Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
3 359
Eileen W. Glisan
Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Keiko Koda
Carnegie-Mellon University
Elvira B. Swender
American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages
Paul Sandrock
Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction
Language Learning in the 21st Century (ACTFL, 1998) have enabled elementary
(National Standards, 1999, 2006). A second and secondary teachers to understand how
goal of the project was to use the assess- well their students perform across bench-
ment prototype as a catalyst for curricular marks of language development described
and pedagogical reform. This paper presents as Novice range, Intermediate range, and
the lntegrated Pevformance Assessment (IPA) Pre-Advanced range, based on the length
prototype, illustrates a sample IPA, and dis- and nature of their learning experiences.
cusses how classroom-based research on the These two national endeavors have served
IPA demonstrated the washbach effect of as catalysts for bringing about new ways of
integrated performance-based assessment on envisioning classroom instruction accord-
teachers’ perceptions regarding their instruc- ing to standards-based goals.
tional practices. While progress continues to be made
in strengthening classroom instruction,
Key words: integrated shills assessment; change in assessment practices has been
performance assessment; standards-based much slower to occur. According to Wiggins
instruction; standards-based learning; wash- (1998), “the aim of assessment is primarily
back effect to educate and improve student performance,
not merely to audit it” (p. 7). Accordingly,
Language: Relevant to all languages current research in assessment argues for a
closer connection between instruction and
assessment. In other words, assessment
Introduction should have a positive impact on teaching
Over the past several decades, language and learning practices (McNamara, 2001;
teaching in the United States has dramati- Poehner & Lantolf, 2003; Shohamy, 2001;
cally evolved from a discrete-point, gram- Wiggins, 1998).
mar-driven approach to one that focuses on Although current research suggests
communication and performance-based use new paradigms for assessments, virtually
of language.’ Great strides have been made no assessments have focused on measuring
both in second language acquisition (SLA) learner progress in attaining the standards
research (Donato, 1994, 2004; Ellis, 1994, while capturing the connection between
1997; Lantolf, 1994, 1997; Swain, 1995; classroom experiences and performance on
Vygotsky, 1978, 1986; Wells, 1999) and in assessments. In response to the need for
application of this research to classroom standards-based assessments that connect
teaching practices (Lee & VanPatten, 2003; to classroom practice, ACTFL received fed-
Lightbown, 2004; Omaggio Hadley, 2001; eral funding to design an assessment proto-
Shrum & Glisan, 2005). The Standards for type that would measure students’ progress
ForeignLanguageLearningin the21st Century in meeting the national standards. The
(National Standards, 2006) have provided a purpose of this article is to present the pro-
focus for K-16 language teachers concern- totype called the Integrated Performance
ing the goals of classroom instruction. Assessment (IPA); illustrate a sample IPA;
Accordingly, in “standards-based instruc- and show how classroom-based research
tion,” learners develop the ability to com- on the IPA has demonstrated the wash-
municate in another language, gain knowl- back effect of integrated performance-based
edge and understanding of other cultures, assessment on teacher’s perceptions regard-
connect with other disciplines and acquire ing their instructional practices.
information, develop insight into the nature We believe that the IPA holds much
of language and culture, and participate in promise not only for assessing student
multilingual communities at home and progress in meeting the standards, but also
around the world. Further, the ACTFL for connecting standards-based classroom
Pevformance Guidelines for K-12 Learners instruction and assessment practices in a
FOREJGN LANGUAGE ANNALS . VOL. 39, N O . 3 361
Since rubrics contain the performance of feedback do not go a long way in helping
objectives, range of performance, and per- the learner to understand the quality of his
formance characteristics indicating the or her performance and how to make it bet-
degree to which a standard of performance ter. Compare this comment to
has been met, they enable teachers to pro- Your description lacked descriptive
vide feedback to learners about their prog- details to keep your audience inter-
ress as well as to evaluate performance (San ested. Try to write more complex
Diego State University, 2001). Further, they sentences that include more colorful
provide some clues as to what good perfor- adjectives and phrases that help the
mance might look like even before learners audience to envision what you are
perform an assessment task (Adair-Hauck, describing.
Glisan, & Gadbois, 2001; Shrum & Glisan, Feedback has a specific place in today’s
2005). Of additional assistance to learners assessment paradigm: It is anchored in the
in demystifying performance expectations performance descriptions provided in rubrics
is seeing exemplars or models of the perfor- and performance exemplars that students
mance expected, together with the rubrics. explore before the assessment is adminis-
(For further details regarding rubrics, see tered, it occurs during and between phases
later discussion of IPA.) of the assessment, and its effect should
Current assessment research also stress- be reflected in subsequent performances
es the role of qualityfeedbach to learners if (Glisan, Adair-Hauck, Koda, Sandrock, &
assessment is to be used to improve perfor- Swender, 2003; Wiggins, 1998). In other
mance, not just audit it (Wiggins, 1998). words, feedback should play a role in
Shohamy (2001) has reminded us that, in enabling students to improve their perfor-
the absence of feedback, the test taker is mance on future assessment tasks.
often “used” by those in power and author- In current research in assessment, “alter-
ity so that their agendas might be achieved, native approaches to assessment” are being
while the test taker receives no personal proposed in order to bring about a more
benefit. I n her view, feedback to the test direct link between instruction and assess-
taker is critical if we want tests to serve a ment (McNamara, 2001, p. 343). The use
more ethical and pedagogical purpose, rath- of performance-based authentic assessment
er than being used for power and control formats, models, and rich descriptions of
by test administrators (Shohamy, 2001). In performance expectations, along with feed-
traditional models of assessment, providing back to the learner, as described above, work
feedback was equivalent to giving students in tandem to connect instruction and learn-
their test scores after the test. However, ing to assessment. Accordingly, assessment
current models stress the importance of can have a positive “washback effect” on
providing quality feedback not only after instruction (i.e., it can inform and improve
the performance, but during it (Wiggins, the curriculum and teaching and learn-
1998). Feedback that is of high quality ing practices beyond the test) (Poehner &
is that which is “highly specific, directly Lantolf, 2003; Shohamy, 2001).
revealing or highly descriptive of what Further support for connecting instruc-
actually resulted, clear to the performer, tion and assessment is offered through the
and available or offered in terms of specific concept of “dynamic assessment,” used in
targets and standards” (Wiggins, 1998, p. recent research to refer to the type of assess-
46). In other words, feedback should pro- ment in which the test examiner (i.e., the
vide information about how the performer teacher) intervenes in order to help the test
did in light of what he or she attempted, taker improve test performance, in similar
and further, about how this performance ways to how the teacher guides learners in
could be improved. Comments such as their individual zones of proximal develop-
“Good job!” that are used as the only type ment (ZPDs) in the classroom (Poehner &
FOREIGN LANGUAGE A N N A L S . VOL. 3’9. NO. 3 363
Lantolf, 2003; Vygotsky, 1978). By interven- There are several reasons why class-
ing, the examiner teaches the test taker how room assessment practices still largely
to perform better on individual parts or items reflect a more traditional paradigm of test-
or on the test as a whole. In this model, abil- ing. Many school districts continue to use
ity is viewed as a “malleable feature of the commercially available tests that accom-
individual and the activities in which the pany textbook programs, which still feature
individual participates” (Poehner & Lantolf, easily scoreable, discrete-point test items3.
2003, p. 4). Sternberg and Grigorenko Secondly, teachers often find it a daunting
(2002) contrasted this type of assessment task to switch from traditional testing for-
with traditional static approaches to assess- mats, which offer more control for teach-
ment, in which the test taker is presented ers, to more open-ended formats, which
with a series of tasks or items, responds to may pose challenges in terms of scoring
these items successively without feedback, for teachers who are not familiar with this
and typically receives feedback information type of assessment. Third, and perhaps of
only by virtue of a score or grade. In the greatest significance, is that many teachers
static model, instruction and assessment fear that performance-based or authentic
are often viewed as two separate entities. assessment requires too much class time;
On the other hand, dynamic assessment- this assumption verifies the pervasive dis-
which focuses on interventions that facili- connect between instruction and assess-
tate improved learner performance-offers ment-that is, teachers still view them as
a potential seamless connection to instruc- separate entities.
tion, since its role is to assist and improve
learner performance as well as to strengthen IPA Project
instructional practices. Goals of the Project
Although the professional literature In response to the prevailing disconnect
abounds in research studies and implica- between assessment research and practice,
tions for classroom assessment practices, as well as to address the need for a way to
these practices have tended to lag behind assess learner progress in attaining the stan-
what the research suggests, as illustrated in dards, ACTFL received a U.S. Department
the widespread use of classroom achieve- of Education International Research
ment tests and standardized instruments and Studies grant in 1997 to design an
that still rely on easily quantifiable test- assessment prototype, or an Integrated
ing procedures with frequent noncontex- Peiformance Assessment (IPA)4. The pri-
tualized and discrete-point items (Adair- mary goal of the project was to develop an
Hauck & Pierce, 1998; Bachman, 1990; assessment instrument that would measure
Chalhoub-Deville, 1997; Glisan & Foltz, students’ progress towards the Standards
1998; Liskin-Gasparro, 1996; Schulz, 1998; for Foreign Language Learning in the 21st
Wiggins, 1998). These types of tests do Century (National Standards, 1999, 2006).
not require students to create and perform A second goal of the project was to conduct
communicative and functional tasks with preliminary research on the effectiveness of
their second language (L2). Consequently, this assessment instrument in measuring
information gleaned from these tests do students’ progress towards achieving the
not inform the stakeholders (e.g., learners, standards and the feasibility of implement-
teachers, parents, program coordinators, ing this type of assessment in a typical
administrators) as to whether or not our classroom situation. A third goal of the
students will be able to perform authentic project was to use the assessment prototype
tasks in the real world. Nor do they indicate as a catalyst for curricular and pedagogical
students’ progress in attaining the National reform. Accordingly, the research design
Standards (1999, 2006). team wanted to investigate if implementa-
tion of the IPA would encourage teachers
364 FALL 2006
Instructional
feasibility of the IPAs. The existing versions the assessment of single skills. Taking into
of the IPA tasks and rubrics reflect revisions account the relationships among skills
resulting from the data collection and vali- which occur normally in the course of real-
dation studies from the 2000 administra- world communication, the IPA prototype
tion and scoring. is a multi-task assessment which is framed
within a single thematic context. Students
IPA Prototype first complete an interpretive task, then use
Moving Beyond Single Shills to the information learned in an interpersonal
Integrative Skills Assessment task, and finally summarize their learning
IPAs were designed to assist teachers to with a presentational task. Clear rubrics
begin to respond to questions such as: “Am guide the students’ task completion and the
I assessing performance using standards- teachers’ scoring. In short, IPAs were devel-
based and real-world tasks that are mean- oped to meet the need for valid and reliable
ingful to students?” “Am I assessing the assessments that determine the level at
same way that the students are learning?” which students comprehend and interpret
“Are the students able to demonstrate sur- authentic texts in the foreign language,
vival skills in the target language?” “How interact with others in the target language
can I move beyond isolated, single skills in oral and written form, and present oral
assessment?” “How can I more effectively and written messages to audiences of listen-
assess the interpretive skills of my students ers and readers.
as they relate to the ACTFL Pevfomance Figure 1 conceptualizes how the IPA
Guidelines for K-12 Learners?” “What kind can serve as the nexus to connect class-
of feedback will improve learner perfor- room-based instructional practices with
mance?” the standards and ACTFL Performance
The IPA prototype outlines a process Guidelines. The standards represent con-
for going beyond current practice in for- tent standards that define the what of for-
eign language testing which focuses on eign language learning, the guidelines rep-
366 FALL 2006
f!
I
I. Interpretive Communication Phase
Students listen to or read an authen-
tic text ( e g newspaper article, radio
broadcast, etc.) and answer informa-
tion as well as interpretive questions to
assess comprehension. Teacher provides
students with feedback on performance.
I
, --. / \
Organizational principles
Reconstructing the text organization by See Appendixes B and C for the
rearranging text segments popular press and authentic article in
Spanish used for the Intermediate-level
Interpretive Comprehension: Integrating “Your Health” IPA, and the corresponding
Extracted Text Information and Prior comprehension guide. See Appendix D
Knowledge for the IPA intermediate-level interpretive
rubric.
Word inferences Once learners have completed the
Inferring the context-appropriate mean- comprehension guide and the teacher cor-
ings of unfamiliar words, based on text rects their responses, the teacher, using
information the interpretive rubrics, provides useful
feedback that informs the students of their
FOREIGN LANGUAGE A N N A L S . VOL. 3 9 , N O . 3 369
interpretive strengths and which interpre- speaker doesn’t know what the other is
tive skills still need to be developed. It is going to say).
critical that learners understand the content Since interpersonal communication is
of the IPA authentic article before being spontaneous, speakers must listen to
expected to move into the interpersonal and interpret what each other says.
phase. Therefore, the feedback loop plays Interpersonal communication requires
an essential role in the IPA. The feedback conversational partners to negotiate
loop assists those students who did not meaning with one another in order to
fully comprehend the article to understand understand the message. Negotiating
pertinent information and content before meaning involves asking for repeti-
moving to the next phase of the IPA. The tion, clarification, or confirmation, or
feedback loop also becomes a rich instruc- indicating a lack of understanding as
tional and learning tool, for the teacher is speakers work toward mutual com-
now equipped with critical information prehension (Pica, Holliday, Lewis, &
which can eventually help the learners to Morgenthaler, 1989).
improve their performance on subsequent
IPA interpretive tasks. (For a more detailed In order to be successful in the IPA,
discussion of the feedback loop, see Glisan students benefit from classroom instruc-
et al., 2003.) tion that provides them with practice using
negotiation of meaning strategies, includ-
Interpersonal Task ing the use of conversational gambits, or
The interpersonal mode of communication “devices that help the speaker maintain
refers to two-way interactive communica- the smooth flow of conversation,” (e.g.,
tion (National Standards, 1999). Although excuse me, wait a minute, as I was saying, on
interpersonal communication may be another matter) (Adair-Hauck, 1996, p. 258;
either oral or written, the IPAs that have Taylor, 2002, p. 172). In each IPA, students
been developed up to this point feature exchange information with each other, and
oral interpersonal communication only. express feelings, emotions, and opinions
According to Shrum and Glisan (2005), the about the theme. Each of the two speakers
following characteristics of oral communi- comes to the task with information that
cation make it interpersonal: the other person may not have, thereby
creating a real need for students to provide
Two or more speakers engage in con- and obtain information through the active
versation and exchange of informa- negotiation of meaning. See below for the
tion. Interpersonal communication is sample IPA Interpersonal Task for “Your
spontaneous (i.e., it is not scripted Health.”
and read or performed as a memorized
skit, as is presentational communica- Interpersonal Task
tion). One of the most challenging Intermediate Level: “Your Health”
aspects of an IPA is to engage students
in speaking without resorting to a
printed script, since they are often
given few opportunities to do so in
class. d exercise regimen.
Interpersonal communication is mean- rition and exercise
ingful and has as its prompt a commu-
nicative reason for interacting.
There is usually an information gap
(i.e., one speaker seeks information
that the other speaker has, or one
370 FALI, 2006
grates a dynamic and interactive assessment tion of the TPA influenced the teachers’
process that intends to improve both stu- perceptions regarding standards-based lan-
dent performance, and in turn, improve the guage learning from a number of vantage
curriculum. (For a more detailed descrip- points. In particular, 83% (19 of 23) of
tion of the IPAS cyclical approach to second respondents indicated that implementation
language development, see Glisan et al., of the IPA had a positive impact on their
2003.) teaching, and 91% (20 of 22) reported that
the project had a positive effect on their
Potential impact of the IPA on design of future assessments. The follow-
Teacher Perceptions, Classroom ing comments reflect the degree to which
instruction, and Learning the IPA project influenced instruction and
As discussed earlier, in current research future assessment plans:
in assessment, “alternative approaches to
assessment” are being proposed in the pro- 0 Reaffirmed effective teaching techniques.
fessional literature in order to bring about 0 Made me aware of the different modes
a more direct link between instruction of communication.
and assessment (McNamara, 1997, 2001, 8 Use more standards-based rubrics, those
p. 343). The use of performance-based, that don’t lend themselves to objec-
authentic testing formats, models, and rich tive grading, so the students will know
descriptions of performance expectations, exactly what is expected.
along with feedback to the learner, as 8 Use or used IPA format in my class.
described above, work in tandem to con- 8 Pay more attention to all-inclusive proj-
nect instruction, learning, and assessment. ects rather than ones limited by gram-
Accordingly, alternative assessment may mar points.
have a constructive “washback effect” on 8 The idea of the videotape is excellent,
instruction and can inform and improve the for students had the opportunity to dis-
curriculum, teaching and learning practices cover their strengths and weaknesses.
beyond the test (Alderson Q Wall, 1993; 0 Need to do more speaking exercised
Messick, 1988; Poehner Q Lantolf, 2003; tasks.
Shohamy, 2001). The washback hypothesis 8 Learned how to clearly assess my stu-
also implies that “teachers and learners dents.
do things that they would not necessarily 8 Look out for authentic materialdnternet
otherwise do because of the test” (Alderson sources to use in this way
Q Wall, 1993, p. 17). Likewise, Swain 8 Incorporate the videotape interpersonal
(1985) and Rob and Ercanbrack (1999) assessment.
stressed the potential constructive wash- 8 Use more spontaneous and open-ended
back of the test influence, and therefore, type situations for them to create and
they encourage the creation of tests that use their language skills.
will have enlightening effects on language 0 Include integrated skills assessments.
curricula. Morrow (1986) argued that a 8 Learned a lot about designing questions
test’s validity should encompass the degree for an interpretive task.
to which the test has a positive influence on 8 IPA gave me a structure to follow for
teaching and learning. Therefore, a goal of two-person interviews-a logical appli-
the ACTFL research project was to investi- cation of paired oral practice.
gate the washback effect or consequential 8 Will focus more on authentic reading
validity (McNamara, 1996) of the IPA on materials and reading strategies.
teachers’ perceptions of their instructional 8 IPA informed me to include communi-
actions and practices. cation and content areas into my best
Teacher reflections from follow-up assessment.
questionnaires revealed that implementa-
FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNALS. VOL. 39, NO. 3 373
Notes References
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APPENDIX A
IPA Participants
APPENDIX B
2.
ppm de un dub pp” h m r ejer-
Protejs sue ojoa do1 801 fieias? si s ad, (pucdoyo
use sepejuelos oecuros Coma aliicnm vrriados. Esto aftontar este gnrm?(Deb0 a m -
o sombrero. ham a ~ “ p m o b hem y lo p m algun quip cspd?
a p d a a comb& lw enfir- Recucrde, sea renlirta acerca
3.
Toms I08 eacsleres. en m d d e s . pbr ejemplo, la leche dc qu6 ejercicioa rcolmente
lugsr del elevwlor le da a su mupo calcio y vitami- usted pucde hacu. ‘Los ejerci-
na D. (La leche baja en po cios deben scr divertidosy exi-
a. duncmada, cs mcjor que la gentes-, dice la Dm. Redahan”,
No corns boberlas o icche cntem). Lnr fruas y 10s pero no Cmnuantcs”.
comldas r&pldss
vegerples Ie dan a 8u m”p0
6. fbms y vitaminas. JAMfiijolcs
iPere ye ds fumsrl son bajos en py ricos en
6.
fibm y proreinas. Los grnnos
Come frutss y vege- hunbitn le d m a su cuerpo
tales tres veces el dfa fibzas. Coma pan integral, en
Iugar de pan blanco. Un ejercicio regular cs una
7.
Camins m&sy rnaneje
La came tvnbiCn ea buena manera divertidr dc manrencrse Los patmnes regulares de sueiio
menos para w e d . La came roja es rica saludable. Lo8 mejom tipos dc ayudan a reducir la tcnsibn en
en hium, pem us& no debe ejercicios para su sdud son: su vida. Si su mente y su cucrpo
a* comer dcmsliiads cantidad. caminar, trot=, montar bicicle- atb cansados, probPblementc
No fris la comids Compre h a s bajw en grasa. M, nadar, hacer ejercicios used va a dormir mejor, psi que
Hornbela o M ~ a l a 10
psrrilla
U d tambiCn puedc comer acrdbicos y patinar. mant6nga.w acuvu durann el
SueriNtOs de came edudables, Es mtry importantehncaka dia. hftividades calmadas en la
a. nlcs como tofu, ttmpeh (una RpulM.mn,los ejerciuos vi- noche, dcs como la kcNrP o
Siempra use loci6n lip de & j o b de sop y granos), goma debcmoa hnccrlos, pw lo minr televisibn, la a y u d d n a
bloquesdora de 501 hamburpas V C ~ C ~ I U ~yM S menos de tns a a t m vcrcs a la relajvse antes de irsc a la cama.
U s e Is loc16n con rnarce
de SPF 16 o SPF 30. hongos portobeb. ~~MII.Los ejcrdeioB m9s =In- No tome una siesta durantt el
haste en invlerno Los mtdicos twomiendan jmw, U ~ C E a m o &MI o dla, o no ten& suefio d h e a
quc no debe conrumir demasia- brilpr,pueden hranr diaria- la c m a de noche. Tran de
10. da d en 8u diem. Esro le puede mmh. Siunpre h a g cstirnmiento manbner sus horarios dc sueao
Visits a su doctor cede
a60 per0 un cheque0
pmvocar presibn &d dm. y cdentnmienm antes ck urmcn- en una forma regular In mayoria
No le sgngue sd extra a 8us ali- w.Dc o m formo, Wted pdr4 dd tiempo 0
. __
FOREIGN LANGUAGE A N N A L S . VOL.3 9 , N O . 3 379
APPENDIX C
Intermediate Level
11. Supporting Details. For each of the following details listed below,
circle the letter of each detail that is mentioned in the article
write the letter of the detail next to where it appears in the text
write the information that is given in the article in the space provided next
to the detail below
-~ - ~ ~ ~ _ -_ _
~~ ~~~~ ~ ~-
__ ~ ~~ ~-
~~ -~ -~ - ~~ ~-
~ ~~~~~ ~ _ _ _ _ _ _ . ~~ ~ _____~
380 FALL 2006
Meaning From Context. Based on this passage, write what the following words
probably mean in English:
2 . Why is it important to have a regular exercise program? Use details from the
article to support your answer.
FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANNALS * VOL. 3 9 , NO. 3 381
APPENDIX D
Interpretive
Comprehension:
Authorkultural
perspectives'
Organizational
principles'
At the intermediate level, the learner exceeds expectations by performing both the
literal and the interpretive comprehension criteria.
Note. a There is no way for learners to exceed expectations on this interpretive task.
At the intermediate level, the learner exceeds expectations by performing these
literal and interpretive comprehension criteria.
Pre-Advanced level interpretive tasks.
382 FAI,12006
APPENDIX E
Sample IPA Rubric: Interpersonal Mode, Intermediate Level
Exceeds Meets Expectations Does Not Meet
Category ~
Expectations ~-
STRONG WEAK Expectations
Language Function Language expands Creates with Creates with Mostly
Language tasks the toward narration language; abil- language, able memorized
student is able to handle and description ity to express to express own language with
in a consistent, com- that includes own meaning meaning in a some attempts
fortable, sustained, and connectedness, expands in basic way to create.
spontaneous manner cohesiveness, and quantity and
different time quality.
frames.
Text Type Mostly connected Strings of sen- Simple sentences Simple
Quantity and sentences and tences; some and some strings sentences and
organization of language some paragraph- connected of sentences. memorized
discourse (continuum like discourse. sentence-level phrases.
word - phrase - discourse
sentence - connected (with cohesive
sentences - paragraph) devices), some
may be complex
(mu1ti-clause)
sentences.
Communication Initiates and Maintains Maintains Responds to
Strategies maintains con- conversation simple conversa- basic direct
Quality uf engagement versation using a by asking and tion: asks and questions
and interactivity; variety of strate- answering ques- answers some Asks a few
amount of negotiation of gies. tions. basic questions formulaic ques-
meaning; how one (but still may be tions (primarily
participates in the con- reactive). reactive)
versation and advances it
Clarijktiun Strategies Clarifies by Clarifies by Clarifies by Clarifies by
How the student handles paraphrasing. asking and asking and occasionally
a breakdown in compre- answering answering selecting
hension; what one does questions. questions. substitute
when one partner doesn’t words.
understand the other ~~~ ._
Comprehensibility Although there Generally Generally under- Understood
Who can understand may be some con- understood by stood by those with occasional
this person’s meaning? fusion about the those accus- accustomed to difficulty
How sympathetic must message, gener- tomed to inter- interacting with by those
the listener be? Does it ally understood acting with lan- language learn- accustomed
need to be the teacher or by those unaccus- guage learners. ers. to interacting
could a native speaker tomed to interact- with language
understand the speaker? ing with language learners.
How independent of the learners.
teaching situation is the
conversation? ~ ~~
Language Control Most accurate Most accurate Most accurate Most accurate
Accuracy, form, with connected with connected when producing with memorized
appropriate vocabulary, discourse in sentence-level simple sentences language, includ-
degree of fluency present time. discourse in in present time. ing phrases.
Accuracy decreas- present time. Accuracy Accuracy
es when narrating Accuracy decreases as decreases when
and describing in decreases as lan- language creating, when
time frames other guage becomes becomes more t y n g to exprw
than present. more complex. complex own meaning.