EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: AFGHANISTAN

Identification. The word "Afghan" historically has been used to designate the members of an
ethnic group also called the Pashtuns, but Afghanistan is multicultural and multiethnic. The
state was formed by the political expansion of Pashtun tribes in the middle of the eighteenth
century but was not unified until the end of the nineteenth century. Persian-speaking (Tajiks,
Hazaras, and Aymaqs) and Turkic-speaking (Uzbeks and Turkmens) populations have been
incorporated in the state. Since the Communist coup of 1978 and the ensuing civil war, those
groups have sought for greater political recognition, but the existence of the state has not been
seriously questioned. The experience of exile shared by millions of refugees may have given rise
to a new national feeling.

Location and Geography. Afghanistan is a land-locked Asian country of 251,825 square miles
(652,225 square kilometers) bordered by Pakistan, Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan,
and China. The topography is a mix of central highlands and peripheral foothills and plains. The
country has an arid continental climate. Summers are dry and hot, while winters are cold with
heavy snowfall in the highlands. Precipitation is low, although some areas in the east are
affected by the monsoon. Most of the country is covered by steppes, with desert areas and
some patches of cultivated land. Pastoral nomadism, subsistence mountain agriculture, and
irrigation are practiced. At the end of the eighteenth century, Kabul became the capital. It is
located in a wide basin on the road linking India with Central Asia.

Afghanistan has a rich and diverse culture that has taken shape for thousands of years.
The history of Afghani culture can be traced back to the Achaemenid Empire of the 6th century
BCE. The culture of Afghanistan is influenced by Islam. There are two official languages in the
country; Dari and Pashto. Modernization has resulted in the infiltration of western influences into
the Afghani culture, which is most profound in the country’s major cities. Religion plays an
integral role in the shaping of Afghanistan’s culture and has influenced other spheres of the
country’s culture. Islam is the major religion in the country and is practiced by about 99.7% of
Afghan citizens. However, the oldest extant religion in Afghanistan is Zoroastrianism which is
believed to have its origins in the country dating back to the 18th century BC. There are an
estimated 2,000 Zoroastrians in modern Afghanistan.

The history of Buddhism in Afghanistan is traced back to 305 BC when the nation
formed part of the Maurya Empire. Islam was introduced to the country in the early 8th century
and had grown to be the nation’s dominant religion by the 9th century. 90% of the nation’s
population practices Sunni Islam while about 10% of the population identify with the Shia sect
of Islam. There is also a significant number of Muslims in the country who identify as
nondenominational and modern Muslims. The Christian population in Afghanistan is believed to
be comprised of between 500 and 8,000 individuals.

The types of clothes worn in Afghanistan are a reflection of the cultural composition of
the country. Many of the traditional attires of the country are made out of light linen and are
characterized by loose fittings. Among the most popular traditional attires in Afghanistan is the
Pashtun clothing. The attire’s design is inspired by Pashtun culture and comes in male and
female variants. The male Pashtun clothing is accessorized with traditional headgear such as the
perahan turban or the karakul hat. The female variant is composed of a Firaq partug dress, a long
shirt known as a “Kamis” and a belt, and is usually worn during festivities. Many prominent
Afghani citizens and government officials wore the Pashtun clothing during formal occasions.
The country is also known for its traditional carpets known as Afghan rugs which are woven
locally in the western and northern part of the country. The carpets are popular across the globe
and have even won international awards on numerous occasions. Afghan cuisine is a reflection
of the nation’s cultural diversity. The staple crops in Afghanistan are rice, barley, wheat, and
maize. Rice is the dominant food item in many Afghan kitchens, with a local rice dish known as
the “Kabuli palaw” being recognized as Afghanistan’s national dish. Meat, particularly lamb and
beef, is another important component in Afghan cuisine. Roasted lamb kebab is a popular snack
in the country and can be found on many street vendor stalls in the country. As an Islamic nation,
consumption of alcoholic drinks is not popular in Afghanistan and mainly observed with
expatriates living in major cities such as Kabul. A popular drink in the country is the “doogh”
which is made using yogurt, water, and mint. The drink can be prepared at home or purchased in
restaurants and grocery stores.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: Nepal

Identification. Nepal is named for the Kathmandu Valley, where the nation's founder
established a capital in the late eighteenth century. Nepali culture represents a fusion of
Indo-Aryan and Tibeto-Mongolian influences, the result of a long history of migration,
conquest, and trade.
Location and Geography. Nepal is a roughly rectangular country with an area of
147,181 square miles (381,200 square kilometers). To the south, west, and east it is
bordered by Indian states; to the north lies Tibet. Nepal is home to the Himalayan
Mountains, including Mount Everest. From the summit of Everest, the topography
plunges to just above sea level at the Gangetic Plain on the southern border. This drop
divides the country into three horizontal zones: the high mountains, the lush central hills,
and the flat, arid Terai region in the south. Fast-moving, snow-fed rivers cut through the
hills and mountains from north to south, carving deep valleys and steep ridges. The
rugged topography has created numerous ecological niches to which different ethnic
groups have adapted. Although trade has brought distinct ethnic groups into contact,
the geography has created diversity in language and subsistence practices. The result
is a country with over thirty-six ethnic groups and over fifty languages.

Marriage. Nepal is overwhelmingly patrilineal and patrilocal. Arranged marriages are

the norm in the mainstream culture. Because marriages forge important social bonds
between families, when a child reaches marriageable age, the family elders are
responsible for finding a suitable mate of the appropriate caste, education level, and
social stratum.
The bride's family generally provides a substantial dowry to the groom's family, while
the groom's family furnishes a much smaller gift of clothing, jewelry, and personal items
to the bride. Both families are expected to host a feast during the wedding festivities,
which generally last three days. The cost of a wedding, especially to the bride's family,
is high and often puts families into debt.
Hindu castes do not generally approve of cross-cousin marriage, which is preferred
among some Mongolian ethnic groups. Among some groups, a brideprice substitutes
for a dowry. In others, clan exogamy is an important feature of marriages. Until recently,
polygyny was legal and relatively common. Now it is illegal and found only in the older
generation and in remote areas. Child marriages were considered especially
auspicious, and while they continue to be practiced in rural areas, they are now
prohibited by law. Love marriage is gaining in popularity in the cities, where romantic
films and music inform popular sentiment and the economy offers younger people
economic independence from the extended family.
Domestic Unit. Among landholding Hindu castes, a high value is placed on joint family
arrangements in which the sons of a household, along with their parents, wives, and
children, live together, sharing resources and expenses. Within the household, the old
have authority over the young, and men over women. Typically, new daughters-in-law
occupy the lowest position. Until a new bride has produced children, she is subject to
the hardest work and often the harshest criticism in her husband's household. Older
women, often wield a great deal of influence within the household.
The emphasis in joint families is on filial loyalty and agnatic solidarity over individualism.
In urban areas, an increasing number of couples are opting for nuclear family
arrangements.
Inheritance. Fathers are legally obligated to leave equal portions of land to each son.
Daughters do not inherit paternal property unless they remain unmarried past age thirty-
five. Although ideally sons manage their father's land together as part of a joint family,
familial land tends to be divided, with holdings diminishing in every generation.
Kin Groups. Patrilineal kin groups form the nucleus of households, function as
corporate units, and determine inheritance patterns. A man belongs permanently to the
kinship group of his father, while a woman changes membership from her natal kin
group to the kin group of her husband at the time of marriage. Because family
connections are critical in providing access to political influence and economic
opportunities, marriage alliances are planned carefully to expand kinship networks and
strengthen social ties. Although women join the husband's household, they maintain
emotional ties and contact with their families. If a woman is mistreated in her husband's
household, she may escape to her father's house or receive support from her male kin.
Consequently, women often prefer to marry men from the same villages.