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This document summarizes the political and social history of classical India. It discusses:
1) The establishment of early kingdoms in India following the Aryan migrations, and the rise of large empires under the Mauryans and Guptas which briefly unified most of India through centralized rule and bureaucracy.
2) The Mauryan Empire, founded by Chandragupta Maurya, reached its peak under Ashoka and controlled most of the subcontinent through an efficient administration system before declining.
3) Regional kingdoms emerged during the intervening periods, and the Gupta Empire revived imperial rule in the 4th century CE before also declining due to invasions.
4) Indian society was
This document summarizes the political and social history of classical India. It discusses:
1) The establishment of early kingdoms in India following the Aryan migrations, and the rise of large empires under the Mauryans and Guptas which briefly unified most of India through centralized rule and bureaucracy.
2) The Mauryan Empire, founded by Chandragupta Maurya, reached its peak under Ashoka and controlled most of the subcontinent through an efficient administration system before declining.
3) Regional kingdoms emerged during the intervening periods, and the Gupta Empire revived imperial rule in the 4th century CE before also declining due to invasions.
4) Indian society was
This document summarizes the political and social history of classical India. It discusses:
1) The establishment of early kingdoms in India following the Aryan migrations, and the rise of large empires under the Mauryans and Guptas which briefly unified most of India through centralized rule and bureaucracy.
2) The Mauryan Empire, founded by Chandragupta Maurya, reached its peak under Ashoka and controlled most of the subcontinent through an efficient administration system before declining.
3) Regional kingdoms emerged during the intervening periods, and the Gupta Empire revived imperial rule in the 4th century CE before also declining due to invasions.
4) Indian society was
Chapter 9: State, Society, and the Quest for Salvation in India
Megasthenes (Greek ambassador) was first foreigner to describe India - Indika
Wrote tales & portrayed India as fertile land that supported 2 harvests of grain per year Pataliputra: capital described as rectangle city along Ganges River Mentioned large armies that used elephants & hierarchy (mistake: 7 castes instead of 4) Noted main schools of philosophers (Hindus/Buddhists) had special prominence & exemp from taxes Talked about ascetic lifestyles & vege diets Overall, showed India to be wealthy land that supported distinctive society w/ well-est cultural traditions Weren’t v successful in maintaining imperial gov; regional kingdoms NOT centralized empires Imperial support helped promote ideals thru land (Buddhism) Social/cultural Indian traditions shaped lives & experiences of inhabitants & ppl in distan lands
I. The Fortunes of Empire in Classical India
o Aryans est series of small kingdoms & rulers fought constantly among themselves to expand their states o 600 B.C.E. wars of expansion = consolidation of several large regional kingdoms i. These kingdoms couldn’t dominate each other (tried to) o Classical era: Mauryan/Gupta dynasties founded centralized imperial states but neither lasted to est centralized rule as a lasting feature of poli A. The Mauryan Dynast and the Temporary Unification of India Unification of India was result of Darius’ intrusions – conquered parts of northwestern India & made kingdom Gandhara in northern Punjab (province of Achaemenid empire) Est of Achaemenid empire = local rulers using Persian techniques of admin Alex crossed Indus River- crushed states there but didn’t rlly affect Punjabis; left when men mutinied Important effect: created poli vacuum in northwestern India by destroying existing states & then withdrawing his own forces Located in central portion of Ganges plain Kingdoms in Ganges valley became rich as workers turned forests into fields & trade ^^ 500 B.C.E. – Magadha was most important state in NE India Kings conquered neighboring states & controlled Indian commerce thru Ganges valley & overseas trade b/w India & Burma passing across Bay of Bengal Withdrawal of Alex from Punjab = opportunity to expand Chandragupta Maurya adventurer who laid foundation for Mauryan empire first state to bring centralized/unified gov to most of India He began by taking control of small, remote regions of Magadha & worked his way to center Overthrew ruling dynasty & consolidated his hold; moved into Punjab & controlled NW India Went past Indus River & conquered Greek state Bactria (where Alex’s successors had kingdom during Seleucid era) Chandra’s empire embraced all of North India (Indus – Ganges) Kautalya- advisor devisd provedures for gov of Chandra’s realm His advice is in ancient Indian poli handbook Arthashastra: manual of instructions on uses of power & principles of gov Outlined methods of admin, overseeing trade/agric, collecting taxes, maintaining order, conducting foreign relations & waging war Kautalya advised Chandra to use spies & prostitutes Like Persia, built bureaucratic admin system that enabled them to implement policies thru state Chandra abdicated throne to become monk & led such an ascetic life that he starved himself to death His son succeeded him & added most of South India to growing empire Peak of Mauryan empire was during reign of Chandra’s grandson Ashoka Nishi Mandapati Ashoka began his reign as conqueror: only major region that remained ind of Mauryan empire was Kalinga (east-central part of India) Hostile towards Mauryan rule difficult for Ashoka bc Kalinga controlled main land/sea trade routes b/w Ganges plain & southern India but conquered it in bloody campaign Ashoka ruled almost entire subcontinent (only south most part escaped) w/ tightly organized bureaucracy; est capital at Pataliputra; Thriving & cosmopolitan city Central treasury oversaw collection of taxes (Kautalya’s influence) supported legions of officials, accountants, clerks, soldiers & other imperial workers Ashoka communicated his policies thru realm by inscribing edicts in nat stone formations or on pillars Issued imperial decrees, encouraged Buddhism & intended to serve as fair, just & humane ruler Result of his policies: regions became well-integrated, had stable gov & growing econ Encouraged agric (base of nation’s $) & trade – built roads & highway linking Pataliputra w/ Taxila Chief poli/commercial center of N India access to Bactria, Persia & other western lands Planted banyan trees to offer shade, dug wells & est inns along roads (comfort for admin/merchants) Policies/empire didn’t last after he died; empire had econ/$$ difficulties Depended on strong army & lots of officials to admin imperial policy = expensive salaries Times of peace: mili weren’t doing anything but still getting paid Later emperors debased currency (reducing amount of precious metal in coin while value was same) B. The Emergnce of Regional Kingdoms and the Revival of Empire India didn’t crumble into anarchy- local rulers formed kingdoms that brought order to large regions For 200 years, nw India was ruled by Bactria Alex’s heirs mingled w/ local pops & Indo-Greek forces invaded northern India Bactria was thriving commercial center & linked China to Medi basin; promoted cross-cultural interaction & exchange in northern India Trade = revenue; Taxila prospered bc location near trade routes; Gandhara had lots of culture/trade Nomadic CA attacked Bactria ended Indo-Greek kingdom Most successful conquerors were Kushans; took modern-day Pakistan, Afghanistan & northern India – Gujurat & central part of Indus valley Like Bactrians, Kushans facil trade b/w India & north lands; large role in silk roads network by pacifying region b/w Persia & China (makes it safe for merchants to travel) Kushans wanted to copy Mauryas & build large empire, but only Guptas were successful Like Mauryas, Guptas based state in Magadha (rich, dominated Ganges valley, intermediary b/w regions); new empire arose on foundations laid by Chandra Gupta [no relation to Chandragupta] Formed alliances w/ powerful fams in Ganges region Successors: Samudra Gupta & Chandra Gupta II made capital Pataliputra again Conquered many regional kingdoms & est tributary alliances w/ other that didn’t want to fight Only Deccan Plateau & southern most part wasn’t controlled by Guptas Gupta empire smaller than Mauryan & Guptas left local gov/admin/basic policy up to allies When nomads invaded, empire split according to admin regions, but Guptas brought stability back Faxian: Chinese Buddhist monk traveled to India in search of Buddhist scriptures during Gupta II Reported that India was prosperous land w/ little crime; could travel w/o fear of molestation & official travel docs White Huns: nomads from CA who occupied Bactria moved across Hindu Kush mts & est kingdoms Guptas fended them off at first, but defense cost them resources & weakened their state Gupta dynasty continued in name but regional govs usurped imperial rights/powers Only est of Mughal dynasty in 16th C.E. ruled land as vast as Mauryans/Guptas Most part, large regional kingdoms dom poli life in India during time b/w Gupta & Mughal dynasties Nishi Mandapati II. Economic Development and Social Distinctions o Focused on agric; used techniques of iron metallurgy to make iron axes & tools to advance into jungle- covered valley of Ganges River o Dispatched shudras (semifree serfs) to work in cleared fields & reaped large harvests o Agric surplus supported large-scale states, which organized Indian public life; also encouraged towns, growth of trade & further development of caste system A. Towns and Trade After 600 B.C.E., towns formed; served needs of prod agric society by providing manuf products pots, textiles, iron tools & other metal utensils / luxury goods like jewelry for elite class Demand for manuf goods was v high & some organized busi on large scale Saddalaputta owned about 500 workshops; distrib thru Ganges valley using his own boats Trade was most active along Ganges River & Ashoka’s roads also facil land trade within India Volume of long-dist trade grew as China, sw Asia & Medi basin provided poli foundation that enabled merchants to trade Direct poli/military links w/ foreign ppl drew Indians into long-dist trade relations Presence of Persian admins in Gandhara who built roads facil trade b/w two lands Alex’s conquests helped est extensive trade networks by forging links b/w India & Medi Basin thru Bactria, Persia & Anatolia From India, main trade passed thru Hindu Kush mts & Gandharan capital of Taxila to Persia/ Medi basin & across silk roads of CA to Chinese markets Indian exports: cotton, aromatics, black pepper, pearls & gems Imports: horses/bullion from westerns lands & silk from China Mauryan Era- merchants continued to use land routes but turned to sea more often for transport Sea trade benefitted from rhythms of monsoon winds in Indian Ocean basin Spring/summer: winds blow from sw & fall/winter: winds blow from ne After mariners recognized this, they could sail easily to any part of Indian Ocean basin Many imported goods didn’t stay in India but traveled west thru Arabian Sea to lands bordering Persian Gulf & Red Sea or Medi basin Indian pepper was so pop that Romans est direct trade relations & built trading settlements in s India Archeologists unearthed hoards of roman coins to show large vol of trade b/w Medi & India B. Family Life and the Caste System Indian moralists tried to promote stability by encouraging respect for strong pat fams & maintenance of social order (all members played well-defined roels) Mainly in higher classes, several gens of fams lived in large compounds ruled by powerful patriarchs Lit works show women were largely sub to men; Mahabharata & Ramayana portray women as weak & emotional creatures Ramayana: Sita loyally follows Rama into undeserved exile & stays faithful even when they’re sep By Gupta era, child marriage was common: 8/9 year old girls were engaged to 20 yr old men Formal marriage was right after girls hit puberty Wives dom domestic affairs, but child marriage placed them under control of older men & encouraged them to devote themselves to fam matters NOT public affairs Aryans had 4 castes: brahmins, kshatriyas, vaishyas & shudras Brahmins endorsed social order bc it gave them honor & sometimes wealth Trade growth & industries had deep implications for larger structure bc they encouraged more dev of caste system New groups of artisans, craftsmen & merchants appeared Ppl who had same job formed guilds: corp body that supervised prices/wages & provided welfare for members & fams; lived in same places/intermarried jati Nishi Mandapati Jati was responsible for maintaining social order; organized their own courts [disciplined members, resolved diffs & regulated community affairs] Ppl who broke caste rules were shunned & were outcastes who worked as butchers & lowly jobs Econ dev also generated $$, which threatened social order Brahmins & kshatriyas were honored to be richest bc they had lived worthy lives during previous incarnations & vaishyas/shudras had to work directed by higher castes When lower castes were able to get richer, the caste system beliefs seemed irrelevant III. Religions of Salvation in Classical India o Ancient Indian religion focused on ritual sacrifices offered by brahmin priests- hoped that gods would reward loyal human servants w/ large harvests & abundant herds o Since brahmins performed rituals, they didn’t pay taxes, got gifts & $$ (from wealthy) for their services i. Gifts became meaningless as merchants/artisans got $ bc they were from low classes & hated brahmins o New religions veered towards atheistic materialism: Charvaka sect members believed that gods were imaginary, brahmins were frauds who helped themselves while tricking others & that humans came from dust/returned to dust like any other animal i. Charvakas’ beliefs reflected increasingly materialistic character of Indian society/econ o Jains, Buddhists & Hindus turned to intense spirituality as alt to mechanical rituals of brahmins A. Jainism and the Challenge to the Established Cultural Order One of the most influential new religions Became popular w/ teacher Vardhamana Mahavira (“the great hero”) [kshatriya] Semilegendary: left fam at 13 to seek salvation by escaping incarnation cycle led ascetic life for 12 years in Ganges valley & was enlightened abandoned worldly goods (clothes too) & taught ascetic doctrine of detachment from world expounded his thought to disciples who formed monastic order to spread his message Disciples called Mahavira Jina (“the conqueror”) & called themselves Jains Doctrines came form Upanishads Jainists believed that everything in universe (humans, animals, plants, air, bodies of water & inanimate objects like rocks) had a soul [lol forgot about me] When souls are trapped in terrestrial bodies, souls experience physical & psychological suffering Only purification from selfish behavior could release souls from their imprisonment & attain bliss Underwent purification by observing principle of ahisma: nonviolence to other living things/souls Jain monks went to extreme lengths to avoid harming millions of souls they encountered everyday Swept ground before they walked to avoid harming invisible insects (for real tho?!) & vegetarians Wore masks & avoided making sudden movements so they wouldn’t bruise or disturb tiny souls in air Jainist ethics were so demanding that few ppl could observe them closely Jains believed that most jobs were violent: farming=killing pests & harvesting live plants; leather tanning=killing animals For most ppl, Jainism wasn’t practical alt to religion of brahmins Jainism had social impacts: if all things had souls, it didn’t make sense to make class distinctions Jains didn’t recognize social hierarchies based on caste or jati, which attracted lower caste members: merchants, scholars & literary figures Reg members tried not to be violent & maintained ahisma Buddhists & Hindus recognize ahisma as main element of their beliefs (Gandhi & MLK) Jainism is still minor religion bc of its difficult observations B. Early Buddhism Siddhartha Gautama (kshatriya) gave up his position & inheritance for salvation Pampered by dad, married cousin & excelled in studies that prepared him to succeed his dad for gov Legend: he saw miserable man & learned from his chariot driver that all humans grow old & weak & saw sick man & corpse disease/death was inevitable Nishi Mandapati Then noticed monk traveling on foot learned some ppl withdraw from active life to lead holy lives & he was inspired to lead ascetic life to understand suffering (his dad made sure he was always happy) He left his fam & comforts to become holy man; wandered thru Ganges valley 1st he sought enlightenment w/ intense meditation & later extreme asceticism One day he sat beneath large bo tree in Bodh Gaya & decided he’d sit there until he understood suffering; sat for 49 days as demons tried to tempt him w/ pleasure or scare him but it didn’t work He was enlightened: understood suffering & how humans could eliminate it He became the Buddha “the enlightened one” Buddha announced doctrine at Deer Park of Sarnath near Buddhist holy city Banaras at sermon “Turning of the Wheel of Law” rep start of Buddha’s quest to promote law of righteousness He organized disciples into commun of monks who only owned yellow robes & begging bowls; traveled on foot, preached & begged for food for 40 years Died saying “Decay is inherent in all component things! Work out your salvation with diligence!” Core of Buddha’s doctrine- Four Noble Truths: all life involves suffering; desire causes suffering; elimination of desire ends suffering; disciplined life that follows Noble Eightfold Path ends desire Noble Eightfold Path calls for ind to lead balanced/moderate lives; rejects luxury/extreme asceticism Demands right belief, resolve, speech, behavior, occupation, effort, contemplation & meditation This would lead to personal salvation & reaching nirvana: state of perfect spiritual independence Four Noble Truths + Noble Eightfold Path =dharma (shared by all sects) Like Jains, wanted to avoid incarnation & didn’t recognize castes attracted lower castes- merch Bc it didn’t require rigorous asceticism, it was more popular than Jainism Popular bc: avoided Sanskrit & favored vernacular langs; recognized holy sites for devotion; organization of movement Gifts/grants from supporters provided for land, buildings, finances & material needs of monasteries Stupas: shrines w/ relics of the Buddha & his first disciples that pilgrims venerated Monks spent lots of time preaching & explaining dharma; efficient at converting/spreading faith Benefited from support of Mauryan dynasty; Ashoka adopted Buddhis after Kalinga war More likely that Ashoka thought it would unify vast realm Ashoka banned animal sacrifices in Pataliputra, stopped hunting, eliminated meat dishes from his court Rewarded Buddhists w/ land & encouraged them to spread faith thru India Built monasteries, stupas & made pilgrimages to holy sites Sent missionaries to Bactria & Ceylon, which attracted following in CA, E Asia & SE Asia C. Mahayana Buddhism Early Buddhism attracted lower classes but still demanded giving up personal property, forsaking search for social standing & detaching oneself from fam/world Early thought phys incarnations over 1000s of years were needed to have pure soul for nirvana More attractive than brahmin religion but still hard Changes: Buddha didn’t think we was a god, but later followers did, which helped converts channel spiritual energies & identify more closely w/ their faith Theologians articulated boddhisatva “an enlightened being”: individuals who reached spiritual perfection but delayed entry into nirvana to help others Like Christian saints, boddhis were examples of spiritual excellence Monasteries began to accept gifts from wealthy & considered it good merit for salv, so wealthy could enjoy comforts of world, avoid sacrifices required by early teachings & still ensure salv Proponents called themselves Mahayana “the greater vehicle” instead of Hinayana “the lesser vehicle” (Theravada Buddhism) Theravada didn’t disappearstayed prominent in Ceylon; spread to Burma, Thailand etc. Mahayana flourished bc of edu institutions that promoted faith Nishi Mandapati Early Indian edu was b/w sage & students but when Jains/Buddhists org monasteries, they offered reg instruction & est edu institutions Provided basic edu & larger communs offered advanced instruction Best known was Nalanda (Buddhist monastery): founded during Gupta dynasty; could study Buddhism, Vedas, Hindu philosophy, logic, math, astronomy & medicine D. The Emergence of Popular Hinduism Hinduism inspired by Vedas & Upanishads Mahabharata & Ramayana show dev of Hindu values- originated as secular tales of Vedic age Brahmins edited it but- Mahabharata dealt w/ massive war for control of northern India; Brahmins made poem for Vishnu: preserver of world who intervened on behalf of virtuous individuals Ramayana: originally love/adventure story involving trials faced by Prince Rama & Sita; Ceylon demon king captures her & Rama saves her w/ Hanuman’s alliance Brahmins made Rama incarnation of Vishnu; Rama & Sita were ideal husband & wife Bhagavad Gita “song of the lord”: short poetic work that shows expectations that Hinduism has of ppl & promise of salvation Evokes cultural climate of India b/w Mauryan & Gupta dynasties Presents dialogue b/w Arjuna (kshatriya warrior) & his charioteer Krishna (human incarnation of Vishnu) & Arjuna doesn’t want to fight To convince Arjuna, Krishna says he shouldn’t worry about hurting his friends/fam bc soul doesn’t die w/ human body; Arjuna’s weapons don’t have power to touch soul & says Arjuna’s caste imposes certain moral duties [shudras- to serve; vaishyas- to work; brahmins- to learn; kshatriyas- to govern/fight] Krishna also says that Arjuna would get peace forever if he devoted himself to love & service of Krishna; abandon selfish/superficial concerns & surrender himself to deeper wisdom of God = eternal salvation Hindu ethics= 4 main aims of human life: obedience to religious/moral laws (dharma); pursuit of econ well-being & honest prosperity (artha); enjoyment of social, physical & sexual pleasure (kama); salvation of soul (moksha) proper balance of dharma, artha & kama = moksha Hinduism offered salvation to lots of ppl who lead active lives who couldn’t detach from world Displaced Buddhism as most popular religion in India Hinduism attracted poli support from Gupta emperors who gave land to Hindu brahmins & supported edu system that promoted Hindu values 1000 C.E.: Buddhism declines while Hinduism grows in India