Anal Bioanal Chem (2006) 385: 1140–1148
DOI 10.1007/s00216-006-0513-3
TECHNICAL NOTE
Russell S. Harmon . Frank C. DeLucia Jr. .
Aaron LaPointe . Raymond J. Winkel Jr. .
Andrzej W. Miziolek
LIBS for landmine detection and discrimination
Received: 31 January 2006 / Revised: 11 April 2006 / Accepted: 26 April 2006 / Published online: 25 May 2006
# Springer-Verlag 2006
Abstract The concept of utilizing laser-induced break-
down spectroscopy (LIBS) technology for landmine
detection and discrimination has been evaluated using
both laboratory LIBS and a prototype man-portable LIBS
systems. LIBS spectra were collected for a suite of
landmine casings, non-mine plastic materials, and ‘clut-
ter-type’ objects likely to be present in the soil of a conflict
area or a former conflict area. Landmine casings examined
included a broad selection of anti-personnel and anti-tank
mines from different countries of manufacture. Other
materials analyzed included rocks and soil, metal objects,
cellulose materials, and different types of plastics. Two
‘blind’ laboratory tests were conducted in which 100
broadband LIBS spectra were obtained for a mixed suite of
landmine casings and clutter objects and compared with a
previously-assembled spectral reference library. Using a
linear correlation approach, ‘mine/no mine’ determinations
were correctly made for more than 90% of the samples in
both tests. A similar test using a prototype man-portable
LIBS system yielded an analogous result, validating the
concept of using LIBS for landmine detection and
discrimination.
R. S. Harmon (*)
US Army Research Office,
P.O. Box 12211 Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
e-mail: Russell.Harmon@us.army.mil
Tel.: +1-919-5494326
Fax: +1-919-5494310
F. C. DeLucia Jr. . A. W. Miziolek
Weapons and Materials Research Directorate,
US Army Research Laboratory (ARL),
Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21005, USA
A. LaPointe
Countermine Division, CERDC Night Vision and Electronic
and Sensors Directorate, Ft. Belvoir,
Alexandria, VA 22060, USA
R. J. Winkel Jr.
Department of Physics, US Military Academy,
West Point, NY 10996, USA
Keywords Broadband LIBS . Landmine detection .
Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy
Introduction
The detection of landmines buried in the often highly
heterogeneous and temporally dynamic near-surface soil
environment is a difficult sensor problem, and small, low-
metal anti-personnel land mines present a particular
challenge. Not only are landmines a threat on a battlefield,
but they remain a significant problem for civilians around
the world in areas of current and former conflict. Some
15,000–20,000 people in more than 90 countries fall
victims to landmines each year [1]. At present, landmine
detection is generally conducted in a manner not that
dissimilar to that employed half a century ago. For
example, in humanitarian demining operations, deminers
utilize a hand-held metal detector for detection and a thin,
tapered prodding device for decision making about the
character of a detected buried object. Meter-wide lanes are
searched for metal anomalies while swinging the metal
detector back and forth just above the ground surface. After
the operator has received a signal from the metal detector,
the suspected area is probed to determine whether or not it
contains a buried mine. This is also the general procedure
used for military post-operational landmine clearance,
although a prototype handheld system that combines a
metal detector with a ground-penetrating radar was
deployed for the first time in 2003 on a limited basis by
US forces in Afghanistan. New technology for buried
landmine detection and identification is needed. The ideal
landmine sensor would detect both the exterior casing and
the explosive charge contained within. Many physical and
chemical approaches to this difficult problem of landmine
detection are currently being investigated, including laser-
induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS), which has the
attractive possibility of being a single-sensor technology
with the potential to detect and discriminate both the casing
of a landmine and its explosive contents.

The use of broadband LIBS – i.e., capturing the entire
LIBS spectrum from 200–980 nm – is based on the idea
that every material produces a unique broadband LIBS
spectrum. The approach used in this study derives from the
work of Gornushkin et al. [2], who were able to distinguish
a set of compositionally-similar stainless steel and cast iron
samples by examining the 230- to 310-nm region of the
LIBS spectra, and Anzano et al. [3], who compared LIBS
spectra over the 200- to 800-nm range to distinguish
between the six different commercial plastic types using a
rank correlation approach. In previous studies conducted at
the Army Research Laboratory (ARL), it was demonstrated
that broadband LIBS, where the full 200- to 980-nm
spectrum of a sample was captured, could be used to
discriminate between different explosive and energetic
materials and biological agent surrogates [4–6]. This
technical note describes how broadband LIBS might be
used for the discrimination of landmine casings.
Experimental
Laboratory and man-portable LIBS systems
The ARL laboratory benchtop broadband LIBS system
consists of a pulsed laser, mirror and focusing lens,
adjustable sample stage, a fiber optic for light collection,
broadband spectrometer, and desktop computer. A laser
pulse of 200 mJ of a 10-ns duration from an actively
Q-switched Surelite Nd:YAG laser (Continuum, St. Clara,
Calif.) operated at the fundamental wavelength is focused
by a 50-mm focal length convex lens to produce a high-
energy spark in air that generates the high-temperature
microplasma. A sample to be analyzed is placed on the
sample stage and the height adjusted so that the laser spark
occurs on the sample surface. The laser beam diameter is
3 mm, with a beam divergence of 1 mr, so that the laser spot
size is about 60 μm and the crater generated on the sample
is on the order of 100 μm. A bundle of seven 600-μm-
diameter optical fibers is oriented appropriately to collect
the light emission from the plasma. A lens is placed before
the fiber optic bundle so that the plasma spark is defocused
to the point that spatial effects are eliminated and the
individual fibers collect the same light emission. The fibers
transmit the acquired light to an Ocean Optics (Dunedin,
Fla.) Model 2000 broadband spectrometer, having a
resolution of 0.1 nm, to separate the light from different
atomic, ionic, and molecular constituents of the plasma.
The seven optical fibers are connected to seven separate
spectrometers, each of which covers one portion of the
200- to 980-nm spectral range. All chemical elements can
be detected across this spectral range. The LIBS spectra
used in this study were collected for 2 ms after a 1.5-μs
time delay with respect to the laser spark to reduce plasma
continuum intensity. The LIBS spectra collection software
and the statistical LIBS library software were provided by
Ocean Optics.
Several different analytical approaches were considered
(e.g., pre-analysis laser shots to ‘clean’ the sample surface,
1141
single laser shots versus multiple laser shots for data
collection) and investigated. The approach decided upon
was a single laser ‘cleaning’ shot followed by a single laser
‘data collection’ shot, as this was considered the approach
most likely to be utilized under field operation of a LIBS
landmine sensor system.
A man-portable (MP) LIBS system is being developed
by ARL, in partnership with Ocean Optics, and undergoing
testing for some applications of military and security
interest at the ARL. The current MP-LIBS prototype
instrumentation consists of a backpack containing a
computer and broadband spectrometer and a hand-held
wand containing an actively Q-switched Nd:YAG laser
(1064 nm, 30 mJ/pulse). The operator reviews collected
spectra and interprets data through the use of a heads-up
display. Like other LIBS instrumentation, the system is
inherently rugged, requires no sample preparation, and
is suitable for the analysis of many different materials
(soils, metals, biological materials, etc.). The concept for
MP-LIBS as a confirmatory sensor system for landmine
detection envisages a soil-insertable LIBS probe similar in
form to that currently used in both military and
humanitarian demining [7] that would be used to
interrogate unknown subsurface objects. One option for
the design would deliver laser light and collect the plasma
light emission through an optical fiber in the thin hand-held
probe with a small focusing lens in the probe tip. Another
option would have the light delivery and collection through
a hollow probe containing a focusing lens at the probe tip.
A protective shutter would be used in both designs. Also,
the use of a gas flow, most likely argon, should help to keep
the optical path free of debris and enhance the LIBS
spectral signature [8].
Background
Plastics are synthetic, high-molecular-weight polymers
having a carbon and hydrogen backbone. The hundreds
of different, chemically-complex plastics manufactured
today can be divided into 11 chemical classes (acetals,
acrylics, aminics, cellulosics, phenolics, polymides, polyes-
ters, polyolefins, polyurethanes, styrenes, and vinyls) on the
basis of the resin utilized in the polymerization process
[9, 10]. Many different chemicals and compounds are added
at the final synthesis stages of the polymer, or in subsequent
processing, to improve or alter some characteristic(s) of the
plastic in order to obtain products with certain desirable
physical characteristics. Binders and fillers are added during
the initial synthesis, or during subsequent processing, to
decrease the volume of resin needed in the manufacturing
process. Reinforcements are materials used to improve the
strength properties of the plastic. Flow improvers and
plasticizers are substances used to increase flexibility. Other
additives typically present in plastics include antistatics,
flame retardants, lubricants to reduce friction, pigments to
provide color, and stabilizers to protect against weathering
and degradation resulting from exposure to ultraviolet light,
oxygen, ozone, and bacteria. Plastics in routine commercial
1142

use today tend to be of six general types: Type I,
polyethylene terephthalate (PETE), Type II, low-density
polyethylene (LDPE), Type III, polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
Type IV, high-density polyethylene (HDPE), Type V,
polypropylene (PP), Type VI, polystyrene (PS).
Figure 1 shows single-shot, broadband LIBS spectra for
samples of these six common types of commercial plastic
(Fig. 1a) and spectra for the same Type V plastic sample, in
this figure PP, taken 4 months apart in the ARL laboratory
(Fig. 1b). Clear differences are observed in visual
inspection of the six plastic spectra in terms of line
positions and intensities, with the two spectra for the PP
sample taken 4 months apart being indistinguishable. The
most similar of the six spectra are those for the Type I and
Type IV plastics – PETE and LDPE, in this figure – which
have different stoichiometries, as denoted by the different
C/H line intensity ratios of the spectra, but in the case of the
samples analyzed must lack distinctive additives. In their
study of commercial plastics, Anzano et al. [2] found that
PETE (Type I plastic) and PP (Type V plastic), the
polymers with the greatest difference in C/H ratio, were the
two plastics most reliable discriminated. The instances

Fig. 1 a Comparison of single-

shot, broadband LIBS spectra
for the six different types of
common commercial plastics:
I Polyethylene terephthalate
(PETE), II high-density poly-
ethylene (HDPE), III polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), IV low-density
polyethylene (LDPE), V poly-
propylene (PP), VI polystyrene
(PS). b Single-shot, broadband
LIBS spectra for a PP sample
(Type V plastic) collected in
February 2004 and again
in June 2004

resulting in the most confusion and incorrect identifications
in their rank correlation approach were Types II, III, and IV
plastic (HDPE, PVC, and LDPE, respectively), i.e., those
plastics of similar stoichiometry.
Test samples
A total of 21 different landmines, nine anti-personnel (AP)
and 12 anti-tank (AT) mines from five different countries of
origin were used in the two laboratory LIBS experiments,
Fig. 2 Comparison of broad-
band LIBS spectra for seven
anti-personnel (AP) landmine
casings from three different
countries of manufacture
1143
and a subset of eight samples of seven different types of AT
mines and 18 samples of seven different types of AP mines
were used in the man-portable LIBS system experiment.
Information about the different landmines analyzed comes
from the James Madison University Mine Action Informa-
tion Center web site [11]. Because most landmines
manufactured in more recent times are plastic and because
the detection of plastic landmines is much more difficult
than that of metal mines [12], the focus of this study was on
the identification and discrimination of plastic landmine
casings.
1144

A broad range of natural and anthropogenic materials
(‘clutter’) of the kind likely to be present within the soil of a
conflict area or former conflict area were also analyzed.
The set of plastics and rubber included the six common
types of commercial plastic, plus samples of nylon and
Teflon simulants used by the Army in landmine sensor
system performance testing, plastic clips from Army
equipment, and a rubber Army gas mask hose. The metal
set comprised samples of aluminum, zinc, lead, steel, brass,
and rusted iron. Cellulose materials consisted of a wood
box, weathered wood stick, fresh wood stick, a weathered
chemically-treated wood block, and cardboard. The earth
materials included four rocks of different composition and
a Fe-rich clay soil.
Results and discussion
The plastic used in the fabrication of US landmine casings
is PS (Type VI plastic), and this is thought to be the case for
landmines manufactured in other countries, with the
exception of the flexible PFM-1 ‘butterfly’ AP mine,
which is made of polyethylene. However, it is to be
expected that the plastic manufacturing process would
differ considerably from one country – or even one

Fig. 3 Comparison of broad-

band LIBS spectra for seven
anti-tank (AT) landmine casings
from four different countries
of manufacture

Fig. 4 Comparison of broad-
band LIBS spectra for three of
ten laser shots (nos. 3, 7, 10)
taken on the surface of a PMN-6
AP mine casing collected during
a ten-shot test with each shot
taken at a different spot on
surface of the landmine casing
processing plant – to another in terms of the additive
substances used for plasticisers, fillers, binders, stabilizers,
and pigments, so we were optimistic that single-shot,
broadband LIBS could be used to discriminate landmine
casings from other types of objects using a linear
correlation approach to match the LIBS spectrum collected
from an individual laser shot with LIBS spectra contained
in a library of different materials. The idea being tested in
our study is that the very large variety of such additive
substances present in different plastics should provide a
basis for discriminating different types of plastic landmines
by broadband LIBS, which captures the entire elemental
composition of a sample. This being the case, then a LIBS
spectrum should provide an individualized ‘fingerprint’ of
any material analyzed, and LIBS spectra of different
materials should be distinguishable one from another by
simple statistical analysis of the complete LIBS spectra.
Figure 2 presents single-shot broadband LIBS spectra for a
variety of plastic AP and Fig. 3 for some different plastic
AT landmine casings. The LIBS spectrum of one metal AT
landmine casing is included for comparison. The distinct
spectral differences between the various AP and AT mine
casings that are evident in the two figures illustrate clearly
that there is a diversity of elemental compositions for the
broad spectrum. For the plastic mines, this is likely to be
Fig. 5 Comparison of single-
LIBS signal intensity (counts)
shot broadband LIBS spectra for
four different M14 AP mine
casings
1145
due to the wide variety of exotic components present in the
different plastic formulations, as noted above. To extend
the LIBS approach to the problem of landmines at an
operational level, the identification and discrimination
issues must be addressed, but the distinct broadband LIBS
spectra observed for different mine types is an encouraging
factor in this regard. The degree of shot-to-shot reprodu-
cibility of a LIBS signal reflects variations in the coupling
of the laser energy to the sample surface and the resultant
temperature of the plasma that is created on the sample
surface. This phenomenon depends on a large number of
factors, some of which are systematic and others of which
are determined by the specific nature of the target surface at
the point of analysis. Systematic factors include the
stability of the laser pulse intensity, the laser fluence, and
the optical angle to the beam path and the resulting position
in the detection optic’s field of view. The most important
non-systematic factor is likely to be the nature of the
sample surface at the sub-millimeter scale – i.e., the surface
texture and roughness of the sample at the point on the
surface where the plasma is generated – because homoge-
neity and roughness consistency of the sample surface
presented to the focused laser beam are necessary
conditions for reproducible LIBS plasmas. Figure 4
shows the spectra for three single laser shots taken at
5000
specimen #1
M14 AP mine
4000
3000 specimen #2
2000
specimen #3
1000
specimen #4
0
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Wavelength
h (nm)
1146
different points on the surface of a cylindrical PMN-6
plastic AP mine during a ten-shot data collection traverse
across the top surface of the sample. The same elemental
peaks are present in each of the three LIBS spectra; it is
only absolute peak intensities that vary systematically from
one spectrum to another. This observation is attributable to
the intrinsic roughness of the plastic mine surface at the
sub-millimeter scale. which produces differences in inci-
dence angle of the incident laser beam, light absorption,
and surface reflectance from one point to another across the
surface of the mine. Equivalent single-shot LIBS spectra
for four different M14 AP plastic mine casings are
presented in Fig. 5. Again, a high degree of spectral
similarity is observed, with differences in spectral line
intensities being attributed to variations in the degree of
laser-sample coupling and subsequent light reflection
during the breakdown and plasma formation events. In
contrast to the matched spectra shown in Fig. 5, there is a
distinct difference in the character of the observed spectra
shown in in Fig. 6 for the two components of an AT mine,
the rubber plunger and plastic casing.
Preliminary experiments
Initially, two preliminary experiments were conducted to
determine how effective LIBS might be at identifying
landmines of a specific type or particular country of
manufacture. For this test, the ARL broadband LIBS system
was used with a pulsed, Q-switched, Big Sky (Bozeman,
Mont.) laser operating at 30 mJ and a 1-ms delay. A library
of LIBS spectra was compiled for two AP mines of different
country of manufacture and for three plastic samples on
hand in the ARL spectroscopy laboratory. To build the
library, we recorded single-shot LIBS spectra from five
different locations on each mine. As a first step, the position
of each mine casing was coarsely adjusted so that the spark
visually occurred on the casing surface. The position was
subsequently finely adjusted until a spectrum ‘rich’ in
spectral lines and bands was obtained. One library entry was
recorded for each location on the mine casing surface for a
Fig. 6 Broadband LIBS spectra for the TMA-5 plastic AT landmine
and its rubber plunger
total of five spectra per mine. The process was repeated for
the other plastic materials. The complete library consisted of
five LIBS spectra from the two mines and three plastic
samples, for a total of 25 spectra. Next, a single-shot LIBS
spectrum was acquired for each mine and plastic sample,
and these spectra were compared to the library to ascertain if
a match could be obtained. This process was repeated 100
times for each sample. On the basis of the acquired single-
shot LIBS spectra, one type of AP mine was identified
correctly 99 out of 100 times and the other mine 95 out of
100 times. One laboratory plastic sample was identified
correctly in all 100 shots, another 99 out of 100 times, and
the third correctly identified the mine 81 out of 100 times.
This initial experiment was followed by a three other
tests. First, a library containing single-shot LIBS spectra
was constructed for a sample population of multiple
specimens of nine AP mines and eight AT mines, three
different plastics, and one metal sample using the same
broadband LIBS-pulsed laser system at a slightly higher
laser power (50 mJ, Q-switched, 1-ms delay). Three levels
of discrimination were of interest in this test: a correct
‘mine’/no-mine’ determination as well as a correct ‘mine
type’ determination and ‘specimen identification’ for
samples correctly identified as mines. Items were selected
at random from the sample suite and their single-shot
spectra were compared to those contained in the spectral
library. A correct ‘mine/no-mine’ determination was
recorded in 46 of 59 cases – a success rate of 78%. Of
the 46 correct mine determinations, the mine type was
correctly identified in 36 cases and the specific mine
specimen was identified in 24 instances. Next, the issue of
color was examined, as several types of landmine casing
are beige and different shades of green. We first ran five AP
mine cases (three beige and two olive green) against the
spectral library. All samples were correctly classified as
mines, the mine color was correctly identified in all five
instances, and the exact mine casing specimen was
correctly identified four of the five times. In another test,
five samples of an AP mine casing (four forest green and
one beige) were all correctly classified as mines, all
correctly identified by type, and the correct specimen color
was correctly identified four of the five cases. In a final test,
17 single-shot spectra were acquired for six samples of
three types of AT mine casings that were not contained in
the spectral library. All samples were correctly classified as
mines, and the correct mine type was identified in 12 of the
17 cases.
Main experiment
The various preliminary experiments described above
provided the confidence to undertake a more expansive
test that was repeated at two different points in time
4 months apart. The first test was conducted with the
pulsed, Q-switched Continuum Surelight laser operated at
200 mJ and a 2-m delay. For the second test, the same laser
system was operated at 50 mJ and a 2-ms delay. A diverse
sample suite was utilized in both experiments that

consisted of multiple specimens of more than twelve
different types of AP and AT mines from six countries of
manufacture, plus a diverse set of natural and anthro-
pogenic ‘clutter’ objects. The clutter suite included
samples of different cellulose materials, rocks, and soils,
a variety of metal items comprised of aluminum, zinc, lead,
steel, brass, and rusted iron, the six common types of
commercial plastic (PETE, HDPE, PVC, LDPE, PP, and
PS), a sample of plastic and rubber from current Army
equipment, and examples of the plastic, nylon, and wood
simulants commonly used in the detection performance
testing of different landmine sensor technologies.
For both experiments, a library of single-shot, broad-
band LIBS spectra was constructed consisting of the
different AP and AT landmine casings (37 and 34,
respectively) and the various clutter items (33 and 51,
respectively). Once the library was constructed, a single-
shot broadband LIBS spectrum was acquired for 100
samples drawn randomly from the full sample population
of landmine casings and clutter items (70 and 85,
respectively), taking care to ensure that multiple samples
of each different type of material (e.g., AP mine, AT mine,
mine stimulant, plastic, rock, wood, and metal) were
analyzed. Again three levels of discrimination were of
interest in the two tests: (1) an initial correct ‘mine’ or
‘no-mine’ determination and, subsequently, for each
correct ‘mine’ classification – (2) delineation of the mine
type and (3) identification of the exact specimen where the
sample population contained multiple specimens of a
particular mine type (six cases in both tests). The two
independent experiments yielded essentially the same
highly satisfactory outcome.
For the first test, which contained 37 mines in a sample
population of a total of 70 items, a correct ‘mine/no-mine’
determination was obtained for 93 of the 100 analyses,
which is a success rate of 93%. The second test, with 34
mines in a sample population of 85, produced an equivalent
result, with 92 of 100 correct ‘mine/no-mine’ determina-
tions, which is a success rate of 92%. For the correct ‘mine’
classifications, the type of mine was identified correctly at
the 80% level (45 of 56) in the first test and at the 78% level
(42 of 54) in the second test. For the correct ‘mine’
classifications, the exact mine specimen was correctly
identified at the 52% level (29 of 56) in the first test and at
the 44% level (24 of 54) in the second test.
Overall, the results from this study are highly encoura-
ging. In a replicated experiment, more than 90% of the 100
samples in mixed population of landmine casing and clutter
materials were correctly recognized as a ‘mine’ versus
‘non-mine’ item. For the ‘mine’ designations, the correct
mine type was assigned at approximately the 80% level,
and the exact mine specimen was identified in more than
50% of the cases. Most misclassifications were under-
standable (e.g., the designation of a wooden AT mine case
as cellulose), and the correct choice was typically the
second choice in the linear correlation ranking. Only in a
very small number of cases did the linear correlation
classification procedure used generate an inexplicable
result classification that was totally off the mark. With
1147
further refinement of this analytical approach, even better
results should be attainable. The next step in this research
will be to apply advanced statistical approaches to the mine
discrimination.
MP-LIBS experiment
A prototype man-portable LIBS system was tested for
landmine casing discrimination in a manner analogous to
that of the laboratory system. Broadband single-shot LIBS
spectra were acquired for 15 different types of AT and AP
landmine casings plus eight plastic and wood mine
simulants. A set of samples selected at random was then
reanalyzed, and the individual broadband LIBS spectra
were compared against the library. Again, a simple linear
correlation procedure achieved a ‘mine/no-mine’ classifi-
cation success of 90%. For samples identified as landmine
casings, the correct identification of a specific mine type
was better than 95%.
Summary and conclusions
LIBS has certain important characteristics that make it a
very attractive sensor technology for military uses. Such
attributes include that facts that LIBS: (1) is relatively
simple and straightforward, (2) requires no sample prepa-
ration, (3) generates a real-time response, and (4) only
engages a very small amount of sample (pico/nanograms)
in each laser shot and microplasma event, (5) has an
inherent high sensitivity, and (6) responds to all forms of
unknowns, and, therefore, is particularly suited for the
sensing of dangerous materials. Additionally, a LIBS
sensor system can be inexpensive, configured to be man-
portable, and designed for both in situ point sensing and
remote stand-off detection. The simplicity of the technique
and the technological maturity of the components have led
to the development of a LIBS sensor with unprecedented
performance characteristics that is both rugged and robust,
making the technique ideally suited for field use.
Broadband LIBS results covering the spectral region
from 200–980 nm were acquired under laboratory condi-
tions for a variety of AP and AT landmine casings, and the
casings subsequently reliably discriminated from typical
environmental clutter objects (plastics, wood, rocks, and
metal) at a success rate of greater than 90% in two
independent laboratory tests conducted 4 months apart and
again using a prototype man-portable LIBS system. This
performance illustrates the potential that LIBS has to be
developed into a confirmatory sensor system for landmine
detection. The man-portable concept envisioned as a
confirmatory sensor for landmine detection is a back-
pack-based system in which an eyesafe micro-laser would
be contained in the handle of a deminer’s probe, with light
being delivered and collected through an optical fiber in the
tapered tip of the metal probe. In such a configuration,
analyses could be made readily and reliably by touching
the buried object that one is interested in identifying with
1148
the deminer’s probe, as is done at present in humanitarian
demining operations. A laser spark would be generated and
a plasma created on the surface of the buried object, after
the prior firing of one or two preliminary ‘cleaning’ shots to
remove surface soil particles and expose a fresh material
surface. The resultant light would be captured by the fiber
optic in the probe tip and transmitted to the broadband
spectrometer in the backpack. The spectrum obtained
would be background corrected by on-board software in
the computer and then compared with a spectral library of
landmine casings and a variety of common environmental
clutter objects to determine if there was a positive
correlation. A spectral match with a reference spectrum
in the landmine casings library would be declared a
positive response requiring subsequent marking and exca-
vation. An unmanned LIBS sensor capability could also be
a robot deployed for surface landmine detection.
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