BUILDING STRUCTURE

BLD61003
PROJECT 1 : STRUCTURAL DESIGN POST MORTEM
Tutor : Mr Mohamed Rizal

Wong Chee Fon 0327220

Keshav Seeraz 0326598
Peh Ellyn 0326812
Loh Shu Wei 0331016
Cheong Yen Sin Jovin 0328050
 CONTENT
1.0 Introduction 3 3.3 Roof System 31
3.3.1 Definition of Roof System 32
3.3.2 Criteria of Roof System
3.3.3 Safety 33
2.0 Abstract 6
3.3.4 Strength and Rigidity 34
3.3.5 Stability 35
3.3.6 Integration 36
3.0 Construction System 7 3.3.7 Economy 37
3.3.8 Optimization 38
3.1 Foundation and Floor System 8 3.3.8 Conclusion 39
3.1.1 Definition of Foundation & Floor System 9
3.1.2 Safety and Strength (Foundation System) 10 3.4 Curtain Wall System 41
3.1.3 Safety (Floor System) 11 3.4.1 Definition of Double Glazing and Curtain Wall 42
3.1.4 Strength & Rigidity ( Floor System) 12 3.4.2 Type of curtain wall system 43
3.1.5 Foundation System Proposed Design 13
3.4.3 Original curtain wall structural analysis 44
3.1.6 Flooring System Proposed Design 15
3.4.4 Curtain wall amendments and solutions 46
3.2 Post and Beam 17 3.4.5 Safety 48
3.2.1 Definition of post and beam structure 18 3.4.6 Strength 50
3.2.2 Criteria of post and beam structure 3.4.7 Feasibility 51
3.2.3 Safety 19 3.4.8 Economy 52
3.2.4 Stability 20 3.4.9 Sustainable 53
3.2.5 Strength & Rigidity 22
3.4.10 Conclusion 54
3.2.6 Economy 23
3.2.7 Feasibility 24
3.2.8 Optimization 25
4.0 Orthographic drawing 56
3.2.9 Wall System 26
3.2.10 Timber Louver 27
3.2.11 Conclusion 30 5.0 Conclusion 59

6.0 Reference and Appendix 60

# 2
 The interlocking culture is a visitor interpretation center designed to
allow visitors to further their knowledge on the culture and common
beliefs of Batu Caves. The VIC is located on a flat green land of with an
approximate area of 450m2.

Structural design is part of the general design problems. In reality, it

can be regarded as one of the most important design problems as it
deals with life safety of the building occupants.

1.0 INTRODUCTION The original structure of the VIC mostly make use of timber for the
structural member,such as the roof structure, post and beam which is
not comparatively unsuitable than the other materials that are
available.

Besides that, the VIC also utilize timber for the curve roof that are
mostly for aesthetically purposes rather than improving the function or
durability of the roof.

3
THE INTERLOCKING CULTURE

4
1.1 // BUILDING INTRODUCTION

The design of the VIC started off with the multicultural nature and
lifestyle of the people on site. With that in mind, the concept of
interlocking the culture was decided. Interlocking the culture and
lifestyle of the people is used as a means to bring the people of
different race and religion together in order to create a more united and
peaceful society.

The concept of interlocking the culture is then translated into the form it
is now, which is interlocking boxes creating interlocking and exciting
in-between spaces.

Besides that, the main feature of the VIC is its curved roof and large
curtain wall facade as well as the huge overhang roof.

The VIC is designed with the surrounding in mind, thus it uses natural
and environmental friendly material such as timber for most of its
building structure in order to blend in with its surrounding depicting the
humble and patient of the mountains and people on site.

However, sadly the design of the VIC have not taken the construction
feasibility and workability into consideration. Thus, causing the stability,
structure, strength, rigidity and feasibility to be at jeopardy.

5
 The objective of this project is to enhance the understanding the basic
structural theory and structural behavior.

The assignment allows and appraise the existing structural design of

the proposed building all the while looking for a solution to improve the
existing structural design. It also include the modification of the design
and the proposal of a new scheme with appropriate system for the

2.0 ABSTRACT building design.

The assignment enhance the appraisal on the technical standards as

well as structural design codes and loading codes to be applied to the
building design.

It also focuses on the identification of structural system and forces and

the application of structural theory in designing structural elements.

6
 Lightweight Construction

Lightweight construction is a type of construction where the

construction materials required are much lower than a heavyweight
construction, they are very much favourable due to the lower material

3.0 CONSTRUCTION
costs.

Lightweight construction are known to be great at responding to the

outdoor temperature where the building can be cooled more rapidly
SYSTEM during the night especially in hot climate countries like Malaysia.

Lightweight construction system generally have lower site impact and

disturbance than heavyweight construction however, it is also less
durable and require higher maintenance than heavyweight
construction.

7
 3.1.1 Definition of Foundation & Floor System
3.1.2 Safety and Strength (Foundation System)
3.1 FOUNDATION AND 3.1.3
3.1.4
Safety (Floor System)
Strength & Rigidity ( Floor System)
FLOOR SYSTEM 3.1.5
3.1.6
Foundation System Proposed Design
Flooring System Proposed Design

8
 3.1 // FOUNDATION AND
FLOOR SYSTEM
3.1.1 Definition and Criteria

Foundation

A foundation is the element of an architectural structure

which connects it to the ground, and transfers loads from
the structure to the ground. Foundations are generally
considered either shallow or deep.

Flooring System

A slab is a structural element, made of concrete, that is

used to create flat horizontal surfaces such as floors, roof
decks and ceilings. A slab is generally several inches
thick and supported by beams,columns, walls, or the
ground.

General Analysis On Building Foundation and Floor

System

The building has two pad footings foundation, one

supporting a timber wall and the other connected to the
end of the roof structure and both of them are incorrectly
position and do not have other foundation system. The
whole weight of the structure is acting on the timber
walls.

Diagram 3.1.1 The building uses timber flooring which is directly in

Existing foundation of the building.
contact with the soil and does not provide any details on
the substructure.

9

Diagram 3.1.1
Existing foundation of the building.
Figure 3.1.1
Rectangular reinforced pad footing
Diagram 3.1.2
Wide strip reinforced concrete foundation
3.1.2 // SAFETY & STRENGTH
FOUNDATION : Inaccurate and missing foundation system
Problem :
The foundation system of the building consist only two rectangular pad
footing, one supporting a timber wall and the second one supporting the end
of the roof to the ground and the rest of the foundation system is missing. The
building itself is being supported by timber walls with no columns. This will
result in the failure and the collapsing of the entire design.
Solution :
The first proposed solution is to use concrete foundation, pad foundation
system with rectangular pads and reinforced concrete.The arrangement of
pad foundations will consist of a series of discrete, well-separated pads. Pad
foundation is recommended as considering the load of the superstructure, the
type of construction materials, the types of adjoining structure and that it is a
low rise building.
The second proposed solution is to use of strip footing with reinforced
concrete. Strip foundations (or strip footings) are a type of shallow foundation
that are used to provide a continuous level strip of support to a linear structure
such as a wall or closely-spaced rows of columns built centrally above them.
The reason for the use of reinforcement of steel in concrete is that concrete is
strong in compression but weak in tension. Strip foundation can be used for
most soils and is suited to light structural loadings such as those found in
many low-to-medium rise domestic buildings.
10

Figure 3.1.2
Fire damaged timber flooring
Diagram 3.1.3
Thermoguard fire varnish
3.1.3 // SAFETY
FLOOR SYSTEM : No mention fire safety protection and fungi
and insect attack
Problem :
The floor system of the building consists of timber flooring without
mention of proper fire safety protection of the timber. It is a severe fire
hazard to the general public and to the building itself. Since the floor
system does not mention any timber preservatives, it is therefore also
vulnerable to fungi and insects attack.
Solution :
It is recommended to use preservative treatment against decay and
insect attack. As a fire safety measure, “Fire-retardant-treated wood”
(FRTW) will be used. It is a wood which has been impregnated with
fire-retardant chemicals in solution under high pressure. It retard the
spread of flame and limit smoke production from wood in fire
situations.
11
 3.1.4 // STRENGTH & RIGIDITY

FLOOR SYSTEM : The building has no floor substructure system

Problem :

The floor system of the building is in direct contact with the soil and has no
floor substructure system and no insulator. Without the floor substructure,
Figure 3.1.3 the floor will crack. It will also affect the timber more quickly as it will absorb
Damaged flooring system
moisture from the soil and which will lead to fungi attack. The lifespan of the
existing floor structure is really low.

Solution :

Diagram 3.1.4
Steel floor framing system with timber finish flooring
The proposed solution is to have a steel floor framing system with timber
finish. Steel has one of the highest strength-to-weight ratios of any
construction material. This results in savings in the foundation required and
the lightness also makes for easier on-site handling. Because of its
strength, steel can span longer lengths, offering larger open spaces and
increased design flexibility. Steel’s inherent strength and noncombustible
qualities enable light steel frame houses to resist such devastating events
as fires, earthquakes, and hurricanes.

12
R.C Footing Stump for Column
Reinforcement 3.1.5 // PROPOSED FOUNDATION
concrete 600 IMPLEMENTATION OF PROPOSED FOUNDATION SYSTEM
6nos 38mm⌀

High tensile
Anchor Bolt and
1100

Nuts 600
Minimum cover to main
reinforcement shall not be less

2000
600
than 50mm on the surface of the
contact with the earth face.
900

R.C Pile
Refer to consultant
design 2000

2000

Diagram 3.1.5
R.C footing stump for column

Foundation to Steel Column

PAD FOUNDATION GROUND

BEAM

STEEL COLUMN BASE

STEEL COLUMN LEVELING BOLT
PLATE
NUTS
FULL THREAD
ANCHOR BOLTS Diagram 3.1.6 shows steel column
STIFFENER PLATES
section I welded on steel base
TIGHTENING BOLT
BEAM REINFORCEMENT NUTS plate with full penetration butt weld
BARS
with plate stiffeners

Diagram 3.1.6
Foundation to steel column connection

13
 3.1.5 // FLOORING SYSTEM
IMPLEMENTATION & CONCLUSION OF PROPOSED
FOUNDATION SYSTEM

Diagram 3.1.7
Sections with amended pad footings

The original design of the foundation system would not withstand the weight acting on it and would eventually
collapse. As a final proposal, rectangular pad footing with reinforced concrete with sloping face is used as
foundation. The pad foundation is fixed to steel columns supporting the roof structure. The weight of the building is
transferred by the beams and columns to the foundation. Therefore the design is now safer, more structurally rigid
and have a longer span. Strip footing as a second proposal will not be used due to cost and labour.

14
 3.1.6 // PROPOSED FLOORING
IMPLEMENTATION OF PROPOSED FLOORING SYSTEM

Joist members are to be simply

supported between bearers and D= 240mm
D= 235mm
W= 72mm
should be used with bearers of the W= 64mm
T= 2.4mm
T= 2.4mm
same depth. Spans for joist
L= 16mm
Diagram 3.1.8 spacings 450mm.
Flooring to steel floor framing system

Diagram 3.1.12

Angle brackets will need to be fixed
using six 12x20 screws
Diagram 3.1.9
The beams and joists are laid out and bolted to the stumps in
much the same manner as wooden beams and joists. Steel posts
can also be attached to the frame in place of stumps if none are
available.
Many modular, steel framing elements will interlock with great
ease.

Load bearing walls will need to be

fixed through the floor lining into the
bearer or joist.

Diagram 3.1.10

Diagram 3.1.13 Diagram 3.1.14

Non load bearing walls need only Steel Flooring System are galvanised to minimise corrosion,
be fixed to the floor lining. adequate ventilation should be provided where the system is
subjected to humid conditions
Diagram 3.1.11

15
 3.1.6 // PROPOSED FLOORING
SYSTEM
IMPLEMENTATION & CONCLUSION OF PROPOSED
FLOORING SYSTEM

Diagram 3.1.15
Floor plan with amended flooring system

From the existing floor system, we can deduct that it would have not last for long due to its materiality and without any floor
substructure system. The proposed solution is to have a steel floor framing system with timber finish.Timber preservative is
used for treatment against decay and insect attack to prevent any damage to the building, and it also protected as a fire
safety measure, “Fire-retardant-treated wood” (FRTW). And steel substructure is galvanized and passive fire protection, such
as spray-on fireproofing is used. The flooring system as proposed is now more durable, there is less maintenance and the
substructure is rigid and also safer.

16
 3.2.1 Definition of post and beam structure
3.2.2 Criteria of post and beam structure

3.2 POST AND BEAM 3.2.3

3.2.4
3.2.5
Safety
Stability
Strength & Rigidity
3.2.6 Economy
3.2.7 Feasibility
3.2.8 Optimization
3.2.9 Wall System
3.2.10 Timber Louver
3.2.11 Conclusion

17

Diagram 3.2.1
Post and beam structural system.
Diagram 3.2.2
Current building structure.
3.2 // POST AND BEAM
STRUCTURE
3.2.1 Definition
Post and Beam Structural System
In Architecture, post and lintel structural system is a simple
construction technique also called column and beam.
Horizontal member is supported by two vertical posts at
either end. A beam is a structural element that is capable of
withstanding load primarily by resisting bending. Column is a
structural element that transmits through compression, the
weight of the structure above to other structural elements
below. All structural opening have evolved from this. Post
and beam structures either load bearing wall structures or
frame structures. A large of spans is also possible depending
on the types of elements which are used.
3.2.2 Criteria
Generally, beam width should not be more than the width of
the column on which it rests, or width of the wall below it so
that it can be concealed in the wall. It depends on many
aspects including its position in the structure, loads and
many other parameters. Having said this minimum depth of
beam can be decided based on the deflection requirement
that is based on span/depth ratio.
The post and beam structural system need to carry the
gravity load and lateral load, a good structural system will
ensure the building structure is stable and strong.
18

Figure 3.2.1
Timber structure decay and collapse.
Figure 3.2.2
Steel structural system.
3.2.3 // SAFETY
Material Properties
Problem : Used of timber as materials without proper fire safety protection.
Wood consists of organic compounds which are composed mainly of
carbon and hydrogen. They can combine with oxygen and burns. Because
of these properties, wood is classified as a combustible material. Wood is a
hygroscopic material. This means that it will adsorb surrounding
condensable vapors and loses moisture to air below the fiber saturation
point. Like any organic good, wood is a nutritional product for some plants
and animals. Insects drill holes and drive lines into wood. Even more
dangerously, fungi cause the wood to decay partially and even completely.
Post and beam is important structural system, if wood decay will increase
collapse probability of timber structure, it may put the safety of building
users and general public in a risk.
Solution : Replaced additional of passive fire protection steel with timber.
Steel can soften and melt with exposure to extremely high temperatures.
However, with addition of passive fire protection, such as spray-on
fireproofing, buildings built of structural steel can sustain greater
temperatures. Steel is durable as it is impervious to fire, termites, rot,
splitting and other hazard that will affect any organic materials.
19
 3.2.4 // STABILITY
Proper Load Bearing System

Problem : The overall structure of this building do not have any proper
column and beam to resist the lateral and gravity loads causing the
Diagram 3.2.3
Missing column and beam. structure lack of rigidity and stability. Generally the load of the slab is
transferred to the columns or walls through beams, down to the foundation,
and then to the supporting soil beneath. A Column transmits the load from
ceiling/roof slab and beam, including its own weight to the foundation.
Hence it should be realized that the failure of a column results in the
collapse of the entire structure.

Solution : Beams and columns will be added to the structural design to

Diagram 3.2.4
Location of column and beam.(Section)
Diagram 3.2.5
Location of column and beam. (Floor Plan)
reinforce the rigidity of the overall structure. This will ensure load distributes
evenly to the columns so that columns would not be buckle under extensive
load. Determine the location of column and beam based on the maximum
span of steel beam. Steel beam members can span up to 18m, but the
most usual range of steel beam spans rang from 3m to 9m. In the case of
this building structure, 7m as the maximum span of beam is appropriate to
carry the load bearing system. According to deflection criteria (Span/Depth
ratio), for a simply supported beam, the span to effective depth ratio should
be less than 20. (Beam depth> span/20)
The rules of thumb for structural steel design defines the criteria for span
and depth beam. For girders, calculate 3/4 inch of depth for every foot of
span.
Maximum Span: 7m (24 feet)
Beam Depth: 450mm (18”)
According to the available size of steel column and beam in Malaysia,
decide the most suitable size for supporting structural system.
Beam: 450mm x 200mm (I-Beam)
Column: 300mm x 300mm (H-Section)
20
 3.2.4 // STABILITY

Structural Connections

Problem : Structural system is impossible to work regularly without proper

Diagram 3.2.6
Bolted Connection and Welded Connection.
connection. Connection failure is one of the main issue for causing building
structure collapse and structural system failure. Timber structure system
requires a more complex way to connect the structure members together
and also crews builders required for timber connection, if install it with
improper way, it might cause the failure of connection.

Solution : In engineering, a connection serving to join the individual

members of a structure, to ensure the reliability of the structure, and provide
for functioning of the structure as a whole in accord with the requirements
of use and assembly. Connections are also used to join separate structures
in order to provide rigidity, spatial distribution of structures, and construction
of reinforced building units.

In this steel frame structural system, moment connection is appropriate as

method of connection. Web of beam is connected to column with bolted
angles. Top and bottom flanges of beam are field-welded to column with full
penetration weld. Columns is reinforced with plates to carry bending forces
from beam flanges to column. This connection transfer gravity loads and
bending forces between the members. Beam is restrained from even small
rotation termed AISC (American Institute of Steel Construction) Fully
Restrained.

Diagram 3.2.7
Moment Connection.
21

Diagram 3.2.8
Axonometric view of location of column and beam.
Diagram 3.2.9
Load stress diagram of column and beam..
3.2.5 // STRENGTH AND
RIGIDITY
Affordability of Load and Stress
Problem : Used of timber beam and column. Timber structures
are less durable because they have properties to against natural
phenomenon.Its lifetime is only between 15 to 20 years. Besides,
by increasing the strength and rigidity of timber columns and
beams, size of it have to be larger, this will causes the oversizing
of timber column and beam that could not fit into the building.
Solution : Replacing timber beam and column to steel beam
and column. Steel is tensile and has a high strength to weight
ratio which means it has high strength per unit mass. Thus, the
dead weight of steel structures is relatively small. Steel is a
structurally efficient building material and so buildings are lighter
and often foundations can be smaller as a result. While it takes
longer to work with, steel is stronger and lighter than timber. Its
strength means it can cover greater spans than timber. Steel can
undergo large plastic deformation before failure, thus providing
large reserve strength. Steel structure are more durable than
timber because these structures got extra strength which against
natural agents such as wind, rain, earthquake etc. The lifetime of
steel structures may be up to 50 years.
22
 3.2.6 // ECONOMY
Advantages and Disadvantages

Problem : Timber beam and column take longer time to construct

due to the joint and connection problems. The joint between timber
piles is weak, so it can not be used effectively in places where long
piling is required. Load bearing capacity of timber is comparatively
low. Lack of experienced builders and erection crews also become
a main issue of timber construction. Timber also need higher
maintenance fee for the treatment of insects and rotting.

Figure 3.2.3 Solution : Replace timber with steel beam and column to increase
Timber frame structure.
the construction speed. While steel beam and column can erect
rapidly as this results in quicker economic payoff. Steel does not
need much maintenance. Using steel material less waste in terms of
environmental issue. They can be constructed off-site by
professional steel fabricators and then assembled on site. Steel is
durable as high strength structure.

Figure 3.2.4
Steel frame structure.
23

Diagram 3.2.10
Axonometric view of load stress diagram of column and beam.
Diagram 3.2.11
Axonometric view of column and beam.
3.2.7 // FEASIBILITY
Proper structural system
Problem : The original building structure mainly design for aesthetics
purpose without proper structural system. Timber structural system are
not suitable in this complex building structure because its strength not
enough to support stably. Part of space volume exceed three stories
height but lack of sufficient column and beam. Load bearing capacity of
timber is comparatively low, it means the span will be shorter. This
results will need amount of timber and extend the construction duration.
The joint between timber piles is weak, some parts of this complex
building structure connects together by blocks, it may be not stable or
more stabilize connections needed. Crews builder and proper
connection are required in timber construction, if structure system be
installed improperly and it may cause the building structure temporarily
exists.
Solution : To remain the aesthetic design of the whole structure, using
steel frame structure with timber finishes. Propose steel structure as
supporting system because steel structures have a good load carrying
capacity and it also has a high strength to weight ratio. Steel beams and
columns have capability to carry load with a long span, which usually
used in high-rise building. While steel structure system is build in a more
simple way and faster comparing with timber structure but still can
support the loads.
24
 3.2.8 // OPTIMIZATION

Structural system and Aesthetics

Problem : Original building structure is using timber as frame structure

and wall. It is used for aesthetics purpose as well, make the whole
structure having a better look with timber. Timber framing may not be
Figure 3.2.5
Fully timber structure. optimise to use it as construction.

Solution : A whole new structural design will be added to the building

while maintaining the initial outlook of the building. Change timber
material to steel frame structure with timber finishing to balance
between aesthetics and safety. High strength of steel frame structure is
the main reason for being used in this building structure. Steel is a
highly durable metal, it can withstand a considerable amount of external
pressure. Thickness of columns and beams may also be related to
Rendering timber and steel facade
aesthetics requirement. Steel beams and columns can resist the loads
with comparatively small dimension with timber.

Figure 3.2.6
Steel structure with timber finishes.
25
 3.2.9 // WALL SYSTEM
Insulation

Problem : Timber frame for walls was the initial design for the building. As
Steel Frame timber wall frame is having more disadvantage and also high maintenance.
Disadvantages such as deterioration of timber are due to biotic agent and
abiotic agent. Biotic agent include decay and mold fungi, bacteria and
insects, while abiotic agent include sun, wind, water, certain chemical and
fire. High maintenance on the treatment of timber preservations and also
remedial treatment.

Solution : Replace timber frame with steel frame. Steel frame is used to
erect the wall with proper insulation installation. Then plaster board as the
outer layer and use timber finishes to complete the walls. As steel frame is
more durable compare with timber frame, it resist fire, termites, rot and any
number of hazard which can affect any kind of organic materials. Beside
steel frame are predictable and affordable, it is definitely straight and slight
expensive than wood but with better quality. Steel frame are also
Timber Finishes lightweight comparing with timber which is suitable in lightweight structures.

Plaster Board

Diagram 3.2.12
Materials layer of wall.

26
 3.2.10 // TIMBER LOUVER

Problem : Timber louvers is the original design in the building, but the
louvers are not connected to any supporting structure that are standing by
itself which is technically could not be build.

Solution : Timber louvers design are remaining in the design but adding
supporting structures like steel structure that connect both end of the
timber louvers to make sure the louvers can stand and build. Besides, steel
structure is used as other part of structure systems are using steel as well.
Besides, as this steel structure is exposing to the weather, so it must
undergo galvanization process which is metal has been coated with a thin
layer of zinc to protect it from corrosion.

Figure 3.2.7
Timber louvers connected to steel structure.

Diagram 3.2.13
Location of timber louvers.
27
Ground Floor Plan (Before)
Scale 1: NTS

28
 Rearrange the floor plan according to the
Extend the Length location of columns and beams, include
adjust the length and position.

Maximum span: 7m
Beam: 450mm x 200mm (I-Beam)
Column: 300mm x 300mm (H-Section)

Move the position of

Curtain Wall
Extend the Length
Adjust the Position

Ground Floor Plan with proposed location of column and beam

Scale 1: NTS

29
3.2.11 // CONCLUSION
The original structural system are lacking of proper supporting structure system which causes the building could not be build in
terms of stability, feasibility, strength and rigidity.

Besides, the original building design did not considerate of materials in terms of stability, safety, economy and optimization.

New structural system that added into the building are design to hold the load of roof and also the load of the building to make
sure that the building can is strong and stable.

Consideration material in the design is taken note by replacing timber structure to steel structure as steel are more suitable to fit
in this building. Even though timber structure was replaced with steel structure but the timber finished looking was remained in
this building for the aesthetic purpose.

30
 3.3.1 Definition of Roof System
3.3.2 Criteria of Roof System
3.3.3 Safety
3.3.4 Strength and Rigidity
3.3 ROOF STRUCTURE 3.3.5
3.3.6
Stability
Integration
3.3.7 Economy
3.3.8 Optimization
3.3.9 Conclusion

31
 3.4 // ROOF STRUCTURE
3.4.1 Definition and Criteria
Roof Structural Frame

The roof rafters,beams and trusses are what forms the roof
structural frame.They are the most important components that
makes up the roof to stand strong and still.They also gives the
shape of the roof and maintains it whether it is in a geometric
or organic form acting as a skeletal.Every roof must have
these components in order to meet the criteria of constructing
a roofing structure.
Fig 3.3.1
DIagram Of Roof Structure

Roof Sheathing,Insulation,Membrane and Covering

Roof sheathing is the material that goes on top of roofing

structure,that the roofing system is constructed on.The
sheathing is applied so the actual underlayment and roof
covering can be applied.Roof insulator helps reduce heat
transferred while membranes prevents water into the
interior.The covers provides protection and finishes.

General Analysis On Building Roof Structure

The roof structure of a building is just a single slab that has no

structural support,layers or sufficient thickness (Roof
Diagram 3.3.1 thickness:100mm).The openings on the roof are covered with
Location Of Roof glass panels which interrupts the structural support of the roof
as it is located not at the edges but at the middle.

32
 WEAK POINTS OF THE ROOF

3.3.3 // SAFETY
Collapsing and Cracking
Problem:
LACK OF COLUMN

The roof component of the building is very thin and fragile

due very minimal support with the obviously missing
structural frame which makes it very vulnerable to
collapsing and cracking.There’s not enough beams and
columns to support the roof slab which also contributes to
Diagram 3.3.2 roof collapsing.Collapsing of roof can cause other
Roof Vulnerable to Collapsing structural components of the building to be damaged and
crushed.Most importantly the occupants of the buildings
will be in risk of danger and may lead to fatal injuries.

Solution:

The roof structure definitely must have a complete

structural support.The roof frame structure is the most
important component of structure that should be presence
together with sufficient number of post and beams as
support throughout the span of the roof to ensure no
accidents occur.

Fig 3.3.2
Roof Collapsing

33
 3.3.4 // STRENGTH AND RIGIDITY

Roof Vulnerable to Bending

Problem:

Due to missing of the skeletal frame support for the roofing,its

strength is definitely missing and bending will most likely occur
especially when the roof has such a huge span of length.The
Diagram 3.3.3
Points that are Vulnerable to Bending openings on the roof also further removes its strength as it
decreases in volume encouraging it to be more flimsy and even
more vulnerable to bending.Its rigidity of course is low which
means it can be affected if there is a wind load which builds up
positive pressure.The overhang part of the roof has the least
strength and rigidity.

Solution:

The roof structure requires a structural frame which includes

the roof beam,truss and rafters that supports it throughout its
span.Openings on the roof should be shifted to the edge of the
roofing or perhaps avoid having them.Steel roof truss should be
applied and acts as a roof beam that supports the roof
Diagram 3.3.3 Diagram 3.3.4 increasing its strength in resisting any load and also preventing
Steel Structural Frame Steel Roof Truss Support it from bending.

34

Diagram 3.3.4
Thin Roof Unable to Resist Loads
Fig 3.3.5 and 3.3.6
Nuts and Bolts And Welding Joint Method
3.3.5 // STABILITY
Unable to Stay in Shape and Resist Load
Problem:
The roof cannot stay in shape and cracking,bending and
collapsing will occur.Resistivity of the roof to any load is very
low as there’s no skeletal frame support.The roof to post and
beam connection is very weak as there’s no proper roof
beam or rafter to connect.The organic form of the roof makes
it even harder to stay in shape as the stability at different
point is different.The overhang roof of 6 meters is most likely
to collapse first as it has the weakest stability point.
Solution:
Roof skeletal frame system must be integrated with strong
steel joints that will not allow the structure to be flimsy.Nuts
and bolts or welding method are very strong connection
methods that can preserve the shape of structure well.A
strong connection between the roof and the post and beams
must be done to allow support and transmit the load into the
ground.
35
 3.3.6// INTEGRATION
Integration of Insulation and Gutter
Problem:

Diagram 3.3.5
No integration of systems on the roof
The existing roofing did not have any integration in its roof
which is a waste as it is a long span and all of its spaces are
covered with roofing.The roofing only has one functions
which is only to protect from climatic exposure but gains a
lot of heat which then is transmitted into the interior.

The roof also does not help in channelling the water

properly which means when during rainy days the water will
flow straight downfall from the roof to the ground.

Wiring and piping system is also not integrated in the roof.

Solution:

A insulation layer should be sandwiched underneath the

INSULATION LAYER
zinc roofing.The insulation layer creates a barrier over the
roof which reduces the amount of heat entering the
interior.This helps to save cost from using extra active
cooling features.

GUTTER Installing gutter at the edge of the roof allows the water to
flow down to it and able to channel it to the drainage on the
ground.This promotes better rainwater management in the
FIg 3.3.7 building service.
Diagram of roof integration

36
 3.3.7// ECONOMY
Expensive Timber Roofing Covering
Problem:

Almost the entire roof covering is made from timber planks

which is expensive making it a very ubiquitous and
ambitious choice of material.The roofing does not requires
timber material for covering as it is less appreciated as it
lays on top compared to the form of the roof which is
aesthetically beneficial instead.Timber coverings requires
maintenance

Solution:
Fig 3.3.8
Zinc roofing A cheaper,lighter and able to be flexible in shape to fulfill
the structural efficiency,strength,rigidity,stability and a more
affordable installation and material rate.Zinc roofing would
be more suitable and easier to maintain as it is extremely
corrosion resistant which protects it from any climatic
exposure.

Fig 3.3.9
Zinc roofing details

37
 3.3.8// OPTIMIZATION
ZINC ROOFING TO REPLACE TIMBER

Problem:

Timber roofing brings better aesthetics to the overall look

of the roof but it might not be optimise to use it as it
sacrifice the structural strength and better integration with
other structural system as timber roofing requires more
Fig 3.3.10 skills and time to construct.
TImber roofing

Solution:

Zinc roofing as an alternative brings the advantage of

being more flexible in shape as it is more easier to shape
compared to timber roofing.This gives them the
advantage to be structurally more flexible to support with
and less concerned on problems such as collapsing or
cracking.The method of welding also gives a major boost
in terms of joint strength and also saves more time.Steel
framing promotes better integration to all parts of the
construction system.

Fig 3.3.11
Zinc roofing

38
3.4.9 // CONCLUSION
The original construction of the roof will not be able to stay in shape,resist loads,vulnerable to cracking and collapsing,parts of the roof
will bend and there is no integration of services as it does not have a structural system that acts as a skeletal frame for it to connect to
the column and beams which is also lacking.The timber material of the roof also contributes problems in the economy and optimization
aspect.

Bad integration of roof to

column and the number
of columns supporting
the roof is lacking.

Roof lacking skeletal frame

support making it having
many weak points.

No integration of roof
insulation and gutter.

Diagram 3.3.6
Sections without admentmends of roof

39
The new proposed design integrates a roof beam and truss into it to keep it in shape, and also increasing its structural strength and
rigidity.More columns are added to support the roof and helps distribute loads into the ground.Insulation and gutter in integrated into the
roof.zinc roofing is used for roof covering.The new proposed design of structural integration brings an overall safety and balance to the
structural system.

INSULATION GUTTER

Zinc Roofing Steel column Roof Beam

to beam and truss.
connection.

Integration of
gutter and
insulation.

Diagram 3.3.7
Sections with amendment of roof

40
 3.4.1 Definition of Double Glazing and Curtain Wall
3.4.2 Type of curtain wall system
3.4.3 Original curtain wall structural analysis
3.4.4 Curtain wall amendments and solutions
3.4 DOUBLE GLAZED 3.4.5 Safety
3.4.6 Strength
CURTAIN WALL 3.4.7 Feasibility
3.4.8 Economy
3.4.9 Sustainable
3.4.10 Conclusion

41
3.4 // DOUBLE GLAZED CURTAIN WALL
3.4.1 Definition and Criteria
Double Glazed Insulating Glass
Insulated glass unit (IGU), more commonly known as double glazing
combines multiple glass panes separated by a vacuum or gas filled
space that reduces heat transfer into the building interior.
Insulating glass units (IGUs) mostly are manufactured with the thickness
that range from 3mm to 10mm. Laminated or tempered glass are also
used as part of the construction.
Interior 10mm single glazed
unit
Cavity - Gas infill
Exterior 10mm single glazed
Curtain Wall unit
Desiccant
Curtain wall system are non-load bearing cladding system for external
walls. The curtain wall systems does not carry any structural load from Secondary (structural) seal

the building other than its own dead load and also loads imposed on
them such as wind and seismic loads, which they are able to transfer the
load to the main building structure through connections at floors and
columns of the building. Curtain wall systems differ from storefront Diagram 3.4.1
Double Glazed Curtain Wall Section
systems as they are able to span up to multiple floors, with the design
requirements such as thermal efficiency, building movement, water
diversion, thermal expansion and contractions.

42
 Mullions

Transom Double glazing panel

3.4.2 Type of Curtain
Wall System
Stick System

Building Structure Stick curtain walling (SWC) is a type of system where the
mullions and transoms are factory cut and transported to
site as loose sticks and bars. The transported loose bars
Anchors
and sticks are then able to be assembled into a ladder
frame which is also known as the ladders for faster site
erection. The advantages of a stick curtain walling system
is its flexibility where the production of the sticks and bars
can be customized for both angular and complex
facades.

Modular (Unitised) System

Modular curtain wall system range from vertical and

Double glazing panel
Diagram 3.4.2
Stick system curtain wall
horizontal mullion framing. All of the systems and
applications of the system use the same 52mm wide
extruded aluminium frames with different depths to form
the horizontal and vertical structural section. The system
is often filled with a vulcanized EPDM gasket to insure
Diagram 3.4.3
Unitised system curtain wall waterproofing in between the glazing units.

43
 3.4.3 // Double Glazed Curtain Wall
Analysis
The building uses curtain wall as an opening for natural lighting for
the space as a mean for sustainability and energy cost saving
solution.

However the structure of the designated curtain wall of the

building consists of several problems that affects the structural
stability and feasibility of the curtain wall.

Firstly, the curtain wall does not have sufficient support for the
curtain wall. The original design of the curtain wall only have
supports at its two end connecting it to the columns of the
building. However, the span of the curtain wall designed for the
building is too wide and tall to support its own weight without
sufficient structural support.

Besides that, The original design of the building structural system

does consists of beams connecting the columns. The lack of
Diagram 3.4.4 beams made it impossible to add additional anchors to support
Placement of Curtain Wall
the curtain wall. This problem is mostly directed at the largest
curtain wall facade which is located at the entrance hall with a
triple volume ceiling height, making it impossibly unstable without
structural support.

44
 7.4m

1.2m

Absence of structural member for connections

and anchors installation.

Weak stability of mullions due to the lack of

beams.
8.4m

2.7m

Diagram 3.4.7

THE INTERLOCKING CULTURE

Original design of double glazed curtain wall before amendment

# 46
 3.4.4 // Curtain Wall Structural
Amendments

Problem : Support failure.

The designated curtain wall only have support at its two sides
connecting it to the column of the building which is insufficient for
the large span and height of the curtain wall.

Solution : Add beams across columns.

Diagram 3.4.5
Curtain wall section before amendment
Connecting the columns with beams not only allow extra structural
support for the building but also add extra support to anchor the
curtain wall to the building structure.

Diagram 3.4.6
Curtain wall section after amendment

45

Diagram 3.4.8
Curtain wall mullions before amendment
Diagram 3.4.9
Curtain wall mullions after amendment
3.4.4 // Curtain Wall Structural
Amendments
Problem : Connection failure
The original design of the building structural system does
not consists of beams connecting the column making
impossible to add additional anchors to connect the
mullion and transom to the beam for extra support.
Another problem after connecting the beams and columns
is that the mullions does not meet the height of the beam
making it impossible to anchor the mullions to the beams.
Solution : Adjust curtain wall mullions
Beams are aligned to the floor slab of the second level,
however the height of the beam does not meet the original
height of the mullions. The height and the number of
mullions are needed to be adjusted in order to allow the
mullions to be anchored to the building structure.
47
 3.4.5 // SAFETY
Theft

Problem : The usage of standard glass.

Annealed glass are standard glass that have not
gone through treatments, making it weaker and
easier to break compared to treated glass.

Solution : Replace standard glass to tempered

glass.
No applied load Annealed glass Tempered glass Standard glass are easier to break compared to
tempered glass which is stronger in comparison as it
is processed by controlled thermal and chemical
treatments. The outer surface of the tempered glass
are changed into compression while the interior are
changed into tension. Thus making it safer from
burglary break ins.

Bending load applied Annealed glass Tempered glass

Diagram 3.4.10
Standard and Tempered glass load stress diagram

48

Fig 3.4.11 Shattered Standard glass
https://wallpaperscraft.com/download/broken_glass_cracks_textu
re_82465/3840x2400
Fig 3.4.12 Shattered Tempered glass
https://depositphotos.com/12893010/stock-photo-reinforcement-
metal-framework-for-concrete.html
3.4.2 // SAFETY
Fire Safety
Problem : The usage of standard glass.
Solution : Replace standard glass to safety glass (tempered glass).
On occasions, it is required to knock out glazing panels for emergency access
and ventilation from the exterior. Standard glass are shaped with wounding
sharp edges when broken which can be dangerous for access while
tempered glass breaks into smaller pieces with less sharp edges, providing a
safer access in case of emergency.
Problem : The usage of curtain wall system.
Curtain wall is a system where only the framing and mullions are attached to
the structure, thus leaving gaps in between levels, causing the fire and smoke
to spread through the levels with no resistance.
Solution : Apply fire safing and smoke seals
Applying fire safing and smoke seal at gaps between the structure slab and
the curtain walls helps compartmentalize the levels and thus helps slowing
down the spreading of fire and smoke throughout the building.
49

Fig 3.4.11 Shattered Standard glass
https://wallpaperscraft.com/download/broken_glass_cracks_textu
re_82465/3840x2400
Fig 3.4.11 Shattered Standard glass
https://wallpaperscraft.com/download/broken_glass_cracks_textu
re_82465/3840x2400
3.4.6 // STRENGTH
Problem : The usage of standard glass.
Standard glass is weaker in comparison to tempered glass. Standard
glass are weak and are only able to withstand its own dead load,
Standard glass bends when is under a certain level of load and stress.
Once a standard glass starts cracking under a certain level of stress, the
crack will disseminate throughout the glass as there are no structure
within the glass to hold and support it.
Solution : Replace standard glass to tempered glass.
Tempered glass are processed by controlled thermal and chemical
treatments making it four to five times stronger than standard glass, thus
making it harder to break. Tempered glass are also able to resist their
own dead load and imposed live load such as wind load and seismic load.
Tempered glass are also less likely to experience thermal break
compared to standard glass.
50
 3.4.7 // FEASIBILITY
Anchor -
Angle clip bolted to
spandrel beam
Problem : Connection Failure
The curtain wall system of the building exceeded well over 8m which is
higher than the criteria height of a curtain wall and also the usual
Structural steel beam
manufactured height of glass. Besides that, the surface of the the
facade wall does not have any structure to connect the wide span
curtain wall system to the building structure.

Solution : Add beams across the curtain wall.

Adjoin horizontal elements across the columns to ensure a more stable
structure frame as well as to allow foot hold for connections between
the curtain wall and the building structure. The curtain wall system
spans up to 7m, thus it need extra connectors between the facade wall
and building structure to ensure the stability of the curtain wall and to
resists impost load on the facade better.

Diagram 3.4.11
Curtain wall section after amendment

51
 3.4.8 // ECONOMY
Problem : Usage of modular system curtain wall.
Unitised system curtain wall requires higher field labour
which have higher pay than standard labour.

Solution : Replace modular system to stick system.

Stick system are more economic friendly compare to
modular system as it has lower requirement volume at the
same time it does not require higher field labour that
requires more pay.

Problem : Use of single glazed curtain wall

Single glazed curtain wall allows light to penetrate further
Transmitted Solar
into the building, however it also allow more heat to
Radiation 83% Reflected Heat (outside) 8% penetrate into the space, thus it requires more air
Absorption
conditioning to cool down the spaces.
Radiation of Radiation of absorbed heat
absorbed heat (outside) 3%
(inside) 6%
Solution : Replace single glazed curtain wall to double
glazed curtain wall.
Double glazed curtain wall may have cost more than single
glazed curtain wall during the initial construction, however
double glazed curtain helps reduce the heat of the
atmospheric air from penetrating into the interior spaces
Diagram 3.4.12
Double glazed curtain wall heat transmission diagram thus reducing the usage of air conditioning which then
reduce the energy costs needed to support the excessive
use of air conditioning.

52
 3.4.9 // SUSTAINABLE
Problem : Usage of single glazed curtain wall.
Heat Loss 45% Single glazed curtain wall does not help maintain the thermal
comfort of the interior spaces thus requiring the usage of air
conditioning to maintain the quality of the indoor air.

Solution : Replace single glazed to double glazed curtain wall

Double glazed curtain wall consists of a glazing pocket which
helps reducing the amount of heat penetrating into the space
which in turn reduce the usage of air conditioning that is
harmful to the environment.
Diagram 3.4.13
Single glazed curtain wall heat transmission diagram

Heat Lost (55%- 77%)

Reflected Heat (outside) 8%
Absorption
Radiation of
Radiation of absorbed heat
absorbed heat
(outside) 3%
(inside) 6%

Diagram 3.4.14
Double glazed curtain wall heat transmission diagram

53
3.4.10 // CONCLUSION
The original design of the curtain wall consists of many mistakes in terms of structural, safety, strength, feasibility and stability.

The structural system of the curtain wall have been amended to support its own dead load as well as imposed loads such as wind and
seismic load, by strengthening the connection to the building structure.

Besides that, the curtain wall design and also structural system of the building have been altered in order to accommodate the
connection anchor between the curtain wall and the beam structure.

Moreover, the design of the curtain wall have also been altered to be more strong, sustainable and economic by changing the materials
used. Tempered glass have been suggested as a solution to solve the problem of heat gain through the large glass opening as
tempered glass is stronger and is able to reflect part of the heat directed into the space back to the environment.

54
 7m

1.8m

Beams added in order to install anchors for

connection between curtain wall and building
structure.
2.7m

Additional mullions for extra support of curtain wall

8.4m

Diagram 3.4.15

THE INTERLOCKING CULTURE

Double glazed curtain wall revised design

# 55
4.0 ORTHOGRAPHICS 5.1
5.2
Before Readjustment
After Readjustment
DRAWINGS

56
4.1 ORTHOGRAPHICS DRAWINGS
BEFORE AMENDMENTS

57
4.2 ORTHOGRAPHICS DRAWINGS
AFTER AMENDMENTS

58
 The initial design of the building consists of many problems
regarding the structure and construction systems.
However, we have provided several proposals and solution
that is able to modify and strengthen the structure of the
building.
5.0 CONCLUSION In conclusion, we are able to identify the problems on the
building structure and provide solutions to amend it without
affecting or changing much of the design and aesthetics.

59
6.0 REFERENCE &
APPENDIX

60
Reference 3.3
3.1 Foundation and Floor System
CWC. (2018). Fire-Retardant-Treated Wood - CWC. [online] Available at:
http://cwc.ca/wood-products/treated-wood/fire-retardant-treated-wood/
[Accessed 1 Oct. 2018].
Stratco.com.au. (2018). Stratco. [online] Available at:
https://www.stratco.com.au/siteassets/pdfs/steel_framing_tuffloor.pdf.
Stratco.com.au. (2018). Stratco. [online] Available at:
https://www.stratco.com.au/products/building-construction/probeam-flooring/
[Accessed 1 Oct. 2018].
Civil Construction Tips (2018). Wide strip foundation | Civil Construction Tips. [online]
3.4
Available at:
http://civilconstructiontips.blogspot.com/2011/06/wide-strip-foundation.html
[Accessed 29 Sep. 2018].
Structural Detail (2018). Steel column footing foundation detail. [online] Available at:
https://www.structuraldetails.civilworx.com/shop/steel-frame-details/steel-column-f
ooting-foundation-detail/ [Accessed 29 Sep. 2018)
3.2 Post and Beams
Lyons_Comparative(2018). A comparative analysis between steel, mansory and timber
frame construction in residential housing[online] Available at:
https://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/14400/Lyons_Comparative%28
2009%29.pdf?sequence=1
Steel-vs-concrete and timber. (2018). Advantages and disadvantages of steel as
structural design material[online] Available at:
https://www.slideshare.net/sheerazgulabro/aquib-steelvsconcrete
Standard size of column in building. (2018). What is the standard size of column in
building[online] Available at:
https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-standard-size-of-a-column-for-building
Metric size| Logamatic. (2018). Metric size of universal beams and columns[online]
Available at: http://www.logamatic.com.my/universal-beam-column/metric-size/
Steel connections. (2018). Seminar on connections in steel structures[online] Available at:
https://www.slideshare.net/babunaveen/steel-connections
Load transfer from beam to column. (2018). How are loads transferred from beam to
column[online] Available at:
https://www.quora.com/How-are-loads-transferred-from-beams-to-columns
Roof System
En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Domestic roof construction. [online] Available at:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_roof_construction [Accessed 2 Oct. 2018].
Gupta (2018). Steel roof trusses. [online] Slideshare.net. Available at:
https://www.slideshare.net/Dudesid1/steel-roof-trusses [Accessed 2 Oct. 2018].
Understand Building Construction. (2018). Steel Frame Structures | Steel Framing | Steel
Structures. [online] Available at:
http://www.understandconstruction.com/steel-frame-structures.html [Accessed 2 Oct.
2018].
Curtain Wall System
3rdreality.me. (2018). Incredible Unitized Curtain Wall Details Unitized Curtain Wall Cad
Details – 3rdreality.me. [online] Available at:
http://3rdreality.me/unitized-curtain-wall-details/incredible-unitized-curtain-wall-details-unitize
d-curtain-wall-cad-details/ [Accessed 25 Sep. 2018].
Allard Double Glazing. (2018). Double vs Triple Glazing - The Differences. [online] Available at:
https://www.allarddoubleglazing.co.uk/blog/faq/double-vs-triple-glazing/ [Accessed
25 Sep. 2018].
En.wikipedia.org. (2018). Insulated glazing. [online] Available at:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulated_glazing [Accessed 25 Sep. 2018].
Replacementwindowsfordummies.com. (2018). Double Glazed Windows: Advantages and
Disadvantages | Replacement Windows for Dummies. [online] Available at:
http://www.replacementwindowsfordummies.com/articles/double-glazed-windows-ad
vantages-and-disadvantages [Accessed 25 Sep. 2018].
W&W Glass, LLC. (2018). Should I Use a Unitized Curtain Wall or Stick-Built System? | W&W
Glass, LLC. [online] Available at:
http://www.wwglass.com/blog/post/unitized-curtain-wall-or-stick-built-system/
[Accessed 25 Sep. 2018].
Wbdg.org. (2018). Curtain Walls | WBDG Whole Building Design Guide. [online] Available at:
https://www.wbdg.org/guides-specifications/building-envelope-design-guide/fenestrati
on-systems/curtain-walls [Accessed 25 Sep. 2018].
61
Appendix
3.1 Foundation and Floor System
Figure:
3.1.1 Rectangular reinforced pad footing
3.1.2 Fire damaged timber flooring
3.1.3 Damaged flooring system
Diagram:
3.1.1 Existing foundation of the building.
3.1.2 Wide strip reinforced concrete foundation
3.1.3 Thermoguard fire varnish
3.1.4 Steel floor framing system with timber finish flooring
3.1.5 R.C footing stump for column
3.1.6 Foundation to steel column connection
3.1.7 Sections with amended pad footings
3.1.8 Steel frame flooring system
3.1.9 Steel frame to timber finish
3.1.10 Load bearing to steel frame
3.1.11 Non load bearing to steel frame
3.1.12 Dimension of Joist and Bearer
3.1.13 Bearer and joist connection
3.1.14 Bearer and joist to column connection
3.1.15 Floor plan of amended flooring system
3.2 Post and Beams
Figure :
3.2.1 Timber structure decay and collapse.
3.2.2 Steel structural system.
3.2.3 Timber frame structure.
3.2.4 Steel frame structure.
3.2.5 Fully timber structure.
3.2.6 Steel structure with timber finishes.
3.2.7 Timber louvers connected to steel structure.
Diagram :
3.2.1 Post and beam structural system.
3.2.2 Current building structure.
3.2.3 Missing column and beam.
3.2.4 Location of column and beam.(Section)
3.2.5 Location of column and beam. (Floor Plan)
3.2.6 Bolted Connection and Welded Connection.
3.2.7 Moment Connection.
3.2.8 Axonometric view of location of column and beam.
3.2.9 Load stress diagram of column and beam..
3.2.10 Load stress diagram of column and beam.(Axonometric)
3.2.11 Axonometric view of column and beam.
3.2.12 Materials layer of wall.
3.2.13 Location of timber louvers.
62
Appendix
3.3 Roof System
Diagram:
3.3.1 Location of roof
3.3.2 Roof Vulnerable to Collapsing
3.3.3 Points that are Vulnerable to Bending
3.3.4 Thin Roof Unable to Resist Loads
3.3.5 No integration of systems on the roof
3.3.6 Sections without admentmends of roof
3.3.7 Sections with amendment of roof
Figure:
3.3.1 DIagram Of Roof Structure
3.3.2 Roof Collapsing
3.3.3 Steel Structural Frame
3.3.4 Steel Roof Truss Support
3.3.5 Nuts and Bolts And Welding Joint Method
3.3.6 Nuts and Bolts And Welding Joint Method
3.3.7 Diagram of roof integration
3.3.8 Zinc roofing
3.3.9 Zinc roofing details
3.3.10 TImber roofing
3.3.11 Zinc roofing
3.4 Curtain Wall System
Figure :
3.4.1 Shattered Standard Glass
3.4.2 Shattered Tempered Glass
3.4.3 Curtain Wall Anchor
Diagram :
3.4.1 Double Glazed Curtain Wall Section
3.4.2 Stick Curtain Wall System
3.4.3 Modular Curtain Wall System
3.4.4 Placement of Curtain Wall on Plan
3.4.5 Curtain wall section before amendment
3.4.6 Curtain wall section after amendment
3.4.7 Original design of curtain wall before amendment
3.4.8 Curtain wall mullions before amendment
3.4.9 Curtain wall mullions after amendment
3.4.10 Standard and Tempered glass load stress diagram
3.4.11 Curtain wall section after amendment
3.4.12 Double glazed curtain wall heat transmission diagram
3.4.13 Single glazed curtain wall heat transmission diagram
3.4.14 Double glazed curtain wall heat transmission diagram
3.4.15 Double glazed curtain wall revised design
63