Heat capacity or thermal capacity is a measurable physical quantity equal to the ratio of

the heat added to (or removed from) an object to the resulting temperature change.[1] The unit of

heat capacity is joule per kelvin , or kilogram metre squared

per kelvinsecond squared in the International System of Units (SI). The dimensional
form is L2MT−2Θ−1. Specific heat is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one
kilogram of mass by 1 kelvin.
Heat capacity is an extensive property of matter, meaning that it is proportional to the size of the
system. When expressing the same phenomenon as an intensive property, the heat capacity is
divided by the amount of substance, mass, or volume, thus the quantity is independent of the size
or extent of the sample. The molar heat capacity is the heat capacity per unit amount (SI
unit: mole) of a pure substance, and the specific heat capacity, often called simply specific heat,
is the heat capacity per unit mass of a material. Nonetheless some authors use the term specific
heat to refer to the ratio of the specific heat capacity of a substance at any given temperature to
the specific heat capacity of another substance at a reference temperature, much in the fashion
of specific gravity. In some engineering contexts, the volumetric heat capacity is used.
Temperature reflects the average randomized kinetic energy of constituent particles of matter
(i.e., atoms or molecules) relative to the centre of mass of the system, while heat is the transfer of
energy across a system boundary into the body other than by work or matter transfer.
Translation, rotation, and vibration of atoms represent the degrees of freedom of motion which
classically contribute to the heat capacity of gases, while only vibrations are needed to describe
the heat capacities of most solids,[2] as shown by the Dulong–Petit law. Other contributions can
come from magnetic[3] and electronic[4] degrees of freedom in solids, but these rarely make
substantial contributions.
For quantum mechanical reasons, at any given temperature, some of these degrees of freedom
may be unavailable, or only partially available, to store thermal energy. In such cases, the heat
capacity is a fraction of the maximum. As the temperature approaches absolute zero, the heat
capacity of a system approaches zero because of loss of available degrees of freedom. Quantum
theory can be used to quantitatively predict the heat capacity of simple systems.
History[edit]
Main article: History of heat
In a previous theory of heat common in the early modern period, heat was thought to be a
measurement of an invisible fluid, known as the caloric. Bodies were capable of holding a
certain amount of this fluid, hence the term heat capacity, named and first investigated
by Scottish chemist Joseph Black in the 1750s.[5]
Since the development of thermodynamics in the 18th and 19th centuries, scientists have
abandoned the idea of a physical caloric, and instead understand heat as a manifestation of a
system's internal energy. Heat is no longer considered a fluid, but rather a transfer of disordered
energy. Nevertheless, at least in English, the term "heat capacity" survives. In some other
languages, the term thermal capacity is preferred, and it is also sometimes used in English.
Units[edit]
Extensive properties[edit]
In the International System of Units, heat capacity has the unit joules per Kelvin (J/K). The heat
capacity (symbol C) of a system is defined as the ratio of heat transferred to or from the system
and the resulting change in temperature in the system,

where the symbol δ designates heat as a path function. If the temperature change is
sufficiently small the heat capacity may be assumed to be constant:

Heat capacity is an extensive property, meaning it depends on the extent or size of the
physical system studied. A sample containing twice the amount of substance as another

sample requires the transfer of twice the amount of heat ( ) to achieve the same

change in temperature ( ).
Intensive properties[edit]
For many purposes it is more convenient to report heat capacity as an intensive property,
an intrinsic characteristic of a particular substance. In practice, this is most often an
expression of the property in relation to a unit of mass; in science and engineering, such
properties are often prefixed with the term specific.[6] International standards now
recommend that specific heat capacity always refer to division by mass.[7] The units for

the specific heat capacity are .

In chemistry, heat capacity is often specified relative to one mole, the unit of amount of

substance, and is called the molar heat capacity. It has the unit .
For some considerations it is useful to specify the volume-specific heat capacity,
commonly called volumetric heat capacity, which is the heat capacity per unit volume

and has SI units . This is used almost exclusively for liquids and solids, since for
gases it may be confused with specific heat capacity at constant volume.
Alternative unit systems[edit]
While SI units are the most widely used, some countries and industries also use other
systems of measurement. One older unit of heat is the kilogram-calorie (Cal), originally
defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by one
degree Celsius, typically from 14.5 to 15.5 °C. The specific average heat capacity of
water on this scale would therefore be exactly 1 Cal/(C°⋅kg). However, due to the
temperature-dependence of the specific heat, a large number of different definitions of
the calorie came into being. Whilst once it was very prevalent, especially its
smaller cgs variant the gram-calorie (cal), defined thus the specific heat of water would
be 1 cal/(K⋅g), in most fields the use of the calorie is now archaic.
In the United States other units of measure for heat capacity may be quoted in disciplines
such as construction, civil engineering, and chemical engineering. A still common
system is the English Engineering Units in which the mass reference is pound mass and
the temperature is specified in degrees Fahrenheit or Rankine. One (rare) unit of heat is
the pound calorie (lb-cal), defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of one pound of water by one degree Celsius. On this scale the specific heat of water
would be 1 lb-cal/(K⋅lb). More common is the British thermal unit, the standard unit of
heat in the U.S. construction industry. This is defined such that the specific heat of water
is 1 BTU/(F°⋅lb). The path integral Monte Carlo method is a numerical approach for
determining the values of heat capacity, based on quantum dynamical principles.
However, good approximations can be made for gases in many states using simpler
methods outlined below. For many solids composed of relatively heavy atoms (atomic
number > iron), at non-cryogenic temperatures, the heat capacity at room temperature
approaches 3R = 24.94 joules per kelvin per mole of atoms (Dulong–Petit law, R is the
gas constant). Low temperature approximations for both gases and solids at temperatures
less than their characteristic Einstein temperatures or Debye temperatures can be made
by the methods of Einstein and Debye discussed below. Water (liquid): CP = 4185.5
J/(kg⋅K) (15 °C, 101.325 kPa) Water (liquid): CVH = 74.539 J/(mol⋅K) (25 °C) For
liquids and gases, it is important to know the pressure to which given heat capacity data
refer. Most published data are given for standard pressure. However, different standard
conditions for temperature and pressure have been defined by different organizations.
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) changed its
recommendation from one atmosphere to the round value 100 kPa (≈750.062 Torr).[notes
1]

Measurement[edit]
It may appear that the way to measure heat capacity is to add a known amount of heat to
an object, and measure the change in temperature. This works reasonably well for many
solids. However, for precise measurements, and especially for gases, other aspects of
measurement become critical.
The heat capacity can be affected by many of the state variables that describe the
thermodynamic system under study. These include the starting and ending temperature,
as well as the pressure and the volume of the system before and after heat is added. So
rather than a single way to measure heat capacity, there are actually several slightly
different measurements of heat capacity. The most commonly used methods for
measurement are to hold the object either at constant pressure (CP) or at
constant volume (CV). Gases and liquids are typically also measured at constant volume.
Measurements under constant pressure produce larger values than those at constant
volume because the constant pressure values also include heat energy that is used to
do work to expand the substance against the constant pressure as its temperature
increases. This difference is particularly notable in gases where values under constant
pressure are typically 30% to 66.7% greater than those at constant volume. Hence
the heat capacity ratio of gases is typically between 1.3 and 1.67.[8]
The specific heat capacities of substances comprising molecules (as distinct
from monatomic gases) are not fixed constants and vary somewhat depending on
temperature. Accordingly, the temperature at which the measurement is made is usually
also specified. Examples of two common ways to cite the specific heat of a substance are
as follows:[9]
 Water (liquid): CP = 4185.5 J/(kg⋅K) (15 °C, 101.325 kPa)
 Water (liquid): CVH = 74.539 J/(mol⋅K) (25 °C)
For liquids and gases, it is important to know the pressure to which given heat capacity
data refer. Most published data are given for standard pressure. However, quite
different standard conditions for temperature and pressure have been defined by different
organizations. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) changed
its recommendation from one atmosphere to the round value 100 kPa (≈750.062
Torr).[notes 1]