Polymer artificial

muscles
The various types of natural muscle are incredible material systems
that enable the production of large deformations by repetitive molecular
motions. Polymer artificial muscle technologies are being developed
that produce similar strains and higher stresses using electrostatic
forces, electrostriction, ion insertion, and molecular conformational
changes. Materials used include elastomers, conducting polymers,
ionically conducting polymers, and carbon nanotubes. The mechanisms,
performance, and remaining challenges associated with these
technologies are described. Initial applications are being developed,
but further work by the materials community should help make these
technologies applicable in a wide range of devices where muscle-like
motion is desirable.

Tissaphern Mirfakhrai1, John D. W. Madden1*, and Ray H. Baughman2

1Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering and Advanced Materials and Process Engineering Laboratory, The University of British

Columbia, 2332 Main Mall, Vancouver BC, Canada V6T 1Z4

2NanoTech Institute, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas, 75080 USA

*E-mail: jmadden@ece.ubc.ca

A variety of polymers have emerged that exhibit substantial
deformations in response to an applied voltage. These materials
reversibly contract and expand in length and volume, which is the
primary similarity with muscle.
Is there a need for new motors1,2? Our most common actuators are
combustion engines, electric motors, and piezoelectrics. Combustion
engines are generally most efficient when operated continuously and
are therefore not ideal for applications in which motion is frequently
interrupted, such as in valves or walking robots. Electric motors are low
in torque to mass compared with muscle, making them bulky for
medical, robotic, and fluidic applications. Piezoceramics achieve high
power densities but strain is small (0.1%), making massive mechanical
amplification necessary if significant displacements are needed. There
is currently no widely used technology to replace or simulate muscle,
which is a strong motivation for research and development.
The performance of the emerging polymer actuators exceeds that
of natural muscle in many respects, making them particularly attractive
for use anywhere where a muscle-like response is desirable, including
in medical devices, prostheses, robotics, toys, biomimetic devices, and
micro/nanoelectromechanical systems1,2. Commercial application of
these materials is at an early stage3. Challenges remain with many of
the technologies, most of which can be overcome via improvements

30 APRIL 2007 | VOLUME 10 | NUMBER 4 ISSN:1369 7021 © Elsevier Ltd 2007 Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.

in material properties. Here we seek to relate material properties to
performance in the hopes of galvanizing the materials community into
improving existing materials and inventing new ones.
In this review, polymer artificial muscles have been divided into two
major groups4. In the first group, dimensional change (actuation) is in
response to an electric field. These are commonly known as electronic
or electric electroactive polymers (EAPs). Some of the technologies
that fall under this category are dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs),
relaxor ferroelectric polymers, and liquid crystal elastomers. The second
group of polymer artificial muscles is a class of materials in which
the presence and movement of ions is necessary to make actuation
possible. This group is referred to as ionic EAPs. For the ions to be
able to move, an electrolyte phase is necessary, which is often liquid;
so these actuators are also known as wet EAPs. Actuators described
in this review employ conducting polymers, ionic polymer metal
composites (IPMC), and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) as active materials.
Gel actuators4 also fit into this category but are not covered here. A
number of other artificial muscle technologies exist that respond to
heat, which have also been omitted. We also give a brief description of
some exciting directions in actuation in which molecular design is used
to create actuation that is either voltage or light driven.
The composition, mechanisms, properties, and materials challenges
are described for each technology. The key properties of interest
are elastic modulus, strain, stress, work density, power density, and
electromechanical coupling. Work density is the amount of mechanical
work per unit volume in one actuator stroke. The convention in work
density used in the piezoelectric and dielectric elastomer literature is
to report the work done in elastically deforming the actuator material
itself in one dimension, u = ½Eε2, where E is the elastic modulus and
ε is the strain. In acting on a matched elastic load, only half of this
work can be extracted, so in fact the work out is ½u to provide an
upper bound on the external work done under such loading conditions.
Similarly, the electromechanical coupling values include mechanical
work done on the actuator materials themselves. In achieving high
work densities in compliant materials, large strains are needed,
whereas in materials with small strains the stiffness must be high. The
Table 1 Properties of mammalian skeletal muscle2.
Property Typical value Maximum value
Strain (%) 20 >40
Stress (MPa) 0.1 (sustainable) 0.35
Work density (kJ/m3) 8 is proportional to the square of the applied field and to the dielectric
Density (kg/m3) 1037
Strain rate (%/s) 500
Power to mass (W/kg) 50 200
Efficiency (%) 40
Cycle life 109
Modulus (MPa) 10-60
Polymer artificial muscles REVIEW
full range of compliances has been explored, from dielectric elastomers
(E < 1 MPa) to CNTs (Etube ~ 640 GPa).
Table 1 lists properties of mammalian skeletal muscle for
comparison. Most technologies described have higher work densities
and similar power densities. High work and power densities are
particularly beneficial where space (or mass) limitations exist, as in
robots, implantable devices, and microelectromechanical systems.
Electronic artificial muscles
The simplest field-driven actuation mechanism is the result of
electrostatic interactions between electrodes. This mechanism
dominates in low modulus materials such as dielectric elastomers
(see below) in which extremely large strains (>40%) can be obtained.
A second mechanism is observed in electrostrictive polymers, where
electric dipoles within the polymer are pushed or pulled by the applied
field, resulting in displacement. The highest strains are achieved in
ferroelectric polymers in which imperfections are introduced to disrupt
long range order, such that a field applied to a paraelectric phase leads
to conformational changes in the backbone, induced polarization, and
large strains (up to 7%). Graft copolymers in which polar side chains
form crystalline domains also produce substantial strains, as do liquid
crystal elastomers in which polar groups are oriented by the applied
field. A perceived drawback with this class of actuators is their use of
high voltages (>1 kV typical) because of the very high fields that are
needed (~100 MV/m). This challenge is being addressed by reducing
film dimensions and increasing the dielectric constant. These materials
feature good electromagnetic coupling coefficients and high work
densities (a hundred times that of muscle).
Dielectric elastomer actuators
Dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs) are capable of generating large
strains and strain rates. They are one of the most studied polymer
actuators and numerous applications are being developed, including
electroactive fluid pumps, conformal skins for Braille screens, insect-like
robots, and Artificial Muscles’ autofocus lens positioner (Fig. 1), which
can focus a camera by moving the lens by as much as 350 µm5,6.
The actuators are capacitors with very compliant dielectrics and
electrodes. When a voltage is applied across these materials, the
attraction between opposite charges and the repulsion of like charges
generates stress in the dielectric, known as Maxwell stress, which
compresses and elongates the dielectric as shown in Fig. 2. This stress
constant7,8. Low modulus (~1 MPa) and high dielectric strength
(>100 MV/m) can lead to strains of up to 380% at high applied fields5.
More typically, strains are 10-100%, which compares favorably with
the 20% observed in our skeletal muscle.
The elastomer employed is often a silicone or acrylic elastomer,
sometimes loaded with heavy particles such as TiO2 to increase
the dielectric constant9. The compliant electrodes can be made of
APRIL 2007 | VOLUME 10 | NUMBER 4 31
REVIEW Polymer artificial muscles
(a)
(b)
Fig. 1 (a) Artificial Muscles’ DLP-95 autofocus lens positioner6 and (b)
cutaway drawing of the diaphragm mechanism in which bottom and top ring
actuators alternately push or pull. (Reproduced with permission from Artifical
Muscles, Inc.)
Fig. 2 The mechanism of actuation in DEAs. The application of the voltage V
between the two electrodes results in the generation of a Maxwell stress of σ,
compressing the dielectric and resulting in its lateral expansion.
conductive C or Ag pastes, spin-coated conductive rubbers, sprayed
graphite particles, or superelastic CNT sheets8-10. The key to large
strain is to make both the electrodes and the elastomer highly
compliant without sacrificing dielectric strength and conductivity.
Electromechanical coupling is typically 60-80% for acrylic and
up to 90% for silicone elastomers7,11. The large strains resulting
from the actuation lead to high work per unit volume per stroke in
these actuators (the 3.4 MJ/m3 maximum is 400 times that of our
muscle)2. The electrostatic energy stored within a dielectric elastomer
increases in proportion to the field squared, while the mechanical
energy density is roughly proportional to the fourth power of field. As
a result, mechanical energy density and electromechanical coupling are
maximized by operating close to breakdown and using materials with
the maximum dielectric strength. Dielectric strength can be increased
by prestraining the elastomers, which also serves to amplify strain12.
The high voltage used to drive DEAs (>1 kV) could be provided
using relatively compact ferroelectric dc-to-dc converters13. Some
32 APRIL 2007 | VOLUME 10 | NUMBER 4
(a)
(b)
Fig. 3 (a) A spring roll DEA made by rolling a planar DEA around a compliant
compression spring15 and (b) SRI’s FLEX 2 six-legged robot operating with
spring roll actuators such as those in (a)7. (Reprinted with permission from7,15.
© 2002, 2003 SPIE, respectively.)
safety issues may arise in large devices where both high voltages and
currents are present. Since it is the field in the dielectric and not the
voltage that drives the actuation, it is possible to maintain the same
field while reducing the required voltage by using thinner sheets of
elastomer14 or by increasing dielectric constant9.
Stacking in layers14 or rolling into tubes produces larger forces by
making multiple thin layers of DEAs apply their actuation forces in
parallel. These actuators can be used in devices, including the robotic
insect shown in Fig. 3. The advantage of high-voltage operation is that
currents are very low, an advantage that is lost as multiple thin layers
are used. As currents increase, it becomes increasingly important to
have a high conductivity in the compliant electrode layer – which is a
materials challenge in itself.
Electrostrictive relaxor ferroelectric polymers
Ferroelectric materials, like ferromagnets, have dipoles that can be
aligned and a Curie point above which they lose their permanent
polarization. Inorganic ferroelectrics, such as barium titanate, undergo
dimensional changes in response to a field, but only on the order of
0.1%, much less than ferroelectric polymers, which can strain by an
incredible 10%16. Like inorganic piezo- and ferroelectrics, ferroelectric
polymer actuators are fast and have a high work density (1 MJ/m3)17.
The best actuator performance to date has been obtained from
poly(vinylidene fluoride)-based (PVDF) polymers copolymerized with
trifluoroethylene, forming P(VDF-TrFE). The electronegativity of the
fluorine makes these polymer backbones highly polar. Field-driven
alignment of polar groups produces reversible conformational changes
that are used for actuation, as depicted in Fig. 417. The application of
a field perpendicular to the chains leads to a transition between the
 Polymer artificial muscles REVIEW

Fig. 5 Depiction of a graft elastomer with no field applied. Colored lines enable
different flexible polymer backbones to be distinguished.

producing a comparatively stiff matrix (E = 0.6 GPa)17. Fields are

Fig. 4 Alpha and beta phases in PVDF17, looking along the chains (top) and
perpendicular to the chains (bottom). A similar alpha-to-beta phase change is lower than those required for relaxor ferroelectrics, but so are actuator
induced in P(VDF-TrFE) relaxor ferroelectrics that begin in the nonpolar alpha strains. Because of the size of the polar grafts, actuation rates are lower
phase and switch to the polar beta phase upon the application of an electric
than for relaxor ferroelectrics.
field. This results in dimensional changes (expansion along the chain length
and contraction perpendicular to the chain direction).
Liquid crystal elastomers
nonpolar (alpha phase) and polar (ferroelectric beta phase) forms. The Liquid crystals are known to change phase and orientation under the
result is a contraction in the direction of polarization and an expansion influence of an applied field. By incorporating such mesogens into a
perpendicular to it. In order to facilitate this transition, P(VDF-TrFE) compliant polymer backbone or as side chains, field-induced changes
is irradiated, or a small mass fraction of a bulky monomer such as in phase can be used to produce actuation18. A recent implementation
chlorofluoroethylene (<10%) is added, in order to disrupt long-range is depicted in Fig. 6 in which a 4% strain was obtained at 133 Hz using
order. The disruption effectively eliminates the formation of domains field amplitudes of 1.5 MV/m19. The modulus of these polymers is low,
and the hysteretic behavior characteristic of ferroelectrics. The resulting and the combination of low modulus and relatively low actuator strains
material is known as a relaxor ferroelectric. Strain is at a maximum at leads to low work density. Work density has recently been improved
stresses of ~20 MPa, and electromechanical coupling reaches 0.4217.
The elastic modulus of the ferroelectric relaxors (0.3-1.2 GPa) is (a) (b)
1000 times higher than in DEAs, the dielectric constant is ~20 times
higher, and the dielectric strength is similar. Overall, this leads to
smaller strains but similar energy densities (~ 1 MJ/m3) and coupling.
As in dielectric elastomers, fields and voltages are very high
(~100 MV/m, >1 kV). As in DEAs, increasing dielectric constant
and reducing thickness are options for lowering the voltage17. In
general, polymers with high polarizability associated with a large (and
preferably fast) conformational change in the polymer backbone are
desirable. Two other electrostrictive materials are now described.

Electrostrictive graft elastomers

These polymers feature polar groups attached as side chains to a
flexible backbone of a polymer. The polar groups aggregate to form
polar crystalline regions. Application of a field aligns these regions,
which leads to dimensional changes within the polymer, as depicted
in Fig. 5. Applied fields on the order of 10 MV/m are needed to induce
strains reaching 2.5%, and provide an elastic energy density of
~0.5 MJ/m3. These results are obtained using a chlorotrifluoroethylene
and trifluoroethylene backbone with P(VDF-TrFE) polar sidechains,
Fig. 6 An example of a ferroelectric liquid crystal elastomer. (a) The polymer
backbones (rectangles) are siloxane, from which mesogens (ovals) extend.
A small fraction of the mesogens are cross-linked to neighboring polymer
chains. (b) The application of a field normal to the long axis of the mesogens
produces a reversible rotation, resulting in dimensional changes2. (Reprinted
with permission from2. © 2004 IEEE.)

APRIL 2007 | VOLUME 10 | NUMBER 4 33

REVIEW Polymer artificial muscles
by using a stiffer polymer (2% strains at 25 MV/m with a work density
of 0.02 MJ/m3)20. This performance still does not match that of high-
performance relaxor ferroelectrics, but investigations are still at an
early stage. Minimizing dielectric loss is important for high-frequency
operation in liquid crystal elastomers, as in other field driven actuators,
since high loss reduces efficiency and leads to heating and failure.
Ionic artificial muscles
An alternative means of producing actuation in a polymer is to employ
ions that are mobile within the polymer phase. An applied field drives
the motion of these ions and entrained solvent, leading to swelling
or contraction when these ions enter or leave regions of the polymer.
If the polymer phase is electronically conducting (as in conducting
polymers and CNTs), then the ions serve to balance charge generated
on these conductors as the potential is changed, creating very strong
local fields (but overall low voltage). The voltages employed in these
materials are low (1-7 V), but the energies are nonetheless high
because of the close spacing between ions and electronic charges and
the large amount of charge that can be transferred.
CNT actuators
Single-walled CNTs (SWNTs) can be thought of as a single layer of
graphite (graphene) rolled into a cylinder of nanometer diameter
(Fig. 7a). Multiwalled CNTs (MWNTs) are nested SWNTs (Fig. 7b).
Individual SWNTs or very long MWNTs have exceptional mechanical
properties. The tensile modulus of SWNTs (640 GPa) approaches that
of diamond, while their tensile strength is thought to be 20-40 GPa,
(a)
(b)
Fig. 7 (a) A graphene sheet rolled into a nanotube21 and (b) a MWNT22.
34 APRIL 2007 | VOLUME 10 | NUMBER 4
about ten times higher than any other type of continuous fiber23.
While mechanical properties in this range are observed for individual
SWNTs, those observed for assemblies of these nanotubes in nanotube
yarns and sheets are much lower, which restricts the performance of
actuators based on nanotube yarns or sheets.
At high levels of charge injection into CNTs, the predominant cause
of actuation is electrostatic, as with DEAs. However, the electrostatic
forces are repulsive interactions between like charges injected into the
nanotubes, rather than between two electrodes. A voltage is applied
between an actuating nanotube electrode and a counter electrode,
through an ion containing solution, as depicted in Fig. 8a (where the
counter electrode is another CNT), leading to charging (Figs. 8a, b).
Electrostatic repulsive forces between like charges on the CNTs work
against the stiff carbon-carbon bonds in the nanotubes to elongate
and expand the nanotubes, though quantum mechanical effects
can predominate over electrostatic forces at low levels of charge
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 8 Charge injection in a CNT-based electromechanical actuator. (a) An
applied potential injects charges in the two nanotube electrodes in solution24
(red: positive ions, yellow: negative ions). (b) Charge injection at the surface
of a nanotube bundle25. (c) A scanning electron micrograph of a twist-spun
MWNT yarn, which provides a 0.6% actuator stroke at loads of 100 MPa24.

injection25. Unlike dielectric elastomers, strains are low (<2%)21 since
CNTs are extremely stiff.
Actuation is generally achieved in films or yarns (Fig. 8c) composed
of many nanotubes. The porous nature of the films and fibers enables
fast ion transport with response times of <10 ms, with effective strain
rates of 19%/s and effective power-to-mass ratios of 270 W/kg (half
that of a high revving electric motor)26. The achievable response rate
decreases with increasing nanotube yarn or sheet thickness, increasing
interelectrode separation, and decreasing electrolyte ionic conductivity.
Work densities in CNT fibers and yarns are ~1 MJ/m3 (as in DEAs
and ferroelectric polymers), as calculated from elastic modulus and
strain. Measured values are somewhat lower because of creep24. The
energy densities thought to be achievable for individual nanotube
actuators are unmatched by any actuator technology, perhaps
reaching 108 J/m3. Achieving such incredible work densities in a
bulk material will require using extremely long nanotubes or ones
that are cross-linked together, so that the mechanical properties of
nanotube yarns and sheets approach those of individual SWNTs. These
approaches could reduce creep (which is presently a problem) and
lead to high electromechanical coupling. Coupling is presently <1%,
likely the result of the tremendously large energy needed to deform
individual nanotubes (E = 640 GPa) and the fact that this energy
cannot presently be effectively used for actuation because of low
bulk modulus (E ~15 GPa) compared with the individual nanotube
modulus24.
High work density combined with good temperature stability
(>450ºC in air, >1000ºC in an inert environment) make CNTs a prime
candidate for situations where weight and temperature are important,
such as aerospace applications. Strains are relatively small compared
with other polymer actuators (but an order of magnitude larger than
found in typical piezoceramics). Strain could be increased by employing
electrolytes such as highly purified ionic liquids that can withstand very
large potentials without reacting electrochemically.
CNT actuators have recently been shown to actuate when used as
electrodes in a fuel cell27. This possibility is exciting because the energy
density of fuel cells is much higher than that of batteries, helping
enable autonomous applications of CNTs and possibly other artificial
muscle technologies28.
Conducting polymers
Conducting polymers are typically semiconducting when undoped
and conducting when doped with donor or acceptor ions29. Doping is
typically achieved chemically or electrochemically. Some applications
of interest include polymer light-emitting diodes, electrochromic
windows, energy storage, sensing and actuation devices29. Polypyrrole
and polyaniline are two common conducting polymers (Fig. 9).
Although the use of conducting polymers as artificial muscles was
first demonstrated by Baughman and coworkers in 199030, advances
in performance have been continuously made until now and further
Polymer artificial muscles REVIEW
(a)
(b)
Fig. 9 The structure of two common conducting polymers: (a) polypyrrole and
(b) polyaniline.
improvements are both desirable and achievable. These conducting
polymer artificial muscles use the dimensional changes resulting
from electrochemical ion insertion and deinsertion, possibly along
with associated solvating species. Since both electrodes can comprise
conducting polymers, both can be used as artificial muscles. Depending
upon the conducting polymer/electrolyte system used, the initial state,
and the rate of potential change used for actuation, electron insertion
into one electrode can be accompanied by a volume increase as cations
are inserted or a volume decrease as anions are removed. Similar
processes can occur at the counter-electrode. This feature, as well as
possible time-dependent changes of the intercalated/deintercalated
species, can complicate the control of actuation31,32. Expansion
appears to be primarily perpendicular to the polymer chain orientation
for oriented polymers, suggesting to the first order that ions and
accompanying solvent are slotted between chains33-35, as shown in
Fig. 10, which also shows the suggested structure36,37 of polypyrrole
doped with PF6-. The polymers most often used in actuation are
polypyrrole, polyaniline, and polythiophene derivatives.
Strains are typically 2-10 %, though recent work by Kaneto and
coworkers show that actuator strokes can reach 40%2,38-41. Rates
of actuation tend to be low (<<1%/s) because of the relatively slow
transport of ions within the polymer and the large degree of doping
sometimes used42,43, but they can exceed 10%/s using metal contacts,
porous polymers, fast charging methods, or thin films and fibers44-47.
High-quality electrochemically grown films and solution-spun fibers
have tensile strengths on the order of 100 MPa or higher, and adding
CNTs can further increase strength and reduce problematic creep48.
Small strains (<0.2%) are achieved at loads of 100 MPa48, with typical
operating stresses ~1-34 MPa32. Work densities49 approach 100 MJ/m3.
Operating voltages are ~2 V, though higher voltages of up to 10 V
are sometimes used to increase actuation rate. Such high voltages
will ultimately cause degradation of the electrolyte and/or polymer
unless the voltage profile as a function of time is properly provided44
so that excess voltage over the redox stability range is resistively
dissipated at the beginning of a voltage pulse and the applied voltage is
progressively decreased as the current decreases.
The advantage of conducting polymers over electronic EAPs is their
low operating voltage. They feature higher strains and are lower in cost
APRIL 2007 | VOLUME 10 | NUMBER 4 35
REVIEW Polymer artificial muscles
(a)
(b)
Fig. 10 (a) Proposed structure of polypyrrole and (b) possible mechanism of
actuation via ion (yellow/purple and A-) and solvent (red/blue/gray) insertion
between chains34,36,37.
than CNTs. Like CNTs, the electromechanical coupling is low (<1%).
Much of the input electrical energy can be recovered, but the need to
shunt relatively large amounts of electrical energy can slow actuation
and push the limits of power supplies, making large-scale applications
(e.g. robotic arms) challenging1,42. One promising means of improving
coupling is to design conjugated molecules that fold and expand in
response to changes in oxidation state, bringing artificial muscle a little
closer to the elegance of real muscle50,51.
Applications being considered include blood vessel reconnection,
dynamic Braille displays, valves, and actuated catheters52-55.
Ionic polymer-metal composites (IPMCs)
This type of electrochemical artificial muscle employs a polyelectrolyte
as an ion-conducting layer, in which polymer chains provide one ion
type and mobile solvated ions the opposite type. The polyelectrolyte is
sandwiched between two high-surface-area flexible metallic electrodes,
which interpenetrate the polyelectrolyte. The metal electrodes are
typically composed of percolated Pt nanoparticles or Au56-58. When
a voltage is applied between two electrodes, as shown in Fig. 11a,
solvated mobile cations move toward the oppositely charged electrode,
resulting in swelling near this negative electrode, shrinkage near the
positive electrode, and bending of the actuator trilayer (Fig. 11b)59.
The polyelectrolytes used are commonly either perfluorinated
alkenes with short side-chains terminated with ionic groups, such as
SO3- (e.g. Nafion) or COO- (e.g. Flemion), and styrene/divinylbenzene-
based polymers in which the ionic groups are substituted on the phenyl
rings2,56. These materials are also used as separators in fuel cells.
36 APRIL 2007 | VOLUME 10 | NUMBER 4
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 11 Actuation model for IPMCs (adapted from59): (a) before the voltage is
applied and (b) after the application of voltage.
The ionic groups on the polymer backbone form hydrophilic clusters
where the polar solvent and the mobile ions accumulate. These clusters
are surrounded by hydrophobic regions composed of the nonpolar parts
of the polymer. Channels through these hydrophobic regions enable ion
and solvent transport necessary for actuation60.
When a step voltage input is applied to Nafion-based IPMCs, an
initial fast actuation is followed by a slow relaxation in the direction
opposite to the initial actuation. However, in Flemion-based IPMCs
under the same conditions, the initial fast actuation is followed by a
slow actuation in the same direction as the initial actuation. This is
believed to be because of the interaction between the cations and the
strongly-polar sulfonate groups in Nafion; the cations initially repel the
electric dipoles associated with these sulfonate groups, resulting in a
fast and large actuation. Over time, the cations are redistributed, the
dipoles reorient themselves and the IPMC relaxes. The weakly-polar
carboxylate groups in Flemion do not strongly interact with the cations
so it does not show the relaxation in the opposite direction60.
Actuation strains of >3% have been reported for IPMCs under
applied voltages of <7 V57,61. Substantial bending in these cantilever-
type actuators is caused when one side of the material contracts and
the other expands (Fig. 12). Reported stresses of actuation are as high
as 30 MPa56,60.
It is not uncommon for IPMCs to drift in position after initial
displacement and require some steady current to maintain a fixed
position. This, along with the gradual leakage of water (the solvating
species) from the surface of the device reduces efficiency, as well
as degrading performance2,63. One method of greatly reducing
 Polymer artificial muscles REVIEW

Challenges for such molecular actuators include obtaining high

electrical conductivity for electrically or electrochemically driven
actuators and high quantum efficiency for photon-driven actuators. If
individually addressed molecular actuators are sought, the problems of
achieving addressing capabilities will be especially challenging.

Discussion
A variety of electronic, ionic, and photoactivated artificial muscle
technologies are emerging. Ultimately, these may replace traditional
actuator technologies such as electric motors and piezoelectrics in
many applications, and make new applications possible that have been
beyond the abilities of current actuators. Some of these novel artificial
Fig. 12 Actuation of a Flemion-based IPMC strip as a function of time62.
muscles feature a combination of high work density, large actuator
(Reprinted with permission from62. © 2003 American Institute of Physics.)
stroke, and high stress generation, with which only shape memory
leakage and relaxation is to use highly inert, nonvolatile ionic liquid alloy actuators can compete. Some of the described electric-field-
electrolytes64. IPMCs have been actuated at up to 100 Hz62, with fast driven EAP technologies demonstrate particularly high work densities,
transport being achieved because of the ease of transport though the very good electromechanical coupling, and high bandwidth. High
highly porous polyelectrolyte. voltages may prove to be an obstacle to application of electronic-
Applications for IPMC actuators include mechanical grippers, field-driven EAPs. A number of electrochemical EAPs can achieve
metering valves, diaphragm pumps, sensors, fins for robotic fish, and an high work density, high actuator stroke, large stress generation,
IPMC-operated artificial eye developed by Eamex4,57,65,66. and can universally provide the additional benefit of operating at
low voltages. Ionic EAPs often suffer from slow actuation rates and
Molecular mechanisms
Muscles are elegant machines in which protein filaments interact (a)
repeatedly in order to slide past each other67. It is exciting to
contemplate designing similar mechanisms using organic chemistry,
perhaps guided by engineering considerations. Such molecular
actuators are beginning to be designed and investigated, and include
mechanisms that employ both voltage- and light-driven conformational
changes. Materials that have been investigated include shape-changing
conducting polymers (mentioned above)2,68 and those using light-
driven shape changes. An interesting feature of the light-activated
artificial muscles (such as azobenzenes) is that there is no need to
contact the actuator in order to deliver energy. This could be useful,
for example, for enabling drug delivery using infrared radiation at
wavelengths that are transparent for the body.
Optically excited cis-to-trans isomerization in azobenzene (b)

actuators results in an expansion in the polymer length, producing

deformations that have been measured both macroscopically69
and at the single-molecule level70. The mechanism is depicted in
Fig. 13. For aligned polymers, it is predicted that strains of 7% and
work densities potentially exceeding 1 MJ/m3 are achievable, with
measured strains in a single molecule of ~1%. The large energy barrier
between conformations (relative to the energy difference between
states) suggests that efficiency will be moderate, with Hugel et al.70 Fig. 13 (a) Potential energy landscape of the reversible azobenzene cis-trans
estimating 10% energy conversion efficiency when the quantum transition. The relevant conformational coordinate is the bond angle, ΦNNC,
efficiency is 100%. A number of alternative photochemical actuation which changes from -60° to +60° for the cis-trans transition. The transition
can be induced by optical excitation from the electronic ground state S0 to the
mechanisms exist, including the use of cinnamic acid polymers that first excited state S1. The cis-trans transition can be achieved using λ = 420 nm
reversibly cross-link when irradiated by ultraviolet light71. or vice versa using λ = 365 nm. (b) Polyazobenzene peptides70.

APRIL 2007 | VOLUME 10 | NUMBER 4 37

REVIEW Polymer artificial muscles
low electromechanical coupling. No artificial muscle technology
has yet demonstrated exceptional cycle life, and a degree of
irreversible deformation during high load actuation is a problem for
electrochemical types of artificial muscles in particular.
Some advantages of natural muscle that are rarely even partially
exploited in artificial muscles are use of high-energy-density fuel
(carbohydrates + oxygen: an important advantage for autonomous
devices), the ability to modulate stiffness over a wide range, and the
ability to regenerate, enabling high cycle life. Recently, artificial muscles
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