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Contents
Manual for K-Notes ................................................................................. 2

Transmission Lines .................................................................................. 3
Underground Cables ............................................................................. 14
ww
Overhead Insulators .............................................................................. 16
Distribution Systems ............................................................................. 16
w.E
Per Unit System .................................................................................... 17
asy
Load Flow Study .................................................................................... 18
En
Economic Power Generation ................................................................ 20
gin
Fault Analysis ........................................................................................ 21
ee
Power System Stability.......................................................................... 29
rin
Power System Protection ...................................................................... 33
g.n
et
© 2014 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.

Manual for K-Notes
Why K-Notes?
Towards the end of preparation, a student has lost the time to revise all the chapters from his /
her class notes / standard text books. This is the reason why K-Notes is specifically intended for
Quick Revision and should not be considered as comprehensive study material.
ww What are K-Notes?
w.E
A 40 page or less notebook for each subject which contains all concepts covered in GATE
Curriculum in a concise manner to aid a student in final stages of his/her preparation. It is highly
useful for both the students as well as working professionals who are preparing for GATE as it
asy
comes handy while traveling long distances.
En
When do I start using K-Notes?
gin
It is highly recommended to use K-Notes in the last 2 months before GATE Exam
(November end onwards).
ee
How do I use K-Notes? rin
g.n
Once you finish the entire K-Notes for a particular subject, you should practice the respective
et
Subject Test / Mixed Question Bag containing questions from all the Chapters to make best use
of it.
© 2014 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.

Transmission Lines
Skin Effect
It is tendency of AC current to be concentrated on the surface of conductor.

Cause: Non-uniform distribution of magnitude flux linkages Due to skin effect, the effective
area of cross section of conductor decrease and hence resistances increases.
In case of DC, There is no skin effect so
RDC  R AC
 With increase in frequency, skin effect increases.
 With increase in r , skin effect increases.
ww
Inductance of a Transmission line
 Single Conductor
w.E Internal inductance

 0 r
8
External inductance from distance ‘ d1 ’ to ‘ d2 ’
Lex  asy
0r  d2 
ln  
En
2  d1 
0 r 0 r  d2 
Total inductance 
8

2  r 
   d     d
gin
ln  
ee
 0 r ln  1   0 r ln  
2  re 4  2  r  
r  0.7788r = Geometric mean radius (GMR)
rin
 Single phase 2 – wire line
 0 rd g.n
Inductance of single wire 
Total inductance = L1  L2
0  d 
ln  
2  r  
et
Lsys  ln  
  r 
If radius of both wire is not same, assume radius of 1st wire ra & that of second wire is rb
0  d 

Lsys  ln
  r r 
 a b 
ra  0.7788ra & rb  0.7788rb
If instead of a single conductor per phase we use multiple conductor, then GMR is
replaced by self GND (Geometric Mean Distance) and ‘d’ by mutual GMD.

Self GMD
ww
w.E
self GMDfwd  D11 D12 ........D1n D21 D22 .........D2n  ....... Dn1 Dn2 ........Dnn 
1
n2
Where Dii  ri  0.7788ri

asy
Self GMDbwd  Di 1 ' '
En  
Di' 2' ........Di'm' .............. Dml' ' ................Dmm 
' '

1
m2
Where Dii  ri  0.7788ri

gin
Mutual GMD
ee
Mutual GMD  D11' D12' ...........D1m'  ................. Dn1' Dn2' .................Dnm'  
1
rin
mn
Now, with these terms all the inductance expressions change to

g.n
Single wire :
0 
ln 
d 

2  self GMD 
0  mutual GMD 
et
1  , 2 wire: ln  
2  Self GMD 
Three – phase Transmission line
Symmetrical configuration
0r  D 
Lph  ln  
2  r 
r  0.7788r

Asymmetrical configurations
If conductors are placed horizontally or vertically.

1
Deq  Dab  Dbc  Dca  3
0r  Deq 
Lph  ln  
2  r 
In case of bundled conductor, more than one conductor per phase
ww
We replace Dab  Dabeq = mutual GMD between a phase & b phase
w.E
Similarly, Dbc  Dbceq
Dca  Dcaeq
In place of GMR, Self GMD is used asy


Self GMD=  Self GMD
a En
 Self GMD Self GMD 
b c
1
3
gin
Example: Calculate inductance per phase of following circuit?
ee rin
Between successive conductors, distance = 3m , Radius of each conductor = 1m
g.n
Solution
Dab eq  Da1b1 . Da1b2 . Da2b1 . Da2b2 

1
4
et
1
 3  12  12  3 4
 6m
1
Dbc eq  3  6  6  3 4  4.24m
1
Dca eq   6  9  9  6  4  7.348m
Deq = mutual GMD

1
 Dab.eq  Dbc.eq  Dca.eq  3
= 5.71m

1
Self GMD   r  D
a a1a2
 Da2a1  r   4
0.7788  0.012  152 

1
4

= 0.341m
1
Self GMD   r  D
b b1b2
 Db2b1  r   4
= 0.2467m
1
Self GMD  r  D c1c2
 Dc2c1  r  4
ww
c
= 0.1528m
w.E
1
Self GMD   Self GMD a Self GMD b Self GMD  c  3
= 0.2398m
L
0  GMD 
ln  
2  GMD Self  asy
 5.71 
 2  10 7 ln    0.634mH / km En
 0.2398 
gin
Remember, Inductance calculated using these formulas is per unit length.
Transposition of Transmission line ee rin

g.n
The position of different lines are changed after regular intervals to reduce radio interference in
neighboring communication lines.
et
Capacitance
Single Phase 2 – Wire System
0 r
Cab 
 D 
ln  
 rr 
 12 
Line to neutral capacitance

20 r 20 r
Can  , Cbn 
D  D 
ln   ln  
 r1   r2 
Three phase single conductor system
20 r
Cph 
 GMD 
ln  
 r 
For bundled conductors
ww
Cph 
20 0
 GMD 
w.E ln  
 Self GMD 
In capacitance calculations, it must always be remembered that there is no concept of r, we
asy
simply use radius in calculating self GMD.
Performance of Transmission line
Classification of lines based on length En
1) Short Line
l < 80 km or
gin
l*f < 4000 , Where f = frequency
2) Medium Line
80 km < l < 200 km
ee rin
4000 < l*f < 10000
g.n
3) Long Line
l > 200 km
l*f > 10000
et
Modeling of transmission lines
Transmission lines are modeled as 2 – port network

Vs  AVR  BIR
Is  CVR  DIR
Under no load
Vs
IR  0 , Vs  AVR , VR 
A

Vs
No Load Voltage  and IR  0 , Is  CVR
A
Vs
 VR
A
Voltage Regulation   100%
VR
This current is called as line charging current and is responsible for as effect is called as “Ferranti
Effect”.
Ferranti Effect
ww
Under no-load or light load conditions receiving end voltage becomes more than sending end
voltage due to presence of line charging current.
w.E
Short transmission line
Vs  VR  IR R  jwL 
asy
 VR  IR Z
En
 Vs  1 z   VR 
 I   0 1   I 
 s   R  gin
A = D (symmetrical)
AD – BC = 1 (reciprocal)
ee rin
Approximate Voltage Regulation
g.n
For lagging pf
VR=
IR
VR
R cos  R
 X sin R 
et
load pf=cosR
For leading pf
IR
VR  R cos R  X sin R 
VR

Medium Transmission Line
Normal – T – Model
 YZ   YZ  
 1   Z 1  
 Vs   2   4    VR 
   
 Is    YZ    IR 
Y 1   
  2  
Here all problems are in actual values & not per unit length.
ww
Nominal-π-Model
 YZ 
w.E
 Vs  
  
1
2
Z 
V 
 R
 Is   Y  1  YZ  1  YZ   IR 
 2 
  4 
asy
Long transmission Line En
Vx  VR cosh X  IR Z c sinh x gin
IR  IR cosh x 
VR
Zc
sinh x ee rin
Where Vx & I x are voltage and current at distance ‘x’ from receiving end.
R  jL g.n
Zc 
G  jC
= surge impedance
In case of long transmission line, we use all promoters’ per-unit length.

et
For loss less line, R=G=0
L
Zc 
C
For distribution less line, RC = LG
For sending end, x = l
Vs  VR cosh l  IR Z c sinh l
VR
Is  IR coshl+ sinh l
Zc

cosh l Z c sinh l

 Vs     VR 
  1  
 Is   Z cosh l   IR 
 c


A = D (symmetric)
AD - BC = 1 (reciprocal)
Power Transfer Equation
Vs Vr A
cos      Vr cos    
2
Pr 
B B
ww Qr 
Vs Vr
sin     
A
Vr sin    
2
w.E
For Short TL
B B
B  Z 
asy  B  Z ; 
A  10  A 
En  A  1, =0
Pr 
Vs Vr
Z
cos       ginVr
Z
2
cos 
Qr 
Vs Vr
sin      
ee
Vr
2
sin 
rin
Z Z
If resistance of line is neglected g.n

Z  jX  X and   900
Vs Vr Vs Vr Vr
2
et
Pr  sin ; QR = cos  
X X X
Remember, the last expression can be applied between any two bases in a power system as long
as transmission line connecting them is loss less.
Wave Propagation
Due to continuous energy transfer between L & C elements of a transmission line we consider
energy propagation from sending to receiving end & hence wave propagation.
Z c = Surge impedance or characteristic impedance.
10

γ = Propagation constant.
 R  jL G  jC 

For loss less line
R=G=O
  j LC
    j
 = attenuation constant
ww  = phase constant
In case of loss less line   0 (no attenuation)
w.E    LC
1
Velocity of wave 
LC
asy
, Where L & C are per unit length
Wavelength  
2


2
 LC En
Surge Impedance Loading
gin
When load impedance = surge impedance
PL 
Vr(L
2
L)
= Surge Impedance Loading
ee rin
ZC
If ZL  ZC g.n
VR  IR Z C
According to long line

et
VX  VR coshx+VR sinhx  2VRex
So no term containing e yx & hence no reflected wave & hence whenever surge impedance is
connected at load, there is no reflection.
11

Surge Traversal
Theremin equivalent circuit
When surge voltage ‘ V ’ is induced on the line & line can be represented as Theremin
equivalent circuit shown.
ZC = Characteristic impedance of line
ZL = load impedance or characteristics impedance of second
line connected in series to first.
ww  ZL 
Transmitted voltage V2  2V   potential divider 
 ZL  Z C 
w.E
Incident Voltage V1  V
Reflected voltage  V
V  V  V2
asy [Voltage continuity]
 Z  ZC 
V  V  L 
 ZL  Z C  En
Reflected current  
V gin V
, Refracted current   2 , Incident current 
V
Reflection coefficient:
ZC
V  ZL  Z C

V ZL  Z C
ee ZL ZC
rin
Refraction coefficient:
V2

2ZL
g.n
Voltage Control
V ZL  Z C
et
 Usually in case of lagging loads, the voltage at receiving end falls below sending end voltage
and to boost the receiving end voltage we connect a shunt capacitor at receiving end.
 Similarly, in case of leading loads, receiving end voltage is higher than sending end voltage
so we connect a shunt reactor to avoid over-voltage.
Usually in GATE, we need to calculate rating of capacitor for voltage control & it is illustrated
through a question shown below:
12

Example: A three phase overhead lines has a resistance & reactance of 5 & 20 respectively.
The load at receiving end is 30MW, 0.85 pf lagging at 33kv & we connect a compensating
equipment at receiving end to maintain voltage at each end equal to 33 Kv. Find rating of
compensating equipment?
Solution:
Assuming base (MVA) = 30 MVA
Base voltage = 33 kv
30Mw
pu power =  1pu
30MVA
ww
Base impedance =
V2
S
 36.3
w.E
pu impedance = 
5  j20
36.3
 0.56875.960
PR 
VS VR
Z
cos      
VR
Z
2
asy
cos   Z  0.568 ; =75.96 0 
1
11
cos  75.96    
12
cos75.96 En  cos  75.96     0.81
0.568
  40.110
0.568
gin
QR 
VS VR
Z
sin      
VR
Z
sin  
ee
1 1
0.568
sin  75.96  40.11 
12
0.568 rin
 sin75.96
QR = - 0.645 pu g.n
QL  PL tan   1  tan  cos1 0.85 
QL = 0.6197 pu
et
QR  QL  QC  QC  1.2647pu
QC  1.2647  30 = 37.9 MVAR
So, we can observe the steps involved

Step – 1 : Calculate  from PL as capacitor does not consume any real power.
Step-2 : Calculate QR using  calculated above
Step-3 : QR  QL  QC than Calculate QC
13

Power Factor Correction
Usually, to improve the supply side power factor we connect a capacitor device like capacitor
bank or synchronous condenser (synchronous motor under over excited condition).
Suppose, initially a load of real power P1 & lagging pf cos 1 is connected & we want to
improve pf to cos 2 lagging  2  1  & we connect a capacitive device which consumes real
power PC  & thus net real power after connection.
P2  P1  PC
Q2  P2 tan 2 ; Q1  P1 tan 1
ww
QC  P1 tan 1  P2 tan 2
w.E
In case of capacitor bank, PC  0  P1  P2
If we wish to calculate capacitance per phase
asy
(in both voltage control & pf correction )
QC
QC  3CV 2
ph
 C
3Vph
2
En
Underground Cables gin
Insulation resistance
R
 R 
ln   
ee rin
2l  r 
L = length of cable g.n

R = Outer radius (sheath radius)
R = conductor radius et
Capacitance Model
CC : Core capacitance
CS : Core to sheath capacitance
14

Capacitance per phase

Cph  CS  3CC
Calculating CS & CC
1) Any of two cores or conductors are connected to

sheath & capacitance is measured between remaining
core & sheath.
C1  CS  2CC
ww2) All three cores are connected together & capacitance is
w.Emeasured between any core & sheath.

C2  3CS
CS 
C2
3 asy
C
2CC  C1  2
3 En
C C 
CC   1  2 
 2 6  gin
Cph  CS  3CC 
3C1 C2
2

6
ee rin
3) Any one of core is connected to sheath & capacitance is
measured between remaining 2 cores. g.n
C3 
3CC CS
2

2
et
Cph  2C3
15

Dielectric loss in a UG cable
P  3Cph Vph
2
tan 
where tan   loss tangent
1
tan  
cphR
R = Insulation resistance
ww
Overhead Insulators
For suspension type string insulator, the model for 3-discs looks like as shown.
w.E C
Let m  m
CS
V2  V1 1  m
V3  V1 1  m2  3m
asy
The voltage of disc nearest to the conductor is highest.
String efficiency  En string voltage
V
gin
No. of discs  voltage across bottom disc
  100%

1
ee
 V2  V3
3  V3
rin
Distribution Systems
 Sources fed from both ends g.n
1) Assume I A from VA
2) Calculate I A from
VA  VB   I A  I1  r1   I A  I1  I2  r2   I A  I1  I2  I3  r3
et
3) Substitute I A in  I A  I1  ,  I A  I1  I2  &  I A  I1  I2  I3  & check for sign change.
4) Node for minimum potential = Node for sign change
5) Calculate minimum potential by KVL
Example: Refer Kuestion power systems for that.
16

Per Unit System

In pu system, energy quantity is expressed as a ratio of some based value.
Absolute value or Actual value

pu value=
Base value
Percentage value = pu value x 100%
Base value
1 -  System
 Sbase , Vbase , Ibase , Zbase
ww

Out of these, 2 value must be known, to convert entire system into pu system.
Sbase  Vbase  Ibase
w.E Ibase 
Sbase
Vbase
, Z base 
Vbase
Ibase

Vbase
2
Sbase

asy
Usually, we assume Sbase & Vbase as known.
3 -  System En
 Sbase & Vbase are assumed gin
 Ibase 
Sbase
3  Vbase
Vbase = line to line voltage
ee rin

Sbase = 3 – phase power
For start connection g.n

V ph Vbase / 3 Vbase
Z base  base
Ibase ph
For delta connection

Ibase

2
Sbase et
V ph Vbase 3V 2
Z base  base   base
Ibase ph Ibase / 3 Sbase
In per unit system, equivalent impedance of transformer referred to primary or

secondary in same.
17

Change of base
If base of system is changed from Vbase  old , Sbase  old  to Vbase new  ,Sbase new 
2
 V  old   Sbase new  
Zpu new   Zpu  old    base   
 Vbase new    Sbase  old  
Load Flow Study

Power System Matrices
ww  YBUS matrix
 y10  y12  y12 0
w.E YBUS    y12

 0
y 20  y12  y 23
 y 23
 y 23 

y 23  y 30 
OBSERVATIONS asy
1)
2) En
The diagonal elements are sum of all admittance connected to that particular bus.
The off-diagonal elements are negative of admittance connected between two buses.
3)
4)
gin
If two buses are not connected to each other than that elements is zero.
YBUS Matrix is a symmetrical matrix.
% sparsity =
Total number of zero elements
Total number of elements
ee
5) Most of the elements are zero & hence it is a sparse matrix.
rin
g.n
 ZBUS matrix
ZBUS   YBUS 
1
et
 ZBUS matrix used in fault analysis.
 Suppose a 3 – phase SC fault occurs on bus ‘k’ then fault current
Vprefault ,k
If 
Zkk  Z f
Vprefault , k  Pr e  fault voltage at bus 'k'
Zkk = elements of ZBUS matrix.
Z f = fault impedance
 Due to fault voltage at other buses are also affected.
18

 V1   I1 
    0
.  .   
.  .  0
    . 
 Vk   Ik   
.
.    Z  .   V    ZBUS   
   BUS    BUS I
.  .   f
    . 
 Vn   In   
    . 
     0 
   
ww Vk  If Zkk
w . E
If 
Vf
 Z  0
Zkk f
Vj  Z jk I"f
Vj 
Z jk
Vf
asy
Zkk
En
 Post – fault voltage at bus j
Z jk gin
Vjf  Vj 
Zkk f
V
ee
If there is generator connected to bus ‘ j ’ then current supplied by generator.
Eg  Vjf rin
I
jX"d
g.n
Classification of buses
At each bus, there are 4 parameter: V , ,P,Q .
et
At any bus, out of these 4 quantities any 2 are specified.
1) Slack Bus / Swing Bus/Reference Bus
V ,  are know quantities.

P, Q are unknown quantities.
Any extra power needed by the system is supplied by slack bus.
2) Generator Bus / PV Bus
P, V is specified
Q,  are unspecified
19

3) Load Bus / PQ Bus

P & Q are constant as specified
V &  are unknown
Generally, newton – Raphson method is used for load flow solution and we form Jacobian
matrix, & the order of Jacobian matrix is
2n  m  2  2n  m  2
N = no. of total buses
M = no. of pv buses
ww
Economic Power Generation
 Incremental cost
w.E If is cost required to generate an additional unit of energy.

 IC i = Incremental cost of ith generator
Ci
 IC i 
PGi
asy
PGi = Power generated by ith generator
Ci = cost of ith generator
En
 Transmission Loss gin
ee
m m
PL    PP
i jBij
rin
i 1 j 1
Pi , Pj : Real power injection at i & j buses

th th
B ij = loss coefficient
m : no. of generator units g.n
Penalty Factor et
1
Li 
 P 
 1  L 
 PGi 
For economic power sharing

 IC i Li  cons tant
 Constant is called as incremental cost of system.
  IC i = incremental cost ith unit
 L i = penalty factor of ith unit
20

 From this expression, for m generator we get ( m – 1) equation and mth equation is
m
P
i 1
Gi  PD  PLOSS
PD = total power demand

For example, refer kuestions on Power systems.
Fault Analysis
Symmetrical Components
ww
For an unbalanced 3 – phase system, the analysis is done better by means of symmetrical
components.
w.E Va0  Zero sequence components
Va1  Positive sequence components
Va2  Negative sequence components
 Va0  1 1
asy
1   Va 
  1
 Va1   3 1 
 
2   Vb 
En ;
0
Where   e j120
V 
 a2 
1 2

Vs   A Vp 
1
   Vc 
gin
Vp = phase voltage
Vs = Symmetrical component
ee rin
1 1 1

A  1  2
1 


 2 
g.n

Power in terms of symmetrical components et
P  3  Va1 Ia1  Va2 Ia2

 Va3 Ia0


Remember, same transformation exist for current also.

Sequence Network
Alternators
 Positive Sequence Network
Z1 positive sequence impedance

Z1  jX"d
21

 Negative Sequence Network
Va2  Ia2 Z2
Z 2 : Negative sequence impedance
 X d " X q " 
Z2  j  
 2 
 Zero Sequence Network
ww Va0  Ia0  Z0  3Zn 

Z 0 = Zero sequence impedance
w.E Z n =Neutral impedance (  in case of delta)

Z0  jXl
X l = leakage reactance
asy
Transformers
En
gin
Z1 = Positive sequence impedance
Z1  jXl ee rin
 Negative Sequence Network
Z 2 = Negative sequence impedance

g.n
Z2  jXl et
 Zero sequence network
Depending upon scheme of connection, we close series or shunt connection & method
of grounding.
22

Shunt connection are closed for delta connection & series connection are closed for star
connection with grounded neutral. If primary & secondary are inter changed then circuit
becomes mirror image.
 Case – 1
If neutral is grounded through an impedance Z n
Z 0  Z T0  3Zn

ww
Case – 2
w.E
asy
En
 Case – 3 gin
ee rin
g.n
et
 Case – 4
23

 Case – 5
Transmission Lines
ww
w.E
 Negative Sequence Network asy
En
gin
 Zero Sequence Network
ee rin
Z1  Z2  Zs  Zm
Z0  Zs  2Zm
g.n
Z s = Self impedance et
Zm = mutual impedance
Remembers, all sequence networks are always drawn in per unit & never in actual values.
Fault Analysis
The following short circuit faults are considered
1. LG (Single Line to ground fault)
2. LL (Line to line fault)
3. LLG (Line to Line to Ground fault)
4. 3-phase short circuit fault.
24

3-phase short circuit fault comes under the category of symmetrical SC fault whereas other 3
faults are called as unsymmetrical SC fault.
Order of severity
LG < LL < LLG < 3 -  SC
But if faults occur at terminal of alternator then LG fault is most severe.
Occurrence of SC fault
LG > LL > LLG > 3 -  SC
ww
Transient on a Transmission line
w.E
Equivalent Circuit
i  t   it  iss
Vm Rtasy
V
sin      e L  m sin  wt     


Z Z
En
  tan1 
 L 
R
gin
 
 ; Z  R  L
2 2
Maximum momentary current


ee rin
imm
2V
 m sin     
Z g.n
If resistance is neglected,   900 et
2Vm
imm  cos 
Z
Short circuit model of a synchronous machine
During initial SC period for 1-2 cycles, current are induced in field & damper winding of machine
so reactance at least & called as sub transient reactance  X d "
After initial sub-transient period, current in damper winding in reduced to zero, and this period
is called as transient period & reactance of machine is called as Transient Reactance  X d "
25

Finally, when current in field winding is also reduced to zero, we enter steady state period &
reactance is called as steady state reactance  Xd  .
Xd "  X d '  X d
Symmetrical Fault Analysis
 We replace alternators by an emf source in series with sub transient reactance and emf
source under no-load is usually 100 pu or terminal voltage in pu.
V 00
Ef  t pu
Vbase
ww

Transformer & Transmission lines are replaced by reactance.
The equivalent circuit can be solved either by finding thevenin equivalent across fault or
by simple network analysis & fault in SC is calculated.
w.E If 
Ef
asy
Z eq  Z f
En
Z f = fault impedance.
 gin
In symmetrical fault analysis, we only consider positive sequence impedance.
 SC MVA  
1
Zeq  Z f
MVA base
pu
ee rin
 SC MVA  
Zeq  Z f
MVA
g.n
For example, refer to kuestion on power systems.
Selection of Circuit Breakers

et
 Usually, circuit breakers are selected on the basis of most severe fault which is 3 – phase
SC fault.
 Three ratings of circuit Breakers are important.
1) Rated momentary current

Momentary current ( rms ) = 1.6  Isc
Isc is symmetrical SC current which we calculated in previous section.
2) Making current
Making current = 2.54  Isc
26

3) Symmetrical Interrupting Current

We need to recalculate Isc by using sub-transient reactance for alternators & transient
reactance for synchronous motors. Induction motors & other loads are neglected.
Then, we multiply it by a factor to calculate symmetrical interrupting current. This factor

depends on speed of circuit breakers which is measured in terms of numbers of cycles it takes to
operate.
Speed Factor
8 Cycles or slower 1.0
ww 5 Cycles
3 Cycles
1.1
1.2
w.E 2 Cycles 1.3

Unsymmetrical Faults Analysis
Line to Ground Fault asy

En
We first draw equivalent positive, negative & zero sequence networks & calculate thevenin
gin
impedance across fault terminals from each network.
Assuming equivalent positive, negative & zero sequence reactance are Z1 , Z 2 & Z 0
respectively.
Here all sequence currents are equal.

ee rin
Ia1  Ia2  Ia0
g.n
Ia1 
Ea
Z1  Z 2  Z 0  3Z f et
Fault current I a
Ia  3Ia1
3  Ea
Ia 
Z1  Z 2  Z 0  3Z f
Short Circuit MVA
SC MVA   3Ea1 , I a1 *
27

3 Ea1 I2

Z1  Z 2  Z 0  3Z f
3
In pu SC MVA   pu
Z1  Z 2  Z 0  3Z f
3 MVA base
 MVA
Z1  Z 2  Z 0  3Z f

ww
Line to Line Fault
w.E
Here, we calculate equivalent positive & negative sequence impedance Z1 & Z 2 respectively.
Ia1 
Ea
Fault current
Z1  Z 2  Z f
asy
 j 3  Ea En
Ib 
Z1  Z 2  Z f
gin
Short Circuit MVA
SC MVA  
3
Z1  Z 2  Z f
pu
ee rin
3 MVA base g.n


Z1  Z 2  Z f
Line to Line to Ground Fault

MVA
et
Ea
Ia1 
Z1  Z 2  Z 0  3Z f  
I  Z2
Ia0  a1
 Z2  Z0 
Fault Current = 3  Iao
28

Short Circuit MVA
3
SC MVA   pu
Z1   Z 2  1 3Z f  Z 0  
3 MVA base
 MVA
Z1   Z 2  Z 0  3Z f 
Remember, all fault analysis will be done in pu system.
Power System Stability

ww
Two types of stability are studied:
w.E
1) Steady State Stability
2) Transient Stability
Steady State Stability
For Steady State Stability

asy
dP
d
0 En
And for this condition to be true.
Pe  Pmax gin
For a loss less machine, Pmax 
E V
XS
ee
If power demand is greater than maximum demand than machine goes out of synchronous.
rin
Transient Stability
Swing Equation
g.n
Md2 
dt2
 Pm  Pe  et
M = inertia constant ( MJ-S / elect - rad)
Pm= mechanical input (MW)
Pe = electrical output (MW)
 = rotor angle
Another Form
H d2 
 Pm  Pe 
f dt2
H = inertia constant ( MJ / MVA)
Pm & Pe both are in pu
29

GH
M (MJ – S / elect - deg)
180f
GH
M (MJ – S / elect - rad)
f
G = machine rating (MVA)
 If two alternators are swinging coherently. Then they can be replaced by a single
alternator having
Meq  M1  M2
But “ H “ cannot be added directly, they must first be on same base.
ww  If machines are not swinging coherently, then

Meq 
M1M2
M1  M2
w.E
 Accelerating Power,
Pa  Pm  Pe 
In steady state Pm  Pe asy
En
In transient, Pm  Pe so rotor accelerate or decelerate.
Equal area criterion

gin
For system to possess transient stability
 Pad  0 ee
There are basically 3 stages in stability analysis rin
 Before Fault
We say maximum power transferrable is Pmax,1
g.n
& Pe  Pmax,1 sin  et
 During fault
Pe  Pmax,2 sin 
 After Fault
Pe  Pmax,3 sin 
30

Critical clearing angle
It is the maximum value of  beyond which if the fault is cleared system will be unstable. The
time instant corresponding to this angle is called as critical clearing time assuming fault occurs
at t = 0.
Case-1 : Fault occurs on TL near to bus
Pmax,2  0
Pmax,3  Pmax,1
Cr  clearing angle
ww
By equal area criteria
2
 Pm  Pmax,1 sin  d  0

w.E 0
 P
0  sin1  m

asy
 Pmax,1
For critical clearing 2  max


max    0 En
tCr 
2H  Cr  0 gin
= Critical Clearing Time
f Pm
ee rin
Case-2 : Fault occurs on one of parallel lines close to bus
Before Fault
g.n
Pmax,1 
E V
Xg   X1 X2 
et
During Fault
E V
Pmax,2  0
Xeq
After Fault
E V
Pmax,3 
Xg  X1
31

 P 
0  sin1  m

 Pmax,1 
 
 P 
max    sin1  m

 Pmax,3 
 
For transient stability

2
 Pad  0
ww 0
2
w.E
c
 Pm  0  d  
0

Pm  Pmax,3 sin  d  0
c
For critical Clearing asy

2  max En
tCr 
2H  Cr  0  gin
f Pm
ee
Case-3 : Fault occurs in middle of one of parallel lines
rin
The equivalent reactance during the fault is highest and thus Pmax,2 is lowest
g.n
Pmax,1  Pmax,3  Pmax,2
2
et
 Pad  0
0
c 2
 Pm  Pmax,2 sin d   Pmax,3 sin  Pm  d

0 c
For critical clearing,
 P 
2  max    sin1  m 
 Pmax,3 
 
32

cr  cos 1 
P
m  max  0   Pmax,3 cos max  Pmax2 cos 0 
 Pmax3  Pmax2 
 
 This is a generic formula and can be applied to other two cases as well after substituting
value of Pmax,1 , Pmax,2 & Pmax,3 .
 But tcr can only be calculated from cr in previous two cases using expression written
before.
Power System Protection
ww  In our current protection, normally a current transformer is connected between

protected elements and the relay.
Plug setting multiplier (PSM)
w.E 
Fault current
 T ratio  Pick  up current 
asy
Usually pick up current = Relay setting x Rated secondary current of CT
Pick-up current is minimum current above which a relay operates.
 Differential Relays
En
gin
The current through operating coil  k  I1  I2 
it operates, else it does not operates.ee

If this current is greater than pick-up current then
K I1  I2  Ipick up  Trip 

rin
K I1  I2  Ipick up Block 
g.n
 We usually provide a restraining coil to avoid relay mal-operation.
Relay operates if
et
 Nr I1  I2 
K I1  I2  K   Ipu
 N0 2 
Ipu = pick up current

Nr = Number of turns in restraining coil
N0 = Number of turns in operating coil
The ratio operating coil current & restraining coil current is called as bias of differential
relay.
33

Protection of Transmission line
1) Mho relay is at least affected by power surges& thus it is used for protection of long
transmission lines. It is inherently directional.
2) Impedance relay is used for protection of medium transmission lines.
3) Reactance relay is unaffected by ground resistance & hence used for earth fault
protection & also for short transmission Lines.
 These relays are collectively called as distance relays.
Protection of Transformers
 Differential relays are used for protection of large transformers and CT are always
ww connected in configuration opposite to power transformer.

Example: 1) If power transformer is   Y then CT is Y  
w.E

: 2) If power transformer is    then CT is Y  Y
Buccholz relay used to prevent any incipient fault below oil level in a transformer of small
KVA.
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
34

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t

Ee 1991

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Manual for K-Notes ................................................................................. 2

© 2014 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.

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Manual for K-Notes

ww What are K-Notes?

© 2014 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.

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It is tendency of AC current to be concentrated on the surface of conductor.

w.E Internal inductance

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Where Dii  ri  0.7788ri

Where Dii  ri  0.7788ri

Now, with these terms all the inductance expressions change to

Three – phase Transmission line

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If conductors are placed horizontally or vertically.

In case of bundled conductor, more than one conductor per phase

In place of GMR, Self GMD is used asy

Dab eq  Da1b1 . Da1b2 . Da2b1 . Da2b2 

Deq = mutual GMD

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0.7788  0.012  152 

Transposition of Transmission line ee rin

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Transmission lines are modeled as 2 – port network

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Medium Transmission Line

In case of long transmission line, we use all promoters’ per-unit length.

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cosh l Z c sinh l

If resistance of line is neglected g.n

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 R  jL G  jC 

In case of loss less line   0 (no attenuation)

According to long line

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Theremin equivalent circuit

ZL = load impedance or characteristics impedance of second

line connected in series to first.

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QC  1.2647  30 = 37.9 MVAR

So, we can observe the steps involved

Step-2 : Calculate QR using  calculated above

Step-3 : QR  QL  QC than Calculate QC

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Power Factor Correction

If we wish to calculate capacitance per phase

L = length of cable g.n

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Capacitance per phase

1) Any of two cores or conductors are connected to

ww2) All three cores are connected together & capacitance is

w.Emeasured between any core & sheath.

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Dielectric loss in a UG cable

where tan   loss tangent

String efficiency  En string voltage

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