 Block Diagram:
Fig. no.3.2
3.5 Procedure:
1. Set up the system as shown in the Figure 3.2.

2. Keeping the voltage knob at minimum position and gain knob at maximum position
switch on the power supply.
3. Connect the Yagi-Uda antenna as a Transmitting and receiving antenna.
4. Vary the VCO voltage and check the output for different frequency.
5. Keep the resonant frequency at 5GHz and calculate the distance between transmitting
2*d2
and receiving antenna by using formula S  .

6. Keep the two antennas in Line of sight and in the near field region. Note down the output
voltage as Vin.
7. Keep the distance between two antennas at a distance greater then S cm(in the far field
region) apart note down the readings by rotating the receiving antenna in the
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H(Horizontal)-plane both in clock wise and in anti-clockwise direction for every 5

degrees and tabulate the readings.
8. Similarly rotate the receiving antenna in E-plane and tabulate the readings.
9. Plot the graph for both E and H plane.
10. Find the HPWB for both cases.
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11.Find the directivity using formula D  and gain of the antenna using formula
 E0 *  H0
4S  Vr 
G   and Gain in dB= 10log (G).
  Vin 
3.6 Tabular Column:
For H-plane Vin=___________ Volts
 0 In Left Normalised Normalised Right Normalised Normalised

Degrees side Voltage Voltage in side Voltage Voltage in
Vr in Vr dB=10log(VN) Vr in Vr dB=10log(VN)
VN  VN 
volts VMax volts VMax
Table no.3.1
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 E0 =______________
For E-plane Vin=___________ Volts

VN  VN 
Table no.3.2
 H0 =______________
3.7 Calculations:
2*d2
1. Distance S  s

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d=dimension of Dipole antenna= __________Cm

C 3 *1010
   __________ cm
f 5 *109
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2. Directivity= D 
 E0 * H0
where  E is Half Power band width in E-plane  E =______________

0 0
 H0 Half Power band width in H-plane  H0 =______________
4S  Vr 
3. Gain of the antenna G   
  Vin  _____________________
Gain in dB= 10log (G).
3.8 Conclusion:
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Experiment no: 4
Microwave Test Bench
4.1 Aim: To measure the frequency, guide wavelength, VSWR and attenuation in a
Microwave test Bench and to obtain the V-I Characteristics of a GUNN diode oscillator.
4.2 Components Required: Microwave Test Bench, GUNN power Supply, CRO
4.3 Theory: In 1963, J.B. Gunn discovered the bulk TRANFERRED ELECTRON EFFECT
in Gallium Arsenide which is a semiconductor material. Si & Ge are called INDIRECT GAP
semiconductors because the bottom of the conduction band does not lie directly above the top
of the valence band. In GaAs the conduction band lies directly above the top of the valence
band. The lowest energy conduction band in Ga as is called as PRIMARY VALLEY. Gunn
while measuring the current density J as a junction of electric field E in a Gallium Arsenide n-
type specimen discovered that after a threshold field Eth is reached, the current in the specimen
suddenly becomes oscillatory w.r.t. time and these oscillations are in the microwave frequency
range. This effect is called “GUNN EFFECT”.
Gunn diodes are operated in two modes:-
1. The Gunn mode or the transit time mode
2. The LSA mode (or limited space charge accumulation)
The Gunn diode is a bulk device i.e. it does not contain any junction but it is a slice of
n-type GaAs. Hence it is a reversible device and can be operated in both directions. The reflex
klystron makes use of the velocity modulation to transform a continuous electron beam into
microwave power. Electrons emitted from the cathode are accelerated and passed through the
positive resonator towards negative reflector, which retards and finally reflects the electrons
and the electrons turn back through the resonator. Suppose an RF-field exists between the
resonators, the electrons travelling forward will be accelerated or retarded as the voltage at the
resonator changes in amplitude. The accelerated electrons leave the resonator at an increased
velocity and the retarded electrons leave at the reduced velocity. The electrons leaving the
resonator will need different time to return due to change in velocities. As a result the returning
electrons group together in bunches. As the electron bunches pass though the resonator they
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interact with voltage at the resonator grids. If the bunches pass the grid at such a time that the
electrons are slowed down by the voltage then energy will be delivered to the resonator; and
klystron will oscillate.
4.4 Block Diagram:
Fig no. 4.1
4.5 Procedure:
1. Set up the components and equipment’s as shown in the figure 4.1.

2. Before switching ON the GUNN power supply, keep the GUNN bias knob and pin bias
knob in anti-clockwise at minimum position and pin modulation frequency at its mid
position.
3. Switch on the GUNN power supply.
4.5.1 V-I Characteristics of GUNN diode Oscillator
4. Slowly increase the GUNN bias voltage note down the voltage reading and
corresponding current reading by changing the position of the switch to the current (i.e.
from V to I ) reading on GUNN power supply module.
5. Note down the increase of the Current with respect to the Gunn bias voltage, at
particular voltage (Vth) current suddenly drops, this region of V-I characteristic curve
is called as Negative resistance Region, further increase in voltage, current also
increases.
6. Note down the readings and plot the V-I characteristic curve.
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4.5.2 Measurement of frequency

7. Adjust the Pin Bias voltage and modulation frequency to some value so as to get a good
demodulat
8. ed square wave output in the CRO.
9. Connect the output of the detector to the CRO and get the square wave output (by
applying Gunn bias voltage of 8v and adjusting the tuneable detector).
10. Tune the frequency meter slowly to get the dip in the square wave output in the CRO,
slowly position the frequency meter where the output voltage in the dip is minimum.
Note down the frequency value from the frequency meter.
11. Once the frequency is noted down change the position of the frequency meter to some other
position.
4.5.3 Measurement of wavelength
12. Connect the tuneable detector output of slotted carriage section in the CRO.
13. Move the probe carriage along the slotted line horizontally to get the maximum and
minimum output voltage on the CRO. Adjust slotted section to the first minimum output
voltage on CRO and Record the probe position as d1 cm on slotted line by using formula
d1  MSR  CVD * LC .
14. Move the probe in the same direction to get the second minimum, and record the
position as d2 cm by using same formula. Calculate the guide wavelength by using
 g  2d 2  d1 cm .
15. Measure the broad diameter of the rectangular waveguide as ‘a’ cm. Cut-off wavelength
of waveguide is C  2.a.cm Wavelength of the microwave free space wavelength is
g * C
calculated by using the relation O  cm.
 g
2
 C
2

1
2
16. Calculate the frequency by using the formula f  C C  3 * 1010 cm , C is the

O where
speed of the light.
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4.5.6 To determine VSWR(Voltage Standing Wave Ratio)

17. Connect the output of the detector to the CRO and obtain the square waveform. Move the
slotted carriage base section and note down the Vmax and Vmin output voltage on the CRO.
Vmax
Calculate VSWR using VSWR  .
Vmin
4.5.7 Measurement of attenuation
18. Connect the output of the detector to the CRO by releasing the attenuation knob.
Measure the output voltage as V1 volts.
19. Tune the attenuator knob to different positions and note down the output voltage
respectively as V2 , V3 and so on.
20. Calculate attenuation using the formula Attenuation  20 log  1 dB .

V
 V2 
4.6 Observations and Calculations:
1. Operating frequency f= __________ Hz (using frequency meter).
2. Measurement of wavelength
First minimum d1  MSR  CVD * LC cm
Where MSR=main scale reading on slotted carriage,
CVD=coinciding vernier scale reading
LC=Least count = (Minimum value can be measured on main scale) / (Number of
divisions on the vernier scale)
0.1cm
LC   0.01cm
10
d1=_________ cm
Second minimum d2=_________ cm
Guide wavelength  g  2d 2  d1 cm
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Cut-off wavelength of waveguide C  2 * a cm where a is broader wavelength of waveguide

a=______cm.
C  _________ cm
g * C
Free space wavelength is O  cm
 g
2
 C
2

1
2
O  ___________ cm
Operating frequency f  C C  3 * 1010 cm , C is the speed of the light

O where
f  __________ Hz
4.7 Tabular Column:
GUNN bias Voltage GUNN bias Current

V in Volts I in Amps
Table no. 4.1
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4.8 Expected Graph:

4.8.1 V-I characteristics of GUNN diode oscillator
Fig no. 4.2
4.9 Conclusion:
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Experiment no: 5
Ring Resonator
5.1Aim: To measure the resonance characteristics of a Microstrip Ring Resonator and

determination of dielectric constant of the substrate.
5.2 Components Required: VCO, Microwave source, Microstrip Ring Resonator, Co-
axial wave guide adapter, dielectric Teflon, Universal test Rig, Active filter, 6dB attenuator,
BNC-BNC cable CRO.
5.3 Theory: The ring resonator is known as a simple printed resonator that is useful for
making approximate measurement of dielectric constant. It is also used in making filters (Band
pass or Band stop) to some extent as an antenna element. Ring resonators can be analysed in
two ways. Looking at a ring resonator in isolation, it may appear that the field would be in the
form of a wave circulating around either direction, but in reality, the coupling structure plays
an important role.
Sections of transmission lines of finite length with their ends terminated in either an
open or a short circuit are used as resonator elements at microwave frequencies. In a microstrip,
an open end is far simpler to realize than a short circuit. Hence in practice, rectangular
resonators with open ends are more commonly employed. Another useful form that can be
conveniently realized in microstrip configuration is the ring resonator. These resonators find
applications in the design of filters, oscillators, mixers etc.
5.4 Block Diagram:
Fig no. 5.1
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5.5 Procedure:
5.5.1 To Plot Resonance Characteristics
1. Set up the system as shown in the block diagram

2. Keeping the voltage at the minimum position and gain Knob anticlockwise direction
3. Insert a 50 transmission line and check for the output in the CRO.
4. Vary the power supply voltage and check the output for different VCO frequencies.
5. Replace the 50 transmission line with the Ring Resonator.
6. Vary the VCO supply voltage tabulate the frequency and corresponding output
voltage on the CRO.
7. Plot the graph of frequency versus output voltage and find the resonant frequency as
fresonance.
5.5.2 To find Dielectric constant
8. Set the VCO voltage to get one particular frequency and note down the corresponding
output voltage as V1
9. Place the Teflon dielectric material on the top of the ring resonator. Ensure that there
is no air gap between the dielectric piece and the resonator surface.
10. Observe the change in the magnitude level on the CRO.
11. Now increase the VCO voltage and find the new Resonance frequency with the
dielectric material.
12. Note Down this new resonance frequency as f1.
13. Calculate the dielectric constant of the unknown material by using the formula
14. Repeat the experiment using different dielectric material.
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5.6 Tabular Column:
VCO frequency in GHz Output Voltage in Volts
Table 5.1
5.7 Calculations:
1. Resonance Frequency fResonance =_________ Hz (without dielectric)
2. Wavelength 1  C  ___________ cm ,
f Re sonance
where C  3 * 1010 cm , C is the speed of the light
3. Resonance Frequency f1 =_________ Hz (with dielectric)
4. Wavelength 2  C  ___________ cm
f1
5. Effective dielectric constant of the substrate used in Ring Resonator is
1
 r 1  r 1  12h   2
 eff   1    1  
2 2   W  
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Where h=height of the known sample(substrate used for ring resonator)

W=width of the transmission line
For the RT Duroid material of Ring Resonator
h= 0.762mm W=1.836mm and  r  3.2
6. Effective dielectric Constant of unknown material is
1 2
d m 
1  2
where dm =diameter of the Ring Resonator
 1 =Effective dielectric constant of Known material
 2 =Effective dielectric constant of un-Known material
2 * 1
2   _________ Farad meter
1
5.8 Expected Waveform:
Fig no. 5.2
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5.9 Conclusion:
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Cycle-2
Experiment no: 6
Direction Coupler
6.1 Aim: To Determine the coupling and Isolation characteristics of Microstrip Directional
Coupler.
6.2 Components Required: VCO, Microwave source, Microstrip Directional Coupler,

Co-axial wave guide adapter, Universal test Rig, 6dB attenuator, BNC-BNC cable CRO, and
50 transmission line, matched load termination.
6.3 Theory: A two stub branch line coupler is a fundamental direct coupled structure in
which the main line is directly bridged To the secondary line by means of two shunt branches.
The length of each branch and their spacing are all quarter Wavelength in the transmission
medium at the centre frequency f0.
In a parallel coupled directional coupler the main length “l” of the coupled line section
is quarter wavelength in the transmission medium at the centre frequency f0 . All inputs and
outputs lines have the same characteristic impedance.
A Directional coupler is device with which it is possible to measure the incident and
reflected wave separately. It consists of two transmission lines the main arm and auxiliary arm,
electromagnetically coupled to each other. The power entering, in the main arm gets divided
between port2 and port3, and almost no power comes out in portr4. Power entering at port2 is
divided between port1 and port4.
A signal is fed into one of the four ports. Ideally, part of the signal power emerges
from the transmitted port. Ideally, the rest of the input power emerges from the coupled port.
Again, ideally, no signal emerges from the isolated port. The direction from the input port to
the transmitted port is considered to be the forward direction of signal propagation. If the
input signal minus the transmitted signal emerges then the coupler is denoted as a forward c
oupler. If the input signal minus the transmitted signal emerges, then the coupler is denoted a
s a backward coupler. Directional couplers can be designed to send different portions of the
input power to the coupled port, depending on the application for which they are designed.
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If the directional coupler is designed to “lightly sample” the input power, the coupled signal
may be either 10 dB or 20 dB relative to the input signal strength. Such directional couplers
are often used to sample (lightly couple) the signal strength of the input signal for application
s like the network analyser
Types of couplers:
 Directional couplers: When two transmission lines are close together, because of the
interaction of the electromagnetic fields of each line, power can be coupled between the lines.
Those coupled lines are used to construct directional couplers.
Fig no. 11.2
Fig no. 11.1
 Branch line Couplers:

Generally branch line couplers are 3dB, four ports directional couplers having a 900 phase
difference between its two output ports named through & coupled arms. Branch line couplers
(also named as Quadrature Hybrid) are often made in microstrip or stripline form.
Fig no. 11.2
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 Parallel line Coupler: A parallel line coupler is created when two transmission lines are
brought close together so that their field lines interact. In looking at the parallel couplers we
will consider micro strip configurations. In microstrip a quasi-TEM wave can be propagate. A
pure TEM wave has a propagation velocity which is independent of the conductor geometry.
A quasi-TEM wave, but the propagation velocity depends upon the conductor geometry.
Fig no. 11.3
6.4 Block Diagram:
Fig no. 11.2
6.5 Procedure:
1. Set up the system as shown in the figure.

2. Keeping the Voltage at minimum switch on the power supply.
3. Insert a 50 transmission line and check for the output on the CRO.
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4. Keep the VCO frequency at 5GHz and set the gain to get the output voltage square
wave . This value can be taken as a input to the directional coupler as V1 volts.
5. Replace the 50 transmission line with the Directional Coupler.
6. Check the output at Port 2(Through put), port 3(Coupled output) and Port 4(Isolated
Output).
7. Calculate the Insertion loss, Coupling factor, and Isolation using the formula.
Fig no. 11.3
6.6 Calculations:
1. Insertion Loss: It is the ratio of the input power (port-1) to the power out
of the throughput port (port-2) and is expressed in decibels. It indicates

how much power the signal loses as it travels from the input to the
throughput port.
V 
I12  10 log  1 dB
 V2 
2. Coupling Factor: The coupling factor represents the primary property of a
directional coupler. It is deﬁned as the ratio of the power (incident) at input of the main
line to the power coupled at the output in the auxiliary arm. Thus, coupling is a measure
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of how much of the incident power is being sampled and is expressed in decibels. This
is the primary specification of a directional coupler.
V 
C14  10 log  1 dB
 V4 
3. Isolation Loss Isolation of a directional coupler can be defined as the difference in
signal levels in dB between the input port and the isolated port when the two output
ports are terminated by matched loads,
V 
I S13  10 log  1 dB
 V3 
4. Directivity: Directivity is a measure of how well the coupler isolates two opposite-
travelling (forward and reverse) signals. The higher the directivity specified in dB, the
higher the measurement accuracy. Directivity is not directly measurable, and is
calculated from the isolation and coupling measurements as:
Directivity (dB) = Isolation (dB) - Coupling (dB)
The directivity is the ratio of the power out of the coupling port (port-4) to the power
out of the isolation port (port-3), expressed in decibels.
 V4 
D43  10 log  dB
 V3 
6.7 Conclusion:
Dept. of E&CE 32
Experiment no: 7
BPSK Generation and Detection
7.1 Aim: Design and the working of Binary Phase Shift Keying modulated signals for a given
carrier signal to transmit the digital data of 500bits/sec, and Demodulate the BPSK signal to
recover the original data.
7.3 Theory: Phase shift keying is one of the most efficient digital modulation techniques. It
is used for very high bit rates. In PSK, the phase of the carrier is modulated to represent
Binary values. In BPSK, the carrier phase is used to switch The phase between 00 and 11 by
digital polar Format. Hence it is also known as phase reversal keying. The modulated carrier
is given by:
Binary 1: 𝑆(𝑡) = −𝐴𝑐𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
Binary 0: 𝑆(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜋) 𝑆(𝑡) = − 𝐴𝑐𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
7.4 Design:
7.4.1 Modulator
Let VBE  0.7V ,

VCE  0.3V , I C  1mA and   50
, I B  0.9mA
𝑉𝑐 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 − 𝑉𝐶𝐸 2 − 0.3
𝑅𝑐 = = = 1.7𝑥103 ≈ 1.8𝑥103
𝐼𝑐 1 𝑥10−3
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 4 − 0.7
𝑅𝐵 = = = 3.6𝑥103 ≈ 3.6𝑥103
𝐼𝐵 0.9 𝑥10−3
7.4.2 De-modulation
1  R C  1 , 1⁄ ≪ 𝑅𝐶 ≪ 1⁄ , Let R C  1m sec , C  0.1F
fC 1 1 fm 2𝐾 500 1 1 1
𝑅 = 10𝐾Ω (Pot)
7.5 Circuit diagram:
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7.5.1 BPSK modulation
Fig no. 7.1
7.5.2 BPSK demodulation
Fig no. 7.2
7.6 Procedure:
1. Rig-up the modulation circuit as shown in the fig 7.1.
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2. Apply the message signal of frequency of 500Hz 6Vp-p and carrier signal of
frequency 3kHz 4Vp-p.
3. Observe ASK signal at the collector of SL100 and SK100 transistors.
4. Apply these two signals to the Differential amplifier circuit adjust the pot with
suitable gain, obtain the BPSK signal and display in the CRO with respect to the
square message signal.
5. Plot the modulated waveform w.r.t. message signal
6. Rig-up the demodulated circuit step by step as shown in the fig 7.2, apply the BPSK
signal to the summer circuit with the same carrier signal c(t) and adjust the pot with
suitable gain to get the ASK waveform at summer output
7. Feed this signal to the envelope detector.
8. Adjust the pot of the envelope detector and comparator circuit to get the demodulated
wave at the pin no 6 of Op-Amp.
7.7.1 BPSK Modulation
Fig no. 7.3

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7.7.2 BPSK Demodulation
Fig no. 7.4
7.8 Conclusion:
Dept. of E&CE 36
Experiment no: 8
Power Divider
8.1 Aim: To measure the Power Division and Isolation characteristics of a Microstrip Power
Divider.
8.2 Components Required: VCO, Microwave source, Microstrip Power Divider, Co-
axial wave guide adapter, Universal test Rig, 6dB attenuator, BNC-BNC cable CRO, and 50
transmission line, matched load termination.
8.3 Theory: Power dividers and Combiners are used at the microwave frequencies. Power
dividers at the microwave frequencies are not just resistive power dividers as in the low
frequency model. The important issues while using power dividers are the specifications or
properties of the dividers. In microwave frequency applications, for example power can be
reflected from the output ports. Then to avoid the reflected power expected power divider
should satisfy the maximum power transfer theory, which says the impedance of the load
should be the complex conjugate of the impedance seen from the load end when load is not
connected. This is called “matching” of the ports. This leads to transferring maximum power
to the load & because of no reflection. Also, again to maximally transfer the power to the output
ports, the network should not dissipate power & this property is called “lossless ness”.
There are three types of dividers:

1) WILKINSON 2) T-JUNCTION 3) SPLIT-TEE
WILKINSON POWER DIVIDER:
Fig no. 8.1
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Wilkinson power divider is a lossy 3 port network & it has a property of being lossless when
the output ports are matched. In addition, the isolation between output ports can be achieved in
Wilkinson power divider. Dissipated power in the Wilkinson power divider is from the
reflected power. There are two general types of the Wilkinson power dividers; first one is the
equal power divider & the second one is unequal power divider.
 Wilkinson equal power divider: the equal power division concept is dividing input power
to equal or more than two ways equally. The mostly used one is the three port network equal
two way divider. it is also called 3dB power divider.
In this type of dividers, there are four different sections.
1) Input port 2) Quarter –wave transformers 3) isolation resistors 4) output ports
Input & output ports are identical & the value of the impedances of them is Zo. Quarter- wave
transformer parts are called as quarter- wave transformer because of the length of these parts.
The length of these parts is equal to the one fourth of the wavelength of the electromagnetic
wave, which is propagating in this three port network.
 Wilkinson Unequal divider: Wilkinson unequal power dividers are used for the unequal
amount power division for the microwave frequencies.
8.4 Block Diagram:
Fig no. 8.2
8.5 Procedure:
1. Set up the system as shown in the figure 8.2.
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2. Keeping the voltage at the minimum, switch on the power supply.

3. Insert a 50 transmission line and check for the output on the CRO.
4. Keep the VCO frequency at 5GHz and set the gain to get the output voltage of 4V
square wave . This value can be taken as a input to the power divider as V1 volts.
5. Replace the 50 transmission line with the Wilkinson power divider.
6. Note down the output voltage at the port 2 by terminating port 3 with matched load.
Tabulate the voltage as V2.
7. Similarly note down the output voltage at the port 3 by terminating port 2 with matched
load. Tabulate the voltage as V3.
V 
8. Calculate the Coupling between Port-1 and Port -2 using formula 20 log  2  .
 V1 
V 
9. Similarly calculate Coupling between Port-1 and Port-3 using formula 20 log  3  .
 V1 
10. Now feed the input signal at Port-2 and note down the output at Port-3 by terminating
Port-1 with matched load termination and note the voltage as V4 .
V 
11. Calculate the Isolation between Port-2 and Port-3 by using formula 20 log  4  .
 V1 
12. Repeat the above steps by changing the frequency of VCO to 4.9Ghz and 5.1GHz and
tabulate the readings.
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8.6 Tabular Column:
VCO Input Output Output Output Coupling Coupling Isolation

Frequency voltage Voltage Voltage at Voltage at between between between
in GHz V1 at Port-2 Port-3 Isolation Port 1 & 2 Port 1 & 3 Port 2 & 3
(Volts) V2 V3 (Volts) Port V4 V  V  V 
(Volts) (Volts) 20 log  2  20 log  3  20 log  4 
 V1   V1   V1 
Table 8.1
8.7 Calculations:
V 
1. Coupling factor between Port-1 and Port-2  20 log  2 
 V1 
V 
2. Coupling factor between Port-1 and Port-3  20 log  3 
 V1 
V 
3. Isolation between Port-2 and Port-3  20 log  4  .
 V1 
8.8 Conclusion:
Dept. of E&CE 40
Experiment no: 9
Standard Dipole Antenna
9.1 Aim: To measure the Directivity and gain of the Microstrip Standard Dipole antenna.
9.2 Components Required: VCO, Microwave source, Microstrip Standard Dipole

antenna, Co-axial wave guide adapter, BNC-BNC cable CRO, Active filter.
9.3 Theory: An Antenna is a device that is made to efficiently radiate & receive radiated
electromagnetic waves. There are several important antenna characteristics that should be
considered when choosing an antenna for any application they are as follows:
1. Antenna radiation patterns

2. Power gain
3. Directivity
4. Polarization.
 Antenna radiation patterns: an antenna radiation pattern is a 3-D plot of its radiation
far from the source. Antenna radiation patterns usually take forms, the elevation pattern
& the azimuth pattern. The elevation pattern is a graph of the energy radiated from the
antenna looking at it from the side as can be seen in figure 9.1.a. The azimuth pattern
is a graph of the energy radiated from the antenna as if you were looking at it from
directly above the antenna as illustrated in figure 9.1.b. when you combine the two
graphs you have a 3-D representation of how energy is radiated from the antenna as
shown in the figure 9.1.c.
Dept. of E&CE 41
Fig no. 9.1
a) Generic Dipole Elevation b) Generic Dipole Azimuth c) 3-D Radiation Pattern.
 Power gain: The power gain of an antenna is the ratio of the power input to the antenna
to the power output from the antenna. This gain is most often referred to with the units
of dB, which is logarithmic gain relative to an isotropic antenna. An isotropic antenna
has a perfect spherical radiation pattern & a linear gain of one.
 Directivity: The directive gain of an antenna is a measure of the concentration of the
radiated power in a particular direction. It is usually a ratio of radiation intensity in a
given direction to the average radiation intensity.
 Polarization: Polarization is the orientation of electromagnetic waves far fro the
source. There are several types of polarization that apply to antennas. They are linear,
which comprises, vertical, horizontal & Oblique, & circular , which comprises, circular
right hand (RHCP); Circular Left Hand (LHCP), Elliptical Right Hand & Elliptical Left
Hand. Polarization is most important if you trying to get the maximum performance
from the antennas. For best performance the polarization of the transmitting antenna &
the receiving antenna should match.
The different type of antennas with most relevant designs at 2.4GHz that are detailed as
follows:
1. Dipole antennas 5.Parabolic Dish antenna
2. Multiple element Dipole antenna 6. Slotted Antenna
3. Yagi antenna 7. Microstrip antennas
4. Flat panel antennas.

Dept. of E&CE 42
 Dipole antennas: All dipole antennas have a generalized radiation pattern. First, the
elevation pattern shows that a dipole antenna is best used to transit & receive from the
broad side of the antenna. It is sensitive to any movement away from a perfectly vertical
position. You can move about 45 degrees fro perfect verticality before the performance
of the antenna degrades by more than half. Other dipole antennas may have different
amounts of vertical variation before there is noticeable performance degradation.
 Multiple Element Dipole antennas: Multiple Element Dipole antennas have some of
the same general characteristics as the dipole. We see a similar elevation radiation
pattern, as well as a similar azimuth pattern. The biggest differences will be the
directionality of the antenna in the elevation pattern, & the increased gain that is a result
of using multiple elements. By using multiple elements to construct the antenna, the
antenna can be configured with different amounts of gain . This allows for multiple
antenna designs with similar physical characteristics.
 Flat panel antennas: these are configured in a patch type format & physically have the
shape of a square or rectangle. Flat panel antennas are quite directional as they have
mostly of their power radiated in one direction in both the vertical & horizontal planes.
 Parabolic antenna: parabolic dish antenna also works to catch all the radiated energy
from the antenna & focus it in a narrow beam when transmitting.
 Slotted antenna: The slotted antenna exhibits radiation characteristics that are very
similar to those of the dipole. The elevation & azimuth patterns are similar to those of
the dipole, but its physical construction consists only of a narrow slot cut into ground
plane. As with microstrip antenna mentioned below. Slotted antennas provide little
antenna gain, & do not exhibit high directionality, as evidenced by their radiation plots
& their similarity tot the dipoles. Their most attractive feature is the ease with which
they can be constructed & integrated into an existing design, & their low cost.
 Microstrip antennas: Microstrip antennas can be made to emulate many of the
different styles of the antennas explained above. Micro strip antennas offer several
tradeoffs that need to be considered. Because they are manufactured with PCB traces
on actual PCB boards, they can be very small& lightweight. This comes at the cost of
not being able to handle as much output power as other antennas & they are made for
very specific frequency ranges. In many cases, limiting the frequencies that can be
Dept. of E&CE 43
received is actually beneficial to the performance of a radio. Due to this characteristics,

micro strip antennas are not well suited for wideband communications systems
9.4 Block Diagram:
Fig no. 9.2
9.5 Procedure:
1. Set up the system as shown in the Figure 9.2.

2. Keeping the voltage knob at minimum position and gain knob at maximum position
3. Connect the standard dipole antenna as a Transmitting and receiving antenna.
4. Vary the VCO voltage and check the output for different frequency.
5. Keep the resonant frequency at 5GHz and calculate the distance between transmitting
2*d2
and receiving antenna by using formula S  .

6. Keep the two antennas in Line of sight and near Note down the Voltage as Vin.
7. Keep the distance between two antennas at S cm apart note down the readings by
rotating the receiving antenna in the H(Horizontal)-plane both in clock wise and in anti-
clockwise direction for every 5 degrees and tabulate the readings.
8. Similarly rotate the receiving antenna in E-plane and tabulate the readings.
9. Plot the graph for both E and H plane.
10. Find the HPWB for both cases.
Dept. of E&CE 44
41253
11. Find the directivity using formula D  and gain of the antenna using formula
 E0 *  H0
4S  Vr 
G   and Gain in dB= 10log (G).
  Vin 
9.6 Tabular Column:
For H-plane Vin=___________ Volts

Vr in V dB=10log(V N) Vr in V dB=10log(VN)
VN  r VN  r
Table no. 9.1
 E0 =______________
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For E-plane Vin=___________ Volts

VN  VN 
Table no. 9.2
 H0 =______________
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9.7 Calculations:
2*d2
1. Distance S  s

d=dimension of Dipole antenna= __________Cm
C 3 *1010
   __________ cm
f 5 *109
41253
2. Directivity= D 
 E0 * H0
where  E is Half Power band width in E-plane  E =______________

0 0
 H0 Half Power band width in H-plane  H0 =______________
4S  Vr 
3. Gain of the antenna G   
  Vin 
Gain in dB= 10log (G).
9.8 Expected Graph:
Fig no. 9.3
9.9 Conclusion:
Dept. of E&CE 47
Experiment no: 10
Losses in Optical Fibre
10.1 Aim: To conduct a suitable experiment using Fibre Optic Trainer Kit to determine a.
Bending Loss b. Attenuation(Propagation) Loss
10.2 Components Required: Fiber optic trainer Kit, Optical Cables (1m ),Numerical
aperture Measurement Jig, Patch Cords
10.3 Theory: Optical Fibres are available in different variety of materials. These materials
are usually selected by taking into account their absorption characteristics for different
wavelengths of light. In case of Optical Fibre, since the signal is transmitted in the form of
light, which is completely different in nature to study the losses in fibre.
Losses are introduced in fibre due to various reasons. As light propagates from one end
of fibre to another end part of it is absorbed in the material exhibiting absorption loss. Also part
of the light is reflected back or in some other directions from the impurity particles present in
the material contributing to the loss of the signal at the other end of the fiber. This is called
propagation loss. Losses are also introduced due to refraction of light. This occurs when the
fibre is subjected to bending. Lower the radius of curvature more is the loss. Losses also occur
due to coupling of cables which is termed as coupling loss.
Numerical aperture refers to the maximum angle at a light incident on the fibre end is
totally internally reflected and is transmitted properly along with the fiber. The cone found by
the rotation of this angle along with the axis of the fiber is the cone of acceptance of the fiber.
The light ray should strike the fiber end within its cone of acceptance; else it is reflected out of
the fiber core.
Dept. of E&CE 48
10.4 Block Diagram:
10.4.1 Bending Loss and Propagation Loss
Fig. no. 10.1
10.5 Procedure:
1. Make connections as shown in the figure no 12.1, connect the power supply cables with
proper polarity to link-B kit .While connecting this, ensure that the power supply is OFF.
2. Keep SW9 towards TX1 position for SFH756
3. Keep jumpers & SW8 positions as shown in figure.
4. Keep intensity control pot P2 towards minimum position
5. Switch ON the power supply
Dept. of E&CE 49
10.5.1 Propagation(Attenuation) Loss:
6. Feed about 2Vppsinusoidal signal of 1Khz from the function generator to the IN post of
analog buffer.
7. Connect the output post OUT of analog buffer to the post TXIN of transmitter.
8. Slightly unscrew the cap of SFH756V (660nm). Do not remove the cap from the
connector .Once the cap is loosen, insert the 1 Meter fiber into the cap. Now tighten the
cap with screwing it back.
9. Connect the other end of the fiber to detector SFH350V (Photo Transistor Detector)
very carefully as per the instructions in the above step.
10. Observe the detected signal at post ANALOG OUTon oscilloscope. Adjust intensity
control port P2optical power control potentiometer so that you receive signal of 2 Vpp
amplitude.
11. Measure the peak value of the received signal at ANALOG OUT terminal. Let this
value be V1.
12. Now replace 1 Meter fiber by 3 meter fiber between same LED and Detector .Do not
disturbs any settings. Again take the peak voltage reading and let it be V2.
13. If α is the attenuation of the fiber then we have
V2
 e   L1  L2 
V1
 10  V 
 dB    * Log10  2 
 L1  L2    V1 
Where
α = dB/ Km,
L1 = Fiber Length of 1 m cable for V1
L2 = Fiber Length of 3 m cable for V2
This α is for peak wavelength of 660nm
14. Now switch off the power supply.
15. Keep SW9towards TX1position for SFH756
16. Set the jumpers to form simple analog link using LED SFH450V at 950nm and
phototransistor SFH350V (Photo Transistor Detector) with 1 meter Fiber Cable.
17. Switch on the power supply.
18. Repeat the same procedure as above again for this link to get α at 950nm.
19. Compare the two α values.
10.5.2 Measurement of bending losses:

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1. Set up the 660 nm analog link using 1-meter fiber as per procedure above.
2. Bend the fiber in a loop as shown in figure measure the amplitude of the received
signal.
3. Keep reducing the diameter of bend to about 2 cm & take corresponding out voltage
readings. (Do not reduce loop diameter less than 1 cm).
4. Tabulate the readings in Tabular Column.
5. Plot a graph of the received signal amplitude versus the loop diameter.
6. Repeat the procedure again for second transmitter.
10.6 Tabular Column:
Diameter in Cm Output Voltage in Volts
Table no. 12.1
10.7 Block Diagram:
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10.7.1 Numerical Aperture
Fig. no. 10.2
10.7.2 Procedure to find Numerical Aperture:
1. Make connections as shown in figure 12.2. Connect the power supply cables with
proper polarity to Link-B kit. While connecting this, ensure that the power supply is
OFF.
2. Keep intensity control pot P2towards minimum position.
3. Keep Bias control pot P1 fully clockwise position.
4. Switch ON the power supply.
5. Slightly unscrew the cap of SFH756V (660nm). DO not remove the cap from the
connector .Once the cap is loosened, insert the 1Meter fiber into the cap. Now tighten
the cap by screwing it back.
6. Insert the other end of the fiber into the numerical aperture measurement jig. Adjust
the fiber such that its cut face is perpendicular for the axis of the fiber.
Dept. of E&CE 52
7. Keep the distance of about 5mm between the fiber tip and the screen. Gently tighten
the screw and thus fix the fiber in the place.
8. Increase the intensity port P2 to get bright red light circular patch
9. Now observe the illuminated circular patch of light on the screen.
10. Measure exactly the distance dand also the vertical and horizontal diameters MR and
PN as indicated in the figure.
11. Mean radius is calculated using the following formula r =(MR +PN)/4
12. Find the numerical aperture of the fiber using the formula
NA  Sin  Max  
r
d 2  r2
Where θmaxis the maximum angle at which the light incident is properly transmitted
through the fiber .
13. Calculate Acceptance angle using formula =2*θmax.
10.7.3 Tabular Column:
Numerical Aperture:
Radius r
r
Distance d Diameter Diameter
MR  PN NA 
in cm PN in Cm MR in cm
r d 2  r2
4
Table no. 10.2
10.8 Conclusion:
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Cycle-3
Experiment no: 11
FSK Generation and Detection
11.1 Aim: Design and study Frequency Shift Keying system to transmit the digital data of
500bits/sec, using a suitable carrier signal and demodulate the same.

11.3 Theory: Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) is the another form of digital modulation
technique in which the amplitude of the modulated signal is kept constant while the frequency
is varied in accordance with binary data ‘1’ and ‘0’. If the incoming bit is ‘1’ a signal with
frequency f1 is sent for the duration of the bit Tb seconds. If the bit is ‘0’ a signal with frequency
f2 is transmitted for the duration of the bit Tb seconds.
In the FSK modulation circuit two transistors are used in switching configuration to
obtain FSK signal. When the input bit is ‘1’, NPN transistor is ON and the corresponding
carrier signal applied at the collector is output. Similarly if the input bit is ‘0’, PNP transistor
is ON and the corresponding carrier is output. These two signals are applied to the summer
circuit adjusted to obtain the suitable gain. In the demodulation the first stage of the detector
consists of Low-pass filter which is designed for the lower carrier frequency. The output of the
low-pass is an ASK signal which is applied to the envelope detector followed by the comparator
circuit.
FSK is very useful in a fading channel because it is relatively insensitive to amplitude

function. A fading channel is one in which the received signal amplitude varies with the time
because of variability’s in the transmission medium
11.4 Design:
11.4.1Modulator
VCE  0.3V I C  1mA
Let VBE  0.7V , , and   50 , I B  0.9mA
Dept. of E&CE 54
𝑉𝑐 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 − 𝑉𝐶𝐸 2 − 0.3

𝑅𝑐 = = = 1.7𝑥103 ≈ 1.8𝑥103
𝐼𝑐 1 𝑥10−3
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 4 − 0.7
𝑅𝐵 = = −3
= 3.6𝑥103 ≈ 3.6𝑥103
𝐼𝐵 0.9 𝑥10
11.4.2 De-modulation
Low-pass Filter:
f C1  1  1kHz
2R1C1
Let C1  0.1F R1  1.5k use R1  10k pot
Envelope Detector
1  R2C2  1 , Let R2C2  1m sec , C2  0.1F R2  10k pot

f C1 fm

11.5.1 FSK modulator
Fig no. 11.1

Dept. of E&CE 55
11.5.2 FSK Demodulator
Fig no. 11.2
11.6 Procedure:
1. Rig-up the modulation circuit as shown in the figure 13.1

2. Apply the message signal of frequency of 500Hz, 8Vp-p and carrier signal of
frequency 3KHz, 4Vp-p.
3. Observe ASK signal at the collector of SL100 and SK100 transistors.
4. Apply these two signals to the summer circuit adjust the pot with suitable gain, obtain
the FSK signal and display in the CRO with respect to the square message signal.
5. Plot the modulated waveform w.r.t. message signal.
6. Rig-up the demodulated circuit step by step as shown in the figure 13.2, apply the
FSK signal to the Low-pass Filter and adjust the pot to get ASK signal as output.
7. Apply this ASK signal to the envelope detector followed by the comparator circuit.
8. Adjust the pot of the comparator circuit to get the demodulated wave at the pin no 6
of Op-Amp.
Dept. of E&CE 56
11.7 Expected Waveform:
Fig no. 11.3
11.8 Conclusion:
12 Experiment no: 14
Dept. of E&CE 57
13 PCM generation and detection
13.1 Aim: To generate and detect a PCM signal using Matlab.
13.2 Theory: Pulse code modulation is a process of converting a analog signal into digital.
The voice or any data input is first sampled using a sampler (which is a simple switch) and then
quantized. Quantization is the process of converting a given signal amplitude to an equivalent
binary number with fixed number of bits. This quantization can be either mid-tread or mid-
raise and it can be uniform or non-uniform based on the requirements. For example in speech
signals, the higher amplitudes will be less frequent than the low amplitudes. So higher
amplitudes are given less step size than the lower amplitudes and thus quantization is
performed non-uniformly. After quantization the signal is digital and the bits are passed
through a parallel to serial converter and then launched into the channel serially.
At the demodulator the received bits are first converted into parallel frames and each frame is
de-quantized to an equivalent analog value. This analog value is thus equivalent to a sampler
output. This is the demodulated signal. In the kit this is implemented differently. The analog
signal is passed through a ADC (Analog to Digital Converter) and then the digital code word
is passed through a parallel to serial converter block. This is modulated PCM. This is taken by
the Serial to Parallel converter and then through a DAC to get the demodulated signal. The
clock is given to all these blocks for synchronization. The input signal can be either DC or AC
according to the kit. The waveforms can be observed on a CRO for DC without problem. AC
also can be observed but with poor resolution.
13.3 Matlab Program:
clc;
close all;
clear all;
n=input ('Enter n value for n-bit PCM system : ');
n1=input ('Enter number of samples in a period : ');
L=2^n;
% Sampling Operation
x=0:2*pi/n1:4*pi; % n1 nuber of samples have tobe selected
s=8*sin(x);
Dept. of E&CE 58
subplot(3,1,1);
plot(s);
title('Analog Signal');
ylabel('Amplitude--->');
xlabel('Time--->');
subplot(3,1,2);
stem(s);grid on; title('Sampled Sinal'); ylabel('Amplitude--->'); xlabel('Time--->');
% Quantization Process
vmax=8;
vmin=-vmax;
del=(vmax-vmin)/L;
part=vmin:del:vmax; % level are between vmin and vmax with
difference of del
code=vmin-(del/2):del:vmax+(del/2); % Contain Quantized values
[ind,q]=quantiz(s,part,code); % Quantization process
% in d contain index number and q contain quantized values
l1=length(ind);
l2=length(q);
for i=1:l1
if(ind(i)~=0) % To make index as binary decimal so started
from 0 to N
ind(i)=ind(i)-1;
end
i=i+1;
end
for i=1:l2
if(q(i)==vmin-(del/2)) % To make quantize value in between the levels
q(i)=vmin+(del/2);
end
end
subplot(3,1,3);
stem(q);grid on; % Display the Quantize values
title('Quantized Signal');
xlabel('Time--->');
% Encoding Process
figure
code=de2bi(ind,'left-msb'); % Cnvert the decimal to binary
k=1;
for i=1:l1
for j=1:n
coded(k)=code(i,j); % convert code matrix to a coded row vector
Dept. of E&CE 59
j=j+1;
k=k+1;
end
i=i+1;
end
subplot(2,1,1); grid on;
stairs(coded); % Display the encoded signal
axis([0 100 -2 3]); title('Encoded Signal');
xlabel('Time--->');
% Demodulation Of PCM signal
qunt=reshape(coded,n,length(coded)/n);
index=bi2de(qunt','left-msb'); % Getback the index in decimal form
q=del*index+vmin+(del/2); % getback Quantized values
subplot(2,1,2); grid on;
plot(q); % Plot Demodulated signal
title('Demodulated Signal');
xlabel('Time--->');
13.4 Output:
Enter n value for n-bit PCM system : 8

Enter number of samples in a period : 4
Analog Signal
Amplitude--->
10
-10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time--->
Sampled Sinal
Amplitude--->
10
-10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time--->
Quantized Signal
Amplitude--->
10
-10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time--->
Fig13.1 Quantised PCM Signal
Dept. of E&CE 60
Encoded Signal
3
Amplitude--->
1
-1
-2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time--->
Demodulated Signal
10
5
Amplitude--->
-5
-10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time--->
Fig. 13.2 PCM encoded Reconstructed Signal
13.5 Conclusion:
Dept. of E&CE 61
Study Experiments
Experiment no: 12
DPSK Transmitter and Receiver
12.1 Aim: To demonstrate the DPSK Transmitter and Receiver.
12.2 Components Required: DPSK trainer kit with power supply, Patch cords, CRO.
12.3 Theory: In BPSK communication system, the demodulation is made by comparing the
instant phase of the BPSK signal to an absolute reference phase locally generated in the
receiver. The modulation is called in this case BPSK absolute. The greatest difficulty of these
systems lies in the need to keep the phase of the regenerated carrier always constant. This
problem is solved with the PSK differential modulation, as the information is not contained in
the absolute phase of the modulated carrier but in the phase difference between two next
modulation intervals.
In the block the DPSK modulation and demodulation system are shown. The coding is obtained
by comparing the output of an EXOR, delayed of a bit interval, with the current data bits (for
detailed explanation see experiment no.2). As total result of operation, the DPSK signal across
the output of the modulator contains 180 deg. phase variation at each data bit 1. The
demodulation is made by a normal BPSK demodulator, followed by a decision device
supplying a bit 1 each time there is a variation of the logic level across its input.
The DPSK system explained above has a clear advantage over the BPSK system in that the
former avoids the need for complicated circuitry used to generate a local carrier at the receiver.
To see the relative disadvantage of DPSK in comparison with PSK, consider that during some
bit interval the received signal is so contaminated by noise that in a PSK system an error would
be made in the determination of whether the transmitted bit was a 1 or 0. in DPSK a bit
determination is made on the basis of the signal received in two successive bit intervals. Hence
noise in one bit interval may cause errors to two-bit determination. The error rate in DPSK is
therefore greater than in PSK, and, as a matter of fact, there is a tendency for bit errors to occur
in pairs. It is not inevitable however that errors occur in pairs. Single errors are still possible.
Dept. of E&CE 62
12.4 Block Diagram:

12.4.1 DPSK Transmitter:
Fig no. 12.1
12.4.2 DPSK Receiver
Dept. of E&CE 63
Fig no. 12.2
12.4.3 Transmitter Implementation Block Diagram
Fig no. 10.3
12.4.4 Receiver Implementation Block Diagram
Dept. of E&CE 64
Fig no. 12.4
12.5 Procedure:
1. Connect the patch cords as shown in the figure 12.3 .

2. Connect the power supply with proper Polarity and Switch On.
3. Select the Clock to either 300Bps or 600Bps.
4. Display the input data encoded data and DPSK waveform.
5. Feed the DPSK signal to the receiver model and adjust the pot to obtain the Decoded
data.
6. Plot the waveforms.
12.6.1 Modulated Data
Fig no. 10.5

Dept. of E&CE 65
12.6.2 Demodulated Data
Fig no. 12.6
12.7 Conclusion:
Dept. of E&CE 66
Experiment no: 13
QPSK Modulator and De-Modulator
13.1 Aim: To demonstrate the working of QPSK modulator and Demodulator.
13.2 Components Required: QPSK trainer Kit, Connecting cords, Power supply, CRO
13.3 Theory: Similar to binary PSK, in QPSK information carried by the transmitted wave
is contained in the phase. In QPSK, the phase of the carrier takes on one of four equally spaced
values 0, 90,180 and 270. Each possible values of phase correspond to a unique pair of bits
called as “dibit”.
 QPSK transmitter:
The input binary sequence is divided by the bit splitter to the in phase and Quadrature phase
channels. The product modulator is realized using a mux, with the select line as the incoming
bit stream. Accordingly, either positive or negative amplitude of the carrier wave is given to
the summer for 1 or 0 respectively. The summer combines in phase and Quadrature phase data.
 QPSK receiver:
The receiver consists of a pair of correlators (product modulator and LPF). The correlator
outputs are compared with threshold of zero volts. Finally, these two binary sequences are
combined using bit comparator. The constellation diagram is shown in the figure 13.1
Fig. no. 13.1
Dept. of E&CE 67
13.3 Block Diagram:
Fig. no. 13.2

13.3.1 QPSK Transmitter
Fig. no. 13.3
Dept. of E&CE 68
13.3.2 QPSK Receiver:
Fig. no. 13.4
13.4 Procedure:
1. Refer to the block diagram as shown in the figure 14.2 and carry out the following
connections and switch settings.
2. Connect power supply in proper polarity to the kits ADCL-02 and ADCL-03 and
switch it on.
3. Select data pattern of simulated data using switch SW1.
4. Connect SDATA generated to DATA IN of the NRZ-L DATA.
5. Connect NRZ-L DATA to DATA IN of the DIBIT CONVERSION.
6. Connect SCLOCK to CLK IN of the DIBIT CONVERSION.
7. Connect the dibit data I & Q bit to control input C1 and C2 of CARRIER
MODULATOR respectively. NOTE: Adjust I& Q bit as shown in fig. 4.2A by
operating RST switch on ADCL-02 before connecting it to C1 & C2.
8. Connect carrier component to input of CARRIER MODULATOR as follows:
a) SIN 1 to IN 1
b) SIN 2 to IN 2
c) SIN 3 to IN 3
d) SIN 4 to IN 4
9. Connect QPSK modulated signal MOD OUT on ADCL-02 to the MOD IN of the
QPSK DEMODULATOR on ADCL-03. NOTE: Adjust recovered I& Q bit on
ADCL-03 as per ADCL-02 by RST Switch on ADCL-03.
10. Connect I BIT, Q BIT & CLK OUT outputs of QPSK Demodulator to I BIT IN, Q
BIT IN & CLK IN posts of Data Decoder respectively.
Dept. of E&CE 69
11. Observe various waveforms as mentioned below.

NOTE: If there is mismatch in input & Recovered Data, then adjust that Data by RST
Switch on ADCL-03.
13.5 Model Waveform:
Fig. no. 13.5
13.6 Conclusion:
Dept. of E&CE 70
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. State different types of Digital modulation techniques?

2. What is shift keying?
3. What is a binary modulation technique?
4. Define ASK?
5. Define FSK?
6. Define PSK?
7. Define QPSK and DPSK?
8. Why QPSK is called quadrature shift keying?
9. Define TDMA?
10. What are applications of shift keying?
11. Define FDM?
12. State the applications of multiplexing?
13. State the principle of PLL?
14. State coherent detection?
15. State non-coherent detection?
16. Differentiate between DPSK and QPSK?
17. What is an M-Array data transmission?
18. What is a standing wave?
Dept. of E&CE 71
19. Define reflection and transmission co-efficient?

20. State different types of losses in transmission lines?
21. Define modes?
22. What is the range of microwaves?
23. What is the advantage of waveguides?
24. Define VSWR?
25. Define Isolator?
26. What is the principle of Directional coupler?
27. State different types of Directional couplers?
28. What is a Klystron?
29. State the classification of microwave tubes?
30. What are O-type and M-type tubes?
31. State application of klystron?
32. State the mechanism of oscillation in klystron?
33. How modulation occurs in reflex klystron?
34. State two methods to find VSWR?
35. Define the principle of slotted line carriage?
36. Differentiate between normal and expanded SWR?
37. What type of frequency meter is used in Laboratory?
38. Define directivity, radiation efficiency, beam width and bandwidth of an antenna?
39. What are the radiation patterns for Horn antenna, parabolic antenna?
40. State the formula to find directivity for an antenna?
41. What are the advantages of using optical fibers?
42. What is the principle of operation of OFC?
43. State the difference between step-index and graded index fiber?
44. State the formula to find the numerical Aperture?
45. What are the different types of losses in OFC’s?
46. Define resonance
47. What is a ring resonator?
48. Define die-electric constant.
49. Define power divider
50. Why is it called as 3dB power divider?
51. Define power combiner.
Dept. of E&CE 72
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Advance Communication Lab (15ECL76) SVCE, Bengaluru

TDM of Two Band Limited Signals

1.2 Components Required: IC-HCF4051B, Resistors, capacitors, Function generator,

Space-Division Multiplexing (SDM) simply implies different point-to-point wires for

Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technology. FDM achieves the

Fig no. 1.1

a. For Sine wave

100 , Let RC  1m sec , C  0.1F 𝑅 = 10𝐾Ω (Pot)

500 , Let RC  1m sec , C  0.1F 𝑅 = 10𝐾Ω (Pot)

1.5 Circuit Diagram:

1.5.1 Multiplexing (Using IC)

Fig no. 1.2

1.5.1 De-multiplexing (Using IC)

Fig no. 1.3

1.5.2 Multiplexing (Using Transistor)

Fig no. 1.4

1.5.3 De-multiplexing(Using Transistor)

Fig no. 1.5

1.7 Expected Waveforms:

1.7.1 Time Division Multiplexing

Fig no. 1.6

1.7.2 De-multiplexed Waveforms

Fig no. 1.7

ASK Generation and Detection

2.2 Components Required: Transistor SL100, Op-Amp µA741, diode IN4007,

The various digital modulation techniques are

 Amplitude Shift Keying(ASK)

Let VBE  0.7V , VCE  0.3V , I C  1mA and   50 , I E  I C

Applying the KVL to the carrier-collector-emitter-ground of SL100

Applying the KVL to the message source-base-emitter-Ground of SL100

3  RB 20 x106  0.7  1.7  0 Solving for RB

2.5 Circuit Diagram:

2.5.1 ASK Modulation

Fig no. 2.1

Fig no. 2.2

Fig no. 2.3

1. Rig-up the modulation circuit as shown in the figure 2.1.

2.7 Expected waveforms:

2.7.1 ASK Modulation

Fig no. 2.4

2.7.2 ASK Demodulation

Fig no. 2.5

3.2 Components Required: VCO, Microwave source, Microstrip Standard Dipole

3.4 Block Diagram:

1. Set up the system as shown in the Figure 3.2.

H(Horizontal)-plane both in clock wise and in anti-clockwise direction for every 5

3.6 Tabular Column:

For H-plane Vin=___________ Volts

 0 In Left Normalised Normalised Right Normalised Normalised

For E-plane Vin=___________ Volts

 0 In Left Normalised Normalised Right Normalised Normalised

d=dimension of Dipole antenna= __________Cm

where  E is Half Power band width in E-plane  E =______________

 H0 Half Power band width in H-plane  H0 =______________

Gain in dB= 10log (G).

Microwave Test Bench

Fig no. 4.1

1. Set up the components and equipment’s as shown in the figure 4.1.

4.5.1 V-I Characteristics of GUNN diode Oscillator

4.5.2 Measurement of frequency

4.5.3 Measurement of wavelength

16. Calculate the frequency by using the formula f  C C  3 * 1010 cm , C is the

4.5.6 To determine VSWR(Voltage Standing Wave Ratio)

20. Calculate attenuation using the formula Attenuation  20 log  1 dB .