Chem Experiments at TDC

Chemistry Experiments
CONTENTS
Experiment Page
Name of the Experiment
Number Number
To prepare a saturated solution of common salt at
1. 3
laboratory temperature and to determine its solubility
2. To prepare a solution of known composition 4
To study separation of two immiscible liquids using a
3. 4
separating funnel
Distillation - To study the separation of two miscible liquids
4. 5
by distillation
5. To obtain pure water from distillation of saline water 5
Determination of linear dimensions and density of solids
6. 5
and liquids
7. Measurement of temperature 9
8. To study colloids and Tyndall effect 10
To study the chemical reaction of an iron nail with aqueous
9. 11
copper sulphate solution
10. To study the burning of magnesium ribbon in air 12
To study the reactions of dil. hydrochloric acid an sulphuric
11. 12
acid with zinc and aluminium
To study the reaction of sodium hydroxide with aluminium
12. 13
metal
13. To study of double displacement reactions 13
To study the sublimation of solids and to use it to separate a
14. 13
mixture of solids
To measure change of temperature during chemical
15. reactions and differentiate between exothermic or 14
endothermic reactions
Distinguishing between electrolytes and non-electrolytes by
16. 15
continuity test
17. Measurement of conductivity using a conductivity meter 15
18. To measure pH of different solutions 16
19. Electrolysis of water 17
20. Determination of Avogadro number 18
21. Preparation of carbon dioxide 19
22. Preparation of sulphur dioxide 20
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23. Preparation of oxygen 21

24. Preparation of chlorine 22
25. Preparation of oxides of nitrogen 22
26. Carbon dioxide – water reaction 22
27. To Study bleaching action of bleaching powder 23
28. Saponification of oil and preparation of soap 23
29. Daniell cell 24
30. Water of crystallization and formula of a hydrated salt 25
31. Displacement reactions of metals and their salt solutions 26
32. Exothermic metal displacement reactions – reactivity series 27
33. Reactions of carboxylic Acids 27
34. Making esters with carboxylic acids and alcohols 28
35. Growing crystals 29
36. Percentage of oxygen in atmosphere 30
37. Metal oxides and non-metal oxides 31
38. States of matter 31
39. Preparation of PCl5 32
40. Reaction of metals with water 32
41. Oxidation-Reduction reaction 32
42. Purification of materials- Recrystallization 33
43. What is iodised salt? 33
44. Detection of elements- Flame test 34
45. Combustion chemistry 35
46. Periodic table 36
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Experiment 1: To prepare a saturated solution of common salt at

laboratory temperature and to determine its solubility
A saturated solution is formed when no more solute can be dissolved in the solvent. The solubility
of a salt depends on temperature.
Transfer 20 mL distilled water into a 100 mL beaker using a measuring cylinder. Dip a 110ºC
thermometer or a digital thermometer and measure the temperature of water. Add sodium chloride solid
(common salt) in small portions and stir with a glass rod till the salt completely dissolves. Continue the
addition of salt till the added salt no longer dissolves and some salt remains at the bottom of the beaker.
This is the saturated solution of common salt at room temperature.
Filter the solution through a filter paper into another beaker to remove the undissolved salt or
decant the solution.
Solubility can be determined by evaporation method.
Weigh a clean and dry china dish accurately. Transfer about 10 mL of the saturated solution to the
china dish using a measuring jar. Heat the china dish slowly over wire gauze till all the water evaporates
and only the dissolved salt is left behind. Stop heating. Cool the china dish to room temperature and
weigh again. Calculate the mass of salt and mass of water evaporated off.
Observations and calculations

Mass of the empty china dish = M1 g = ........g
Mass of the china dish + saturated solution: M2 g = ........g
 Mass of saturated solution taken = M2 – M1 g =M3 g = ........g
After evaporation, mass of the china dish + salt = M4 g = ........g
 Mass of salt left behind = (M4 – M1) g =M5 g = ........g
Mass of water evaporated off = (M3 – M5) g = M6 g= ........g
( )
 Solubility = × 100 =___________

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Experiment 2: To prepare a solution of known composition

Salt such as NaCl is called as solute which dissolves in water. Water is a solvent.
Simple way of expressing the concentration of a solution is by mass percentage.
×
Percentage by mass of solute =
A 1% solution means 1 g of solute present in 100g of solution.

Aim: To prepare a 5% solution of common salt in water.
Procedure: Weigh 5g of NaCl (common salt) in a watch glass. Take 95ml of water in 250ml beaker.
Add the salt and dissolve. Now the prepared solution is 5% solution.
Exercises: i) Calculate the percentage by mass of sodium chloride if 10 g of salt is dissolved in 200
mL water.
Experiment 3: To study separation of two immiscible

liquids using a separating funnel
When two liquids which are immiscible with each other are mixed, they form two different layers,
depending on their density. The lighter liquid forms the top layer and the heavier the bottom layer. These
two can be physically separated by using a separating funnel.
Mix 10 mL of sunflower oil with 20 mL water in a beaker and stir well. Transfer the mixture to a
100 mL separating funnel and allow layers to separate. After the layers have been clearly separated, open
the stopcock carefully and run down the lower layer (water) into a beaker. After all the water layer has
been drained off, close the stopcock.
Drain the oil layer to a separate beaker.
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Experiment 4: Distillation - To study the separation of two miscible

liquids by distillation
Distillation is a process in which two liquids which are miscible with each other can be separated
into its component fractions. This is achieved by making use of difference in the boiling points of the two
liquids. The liquid having lower boiling point evaporates more than the one having a higher boiling point.
The vapour is then condensed back into liquid form and collected.
Separation of acetone (b.p= 56 ºC) and water (b.p = 100 ºC).
Take 20 mL acetone and 20 mL water in a distillation flask. Set up the distillation assembly as
shown in the figure. Circulate cold water through the water-cooled condenser. Heat the flask slowly. Note
the temperature at which the vapours of acetone start condensing into the receiving flask. Continue
boiling the solution till all the acetone distils off. (The temperature will remain almost constant during this
period). When the temperature starts increasing rapidly, stop heating and disconnect the receiving flask.
Experiment 5: To obtain pure water from distillation of saline water.

Water which contains dissolved salts can be purified by distillation. The dissolved salts being non-
volatile remain in the flask while pure water distils over.
Take a 100 mL sample of brackish water (or prepare a sample by dissolving about 10 g common
salt in water) in the distillation assembly as shown in the figure. Heat the flask. Water starts boiling; the
vapours condense in the Liebig condenser and collect in the receiver. Continue distillation till about 80%
of the solvent has been distilled off.
(Note: Circulation of cold water is not necessary as steam gets condensed due to cooling by the
surroundings; but the condensation becomes faster if cold water is circulated through the Liebig
condenser.)
Experiment 6: Determination of linear dimensions

and density of solids and liquids
Aim: a) To measure the dimensions of rectangular, cylindrical and spherical objects.
b) To determine mass by using a digital balance and
c) To determine density in g/cc and kg/m3.
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Apparatus:
Regular solid rods of different metals, digital Vernier caliper, digital balance, beakers, thread, pure
water, salt and pipette.
Density is the fundamental property of a solid. We say copper (Cu) is heavier than aluminum
(Al).This means density of Cu is higher than Al. How to measure density of solid? In this experiment we
will determine the density of solid objects made of different metals.
A. Density of regular solids

( )
Definition: =
( )
; SI unit of mass is kg and volume ism3.
Mass is weighed in gram (g) in a digital balance. Volume in cm3 (cubic centimeter (cc)).
1cm  1cm  1cm= 1cm3; 100 cm= 1m; therefore100cm100cm  100cm = 106cm3 = 1m3
1000 g = 1 kg; Density of water = 1.000g/cc at 4C equals 1000 kg/m3.
How to use the caliper?

1. Join the jaws of caliper.
2. Press zero button until
display shows 0.00 mm to
make error free.
3. Take the rectangular block
4. Measure the length (l), breadth (b),
Figure: Vernier Caliper is used to measure and height (h).
diameter in mm. Least count = 0.01 mm 5. Record the l, b and h values in mm in the
observation table in your laboratory notebook.
10mm = 1cm
6. Convert l, b and h in mm to cm.
Formulas:
Volume of the rectangular block = lb h cm3
2
Volume of solid cylinder = π   d   hcm3; d=diameter
2
3
Volume of sphere = 4  π   d  cm3; d=diameter
3 2
Observation and results
Dimension and Reading
Volume Mass Density Density
Metal Shape Mean
mm mm cm in cc in g g/cc Kg/m3
mm
l
Iron or Rectengular
b
Al Block
h
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d
Brass Cylinder
h
d
Cu Cylinder
h
d
Al Cylinder
h
Steel Sphere d
Here: l = length, b= breadth, h= height, d= diameter
B. How to determine density of solids of irregular shape?

A stone is a solid of irregular shape. Its mass can be
measured. Volume of such objects cannot be determined using
Vernier caliper. But its volume can be determined using
Archimedes principle and its density. This method is called
Buoyancy method.
Buoyancy method:
Archimedes principle is the supreme principle to determine the density of materials in any shape. It
states that the buoyant force experienced by a submerged object is equal to the weight of the liquid
displaced by the object. Because of buoyant force weight of an object inside the liquid feels lighter. If
is the mass of the object in air, ML is the mass of the object when it is submerged into a liquid of density
DL, then the Density of the object D.
We do this experiment with water. Density of water at room
×
temperature is nearly equal to 1 g/cc.
is : = g/cc
. ×
Therefore density of an irregular shape object =
g/cc
Procedure:
a. Take a 50 ml beaker and fill it up with water up to 2/3 of its height. Put the water with beaker on
electronic balance. Make its mass zero by pressing ‘TARE’ on the balance.
b. Tie the given object using a thin cotton thread.
c. Submerge the object into the water and make it rest on bottom of beaker. It gives mass of the
object . This value is equal to mass of the object in air. (You can verify this).
d. Lift the object with the thread keeping the object immersed in the water. Object should not touch
the wall of the beaker. Read the mass of the object in the water. This is the water displaced
due to Buoyancy. We call this as mass under Buoyancy.
Observations Table:
Mass of the object Mass of the object Density of the Object
Object
(g) under Buoyancy (g) ( / ) g/cc
Cu
Stone
Al
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After tare Object at the bottom Pull the object in Pull the object in
water salt water
Figure : Buoyancy method
C. Density of liquids:

I. Direct method: density of liquid = g/cc

Procedure:
A 10 ml pipette can be used to measure 10 ml of water. Take 50 ml empty beaker. Put on the
balance and tare. Add 10 ml of water from the pipette to the beaker and find the mass. You will find the
mass of water less than 10 g (about 9.985g) at 25C. Therefore density of water = 9.985 g/ 10.00 cc =
0.985 g/cc. Repeat 5 times. For measuring density of other liquids use propipette and do not suck the
liquid by mouth.
II. Buoyancy method:
Take the given cylindrical rod of Cumetal. Take two 50 ml beakers and fill up to 2/3 with pure
water in one beaker and salt water in the second beaker.
Mass of Cu in air by placing at rest in pure water = _____ g
Mass of Cu under Buoyancy in pure water = ______ g
×
Density of Cu = g/cc

If we use salt water instead of pure water

Mass of Cu in air by placing at rest in salt water = ______ g
Mass of Cu under Buoyancy in salt water = ______ g
×
Density of Cu =
g/cc ,
× ×
∴ =

Hence density of salt water = ×

Density of pure water is nearly equals to 1 g/cc. Therefore,

Density of salt water =
g/cc
You can measure density of alcohol. Take alcohol in the beaker,

Mass of Cu in air by placing at rest in alcohol = _____ g
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Mass of Cu under Buoyancy in alcohol = _____ g

Density of alcohol =
g/cc
This way you can measure density of any liquid.

Answer these questions:
1. What is the least count of
a. A meter scale = _______________; b. Vernier caliper = _____________
c. Your wrist watch = ____________; d. Digital balance = _____________
2. Find the density of following materials in g/cc and kg/m3. (Materials- Water, Hg, milk, Mg, Al,
Au, Fe, Pb, Pt, U, Ice, air, CO2, CO, H, He and N2Reference: class 8 text book, chapter 16, page
no.185)
3. Arrange the above materials in descending order with respect to their densities.
4. Density of wood is 0.95 g/cc ; ice 0.9167 g/cc and goli marble 2.3 g/cc. Which one sinks and
which one floats in pure water?
5. Average density of men is 1.06 g/cc. Will a man sink in pure water if he does not know
swimming? If the density of salt water (Dead Sea) is 1.24 g/cc, will he sink or float without
swimming?
Experiment 7: Measurement of temperature

Measurement of temperature is most important for many experiments in science. Mercury
thermometer is the common thermometer which can be used to measure temperature from -10oC to
360oC. Here thermal expansion of mercury is utilized to construct a thermometer. Boiling point of
mercury is 356oC and so Mercury thermometer cannot be used to measure the temperature of flames of
spirit lamp and gas stoves.
a. Measure your body temperature using a thermometer in oC.
b. Measure temperature of ice, cold water and boiling water using a Mercury thermometer.
c. Add salt to ice and measure the temperature.
Record the observation.
Disadvantage of mercury thermometer

Mercury is poisonous. Time taken to read is 20 to 30 seconds. Very high and very low temperatures
cannot be measured.
So mercury thermometer is now replaced by thermocouples and Pt100 thermometer.
a) Chromel-Alumel thermocouple
Two alloys Chromel (90% Ni + 10% Cr) and Alumel (95% Ni + 2% Mn + 2% Al + 1% Si) are
fused at the one end.
How to measure?
The fused end of the two wires held on the spirit lamp and free ends of the wire is connected to
multimeter which measures in mV. Now maximum voltage it shows is 32mV in case of spirit lamp.
Calibration: 1mV = 25oC, therefore 32mv = 32×25=800oC
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Chromel-Alumel (called K type thermocouple) can be used to measure 0oC to 1200oC

Measure temperatures of spirit lamp and LPG flame using a thermocouple.
b) Pt100thermometer
Pt is a metal, and it has a resistance. A thin wire of Pt with 100Ω resistance is Pt100 thermometer.
Resistance of the Pt100 increases with increase in temperature. Pt100 thermometer can be used to directly
measure temperature in oC from -200oC to 600oC.
You are given a Pt100 thermometer and measure temperature of ice and hot water.
Multimeter Thermocouple
Digital thermometer
Tabulate your observations.
Experiment 8: To Study colloids and Tyndall effect

Colloid is a mixture of insoluble nanoparticle in a medium. A colloid has particles ranging between
1 and 1000 nanometres in diameter and the particles remain evenly distributed throughout the volume.
These remain dispersed and do not settle to the bottom of the container.
Pass a beam of light through the colloids and you will find the light is scattered. This is called
Tyndall effect. When light is shined through a true solution, the light passes cleanly through the solution;
however when light is passed through a colloidal solution, the colloidal particles scatter the light in all
directions.
Experiment:
a) Pass laser light through water. Does it pass through water without getting scattered?
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b) Pass laser light through K2CrO4 solution. Does it pass through the solution?
c) Prepare a colloidal solution of sulphur by adding 2 mL of dil. HCl to a solution of 0.5 g of
sodium thiosulphate (hypo) in water
Na2S2O3 + 2HCl →2NaCl + SO2 + S + H2O
Pass the laser light through the colloid. Observe how light is scattered.
.
Record your observations.
Experiment 9: To study the chemical reaction of an iron nail with

aqueous copper sulphate solution
Clean an ironnail with sand paper to remove any rust formed. Dip it into a 2% copper sulphate
solution taken in a test tube and leave it there for about 15 minutes. (Prepare the copper sulphate solution
by dissolving about 1 g of copper sulphate pentahydrate in about 50 ml water containing about 3 drops of
dilute sulphuric acid).
After 15 minutes take out the iron nail from the copper sulphate solution and observe brown
coloured deposition of copper metal on it. Note also that the intensity of colour of the copper sulphate
solution has decreased.
The chemical reaction is
Fe (s) + Cu2+ (aq) Fe2+ (aq) + Cu (s).
During the displacement reaction, iron (Feo) undergoes oxidation to ferrous ion (Fe2+) and Cu2+
from copper sulphate gets reduced to metallic copper.
Clean nail in Copper sulphate solution Deposition of Copper on Iron nail
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Experiment 10: To study the burning of magnesium ribbon in air

Procedure: Take about 2 cm long magnesium ribbon and clean it with sand paper to remove any
oxide layer formed on the surface. Hold the ribbon with a pair of tongs and burn it using a spirit lamp or
Bunsen burner. Magnesium burns brightly in air forming a white solid which is magnesium oxide.
2Mg(s) +O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
Magnesium ribbon Burning of Magnesium ribbon
Transfer the white solid formed into a test tube, add about 2 to 3 ml water and shake. Dip strips of
blue litmus and red litmus papers into the suspension. Observe the colour change. Red litmus paper turns
blue indicating the suspension of magnesium oxide is basic in nature.
Reaction: MgO + H2O → Mg(OH)2
Experiment 11: To study the reactions of dil. hydrochloric acid and

dil. sulphuric acid with zinc and aluminium
Place about 0.2 g zinc granules in a 15 mL test tube. Add about 5 mL of dilute hydrochloric acid.
Immediately zinc reacts with the acid with the evolution of hydrogen gas. The reaction is
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)↑
Hydrogen is a colourless, odourless gas.
Bring a lighted match stick near the mouth of the test tube. Immediately the hydrogen gas burns
with a ‘pop’ sound.
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Repeat the experiment with about 0.2 g of aluminium foil or aluminium powder.
Zinc and aluminium also react with dilute sulphuric acid in a similar way. Do the experiment and
write the balanced equations for the chemical reactions.
Zn + H2SO4 →
Al + H2SO4 →
Other reactive metals like sodium, magnesium, iron and tin also react with dilute hydrochloric or
sulphuric acid with the liberation of hydrogen. But metals like copper, silver and gold do not react with
HCl or H2SO4.
Page 12
Experiment 12: To study the reactions of sodium hydroxide with

aluminium metal.
Metals react with alkali also to give hydrogen.
Add about 0.1 g of aluminium foil to a test tube containing 5 mL of 15% sodium hydroxide
solution. Observe the slow start of the reaction with the evolution of hydrogen gas, which becomes quite
rapid after the initial stages. Observe the exothermic nature of the reaction and also test for hydrogen gas
by pop sound with burning match stick.
Sodium hydroxide reacts with aluminium metal liberating hydrogen.
2NaOH + 2Al + 2H2O → 2NaAlO2 + 3H2
NaAlO2 (Na is in +1, Al is in +3 and O is in -2 states) is called as Sodium Aluminate. It is soluble
in water.
Zinc also reacts similarly with NaOH liberating hydrogen and forming sodium zincate, Na2ZnO2.
NaOH + Zn → Na2ZnO2 + H2(Na2ZnO2 is called as Sodium zincate)
Note: Metals like Al, Zn, Pband Sn will react with both dilute mineral acids as well as alkalis
liberating hydrogen. They are called amphoteric in nature.
Experiment 13: To study double displacement reactions

When solutions of sodium sulphate and barium chloride are mixed, a double displacement reaction
occurs. One of the products, barium sulphate precipitates out since it is insoluble in water.
Na2SO4 + BaCl2→BaSO4↓ + 2NaCl
Carry out the following double displacement reactions indicated in the following reactions.
K2CrO4+ BaCl2 →
Potassium chromate barium chloride
MgSO4+ Na2CO3 →
Magnesium sulphate Sodium carbonate
CaCl2+ Na2CO3 →
Calcium chloride sodium carbonate
Experiment 14: To study the sublimation of solids and to use it to

separate a mixture of solids
a) Take about 1 g of solid ammonium chloride in a china dish and cover with ainverted funnel.
Cover the stem of the funnel with a cotton plug. Heat the china dish gently. Ammonium chloride
vapourises on heating, the vapours go up in the inverted funnel and get condensed at the cooler parts of
the funnel.
b) Separation of sand from iodine by sublimation:
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Cotton plug
Inverted funnel
Sand and Iodine mixture
Spirit lamp
A mixture of two solids can be separated if one of them undergoes sublimation.

Example: Add about 10mg of iodine crystals to about 20 g of sand and mix them well. Place the
mixture in a china dish covered with an inverted funnel. Close the stem of the funnel with a cotton plug.
Heat the china dish slowly. Iodine sublimes and the vapours condense on the cooler upper parts of the
inverted funnel.
Here in both the cases solid iodine and ammonium chloride is directly converted into vapour
without passing through the liquid state and this process is known as sublimation.
Experiment 15: To measure change of temperature during chemical

reactions and differentiate between exothermic or endothermic
reactions.
If a reaction liberates heat, the temperature of the reaction mixture increases. If heat is absorbed,
temperature decreases. The reaction can be identified as exothermic or endothermic by noting the change
of temperature during the reaction.
Reaction between an acid and a base, burning of magnesium or aluminium in air, rusting of iron are
examples of exothermic reactions. Melting of ice or any solid, mixing ammonium nitrate and water are
some of the endothermic reactions.
a) Hydrochloric acid and Sodium hydroxide reaction:

Take 5 ml of 2N hydrochloric acid and 2N NaOH in separate test tubes and measure the initial
temperatures. Note that temperature as initial temperature. Mix the two and note down the temperature
immediately. Identify whether the reaction is endothermic or exothermic.
Initial temperature of HCl=_______oC
Initial temperature of NaOH=_______oC
Final temperature after mixing=_______oC
b) Barium hydroxide – ammonium chloride reaction:

Solid hydrated barium hydroxide is mixed with solid ammonium chloride in a beaker.
An endothermic reaction takes place to produce a liquid, with the evolution of ammonia. The
temperature drops dramatically to about -20 °C.
Ba(OH)2.8H2O(s) + 2NH4Cl(s) → 2NH3(g) + 10H2O(l) + BaCl2(s)
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Weigh out separately 3.2 g barium hydroxide and 1.0g ammonium chloride. Avoid lumps as far as
possible. Stand the beaker on a watch-glass containing a few drops of water, so that the base of the beaker
is touching the water. Note the room temperature. Mix the two solids in the beaker and stir with a glass
rod. The mixture becomes slushy as a liquid is formed, together with a white suspension.
The presence of ammonia can be detected by smell. Observe the drop in temperature, which is
confirmed by the fact that the beaker freezes to the watch-glass.
Initial temperature=_______oC
Final temperature = _______oC
Experiment 16: Distinguishing between electrolytes and non-

electrolytes
If a solution of a substance conducts electricity, then it is an electrolyte; otherwise it is a non-
electrolyte. For example, a solution of sodium chloride (common salt) in water is an electrolyte while
that of sugar is a non-electrolyte.
By continuity test
These can be easily identified by the continuity test in an electric circuit. A typical electrical circuit
to test continuity is shown below. The bulb glows in an electrolyte solution when there is continuity in
the circuit. The source of electricity is a 9 V battery and the electrodes are two metal plates (or two metal
nails) dipped in the solution.
Observations:
Inference:
Bulb
Solution electrolyte or
glows?
non-electrolyte
i) Common salt
ii) Distilled water
iii)Distilled water + a
few drops of HCl
iv) Sugar
v) Urea
vi) Sodium hydroxide
Experiment 17: Measurement of conductivity using

a conductivity meter
The continuity test enables us to know whether a given solution is an electrolyte or a non-
electrolyte. It can not distinguish between two electrolytes- say, hydrochloric acid and acetic acid. Which
one among them is a better electrolyte? This question can be answered by measuring conductivity, which
is based on Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law: V = I ×R, where R = resistance, V= voltage and I= Current
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Conductance = 1/ Resistance
Conductance is expressed in Siemens
Prepare a series of solutions of the compounds in distilled water. (Make sure that the glassware
used for preparing solutions are free from any electrolytes, by washing them using distilled water). Set up
the instrument. Wash the electrode by dipping it in distilled water and wipe the outer surface dry using
tissue paper. Dip the electrode in the solution whose conductivity is to be measured. The conductivity is
read directly from the meter (in mS or μS).
You are given the solutions which are mentioned in the table. Find the conductance using a
conductivity meter and find which one is an electrolyte of higher conductance.
Sample Conductivity (mS/μS) Conductivity in μS only
1. Distilled Water
2. 0.1 M HCl
3. 0.1M Acetic acid
3. 0.1 M NaOH
4. 0.1 M CaCl2
5. 0.1 M NH4Cl
6. 0.1 M NaCl
7. 0.1 M urea
8. 0.1 M glucose
9. 0.1 M Sucrose
Experiment 18: To measure pH of different solutions

Water slightly ionizes as H2O  H+ + OH-
At any given temperature: Kw= [H+][OH-] = 10-14.

Kw is, the Ionic Product of Water remains constant at a given temperature. The hydrogen and
hydroxide ion concentrations are equal in pure water.
Therefore, [H+] = [OH-] = 10-7 mol L-1at ~25O C. A solution is neutral if the hydrogen and
hydroxide ion concentrations are equal. If [H+] is greater than 10-7 mol L-1, the solution is acidic, and if
less than 10-7 mol L-1, alkaline (or basic).
pH of an aqueous solution is;
pH = -log10 [H+] ([H+] is molar concentration of hydrogen)
Therefore, pH of water = 7
[H+] 100 10-1 10-2 10-4 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-10 10-12 10-14
[OH-] 10-14 10-13 10-12 10-10 10-8 10-7 10-6 10-4 10-2 100
pH 0 1 2 4 6 7 8 10 12 14
Acidic Neutral Alkaline
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a) Measurement of pH using pH paper

A paper impregnated with a Universal Indicator is used to approximately measure the pH of a
solution. The pH paper changes colour according to pH value. The colour is compared with the chart
given and approx. pH value is determined.
Put one or two drops of the solution on a pH paper using a dropper or a glass rod. Compare the
colour developed with the chart and read the approximate pH from the chart.
b) pH measurement using pHmeter:

pH Meter is a device which measures the pH of a solution. Connect the Combined pH electrode to
the pH meter and power on the instrument.
Take the about 20 mL of 0.1 N HCl solution in a small beaker. Dip the combined electrode into the
solution. Note the pH reading.
Then remove the electrode. Wash the electrode by dipping in distilled water.
Dilute the 0.1 N HCl solution 10 times by pipetting out 2.0 mL solution into another clean beaker
and adding water to make up to 20 mL. Stir well with a glass rod. Measure the pH as above.
Repeat the experiment with other solutions.
pH(using pH pH (using pH pH(using pH pH (using pH
Solution Solution
paper) meter) paper) meter)
0.1 N HCl 0.1 N NaOH
0.01 N HCl 0.01 N NaOH
0.001 N HCl 0.1 N NaCl
0.1 N CH3COOH 0.1N H3PO4
0.01 N CH3COOH 0.1N KOH
Experiment 19: Electrolysis of water

Electrolysis cell consists of two Ni electrodes. The cell is filled with 30% KOH in water. When a
minimum voltage of 1.23 V applied, water starts splitting and hydrogen is evolved at –ve electrode
(cathode) and oxygen at +ve electrode (anode).
Ionization of water
H2O→ H+ +OH-
Ionization of KOH
KOH→ K+ +OH-
At anode
4 OH-→ 2H2O + O2 + 4e-
At cathode
2H+ + 2e- → H2
Over all reaction
A simple set up for electrolysis of water
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2H2O → 2H2 + O2
[K+ can also undergo reduction as 2H+ + 2e- → H2 only if no H+ is present.
One mole of water, on electrolysis, gives one mole of H2 and half a mole of O2. For this to occur, 2
mol of electrons, i.e., 2 x 6.022 x 1023 electrons travel from anode to cathode.
Charge on one electron is – 1.602 x 10-19 C
 Total charge travelling from anode to cathode = 2 x 6.022 x 1023 x (–1.602 x 10-19 C)
= - 192,945 C
 Total charge travelling from cathode to anode (i.e., in opposite directions) is + 192,945 C
Experiment No. 20: Determination of Avogadro number

The experiment of electrode position of copper is used to determine Avogadro number. A known
quantity of electricity is passed through copper sulphate solution using copper plate as anode and stainless
steel as cathode. The mass of copper deposited is proportional to the quantity of electricity passed.
Take one strip of copper and one strip of stainless steel. These are called electrodes. Clean the
surface of electrodes with emery paper. Weigh the electrodes in a digital balance. Dip two electrodes into
the 1M copper sulphate solution and connect externally to a power source. Copper as anode (+ve to the
battery) and stainless steel as cathode (-ve to the battery). Pass 0.250A current through the solution using
a constant current source. Simultaneously start a stop watch and continue electrolysis for 10 minutes.
Copper dissolves from the anode and deposits on the cathode.
Current source
Stop watch
CuSO4 solution
The reaction is given by:

Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu(s) (At –ve electrode) (reduction)
Cu(s)  Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- (At +ve electrode) (oxidation)
At the end of 10 minutes, disconnect the power supply. Take out the electrodes, rinse with distilled
water, then with few mL of acetone and dry it using hot air blower. Weigh the electrodes again. Record
your observation as follows.
Mass of stainless steel before electrolysis (M1) = _____g
Mass of stainless steel after electrolysis(M2) = _____g
Mass of copper deposited(M2- M1) = ______g
Quantity of electricity passed in coulomb = Current (in Ampere) × time (in second)
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= (0.250) × (10 ×60)

= 150 coulomb
-19
Charge on an electron │= 1.602 × 10 coulomb
So, number of electrons used for electrodeposition of copper

n =
│ │

=( . × )
n =_________
Reaction at the cathode: Cu2+ (1 mole) + 2e- (2 moles) → Cu (1 mole)
According to the above balanced equation, one mole of copper metal (63.54g) will be deposited by
using 2 moles (2 × Avogadro number, 2N) of electrons.
So Avogadro number of electrons will deposit 63.54 g /2 = 31.773 g of copper.
(M2-M1) g of copper was electrodeposited with ‘n’ electrons.
× .
Avogadro number= ( )
Therefore, Avogadro number =__________

Repeat the experiment to get the more accurate value.
Experiment 21: Preparation of carbon dioxide
Set up apparatus as shown in the figure. Take about 10 g of marble chips in the round bottom flask.
Add 10 mL of dil. HCl to the flak. Collect the carbon dioxide produced in a test tube by upward
displacement of air.
CaCO3 + 2 HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2 (g)
Observations:
i) Colour and odour of the gas ………………………..
ii) Introduce a burning splinter into the jar containing CO2. Does it support combustion?
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ii) Pass the gas through 5 mL of water taken in a test tube. Test the solution with litmus paper and
pH paper. Record the observations.
iii) Pass the gas through lime water. Lime water turns milky due to the formation of calcium
carbonate. If more gas is passed the milkinesss disappears and the solution becomes again clear. This is
due to the conversion of calcium carbonate into calcium hydrogen carbonate which is soluble.
Ca(OH)2 + CO2→ CaCO3 + H2O
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 → Ca(HCO3)2
Our exhaled breath contains CO2. Confirm this by conducting the lime water test.
Experiment 22: Preparation of sulphur dioxide

Sulphur dioxide can be prepared by the action of dil. HCl or dil. H2SO4 on sodium sulphite or
sodium bisulphite.
Na2SO3 + 2HCl → 2 NaCl + SO2+ H2O
It can also be prepared by heating copper turnings with conc. H2SO4.

Cu + 2H2SO4→CuSO4 + SO2+ 2H2O
The gas being heavier than air, it can be collected by downward displacement of air.
Properties:
i) Expose moist blue litmus / red litmus papers to the gas. Record any colour change observed.
ii) Pass the gas through 5 mL water in a test tube. Test with litmus papers and record the
observation.
iii) Pass the gas through a dilute solution of KMnO4 (acidified with dil. sulphuric acid). Record the
observation.
2KMnO4+ 5SO2 + 2H2O → K2SO4+ 2MnSO4+ 2H2SO4
iv) Pass the gas through a dilute solution of potassium dichromate (acidified with dil. sulphuric
acid). Record the observation.
K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 + 3SO2 ↓ K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + H2O
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Experiment 23: Preparation of oxygen

i) Oxygen can be prepared in the laboratory by the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.
Manganese dioxide acts as a catalyst.
2H2O2→ 2H2O + O2
Oxygen can be collected by downward displacement of water.
ii) It can also be prepared by thermal decomposition of potassium permanganate.
2KMnO4 → K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2
Heat about 200 mg of KMnO4in a dry test tube. On decomposition of KMnO4,oxygen gets evolved.
Introduce a glowing matchstick into the test tube and observe that it catches fire and burns brightly.
Oxygen gas is a supporter of combustion.
Experiment 24: Preparation of chlorine

To about 200 mg of MnO2 taken in a dry test tube, add 5 ml of conc. HCl and warm the mixture on
a spirit lamp.
MnO2 + 4HCl → MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2
i) Observe the colour and odour.
ii) Check whether it supports combustion by introducing a burning splinter.
iii) Expose a moist coloured flower to the gas and record your observation.
iii) Dissolve the gas in water taken in another test tube. Use the chlorine water to carry out the
following reactions:
a) To a small portion of chlorine water, add drops of KI solution. Observe the reaction and write
chemical equation.
b) To a small portion of chlorine water, add drops of KBr solution. Observe the reaction and write
chemical equation.
Page 21
Experiment 25: Preparation of oxides of nitrogen

i) Nitric Oxide, NO: Take 200 mg of Cu metal turnings in a test tube and add 10 ml of 1:1 HNO3.
Initially warm the mixture. NO starts evolving; NO is a colourless gas, but it spontaneously reacts with
oxygen present in the tube and forms brown coloured NO2 gas. Allow the brown gas to escape. Then the
remaining colourless gas in the tube is nitric oxide.
3Cu + 8HNO3 → 2NO + 3Cu(NO3)2 + 4H2O
ii) Nitrogen dioxide, NO2: Copper turnings react with conc. Nitric acid on heating to liberate
brown NO2 gas.
Brown gas of NO2
Copper metal
Cu + 4HNO3 → 2NO2+ Cu(NO3)2 + 2H2O

Take 200 mg of Cu metal turnings and add 10 ml of conc. HNO3. Heat the solution carefully.
Brown fumes start evolving.
Experiment 26: Carbon dioxide – water reaction

When carbon dioxide reacts with water a weak acid is formed. Carbon dioxide present in exhaled
air is blown into a flask containing an indicator sensitive to small changes of pH in the appropriate
region of the pH scale, and the consequent colour changes observed and recorded.
Chemicals: Phenol red indicator solution, Sodium hydroxide solution, 0.4 M
Procedure
Place about 125 cm3 of tap water in a 250 mL conical flask. Add one or two drops of phenol red
indicator solution to the water. Then add two drops of sodium hydroxide solution to produce a red
solution.
Talk or blow gently into the flask until a colour change is observed. (Swirling will speed up the
reaction)
(The amount of carbon dioxide in each breath is small, so it takes a lot of breaths to react with the
alkali.)
Notes
Phenol red indicator changes from yellow to red over the pH range 6.8 – 8.4. An alternative
indicator is bromothymol blue; the colour change is blue (alkaline) to yellow (acid) over the pH range
6.0 – 7.6
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Eventually sufficient carbon dioxide from the students’ breath dissolves and produces enough acid
in the solution to change the colour of the indicator:
CO2(aq) + H2O(l) → H+(aq) + HCO3–(aq)
CO2 also reacts with NaOH. This reaction produces the less alkaline Na2CO3:
2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) → Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
The equilibrium between carbon dioxide and water can be reversed by heating the weakly acidic
solution to just below boiling. The solubility of carbon dioxide in water decreases as the temperature is
raised, and it is driven off into the atmosphere. The concentration of dissolved carbon dioxide therefore
drops, causing the equilibrium to shift to the left and the indicator colour to change back to red. On
cooling the solution and blowing exhaled breath into the flask again, the sequence can be repeated.
Experiment 27: To study bleaching action of bleaching powder

Bleaching powder can be represented as calciumoxochloride, Ca(OCl)2.
With dilute sulphuric acid, hypochlorous acid is released; hypochlorous acid generates nascent
oxygen which is responsible for bleaching action.
2Ca(OCl)2 + H2SO4 (aq) →CaSO4 + CaCl2 + 2HOCl
HOCl → HCl + [O]
i) Dip a piece of coloured cotton cloth in an aqueous suspension of bleaching powder and then
dip in a beaker containing dil. H2SO4. The coloured cloth bleaches.
ii) Bleaching powder loses chlorine by the action of excess dil. acids.
Experiment 28: Saponification of oil and preparation of soap

Add about 5 g of a fat or oil to a 250 mL beaker. Add 15 mL of 20 % NaOH to the beaker. Add a
small magnetic stir bar to the beaker and heat and stir the mixture on a magnetic stirrer hotplate. Heat the
mixture (with constant stirring) for 30 minutes or so, until the solution no longer has two separate layers.
The solution should be transparent at this point.
(As some of water in the solution will evaporate during heating, add 5 mL portions of water
periodically to maintain the same volume in the beaker.)
When the saponification is complete, carefully remove the beaker from the heat. Measure out 50
mL of a saturated NaCl solution in a graduated cylinder and pour it into a 400 mL beaker. Pour the soap
solution into the salt solution and stir with a stirring rod. This process is called “salting out” and causes
the soap to precipitate and float on the surface of the solution.
Place the beaker in an ice-water bath until it reaches the approximate temperature of the bath.
Collect the soap curds by vacuum filtration through a Buchner funnel fitted with a filter paper. When the
liquid has been pulled through, rinse the soap with two separate 10-mL portions of chilled deionised
water. After the soap has been rinsed, pull air through it to dry it further.
Use a rubber policeman to transfer the soap to a clean, dry watch glass and leave it to dry.
Properties of Soaps: Dissolve by swirling (i) 1 g of the soap you have prepared, (ii) 1 g of
commercial soap and (iii) 1 g of detergent in 50 mL of deionised water. (Avoid shaking as it would
generate foam.)
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a) pH Test -Test the pH of the solution with pH paper. Record the values
b) Foam Test -Transfer 5 mL each of the above solutions to three different identical test tubes.
Stopper the test tubes and shake them continuously for 10 seconds. Record the height of the foam formed.
c) Oil Test - Add 5 drops of oil to each of the test tubes used in the previous test. Stopper and shake
each of the tubes continuously for 10 seconds. Observe what happens to the oil layer in each tube. What
happens to the amount of foam in each test tube – increased or decreased compared to the previous step?
d) Hard Water Test- Take 5 mL each of the soap, commercial soap and detergent solutions in
three different test tubes. Add 20 drops of 1% CaCl2 solution to each of the test tubes and shake
continuously for 10 seconds. Record the height of the foam formed in each case.
Repeat the test with 20 drops of 1% MgSO4 solution and 1% FeCl3 solutions and record your
observations.
Experiment 29: Daniell cell

Daniell cell is the simplest voltaic or galvanic cell. It converts chemical energy into electrical
energy spontaneously.
Daniell cell consists of two half-cells. One half-cell is zinc rod dipped in 1M ZnSO4 solution. The
other half-cell is copper rod dipped in 1M CuSO4 solution. A salt bridge connects the two half-cells. The
two electrodes are connected together externally by metal wires in series with a voltmeter.
The zinc electrode is the anode and this is where the oxidation takes place.
Zn(s) –> Zn2+ (aq) + 2e-
The zinc metal is oxidised to zinc ions which go into solution.
The copper electrode is the anode, where reduction takes place.
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- –> Cu(s)
The copper ions present in the CuSO4 solution receive the electrons to form copper atoms, which
deposit on the electrode.
The net ionic equation is shown below:
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) –> Zn2+(aq)+ Cu(s)
Electrons produced at the anode travel through the external circuit to the cathode, creating an
electric current in the reverse direction. The salt bridge allows transfer of ions to balance charges.
Cu++ + 2e- = Cu; Eo = + 0.34 V
Zn++ + 2e- = Zn; Eo = - 0.76 V
Eocell = + 0.34 - (-0.76) = +1.1 V
Page 24
Experiment 30: Water of crystallization and

formula of a hydrated salt
Finding the formula of hydrated copper sulphate
In this experiment, a known mass of hydrated copper(II) sulphate is heated to remove the water of
crystallisation. The mass of water is found by weighing before and after heating. This information is
used to find x in the formula CuSO4.xH2O.
CuSO4. xH2O (heating) → CuSO4 + xH2O ↑
Procedure: Weigh an empty crucible, and then weigh into it about 0.5 g of hydrated copper (II)
sulphate accurately. Support the crucible securely in the pipe-clay triangle on the tripod over the Bunsen
burner.
Heat the crucible and contents, gently at first, over a medium Bunsen flame, so that the water of
crystallisation is driven off steadily. The blue colour of the hydrated compound should gradually fade to
the greyish-white of anhydrous copper (II) sulphate. (Avoid over-heating, which may cause further
decomposition, and stop heating immediately if the colour starts to blacken. If over-heated, toxic or
corrosive fumes may be evolved. (A total heating time of about 10 minutes should be enough.)Remove
the crucible from the hot pipe clay triangle and place it on a heat resistant mat to cool. Re-weigh the
crucible and contents.
Crucible with hydrated

Copper sulphate
Electric Bunsen
burner
Calculation:
 Calculate the molar masses of H2O and CuSO4 (Relative atomic masses: H=1, O=16, S=32, Cu=64)
 Calculate the mass of water driven off, and the mass of anhydrous copper(II) sulphate formed in
your experiment
 Calculate the number of moles of anhydrous copper(II) sulphate formed
 Calculate the number of moles of water driven off
 Calculate how many moles of water would have been driven off if 1 mole of anhydrous copper(II)
sulphate had been formed
 Write down the formula for hydrated copper (II) sulphate.
Observation:
Mass of empty porcelain crucible, M1 = _____g
Mass of porcelain crucible + copper sulphate crystals, M2 = ____g
Mass of copper sulphate crystals taken, M3 = (M2-M1) = ____g
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Mass of crucible + anhydrous copper sulphate (after heating), M4 = _____g

Mass of anhydrous copper sulphate, M5 = (M4-M1) = ____g
Mass of water expelled, M6 = (M3-M5) = _____g
Number of moles of water expelled, x = (M6/18) =
Number of moles of anhydrous copper sulphate, y = (M5/160)
Note: Molar mass of water =18 and molar mass of anhydrous copper sulphate = 160
Ratio of number of moles of water molecules to anhydrous copper sulphate = x/y
Approximate the (x/y) value to the nearest whole number, Z
So, the composition of copper sulphate crystals is CuSO4. Z H2O
Experiment 31: Displacement reactions of metals

and their salt solutions
Some metals are more reactive than others. In this experiment, a strip of metal is added to a
solution of a compound of another metal. A more reactive metal displaces (pushes out) a less reactive
metal from its compound. The experiment, studies competition reactions of metals and arrive at
a reactivity series of the metals used.
Procedure:
Prepare 100 mL of 0.1 M solutions of copper sulphate, lead nitrate, zinc sulphate and magnesium
sulphate. Cut approximately 5 mm length pieces of copper, zinc, lead foils and magnesium ribbon and
clean the surface with emery paper.
Using a dropper, put a little of the zinc sulphate solution in four of the depressions in the spotting
tile, using the following illustration as a guide. Label this row with the name of the solution. Rinse the
dropper well with water afterwards.
Do this for each metal ion solution in turn.
Put a piece of each metal in each of the solutions, using the illustration as a guide.
Over the next few minutes observe which mixtures have reacted and which have not.
Page 26
Experiment 32: Exothermic metal displacement

reactions –reactivity series
Powdered or finely-divided metals are added to copper (II) sulphate solution and the temperature
rise is measured in each case. . The experiment reinforces ideas about energy changes during reactions,
the reactivity series of the metals and the chemical behaviour of metals.
Prepare a 100 mL 1.0 M copper sulphate solution. Measure 20 cm3 of the copper(II) sulphate
solution in a polystyrene cup. Put the cup into a beaker so that it does not fall over. Measure and record
the temperature of the solution.
Add about 2 spatula measure (or about 2 g) of iron powder to the solution and stir the mixture with
the thermometer. Observe the temperature over the next few minutes until a maximum temperature is
reached. Record the temperature rise.
Repeat the procedure with fresh polystyrene cups using each of the other metals- zinc and
Magnesium
Sl .No. Metal added Temperature rise (ºC)
1 Iron
2 Zinc
3 Magnesium
Experiment 33: Reactions of carboxylic acids

Ethanoic acid (acetic acid) will be tested with full-range universal indicator solution,
magnesium, sodium hydroxide solution and sodium carbonate solution. These reactions will be
compared with those of hydrochloric acid of the same concentration, to show that ethanoic acid is
a weak acid.
Chemicals required
Magnesium ribbon - two strips of 1 cm length, 0.1M Aceticacid - 15 mL, 0.1 M hydrochloric acid-
15 mL,0.4 Msodiumhydroxide, 0.4 M sodium carbonate - 5 mL, universal indicator solution (full range,
pH 1-14)
Procedure
a) Add 4 mL of the acetic acid to each of the three test tubes and hydrochloric acid to three test
tubes.
b) Add three drops of universal indicator solution to one of the acetic acid tubes and to one of the
hydrochloric acid tubes. Note the pH values.
c) Add one drop of sodium carbonate (0.4 M) solution using a dropper to the test tube containing
acetic acid and the universal indicator. Stir with a glass rod and note any observations. Continue
to add drops until the pH is neutral. Count the number of drops you have used.
d) Repeat the procedure by adding the sodium carbonate to the tube containing hydrochloric acid
and indicator.
e) Repeat the steps ‘b-d’ using another set of test tubes, but adding sodium hydroxide solution (0.4
M) instead of sodium carbonate.
Page 27
f) Add a small piece of magnesium ribbon to the remaining hydrochloric acid tube. Try to identify
the gas given off.
g) Repeat step fusing the remaining acetic acid tube. Compare the rate of reaction with that of
hydrochloric acid.
Notes:
The hydrochloric acid will show pH = 1, and the acetic acid will show pH = 3.
Only a few drops of sodium carbonate solution and sodium hydroxide solution will be needed to
neutralise the acids as the alkaline solutions are eight times more concentrated than the acids. The
hydrochloric acid will fizz strongly with the sodium carbonate solution, whereas for acetic acid the
fizzing will be detectable but less vigorous.
The hydrochloric acid will fizz with the magnesium. Hydrogen is given off. Hydrogen is given off
more slowly with acetic acid.
Ethanoic acid is a weak acid which means it does not fully dissociate into ions in water.
CH3COOH → H+ + CH3COO-
Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid and dissociates fully.
HCl → H+ + Cl-
This means that the concentration of H+ ions in 0.05 M HCl is higher than that in 0.05 M acetic
acid, so pH of HCl is lower and its reactions are faster. When alkalis are added, however, the acetic acid
equilibrium position moves to the right, so eventually all the acid reacts, as shown in the equations below:
NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O
NaOH + CH3COOH → CH3COONa + H2O
Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + CO2 + H2O
Na2CO3 + 2CH3COOH → 2CH3COONa + CO2 + H2O
Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
Mg + 2CH3COOH → (CH3COO)2Mg + H2
Experiment 34: Making esters with carboxylic acids and alcohols

The reactions between a range of alcohols and acids on a test-tube scale, to produce small
quantities of a variety of esters quickly are studied.
Chemicals: Glacial acetic acid 2mL, conc. Sulphuric acid 2 mL, Methanol 2 mL, Ethanol 2mL, 1-
Butanol 2mL, Benzoic acid 0.2 g, Salicylic acid 0.2 g, 0.5 M sodium carbonate solution 10 mL per ester.
Add 2 drops of conc. sulphuric acid to a small test tube. To it add 10 drops of glacial acetic acid,
followed by 10 drops of ethanol. Heat the test tube in hot water bath for 2 minutes, then take it out, cool
and pour the mixture into a test tube containing 10 mL of sodium carbonate solution. There will be some
effervescence, followed by separation of a layer of ester which floats on the aqueous layer. Smell the
product.
Repeat the procedure using with other alcohols / acids. For solid acids, take 0.2 g of the acid.
Try to differentiate between the odours of different esters.
Page 28
Experiment 35: Growing crystals

a) Growing crystals of Sodium Chloride
Prepare a saturated solution of common salt in10 mL boiling hot water. (There should be some
undissolved salt at the bottom of the container). Filter if there are any suspended particles. Transfer the
solution to a small Petri dish, cover it tissue paper to prevent entry of dust particles and leave it
undisturbed to evaporate. Numerous small salt crystals will form.
Observe the morphology of crystals through a microscope.
b) Growing Crystals of Copper Sulphate

Copper sulphate crystals are among the easiest and most beautiful crystals that you can grow. The
brilliant blue crystals can be grown relatively quickly and can become quite large.
Prepare a saturated solution of copper sulphate in very hot water. Just pour the solution into a jar
and wait a few days for crystals to grow, but with a seed crystal, you can get much larger and better-
shaped crystals.
To grow a seed crystal, pour a little saturated copper sulphate solution into a Petri dish. Allow it to
sit in an undisturbed location for several hours or overnight. Select the best crystal as your 'seed' for
growing a large crystal. Scrape the crystal off of the container and tie it to a length of nylon string.
Suspend the seed crystal in a clean jar containing the saturated solution of copper sulphate. Don't
allow any undissolved copper sulphate to spill into the jar. Don't let the seed crystal touch the sides or
bottom of the jar. Place the jar in a location where it won't be disturbed. Cover the container with paper
towel over the top of the container, but allowing air circulation so that the liquid can evaporate. Then,
allow it to dry.
Page 29
In the same way, so many crystals can be grown in the laboratory.
Experiment 36: Percentage of oxygen in atmosphere

Unique feature of earth is atmosphere. Atmosphere is a mixture of gases, water vapours and fine
dust which are surrounding the earth. Mixture of gas contains 78% of Nitrogen, 21% of Oxygen and rest
of 1% contains remaining gases like Ar, CO2, CO, NO and NO2.
Experimental part: Water-Candle experiment to show presence of percentage of Oxygen.
Keep a burning candle which is surrounded by water inside a tray as shown in the picture. Then
take one glass jar and cover the candle immediately. The flame diminishes and goes out. At the same time
water level inside the jar increases by 2/10th of the height of the jar. No air bubbles are seen and water
level stays for many more minutes. This will give approximate 20% rise in the cylinder.
Principle behind this experiment is when candle burn in the air, air get expands and water level
stays down. When all the oxygen depleted and candle goes out. Air cools and volume decreases. Water
enters the jar.
The above picture shows sequence of experiment.
Page 30
Experiment 37: Metal oxides and non-metal oxides

When metals and non metals burn in air and it forms metal oxide and non metal oxide respectively.
For example metals like Mg and Na burn in the air and it forms MgO and Na2O respectively. Also when
non-metals like P, S burn in the air and it forms P2O5 and SO2 respectively.
But when these oxides dissolved in water it shows different character. When metal oxide dissolved
in water it becomes alkaline and if non-metal oxide dissolved in water it becomes acidic.
Metal oxide + water → Acidic solution
Non-metal oxide + water → Basic solution
Experimental part: Take about 0.2g of red phosphorous and burn inside a glass jar and collect the
smoke formed after complete burning. To that jar add distilled water and dissolve the smoke in water.
Now take one blue litmus paper and dip in the solution and observe the change in colour to red. This
shows the oxide of Phosphorous is acidic in nature.
Same way you can test for Sulphur using same procedure.
For non-metal oxide you will be carried out the experiment in the laboratory (expt. No.: 10)
Experiment 38: States of matter

Materials are classified into solids, liquids and gases. In our daily life we can see lot of materials in
different physical states. Any matter has mass, and it occupies space. This is true for solids, liquids and
gases.
Simplest way to show these three states of matter is by using water. When water is frozen it
becomes ice and it is solid.If ice gets warmed, it becomes liquid. If you heat the liquid or water it boils
and becomes vapour.
Ice → water → steam
This can be reversed on cooling.
Steam →Water → Ice
Arrangement of molecules in solids, liquids and gases.
Note: Some of the compounds do not follow this sequence. If you heat Iodine, Ammonium chloride
and Camphor, they sublime. This means that, they go to the vapour state from solid directly.
Page 31
Experiment 39: Preparation of PCl5

PCl5 can be prepared by reaction of red phosphorous with chlorine gas. When these two react each
other we can observe spark formation. So this reaction needs to do carefully.
First step is to prepare chlorine gas. (Refer experiment number 23.) Collect chlorine gas in a test
tube and add little amount of red phosphorous.
P + Cl2 → PCl5
Experiment 40: Reaction of metals with water

Metal reacts with water as well as hydrochloric acid to give hydrogen gas.
Reaction of Sodium with water: This reaction is highly explosive; it should be done with extra
care.
Take a small piece of sodium metal and put into a test tube containing water. It reacts suddenly and
you can observe hiss sound and flame. That means the reaction is very vigorous. Then take one burning
match stick and keep near the test tube mouth. Because of hydrogen gas you can observe pop sound. Also
to the solution inside the test tube add two drops of phenolphthalein indicator. You can observe colour
changes from colourless to pink. This indicates the formation of sodium hydroxide after the reaction.
Reaction follows; Na + H2O → NaOH + H2↑
Experiment 41: Oxidation-reduction reaction

Reduction of copper oxide and Fe2O3:
Using charcoal, Copper oxide can be reduced to copper metal. Here charcoal is the reducing agent
which reduces copper oxide to copper.
CuO( Cu2+) + 2e- → Cu
In copper oxide copper is in +2 state. That copper oxide takes two electrons from Carbon
(charcoal). Cu2+ becomes copper metal where copper is in 0 state.
Thus, reduction means addition of electron and oxidation means removal of electron.
Initially, copper oxide is black in colour. After reduction it becomes red because of formation of
copper metal. Formation of Cu metal can be confirmed by the reaction with conc. HNO3. (refer
experiment number 24)
2CuO + C → 2Cu + CO2↑
In the same way, by H2 gas, Fe2O3 will be reduced to Fe metal. Here hydrogen is the reducing agent
which reduces Fe2O3to Fe metal.
Fe2O3 + 3H2 → 2Fe + 3H2O
The colour of the Fe2O3 is red and after reduction it becomes black.
Page 32
Experiment 42: Purification of materials:

Recrystallization
Purification of red salt: Red salt or raw sea salt contains about 80% of sodium chloride and
remaining 20% of mixture of Iron oxide and some other minerals. This salt is red in colour. This can be
purified by recrystallization method.
Take about 5g of raw salt in 20ml water. Dissolve it completely and filter it using a Whatman filter
paper. Collect the filtrate in a petri dish and keep under hot sun light for half an hour. Then you can
observe white pure sodium chloride cubic crystal.
Before recrystallization After recrystallization
Experiment 43: What is iodised salt?

Iodised salt is a common salt which is mixed with various salts of Iodinepurposefully. Intake of this
salt prevents iodine deficiency in human body. Edible salt can be iodised by spraying potassium iodate or
potassium iodide solution.
In this experiment, we show the presence of iodine in table salt.
Take some amount of commercially available table salt. Add little amount of lemon juice to it. Then
add starch solution. If you observe blue colour after adding starch, it indicates that the salt taken contains
iodine.
Page 33
Experiment 44: Detection of elements: Flame test

Flame test is a procedure to detect the presence of elements primarily metal ions, based on
characteristic emission spectra. The test involves introducing a salt of the element to a hot flame and
observing the colour of the flame.
The salt is usually made into a paste using hydrochloric acid as metal halides being volatile giving
better results.
Some of the metal salts like lithium chloride dissolve in ethanol. Spirit lamp with dissolved lithium
chloride ethanol shows crimson red coloured flame because of the presence of Li ion (shown in the
picture).
Some common elements and their corresponding colours are:
Sodium Golden yellow
Barium Apple green
Calcium Orange
Potassium Lilac
Sodium Intense yellow
Normal spirit lamp LiCl mixed with alcohol in the spirit lamp
Page 34
Experiment 45: Combustion chemistry

Take a piece of dry paper. Burn it by a match stick. Note the yellowish colour of light.
Hold your hand close to flame. Feel the warmth.
Where does the heat come from?
How is light produced?
What is smoke? Why is it produced?
Similarly carry out the light experiment using different sources like kerosene lamp, match stick,
candle, spirit lamp etc.
Page 35
Page 36

Chem Experiments at TDC

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Chem Experiments at TDC

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Chemistry Experiments

23. Preparation of oxygen 21

Experiment 1: To prepare a saturated solution of common salt at

Observations and calculations

Experiment 2: To prepare a solution of known composition

A 1% solution means 1 g of solute present in 100g of solution.

Experiment 3: To study separation of two immiscible

Experiment 4: Distillation - To study the separation of two miscible

Experiment 5: To obtain pure water from distillation of saline water.

Experiment 6: Determination of linear dimensions

A. Density of regular solids

How to use the caliper?

Here: l = length, b= breadth, h= height, d= diameter

B. How to determine density of solids of irregular shape?

If we use salt water instead of pure water

Density of pure water is nearly equals to 1 g/cc. Therefore,

You can measure density of alcohol. Take alcohol in the beaker,

Mass of Cu under Buoyancy in alcohol = _____ g

This way you can measure density of any liquid.

Experiment 7: Measurement of temperature

Disadvantage of mercury thermometer

Chromel-Alumel (called K type thermocouple) can be used to measure 0oC to 1200oC

Tabulate your observations.

Experiment 8: To Study colloids and Tyndall effect

Record your observations.

Experiment 9: To study the chemical reaction of an iron nail with

Experiment 10: To study the burning of magnesium ribbon in air

Magnesium ribbon Burning of Magnesium ribbon

Experiment 11: To study the reactions of dil. hydrochloric acid and

Experiment 12: To study the reactions of sodium hydroxide with

Experiment 13: To study double displacement reactions

Experiment 14: To study the sublimation of solids and to use it to

Sand and Iodine mixture

A mixture of two solids can be separated if one of them undergoes sublimation.

Experiment 15: To measure change of temperature during chemical

a) Hydrochloric acid and Sodium hydroxide reaction:

b) Barium hydroxide – ammonium chloride reaction:

Experiment 16: Distinguishing between electrolytes and non-

Experiment 17: Measurement of conductivity using

Experiment 18: To measure pH of different solutions

At any given temperature: Kw= [H+][OH-] = 10-14.

pH = -log10 [H+] ([H+] is molar concentration of hydrogen)

a) Measurement of pH using pH paper

b) pH measurement using pHmeter:

Experiment 19: Electrolysis of water

[K+ can also undergo reduction as 2H+ + 2e- → H2 only if no H+ is present.

Experiment No. 20: Determination of Avogadro number

The reaction is given by:

= (0.250) × (10 ×60)

Therefore, Avogadro number =__________

Experiment 21: Preparation of carbon dioxide

Experiment 22: Preparation of sulphur dioxide

It can also be prepared by heating copper turnings with conc. H2SO4.

Experiment 23: Preparation of oxygen

Experiment 24: Preparation of chlorine

Experiment 25: Preparation of oxides of nitrogen

Brown gas of NO2

Cu + 4HNO3 → 2NO2+ Cu(NO3)2 + 2H2O

Experiment 26: Carbon dioxide – water reaction

Experiment 27: To study bleaching action of bleaching powder

Experiment 28: Saponification of oil and preparation of soap

Experiment 29: Daniell cell

Experiment 30: Water of crystallization and

Crucible with hydrated