CHAPTER-TWO

LITERATURE SURVEY

In view of the high cost of currently used bearing materials, the automotive and
machine tool sectors are in immediate need of materials having improved tribological
properties with low material cost compared to conventional bearing materials.
Literature survey indicates that despite the increase in the production and use of
zinc-aluminium cast alloys in recent times, only limited data is available on their
casting characteristics, mechanical properties, microstructure, wear behavior bearing
characteristics and corrosion resistance. Hence the literature survey of previous
investigations on zinc-aluminium alloys has been reported in order to establish a basis
for the present study and also to have an overview of the production techniques,
mechanical properties, microstructure and tribological potential of zinc-aluminium
alloys for use as a bearing material.
This chapter covers the literature survey which includes a comprehensive overview of
zinc-aluminium alloys, interfacial studies, property enhancements, experimental and
analytical research studies.
Zinc-aluminium cast alloys by virtue of their excellent castability, strength, stiffness
and good mechanical properties such as ultimate tensile strength, hardness coupled
with ductility and impact resistance, have found significant industrial usage during the
past few years.
The major advancement in the zinc industry over the past years has been the
development of zinc alloys to supplement the well-established alloys used in pressure
die-casting. These new zinc-aluminium based alloys have improved creep resistance,
hardness, wear resistance and lower density. Although developed originally for sand
and gravity casting, they are now being used in growing amounts for pressure die
casting. Due to the possession of a property like high wear resistance, these alloys are
also increasingly used to replace traditional alloys such as aluminium, bronze, brass
and cast iron in many industrial applications.

4
Some of the research works and recent reports published in literature related to
zinc-aluminium alloy studies are discussed below.
G. Ranganath et al [1] have evaluated the unlubricated sliding wear behavior of ZA-27
alloy composites reinforced with garnet particles. Results indicate that the composites
exhibit lower wear rates than that of the matrix alloy and when further decreased with
the increase in garnet content. Increase in the applied load increased the wear severity
by changing the wear mechanism from abrasion to particle cracking induced
delamination wear. Worn surfaces and subsurface of the composites have been
analyzed using scanning electron microscope. On the basis of the above experimental
observation, the sequence of micro-mechanical events, which lead to the generation of
wear debris, has been summarized.
Bo Jacobson [2] has explained the inventions and contribution of Stribeck in the field
of friction and wear. Stribeck’s investigation of journal bearing friction as a function
of load and speed which was also extremely important, as he showed the possibility of
finding a point of minimum friction for lubricated applications. He also showed that
the friction for sliding bearings started at high friction at low speeds, decreased to a
minimum friction when metal to metal contact stopped, and then increased again at
higher speeds, which is the well known ‘Stribeck curve’. Many of the findings were
revolutionary and are still considered quite modern. The method used by Stribeck to
calculate load distribution between the balls within a ball bearing is still used today;
otherwise, a full finite element analysis would be required. His measurements and
analysis of bearing friction is also astonishingly accurate.
Yasin Alemdag et al [3] investigated the microstructure, mechanical properties and
wear behavior of a binary ZA alloy and five ternary ZA alloys with different copper
content in as-cast state and the results obtained were compared with those of SAE65
bearing bronze. Hardness of the ternary alloys increased continuously with increasing
copper content, but their tensile strength decreased above 3% copper. Friction
coefficient and temperature of the alloys and bronze increased in the initial period of
run and reached almost constant levels after a sliding distance of approximately
400 km. The wear resistance of ternary alloys was found to be much superior than that
of SAE65 bronze.

5
Babic et al [4] have studied the effect of copper on wear and mechanical properties of
the zinc based alloys. It is found that the wear loss decreases with increasing copper
content. The effect of copper on the wear behavior is explained in terms of their
microstructure, hardness, tensile strength, ductility and micro hardness of the alloy.
Bekir Sadik Unlu [5] has investigated the tribological and mechanical properties of the
journal bearings manufactured by different metals chosen as journal bearing materials.
SAE 1050 steel shaft was used as counter abrader. The results reveal that the post
wear values of surface roughness decreased in CuSn10 and CuZn30 and increased in
other bearings. The highest friction coefficient, bearing wear rate occurred in CuSn10
and CuZn30 bearings and the lowest bearing wear rate occurred in ZA bearing,
whereas the lowest friction coefficient and bearing weight loss occurred in other ZA,
AlCuMg2 and SnPbCuSb bearings. The highest journal weight loss occurred at
CuZn30 and AlCuMg2 bearings. The mechanical properties of CuSn10, CuZn30 and
AlCuMg2 bearing materials were better than those of ZnAl, and SnPbCuSb bearing
materials.
Ares et al [6] have studied the effect of cast structure (columnar, equi-axial or the
CET) in Zn-Al alloys on the corrosion and wear resistance. The results show that the
CET zone and the equi-axed structures presented a better corrosion and wear
resistance than the columnar zone.
Bobic and Babic [7] have studied the rheology of Al2O3 particulate ZA-27 composite
slurries and compared with that of the matrix ZA-27 alloy. The influence of
processing variables on the rheological behavior of semi-solid mixtures (SSMs) was
examined. On the basis of experimental measurements the values of the most
important rheological parameters such as apparent viscosity and shear rate were
calculated. It was noticed that apparent viscosity of SSMs of composites containing
small Al2O3 particles is higher when compared to composites with large Al2O3
particles.
Ahmet Turk and others [8] have studied the effect of manganese as an alloying
element on the mechanical and creep properties of a gravity cast ZA-8 alloy. It was
found that the hardness and creep resistance of the alloy increased continuously with
increasing Mn content. The yield and ultimate tensile strength of the samples did not

6
change significantly. Furthermore, the impact strength of the alloy improved with
increasing initially and then decreased gradually. The addition of Mn resulted in
microstructural modifications of the alloy involving the formation of complex
intermetallic compound identified as MnAl6. The increase in creep resistance and
decrease in tensile and impact strength were thought to have been caused by the
changing morphology and amount of intermetallics.
Zulkuf Balalan and Mehmet Kaplan [9] have evaluated the microstructural and wear
properties of ZA cast alloys. Microstructure of the alloy shows that the addition of
Cu and Si led to the formation of CuZn5 phase and Si+Zn phases in main matrix. The
results showed that the addition of Cu and Si caused increase in the tensile strength
and hardness. This is due to the presence of aluminium
higher wear resistance was obtained from the alloys containing higher percentage of
aluminium and silicon. Deep pits/craters and continuous scratches were observed on
the wear surfaces of specimens.
Babic and Mitrovic et al [10] have aimed their study to improve the tribological
properties of ZA alloys. Dry and lubricated sliding wear tests were conducted on
as-cast and heat-treated ZA-27 samples over a wide range of applied loads and sliding
speed. The heat-treated samples as well as the reinforced samples attained
significantly improved tribological behavior over the as-cast ones, both from the
aspects of friction and wear. The worn surfaces of the samples were examined by
scanning electron microscope in order to determine the wear mechanisms.
Ugur Ozsarac et al [11] have investigated the characteristics of tin bronzes and
tin-based lead bronzes as bearing materials. A new wear testing machine was designed
and fabricated to investigate the wear behaviour of bearing alloys. Three types of
specimens, tin bronzes called RB1 and RB7 and tin-based lead bronze called RB4
were tested for their wear behavior. It was seen that the coefficient of friction and
wear rates have been increased with increasing load. As it is known that, the
coefficient of friction indicates relative resistance to sliding. It is cannot be measured
directly, but is determined by measuring the frictional force and contact force.
Therefore, it is influenced by the contacting materials, surface finish and any lubricant
or film between contact surfaces possibly occurring during testing. It was found that

7
RB-4 has the highest wear rate and coefficient of friction value and RB-7 has the
lowest one for all the loads.
Mehmet Durman et al [12] have mentioned that the wear of the bearings was mainly
caused due to the accumulation and buildup of the wear debris, which originated or
detached from test materials. A proposed practical approach is by adding axial
grooves on contact surfaces of the bushings to serve as mechanisms to collect loose
wear particles. This change of the bearing design effectively reduced the wear of the
bearings. The bearing grooves indeed acted as sinks catching the wear particles, and
then reduced the amount of wear particles present on the contact surfaces. This simple
engineering approach is readily adaptable to commercial bearings and is believed to
be helpful in improving the performance of the bearings.
Owate et al [13] have carried out corrosion test by adding the zinc oxide
concentrations of different weight percentage to an aluminium alloy. The data
obtained indicated that the corrosion rates increased relative to increasing exposure
time. The presence of zinc as alloying element, which acts as impurity and indeed
reduces environments. The eutectic compounds could create micro-galvanic cells,
causing flaws on the alloy surface, hence creating pits and inter and trans-granular
cracking.
Temel Savaskan and Zeki Azakl [14] studied the friction and wear characteristics of
Zn–40Al–2Cu–2Si alloy in both as-cast and heat-treated conditions and the results
were compared with those obtained from SAE 65 bearing bronze. It was found that
the friction coefficients of both zinc-based alloy and bronze decreased with increasing
pressure and sliding speed but the wear loss of the alloys increased with increasing
pressure and sliding speed. The zinc-based alloy in both as-cast and heat-treated
conditions exhibited much higher wear resistance than the SAE 65 bronze.
Babic and Ninkovic [15] have investigated the effect of heat treatment on the
microstructure, tensile properties and tribological behavior of ZA-27 alloys in dry
sliding conditions. The heat treatment influences microstructure changes, decreasing
strength and hardness, but causes elongation. Tribological test results show that heat
treatment of castings has a significant influence on improvement of their tribological
properties.

8
Babic et al [16] carried out the investigation on tribological behaviour of composites
with substrate made of the ZA-27 alloy reinforced by the graphite particles. Tests
were done with variation of the three levels of the contact load and sliding speed.
Results of experimental investigations show that particles size of graphite positively
influence in the sense of improving the tribological characteristics of the tested
composites.
Zhu et al [17] have studied the structural evolution and its effects on the properties of
alloys during the furnace cooling. Decomposition of aluminium -phase in a
furnace cooled eutectoid Zn-Al based alloy was studied by transmission electron
microscope -phase were detected during ageing. The
-phase and transitional phase was determined. The
non- -phase was discussed in correlation with the
equilibrium phase relationships.
Li Xiu Hau et al [18] have investigated the effects of adding cerium-rich rare earth
and strontium elements on solidified microstructure and mechanical properties of ZA
alloy. The results showed that addition of Ce-RE and Sr to the alloys can efficiently
optimize the microstructure, fine grains and inhibit the harmful effect of impurities to
the die casting, therefore improve the mechanical properties of the alloys.
Sabri Kayali et al [19] have studied the effect of Ti–B and Sr additions on the
mechanical and fatigue properties of the gravity cast ZA-12 alloy. Results showed that
the Ti–B additions had no significant effect on the hardness and the Sr additions
lowered the hardness by a small amount. Ultimate tensile strength and fatigue
resistance increased with Ti addition, but the addition of Sr did not change these
properties significantly. Metallographic examination indicated that the addition of
Ti–B strongly modified the microstructure of the alloy, but Sr did not. Ti and Sr have
also formed complex shaped intermetallic compounds, which were identified as
Al5Ti2Zn and Zn5Al3Sr. Addition of Ti causes grain refinement and increases the
strength. It was also found that the elongation increased with addition of small
amounts of boron.
Ahmet Turk et al [20] have made attempt to examine the wear response of modified
ZA-8 alloys and a conventional bearing bronze (SAE 660). The standard ZA-8 alloy

9
was modified with 1% Pb, 1% Sn and 1% Cd alloys. The results showed that the
modified ZA-8 alloys revealed higher wear resistance when compared with bearing
bronze. The wear resistance of ZA-8 based alloys increased with increasing sliding
speed up to 1.3m/s, but it decreased with further increasing sliding speed. The addition
of Pb and Cd increased wear resistance of the alloy for all of the sliding speeds. But
Sn alloying element caused worse wear resistance. The friction coefficients of ZA
alloys are higher than that of the bronze bearing. Metallographic studies showed that
the addition of Pb, Sn and Cd elements has changed base structure of the alloy.
Jovanovic et al [21] studied the effect of heat treatment on microstructure, hardness,
tensile properties and wear behaviour of ZA-27 during lubricated and dry sliding.
Heat treatment markedly improved the elongation, while the strength was maintained
high. The wear rate increases with load, and under dry sliding conditions the wear rate
is approximately two times higher than under lubricated conditions.
Zhang and Kelly [22] have developed a model to establish orientation relationship
(OR) between the Zn phase and the alpha (Al) phase and the corresponding habit
planes in a Zn-Al eutectoid alloy were accurately determined using Convergent Beam
Kikuchi Line Diffraction Patterns. In addition to the previously reported OR and two
new ORs were observed. These ORs can be explained and understood using the
recently developed edge-to-edge matching model.
Pritha Choudhury et al [23] studied the microstructural changes of ZA-27 alloyed with
Nickel, Ti, B and Sr. The addition of nickel results in the significant refinement in
dendritic structure and formation of Ni-aluminides as rod as well as blocky-shaped
particles. High amount of nickel refines the dendritic structure significantly. The
addition of Ti, B and Sr has resulted in significant changes in the dendrite
morphology. The addition of Ti and B results in rosette-shaped dendrites whereas that
of Sr results in the formation of dendrites with reasonably sharp tips. As-cast alloys
containing Ti or Sr undergo remarkable increase in hardness due to the microstructural
refinement. The formation of hard nickel containing intermetallic phases results in
improvement in hardness to a certain extent. The effect of heat treatment is quite
similar in all the alloys.

10
B. K. Prasad [24] has investigated the wear behaviour of a zinc-based alloy reinforced
with silicon carbide particles has been studied in dry and lubricated condition under
varying loads. The wear response of the samples was compared with that of a gray
cast iron. The study shows that the wear rate increased with applied load. The cast
iron suffered from highest wear rate during dry sliding. The reinforced silicon carbide
particles improved the wear response of the zinc-based matrix alloy. The use of the oil
lubricant significantly decreased the wear rate and friction coefficient of the samples
over the one under dry condition. The frictional heating increased with load in dry test
whereas the oil lubricant produced a reverse effect. The specific features of wear
surfaces, subsurface regions and debris particles under various conditions have been
studied. The operating material removal mechanisms comprised adhesion associated
with abrasion and material ‘chip off’.
Wanhill and Hattenberg [25] have studied corrosion behaviour of zinc-aluminium
die castings. Corrosion in zinc die castings was caused by small amounts of impurities
notably lead, cadmium and tin. Because the corrosion is electrochemical process, it
requires moisture to initiate and progress, which is why it proceeds inwards from
external surfaces. Corrosion is characterized by cracking proceeds, mainly along the
-phase (zinc-
swelling of the castings that accompanies corrosion is due to corrosion product
build-up in the cracks. A possible countermeasure is the application of a colorless
polymer coating with the generic name "Parylene” is suggested.
Miroslav and Babic [26] have studied the tribological behaviour of RAR Zn-Al alloys
in conditions of boundary lubrication. In order to establish the tribological potential of
these alloys as bearing materials, the tribological parameters of the RAR Zn-Al alloys
are compared to parameters of conventional bearing material like CuPb15Sn8, lead-tin
bronze. The results indicate that from aspect of wear and friction, the RAR Zn-Al
alloys represent respectable tribological materials and perfect substitution for
conventional bearing materials.
P. Choudhury and Das [27] have investigates the effect of Ni, Ti and Sr addition on
the corrosion behavior of ZA-27 alloy in the as-cast condition. Corrosion behavior of
the alloys was studied by both immersion corrosion as well as potentio-dynamic

11
polarization tests. Results showed that the alloys ZTiB and ZSr exhibit better
corrosion resistance than other alloy. Large size cast components of modified ZA-27
alloy containing nickel can be successfully used in marine environment and as
machine parts in submarines.
Zhao Yuzhen et al [28] have carried out the experimentation on measuring the
damping properties of solution treated and prolonged natural aged ZA-27
degeneration of the rare earth alloy, using transmission electron microscope.
Microstructure study was also carried out on solutionised and aged alloys. The results
showed that, the solutionizing time greatly enhanced the damping properties.
B.K. Prasad [29] has conducted the sliding wear test in oil lubricated condition on
zinc-based alloy comprising silicon. The influence of heat treatment on mechanical
properties, microstructural and wear characteristics of the samples have also been
investigated. The study indicates that the wear rate and frictional heating increased
with sliding speed and pressure. Heat-treated samples exhibited improved wear
performance despite a reduction in strength and hardness over the as-cast ones.
Adhesion wear mechanism involving heavy plastic deformation and smearing and
embedding of the wear material on to the specimen surface was noted to be the
principal mode of wear. Abrasion also contributed to material removal.
O.P. Modi et al [30] have investigated the high-stress abrasive wear behaviour of
zinc-based alloy composite containing SiC particle reinforcement. Zinc-based matrix
alloy and cast iron was also investigated on similar lines for comparison purposes.
Results showed that the zinc-based matrix alloy attained maximum wear rate and
frictional heating, while those for the composite were the least, the response of the
cast iron was intermediate between the two in general. Wear rate, friction coefficient
and frictional heating increased with track radius and applied load.
Hamdullah et al [31] have investigated frictional behavior of thin-walled journal
bearings produced from Zn–Al–Cu–Si alloys using a purpose-built journal bearing test
rig. The effects of surface roughness and bearing pressure on the frictional properties
of the journal bearings were taken into account. The results showed that friction factor
decreased with increasing bearing pressure especially in the full-film lubrication zone.

12
It was found that high surface roughness led to high friction factor. The bearings
having full-film lubrication showed full Stribeck curve tendency.
Murat Aydin [32] has investigated the fatigue behavior of one binary and three ternary
ZA alloys in 3.5% NaCl and 1% HCl solutions by a rotary bending fatigue test
machine. Corrosion degradation factors of the alloys were determined. The corrosion
environments reduced the fatigue strength and fatigue life of the alloys. However, acid
solution was found to be more detrimental for these alloys than the salt water. In
addition, copper content was found to be less effective on the fatigue strength and
fatigue life of the alloys in both salt water and acid solution than it was in air. It was
also shown that the fatigue data obtained from the ZA alloys in the corrosive
environments obey the Basquin’s law.
B. K. Prasad [33] has studied the influence of the duration of heat treatment on the
sliding wear response of a zinc-based alloy. Partially lubricated sliding wear tests
were carried out at a fixed applied pressure, speed and distance. The heat-treated
samples attained less strength and hardness but more elongation over the as-cast one.
The wear rate and frictional heating initially decreased with increasing duration of
ageing. The tensile strength and hardness decreased with increasing duration of ageing
and became stable beyond certain ageing period while elongation followed a reverse
trend. The response of the samples has been substantiated through the fractographic
features and characteristics of wear surfaces, subsurface regions and debris.
B.K.Prasad [34] has investigated the role played by an external lubricant and SiC
particles on the wear behaviour of ZA alloy reinforced with silicon carbide particles.
The wear response of the composite samples was compared with that of zinc-based
matrix alloy and gray cast iron. In order to study the influence of the external
lubricant, dry wear tests were also conducted on the materials. The study shows that
the reinforcement of SiC particles improved the wear performance of the zinc-based
alloy. The oil lubricant considerably improved the wear behaviour in terms of
decreased wear rate, friction coefficient and frictional heating.
I. Bobic [35] have conducted microstructural study and pressure tests on RAR27 alloy
reinforced with Al2O3 particles within the temperature interval from 20°C to 170°C.
Results of study have shown that the better mechanical properties, both at the room

13
and elevated temperatures, possess samples of composites with smaller and better
distributed particles. At temperatures over 250°C composite samples, regardless of
the type of particles, exhibit better mechanical properties than the matrix alloy.
Zhu, Man et al [36] studied the phase transformations and microstructural changes of
a furnace cooled eutectoid Zn-Al based alloy using X-Ray diffraction, scanning
electron microscope and transmission electron microscope techniques. Results reveal
that three phase transformations occurred in the furnace cooled eutectoid Zn-Al alloy.
Typical morphologies of the decomposition of the FC and phases were observed
in scanning electron microscope. Decomposition of Al-rich -phase was observed
during the prolonged ageing, by transmission electron microscopy.
M. Babic and Ninkovic [37] have conducted tribological investigations on Zn-Al
alloys. The tribological parameters of friction and wear of Zn-Al alloy are compared
to the conventional bearing material like lead-tin bronze. Results nominated ZA alloys
as candidates for bearing materials for conditions of limiting lubrication that are
characteristic for high loads and low speeds. With respect to bronze ZA alloys have
better anti-frictional characteristics, higher resistance to wear and lower price costs.
Yildiz and Kaplan [38] investigated the corrosion behaviour, microstructure and phase
transitions of Zn-based alloys with different compositions. The corrosion tests are
carried out both in acidic medium and in TGA analysis. The microstructure and phase
transformations in acidic and TGA are also studied.
B. K. Prasad [39] describes the observations pertaining to the sliding wear response of
a zinc-based alloy comprising silicon. Wear tests were performed in oil lubricated
condition over a range of applied pressures and sliding speeds. The influence of heat
treatment on mechanical properties and wear characteristics of the samples has also
been investigated. The study indicates that microstructural alterations brought through
heat treatment could be beneficial in terms of improved wear response of the
zinc-based alloy despite a reduction in hardness and tensile strength. The observed
wear behaviour of the alloy was substantiated further through the features of wear
surfaces, subsurface regions and debris particles.
Zhu, Lee et al [40] have carried out the microstructure and ageing characteristics of a
ZnAl7Cu3 alloy were studied using X-Ray diffraction, electron scanning microscopy

14
and back-scattered diffraction techniques. Two stages of phase transformation were
detected during ageing. Electron back-scattered diffraction technique was applied in
distinguishing both zinc rich and phases
Savaskan and Turhal [41] has made an investigation on a binary Zn–40Al and four
ternary Zn–40Al-Cu alloys. Cooling curves were obtained, and the average cooling
rate for each alloy ingot determined. The effects of cooling rate and copper content on
the structure and mechanical properties of the alloys were investigated and it is
expressed by certain forms of mathematical equations and clearly presented by three-
dimensional graphs. The copper content was found to be more effective in optimizing
the mechanical properties.
Wei Xiaowei and Shen Baoluo [42] have studied the effect of the mixed rare earths of
Ce on the phase transformation in as-cast ZA-27 alloy during compressive creep was
investigated. The results showed that the as-cast microstructure of ZA-27-RE alloy
consisted of a dendritic Al- -
-phase and Zn- x constitute compound
(RE,Cu)Al5Zn16. The compressive creep resistance of ZA-27-RE alloy was higher
than that of ZA-27 alloy.
Zhu et al [43] have studied the tensile deformation-induced phase transformation and
microstructural changes in a cast Zn-Al-based alloy (ZnAl7Cu3) using X-Ray
diffraction and Scanning electron microscope. The microstructure of the cast alloy and
various parts of the tensile tested specimens were detected. Two types of precipitates
were observed in the Zn-rich phase. With an increase of the tensile strain, both the
decomposition phases were considerably accelerated, and the external tensile stress

A.A.Mir [44] has conducted preload relaxation test on three sand-cast zinc-aluminium
alloys, No.2, No.3 and No.5. The equipment used for tests consists of a load
monitoring device and oil bath and a data acquisition system. For all alloys, the initial
load loss was high, decreasing gradually with time. The results showed that the load
loss increased rapidly with temperature and almost all of the relaxation curves
approximated to a logarithmic decay of load with time. Alloy No.2 had the best
resistance to load loss, with No.5 next and No.3 worst at all temperatures.

15
 et al [45] have investigated fatigue behaviour of a series of binary
zinc-aluminium alloys in 3.5% NaCl and 1% HCl solutions using a rotating bending
fatigue machine. SN curves were obtained for both environments. The fatigue strength
and fatigue lifetime of the alloys were found to be very sensitive to these
environments. It was also observed that the fatigue strength and fatigue lifetime of ZA
alloys decrease with increasing aluminium content in the corrosive environments
used. The effect of corrosive environments on the fatigue behaviour of Zn-Al alloys
increases with decreasing stress amplitude. The corrosion degradation factor of ZA
alloys increases linearly with increasing aluminium content. Basquin’s law can be
used to determine the fatigue lifetime of the ZA alloys.
B.K. Prasad [46] has made an attempt to analyze the sliding wear response of a ZA
alloy reinforced with SiC particles. The wear response of the zinc-based matrix alloy
and composite was compared with that of a conventional bearing bronze.
Incorporation of SiC particles improved the wear resistance and reduction in frictional
heating compared to zinc-based matrix alloy and bearing bronze. Wear response of the
samples has been discussed in terms of thermal stability, load bearing and lubricating
characteristics.
Murphy et.al [47] have investigated the lubricated wear behaviour of cast journal
bearings, produced from a series of zinc-based alloys and SAE 660 bronze as a
reference material, under both static and dynamic loading conditions using a bearing
test rig. All of the zinc-based alloys had higher wear resistance than the SAE 660
bronze. The best wear performance under both static and dynamic loading conditions
was obtained with ZnAl40Cu2Si1 alloy. Under dynamic loading conditions wear
resistance increased with increasing copper content up to 2%, but declined thereafter.
Effects of copper content and heat treatment on mechanical properties and
microstructure have been discussed.
Choudhury, Das and Datta [48] have made an attempt to examine the effect of nickel
on the wear response of a high-aluminium zinc alloy. The wear characteristics have
been correlated with their microstructural features. The unmodified alloy exhibits
inferior wear behavior with the increase in sliding speed. The improved wear response
of the modified alloys is due to the presence of Ni3Al phase. This study indicates that

16
it is possible to develop modified versions of high aluminium zinc-based alloys having
much improved wear characteristics; the information gains special attention in view of
the high speed of sliding used in this study.
Murphy et al [49] have investigated the effects of manganese on mechanical
properties of ZA alloys. The effects of Mn on microstructure and mechanical
properties were discussed. Reasons for variation of each property with change in
Mn content were also mentioned.
Dominguez et al [50] evaluated the mechanical properties and microstructures of the
ZA-27 alloy with different contents of manganese (Mn). Additions of Mn increase the
mechanical properties since coarse precipitates are avoided. It was observed that the
ultimate tensile strength and hardness of the alloys increase with manganese content.
Modi [51] has studied two body abrasive wear behaviour of a zinc-aluminium alloy
reinforced with Al2O3 at different loads and abrasive sizes as a function of sliding
distance and compared with the matrix alloy. The wear rate of the composite and the
matrix alloy has been expressed in terms of the applied load, abrasive size and sliding
distance using linear factorial design approach. It has been demonstrated through the
linear regression equations that the wear rate increases with applied load and abrasive
size but, decreases with sliding distance.
Yao Hua and Zhu [52] have carried out a systematic investigation on microstructures
and phase transformations were carried out on solution treated, chilled as-cast and
extruded ZA alloys. Phase transformation sequences of the thermal and thermo
mechanically treated eutectoid ZA alloys were studied. Two new unstable phases S
and E and their decomposition products in the chilled as-cast and extruded
eutectoid ZA alloys are discussed.
Wislei Riuper Osorio et al [53] have studied some important trends and the
relationship between mechanical properties, microstructure and solidification
variables of Zn-Al alloys castings. Some theoretical dendritic growth models,
expressing secondary spacing’s as function of tip growth rate or local solidification
time, have been tested against experimental data obtained during unsteady-state
solidification. Expressions have been developed permitting a correlation between
ultimate and yield strength, dendrite secondary spacing and solidification processing

17
variables. Such expressions can be used to gain insight into the foundry process, by
preprogramming solidification in terms of some particular level of final mechanical
properties.
Zhonghua et al [54] have studied the influence of macroscopic defects on the damping
behaviors of commercially pure Al and ZA-27 alloy by introducing a large number of
macroscopic pores or graphite particulates by infiltration process. It is shown that
addition of a number of pores or graphite particulates can significantly improve the
damping capacity of pure Al, due to the comprehensive effects of macroscopic and
microscopic defects. However the pores have little effect on the damping capacity of
ZA-27 alloy.
Seah et al [55] have made an investigation to study the effect of zircon on corrosion
behaviour of ZA-27 alloy. Results reveal that corrosion increases with increase in
exposure time and rate of corrosion decreases with time. Alloy exhibits more
corrosion resistance for the higher percentage of zircon. Probable reasons for the
variation of corrosion rate have been discussed in the paper.
Wang Chen and Ma Chun [56] have investigated the effect of speed, die temperature
on ZA-27 alloyed with silicon, produced by centrifugal casting. Formation of various
layers and morphology of composite materials have been Inspected. Wear behaviour
and fractography of alloy have been studied.
Chen-wen and Chun-quan [57] have fabricated a new in-situ Zn-Al-Si surface
composites using centrifugal casting. A high-volume fraction of primary Si particles
in the inner layer was achieved. The formation mechanism of the gradient was
discussed. The effect of technological parameters on the composites was investigated.
Testing results show that the hardness and wear resistance of the composites depend
mainly on the distribution of the primary silicon particles along radial direction.
Liu Hong-zhao and Wuzi-ying [58] have focused the attention on the recalling the
history of the development of zinc-aluminium alloy, alloy on the main element and its
role in the review of the zinc alloy research and application. They have pointed out
that further development and application of this alloy, on China's industrial
development is of important significance.

18
Liu Young-hong et al [59] have reviewed the development history of zinc-aluminium.
The roles of main alloy, ingredient of the alloys are introduced. Its current status of
research and general situation of application are summarized subsequently. It plays an
important role in development of industry with various applications.
B. K. Prasad [60] has studied the influence of dispersed alumina particles on the
corrosive, erosive and abrasive wear behaviour of a zinc-based alloy in slurry,
comprising suspended sand particles. The influence of the sand content in the slurry
and travel distance on the wear characteristics of the samples was also studied. Results
showed that the composite showed better wear resistance than the matrix alloy. The
observations have further been substantiated through the examination of wear surfaces
and subsurface regions of the samples.
Zhanga and Zhongming [61] have investigated the microstructural evolution of the
supersaturated ZA-27 alloy and it’s damping capacities during the natural aging. The
investigation showed that the microstructure was changed during the process. It was
found that the damping capacities increased quickly at the beginning of aging and then
it decreased gradually and finally reached a constant. It is believed that interface
damping and dislocation damping are two mechanisms responsible for the occurrence
of the damping behavior.
Hamdullah [62] has worked on friction behavior of the journal bearings made from
ZA-27 alloys and bronze. The friction behavior of the bearings was determined by
testing the bearings in a journal bearing test machine under different operating
conditions. The results show that the value of the friction factor of the bearings
decreased with increasing bearing pressure. It was also observed that the friction
factor decreased with increasing bearing clearance. Scanning electron microscope
examinations of the ZA-27 bearing operating surface showed that adhesive type wear
had an effect on ZA-27 plain bearings.
B.K. Prasad [63] has reported the observations pertaining to the sliding wear
characteristics of a zinc-aluminium alloy containing nickel under varying test
conditions. Dry sliding wear tests were conducted on as-cast and heat-treated
zinc-based alloy. The variation of wear rate with load and speed have been discussed,
also effect of nickel content and heat treatment process on the microstructural

19
modifications have been discussed. Further worn surfaces and debris formation are
correlated wear rates.
Savaskan and Purcek [64] have investigated the wear behaviour of ZA alloys which
were investigated with a pin-on-disc machine and wear behaviour of the journal
bearings produced from these alloys was investigated with a bearing test rig. The wear
results obtained from the alloys tested by a pin-on-disc machine were found to be in a
good agreement with the wear results obtained from the bearings produced from these
alloys.
B. M. Satish et al [65] evaluated the wear rate of ZA-27 alloy composites reinforced
with short glass fibres. The results indicated that the wear rate of the composites was
less than that of the matrix alloy, but increased with the increase in load and the
sliding distance. It was found that above a critical applied load, there exists a
transition from mild to severe wear both in the unreinforced alloy and in the
composites, but the transition loads for the composites are much higher than that for
the unreinforced alloy, and increases with the increase in weight percent of glass
fibers. The worn surfaces and the subsurface of the composites have been explained
using scanning electron microscope.
B. K. Prasad et al [66] have investigated and explained the wear properties on the
basis of operating wear mechanisms through the examination of wear surfaces,
subsurface regions and debris particles. The investigation deals with the effects of
partially replacing copper through nickel alone on tensile strength and elongation at
different test temperatures and sliding wear behaviour along with microstructural
features of the Zn-27.5 Al based alloy.
B. K. Prasad [67] has made an attempt to characterize the dry sliding wear response of
a modified zinc-based alloy. A conventional ZA-27 alloy and a leaded-tin bronze
(SAE 660) were also subjected to identical test conditions in order to assess the wear
performance of the modified zinc based alloy. The study clearly indicates that the
presence of nickel and silicon increased wear resistance of the modified zinc based
alloy. Adhesion was the predominant mechanism of material removal, however
abrasion was also observed to contribute to material loss.

20
M.D. Hanna et al [68] investigated the friction and wear characteristics of zinc-based
alloys in warm oil-lubricated, sliding contact against mild steel disc. The alloys,
Zamak3, ZA-27, Zn-3Al-Cu and Zn-3.5Al-10Cu are subjected to wear tests. The wear
rates of the zinc-based alloys generally correlated directly with coefficient of friction
and inversely with hardness. The relatively high wear resistance of the Zn-3.5Al-10Cu
alloys is attributed largely to the hard, copper-bearing, epsilon phase. Zn-3Al-Cu
alloys exhibited lower wear rates, lower coefficients of friction, and higher hardness
than other alloys.
K. H. W. Seah et al [69] have investigated the corrosion behaviour of ZA-27 alloy
dispersed with graphite particles in the as-cast as well as the heat-treated conditions. It
was found from the results that the corrosion rate decreases with time, probably
because of the presence of aluminium in the zinc alloy. As the graphite content is
increased, the composite becomes more corrosion resistant. Heat treatment also
enhances the corrosion resistance of the composite.
B. K. Prasad et al [70] made an attempt to examine the wear response of a modified
zinc-based alloy at a high speed of sliding, over a range of applied pressures. The
wear characteristics of the alloys have been correlated with their microstructural
features, while operating wear mechanisms have been studied through analyses of
wear surfaces, sub-surfaces, and debris particles. The conventional zinc-based alloy
attained most inferior wear behavior when compared to modified alloy and the bronze.
The modified alloy exhibited better wear response due to the presence of
nickel/silicon containing hard and thermally phases.
Seah et al [71] have studied the effects of short glass fiber reinforcement on the
mechanical properties of cast ZA-27 zinc alloy composites. The results of this study
revealed that as glass fiber composition was increased, there were significant increases
in the ultimate tensile strength, hardness and Young’s modulus, accompanied by a
reduction in its ductility and impact strength. A compromise is necessary when
deciding how much glass fiber should be added to the lead alloy matrix to enhance the
ultimate tensile strength, hardness and Young’s modulus of the composite without
sacrificing too much of its ductility and impact strength.

21
Yuanyuan et al [72] have been studied friction and wear characteristics of a ZA-27
alloy, modified with Ti and Mn contents under different loads, speeds and lubricating
conditions. Effects of Mn content on the tribological behavior and microstructures
were studied and the relationships between the tribological characteristics and the
microstructures of the alloy were also analyzed. Experimental results indicate that the
addition of Ti and Mn in optimum level can significantly improve the tribological
behaviour of the developed alloy.
Seah et al [73] studied the wear properties of graphite reinforced ZA-27 composites.
The unreinforced matrix and the composites containing graphite particles were tested.
Results of the wear tests revealed that the addition of graphite particles to ZA-27 alloy
matrix improves the wear resistance of the composite, in spite of the significant
monotonic decrease in hardness. But the wear resistance improved most significantly
at low graphite contents.
Wang Hongmin et al [74] experienced a serious problem with ZA alloy is a gradual,
irreversible expansion at room temperature, this is because of solid state
transformation. To address the problem ZA-27 was studied. Phase identification was
done using micro probe analysis and X-Ray diffraction and four phase reactions were
reported. Metallographic studies have been carried out using Scanning electron
microscope. It was concluded that the TTT curves of the alloy shows typical C-Shape.
Yao Hua Zhu and Eligio Orozco [75] studied microstructural changes and phase
transformation of eutectoid Zn-Al20.2-Cu1.8 alloy. It was found that the lamellar
microstructure of the heat-treated eutectoid ZA alloy changed partially into a
spheroidized structure at the bulk part of the specimen, remained stable in the original
state. The X-Ray diffraction identification results showed that two phased
transformations occurred during tensile testing. It was concluded that the tensile stress
affected not only microstructural change but also phase transformation of the alloy.
The scanning electron microscope observation on the etched specimen showed clearly
the morphology of the microstructural change.
Zhu et al [76] have studied phase transformations and micro structural changes of an
as-cast eutectoid ZA alloy (ZnAl22Cu2
transformations was observed. Decompositions in both cases were determined at an

22
early stage of ageing and a four-phase transformation was observed at the boundaries
of f phase and phase.
Savas and Altintas [77] have aimed the investigation to tackle surface sinks and
shrinkage defects, observed on the bottom faces of ZA alloy castings. Experimental
studies showed that the addition of strontium and lithium were found to be beneficial
in reducing the underside shrinkage problem, influenced by the aluminium content of
the alloy, melt superheat, casting size and cooling conditions. Also the properties such
as ultimate tensile strength, fracture elongation and Vickers hardness were all
increased with aluminium concentration, strontium and lithium addition.
Yao Hua Zhu et al [78] have studied the effect of rare earth additions on the phase
transformations of ZA-27 alloy. The phase transformations in this alloy after aging at
100°C and 200°C were determined. The excess addition of rare earths into ZA-27
delayed the phase transformations of this alloy. This was caused by an increase in the
aluminium 's phase. X-Ray diffraction results showed
that the intermetallics like RE1Zn10.9Al2.9Cuo.8 were formed in the alloy.
B.K. Prasad et al [79] have studied the Low stress creep behaviour of ZA-27 alloy
using spring specimen geometry. Experiments were conducted in the temperature
range of 393-473K at stress level below 1MN/m2. Present study established that the
stress exponent of creep rate is unity, therefore viscous creep is dominates the flow in
super plastic region.
S. H. J. Lo et al [80] evaluated the mechanical properties of a Zn-Al alloy reinforced
with alumina fibers. Tensile, compression and impact properties were determined.
Lubricated wear tests were also performed on the unreinforced alloy and composites.
It was found that although fibre reinforcement did result in some improvement of
tensile and compression properties at elevated temperatures, the composites had poor
toughness and ductility. The presence of a brittle SiO2 layer at the fibre/matrix
interfaces resulted in fibre/matrix decohesion under tensile loading, impairing the
performance of the reinforced materials.
Birch. J [81] has provided the information about new alloys for zinc castings. The
family of ZA alloys provide materials which combine the castability of the
conventional zinc alloys with the higher strength and temperature and wear resistance

23
required for more demanding applications. After an outline of the capability of the
pressure die casting process to produce very close tolerance castings in zinc alloy the
properties of the alloys are compared with rival materials. Areas in which ZA alloys
are particularly attractive are highlighted.
Samuel Murphy et al [82] have produced three Zn-Al-based ternary alloys containing
copper or silicon by casting. Their wear behaviour was investigated in the as-cast and
heat-treated conditions and a comparison was made for the developed alloys with that
of cast iron and phosphor bronze. It was shown that the ZA alloy containing silicon
was superior to cast iron and phosphor bronze. This excellent wear behaviour is
attributed to the presence of discrete silicon particles in the ZA alloy matrix. As-cast
versions of the silicon-containing alloy have inferior wear behaviour owing to
cracking and spalling of the bearing surface during service. Poor wear resistance of
low copper was found to be improved to an acceptable level by suitable heat treatment
process.
Kurosawa et al [83] have investigated the damping capacity of hypo-eutectic Zn-Al
alloys as a function of rolling ratio. Effect of heat treatment after cold rolling on the
damping capacity is discussed. Damping tests were carried out using the method of
the free decay of vibrations in bending oscillation. With an increase in rolling
reduction, the damping capacity was increased. Results showed that the elongation
was increased and hardness was decreased with an increase in rolling reduction. In the
microstructural analysis the grains of as-rolled alloys were changed to equi-axed
structures and the grains of the heat-treated alloy were coarsened during the heat
treatment.
Li Jian et al [84] have suggested that the tribological properties of zinc-aluminium
based casting alloy may be improved by replacing its small copper content with
silicon. These are further improved if the silicon particle size is controlled by suitable
additions of strontium. This effect is related to the development of a thin surface film
of the Al- -phase. This film controls the subsequent wear of the bearings. The
wear performance was optimum when the silicon particles are larger in diameter than
the lubricant film thickness, but small enough that they may embed in the bearing
surface and be covered by the surface film.

24
Shin and Fleck [85] have investigated the fracture toughness and crack tearing
response, fatigue crack growth of ZA-4 alloy. The constant amplitude crack growth
rate was dependent upon both the effective stress intensity range and the mean load.
Crack growth rates were faster than that in aluminium or in typical steels, when
compared on the basis of effective stress intensity. These unusual features of the zinc
alloy are due to its limited number of slip systems and susceptibility to cleavage.
Savaskan and Murphy [86] have studied seven binary and with silicon/copper addition
as ternary alloys based on Zn-25Al for their tensile properties, hardness and
dimensional stability in the as-cast state and as a function of aging. The lubricated
wear behaviour was studied and compared with that of SAE 660 bronze and SAE 73
brass. The addition of copper was found to be more effective than silicon in improving
the mechanical properties but silicon was found to be superior wear resistance and
dimensional stability to that of all the other materials tested. Heat treatment and long
term aging reduced the hardness and tensile strength but improved the ductility of all
the zinc-based alloys.
Z.L.Pan and Sprungmann [87] have characterized the damping characteristics of a
Mn-Cu based alloy and a ZA alloy. Relatively high damping was observed in as-cast
and heat-treated samples at high strain amplitudes and temperatures. Basically two
mechanisms are involved; one is amplitude-dependent (Mn-Cu based alloy) and other
is amplitude-independent (ZA alloy). The high damping observed in low-frequency
bending of samples of ZA-27 consists of two amplitude-independent components.
One is due to thermo elasticity and the other is probably associated with the
movement of grain boundaries.
Thompson et al [88] have analyzed the effect of silicon on the as-cast eutectic grain
size and impact strength of ZA-12. Thermal analysis and interface equilibration

that the presence o eutectic liquid interfacial energy, it

was concluded that rejected by the pro- during primary solidification,
it causes abates

25
Delneuville [89] was analyzed the tribological behaviour of ZA-27 as a bearing
material using experimentally determined Stribeck’s curves. Due to the change in
applied load, the tests have been conducted under various conditions such as
lubricated, dry and semidry. Experimental data were compiled and lead to the
conclusion that ZA alloy is indeed a good substitute material for SAE 660 bronze.
Francis E. Kennedy Jr. [90] has reviewed a significant development in the study of
frictional mechanism and heat phenomena during sliding. Topics like mechanisms of
frictional heating, distribution of heat, analysis of surface, thermal deformation around
sliding contacts, changes in contact geometry caused by thermal deformation and
thermo elastic instability, and the thermo mechanical stress distribution around the
frictionally heated and thermally deformed contact spots are reviewed. The paper
concludes with a discussion of the influence of the thermal and thermo mechanical
contact phenomena on wear and thermo cracking and other modes of failure of sliding
mechanical components.
Pekwah pearl lee et al [91] has investigated the dimensional stability and
microstructures in the as-cast and heat-treated conditions of two ZA based ternary
alloys. In a lubricated sliding wear test, a comparison was made of the wear behaviour
of these alloys with that of SAE 660 phosphor bronze. It was shown that the Zn-Al-Si
alloys were the best materials of those tested in terms of dimensional stability and
higher wear resistance. The results showed that the heat-treated Zn-Al-Si alloys were
more susceptible to wear than the as-cast alloys. This may be due to softening of
alloys after the heat treatment. In contrast, the heat-treated Zn-Al-Cu alloy showed
improved wear properties.
William Mihaichuk [92] has studied the complete design guidelines for the application
of ZA-12 and ZA-27 as bearing materials. Although zinc alloys have been used in
Europe for many years for plain bearings, U.S. design engineers are only recently
beginning to recognize these metals as possible alternatives to traditional bronze
because of the key engineering advantages of zinc alloy bearings. ZA-12 exhibits
excellent antifriction characteristics and wear resistance to SAE 660 and SAE 40
bronzes. The only limiting factor appears to be that of service temperature.

26
Fu-wen Ling et al [93] have described the room temperature decomposition behaviour
of a commercial Zn-Al alloy. In particular, the build-up of internal strain is
documented by an X-ray line broadening technique, and the corresponding
transmission electron microscopy microstructures are presented and discussed. The
properties are correlated with and interpreted in terms of the internal strain and micro
structure. The results of this work lead to some rather important recommendations as
to the processing and application of this alloy.
2
Kawabe and Kuwahara [94] ) measurements
in a ZA-27 at surface shear strain. Damping behaviour in the super plastic condition
and non super plastic condition was studied. From this study, it is proposed that three
types of damping exist i.e., a relaxation damping due to the viscous sliding at phase
boundaries, a multiple relaxation type damping, and a damping correlated with the
transformation-induced super plasticity.
Gervais et al [95] have described the development of three new foundry alloys by
Eastern Alloys. During the last decade, the zinc industry has promoted a sand and
permanent mold casting alloy developed by the International Lead Zinc Research
Organisation (ILZRO). The alloy, ZA-12, has demonstrated that zinc can effectively
compete for many applications against the well-established copper, aluminium and
even iron-based foundry alloys. The effects of casting variables and of casting
practices have been determined during the alloy development program and the
properties of the three zinc foundry alloys are compared with cast iron, copper and
aluminium alloys.
P. Sriram et al [96] studied the number of non ferrous bearing materials that are
available for using for specific application. The choice can be made by comparing all
the required properties for the particular application, design aspects of the bearing.
There is no single best bearing material, every material has promising individual
property to meet particular service requirements.
D. A. Rigney and J. P. Hirth [97] have studied about steady state sliding friction,
mainly focused on the plastic work done in the near-surface region, described in terms
of work hardening, recovery and the microstructure existing during steady state

27
sliding. The model is discussed with respect to several alternate ways in which plastic
deformation has been incorporated in recent theories of friction.
Suh et al [98] discusses the fundamental mechanisms of sliding wear postulated by the
delamination theory of wear. The effects of sliding speed, lubricants and complex
loading on wear are also discussed. Lubricants are applied either to eliminate or to
minimize metal-to-metal contacts.
Yao Hua Zhu et al [99] have evaluated the microstructure in as-cast, extruded, and
aged eutectoid Zn-Al-Cu alloy is described based on X-Ray diffraction and
-cast state,
the
Zn- ,
W. J. DE Gee [100] has made an attempt for selection of materials for journal
bearings and to determine the critical roughness parameter. One of the criteria for the
selection of materials to be applied in lubricated journal bearings is the contact
parameter K. This takes into account the combined effects on hydrodynamic film
formation of surface roughness and elastic deformation of the contacting surfaces. A
quantitative method has been applied for the determination of the critical roughness
measure h, to be used in the calculation of K, is described.
Prakash et al [101] have investigated the effect of macroscopic graphite particles on
mechanical, wear and thermal behavior of ZA-27 alloys composites. Thermal
conductivity and diffusivity were found using laser flash apparatus and specific heat
values were found using simultaneous thermal analyzer. It was observed that the
tribological property improves with the addition of graphite particle. The hardness,
thermal conductivity, diffusivity and mechanical damping values at higher
temperature reduces with increase in reinforcing percentage indicating the need to
optimize graphite as per designer’s requirement.
Prakash et al [102] made an investigation on the effect of macroscopic graphite
particles on damping behavior of ZA-27 alloy composites. The experimental method
used was the cantilever technique with Dynamic Mechanical Analyzer to evaluate
damping properties. It was observed that the damping capacity of the material
increased with increasing temperature and fractions of graphite particles.

28
S. C. Sharma et al [103] have investigated the bearing characteristics of cast
ZA-27/graphite composite materials under lubricated, semidry and dry conditions.
The bearing tests were conducted using a computer interfaced bearing test rig. It was
found that in the tests conducted, the bearing fabricated from the composite materials
exhibited lower friction in comparison with the unreinforced ZA-27 alloy.
Comparison in terms of friction and performance was also made between graphite
reinforced and unreinforced bearing for semidry and dry condition.
B. K. Prasad et al [104] has studied the microstructure and property related changes in
a zinc based alloy induced by varying solutionizing and ageing durations and
temperatures. Influence of partially replacing copper by nickel and silicon in the alloy
composition has also been studied. The addition of nickel and silicon alters the
microstructure by the formation of intermetallic compounds. The hardness of the
alloys increased during solutionizing whilst it reduced after aging.
Fornallaz et al [105] have reported a study on the friction and wear behaviour of
precision, engineering journal bearings for fine mechanisms used in measuring
instruments, information transducers and small machinery in order to enable the
designer to predetermine their performance. Journal bearings are tested under
conditions similar to normal working conditions.
Lidia Galda et al [106] have studied the influence of geometrical characteristics of the
surface texture on the Stribeck curve in lubricating sliding. The test was carried out
under conformal contact conditions. Dimples depth to length ratios and their shape
and distribution pattern were discussed.
ZekiAzakl and Savaskan [107] have investigated the microstructure and some
mechanical properties and wear behaviour of ZA alloy in both as-cast and heat-treated
conditions. Wear behaviour was, studied using a conforming block on-ring type
machine without oil supply which corresponds to ‘‘oil cut off’’. It was observed that
the heat treatment increased the hardness and tensile strength of the alloy. The friction
coefficient increased with increasing sliding speed. It was shown that the wear loss of
the alloy increased exponentially with pressure, but linearly with sliding speed.
B.K. Prasad [108] has made an attempt to assess the contribution of various
parameters towards governing the abrasive wear response of a ZA alloy under the

29
conditions of varying applied loads and sliding distances. The factors whose
contribution has been examined include deterioration in the cutting efficiency of the
abrasive medium, role played by the SiC particles in terms of their degradation and
resistance offered by them against the destructive action of the abrasive, subsurface
hardening of the matrix and such other related aspects. The study suggests that the
mentioned factors contribute to a varying degree towards controlling the high-stress
abrasive wear behaviour of the specimens.
Ramamohana Rao and Manohanram [109] carried out a comprehensive set of
experiments incorporating some of the significant factors affecting wear under mixed
lubrication of journal bearings using Taguchi’s technique. Using carburized plain
carbon steel like-pair bearing materials, wear characteristics and surface topography
changes have been studied. Statistical analysis of mean and variance of test results
reveals that, among the different factors considered, journal surface velocity, load and
hardness influence the specific wear rate of the bush to a large extent. Hydrodynamic
and asperity load computations correlate well with the experimental results.
Kenneth Unklesbay et al [110] have optimized a number of journal bearing design
problems using a new mathematical optimization technique, geometric programming.
Though a few simplifying assumptions must be made in order to write the bearing
design problem mathematically, no additional simplifying assumptions are required in
order to apply geometric programming. Geometric programming is found to be a
powerful technique for optimizing journal bearing design problems.
B.K. Prasada and O.P. Modi [111] have investigated the effects of specimen and
slurry compositions as well as traversal distance on the slurry wear response of a
zinc-based alloy. The wear response of the samples was discussed in terms of specific
features of their microconstituents like silicon and the predominant material removal
mechanism in a given set of experimental conditions. The observed behaviour of the
alloys was also substantiated further through the characteristics of their affected
surface and subsurface regions.

30
The present work thus aims to develop a new family of bearing alloys and to predict
their wear behaviour by experimentation. For this, a specifically designed and custom-
built bearing testing machine has been used for characterizing the developed alloys for
bearing properties.

Against this background, the present research work has been undertaken with an
objective to explore the potential of ZA alloys as a bearing material and to investigate
the effect of copper and heat treatment on the tribological behaviour of the optimized
ZA-25 alloy. Zinc and aluminium are lowest cost raw bearing materials compared to
conventional bearing material and this work is an attempt to find a possible use of
such economical materials which might gainfully be employed as low cost, high
strength and wear resistant alloys.

31