IHCAP2 Lecture2-2

IHCAP – Indian Himalayas Climate Change Adaptation Programme: Level-2 course
Ice Flow & Geometry
Gwendolyn Leysinger Vieli
IHCAP – Indian Himalayas Climate Change Adaptation Programme

Ice FlowCapacity
& Geometry building programme “Cryosphere” Level-2
G. Leysinger
(JanVieli,
5 –January 22,2014)
Feb 13, 2015 1
Ice Flow: Stress and Strain
Ice Flow & Geometry G. Leysinger Vieli, January 22, 2015 2

Glacier flow
•  Ice constantly changes shape as it
is subjected to gravitational driving
forces Ice
•  Ice moves along the steepest
surface gradient (slope)
•  By internal (deformation) and
basal movement (sliding, sediment Maisch & Jost 2006
def.)
us = ud + ub τ d = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ sin(α )⋅ h
surface velocity
velocity from velocity from
ice deformation basal motion τ b ≈ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ sin(α )⋅ h
Forces - Definition
Definitions:
Force Force components
A push or a pull
Traction Traction components Force per unit area on a surface

of a specified orientation (a
measure of force intensity)
Surface stress Surface stress

components A pair of equal and opposite
tractions acting across a surface
of specified orientation
Modified from Twiss & Moores, 1992; after Benn & Evans, 2010

Stress components - Definition
Normal stress:
Modified from Twiss & Moores, 1992; after Benn & Evans, 2010
Compressive Tensile
A pair of tractions acting at (b) unequal normal stresses grey (c) deviatoric stresses
circle: mean (cryostatic) pressure resulting from (b)
right angles to a surface
Benn and Evans (2010)

Shear stress:
A pair of tractions acting (a) grey arrows: (b) deviatoric stresses

deviatoric stresses result in shear stresses,
parallel to a surface resulting from applied max. on the diagonals
shear stress
Stress – a measure of how hard a material is being compressed,

stretched or twisted as a result to applied forces
Mohr’s circle – excursion into crevasses
Visualising the relationship between normal and
shear stresses
Conditions for 1
τ max = r = (σ 1 − σ 2 )
crevasses: σ > 0 2
•  Direction of crevasses:
–  perpendicular to the r
largest tensile stress principal stresses
•  Simplest case:
τ xz > 0, σ x = σ y = 0 σ2
for: τ max mean normal

Pm
stress Pm
→ σ = Pm ⇔ σ # = 0 1
Orientation of Pm = (σ 1 + σ 2 )
crevasses: ⇒ θ = 45 σ1 2
Flow direction
τ =0
for:
→ σ xx = σ 1, σ yy = σ 2 ⇔ σ max
#
Crevasse formation
Effect of shear
3 main types: stress only
( exerted by
a)  Marginal, or shear crevasses obstacle, e.g.
•  Form when ice slides past a stagnant valley wall)
body at constant speed
b)  Transverse crevasses
•  Glacier accelerating èExtension
c)  Longitudinal crevasses
•  Glacier slowing down è Compression
For incompressible
material" Shear stress &
extending flow
extension"
comp- Shear stress &

ression" compressing
Ice Flow & Geometry flow
G. Leysinger Vieli, January 22, 2015 7
Gravitational driving force
compressive tensile
Stress:
normal
•  Force per Area [Pa], [Nm-2] 1Pa = 1Nm-2;
often used: [kPa]=1000 Pa, 1bar = 100 kPa
Stress
Divided into two components: shear
•  normal stress σ n or Pn : α
–  Vertical to the surface h
–  at the glacier bed ≈ ice overburden σn τ
pressure: ρigh
σ = ρi gh
•  Shear stress τ :
–  along a surface/bed (tangential)
τ d = ρi ⋅ g ⋅ sin(α )⋅ h
–  τd shear stress of glacier (gravitational
driving stress) – drives ice to flow down τ b ≈ ρi ⋅ g ⋅ sin(α )⋅ h
–  τb basal shear stress (felt at bed)
sin(α): ice surface slope ρ: ice density
Ice Flow & Geometry h: ice thickness G.g: gravitational
Leysinger acceleration
Vieli, January 22, 2015 8
a~equently the stress component

/ . Id~1 = pghsina. (1.4)
Shear stress parallel to a surface
This is called the driving stress (Deutsch: Hang-Abtriebskraft). For an equilibrium
shear
of forces it hasstress for different
to be balanced coordinate
by other systems:
stresses, such as the basal drag Tb.
x
(a) (b)
Figure (a)
1.4: surface parallel,
The shear stress inclined
on a plane (b)
(Jxz at aligned
depth h with
below gravity
the surface(lower
boundary of shaded region) is derived in two different coordinate systems a) surface
(a) (b) dh
σ xz = ρ ghsin α
parallel, inclined σ xz
coordinate system b) coordinate = ρ gh = ρ gh tan α
system is aligned with gravity.
dx
We now consider the geometry of Figure l.4b with a coordinate system where the
x-axis isIcehorizontal
Flow & Geometry and the z-axis is vertical. The column
G. Leysinger is
Vieli,again
January 22,
of2015 9
unit cross-
sectional area S = !:lx · W, and the (horizontal) plane of interest is at depths h

/ . Id~1 = pghsina. (1.4)
Shear stress along an inclined surface
This is called the driving stress (Deutsch: Hang-Abtriebskraft). For an equilibrium
(a)it surface
of forces has to beparallel,
balanced inclined:
by other stresses, such as the basal drag Tb.
Weight of a column with horizontal extent
of S=1m2 is ρighS at depth h.
hydrostatic pressure:
p(h) = ρ gh
ρ: density; ρi: density of ice
g: gravitational acceleration
h: depth
x
(a) (b)
Component of weight parallel to the (inclined) plane:
Figure 1.4: The shear stress (Jxz on a plane atfordepth h below
a plane the hsurface
at depth and (lower
(a)
σ S = ρ ghsin α S
boundary of shaded region) is derived in two different coordinate systems a) surface
xz i parallel to the surface.
parallel, inclined coordinate system b) coordinate system is aligned with gravity.
Stress component: (a)
σ = ρ ghsin α
xz l.4b iwith a coordinate system where the
We now consider the geometry of Figure
x-axis isIcehorizontal
G. Leysinger is
Vieli,again
January 22,
of2015 10
unit cross-

/ . Id~1 = pghsina. (1.4)
Shear stress on a horizontal plane
below an inclined
This is called the driving stress (Deutsch: Hang-Abtriebskraft). For ansurface
equilibrium
(b)it aligned
of forces has to bewith gravity
balanced by other stresses,
- column of unitsuch as the basal
cross-sectional area S=Δx
drag Tb. W
- horizontal plane of interest at depths h to h + Δh
Mean force on the vertical face
on the left : on the right:
1 1
ρi g(h + Δh)2 W ρi gh ⋅ hW
2 2
Total shearing force on the horizontal
plane of interest: (b)
σ xz ΔxW x
(a) (b)
1 2 1 2 (b)
!
Since block is balanced –
ρi g(h
Figure 1.4:

The+ Δh)
 
shear −

stressρ gh on
i + σ
(Jxz
xz Δx
a plane = 0
at depth h below the surface (lower
sum of all forces is zero
2 of shaded
boundary 2
region)
2
2 is derived in two different coordinate systems a) surface
h +2hΔh+Δh
parallel, inclined coordinate system b) coordinate system is aligned with gravity.
Neglecting terms of order Δh2 (b) dh
and using tanα = Δh/Δx σ = ρ gh = ρ gh tan α
We now consider the geometry of Figurexzl.4b with a coordinate system where the
x-axis isIcehorizontal dx
G. Leysinger is
Vieli,again
January 22,
of2015 11
unit cross-
Basal shear stress
•  Basal shear stress τ d = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ sin(α )⋅ h
α h τb
Valley glacier 5-‐10o 100m 70-‐150kPa
Ice shield 0.5o 2000m 100-‐150kPa
τ b ≈ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ sin(α )⋅ h
Ice stream 0.1o 1000m 5-‐10kPa τ b ≈ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ f ⋅ sin(α )⋅ h
•  Simplest case: τd = τb sin(α): surface slope
h: ice thickness
f: shape factor
–  Driving stress exactly balanced by an
equal and opposite traction at the
glacial bed
•  Shapefactor f: resisting force from

drag at the valley walls
Strain
displacement
‘Strain’ε : - measured amount of
deformation that occurs as the result of δ L δdx
applied stress; [no dimension] ε= =
•  recoverable or elastic strains
L δx
(e.g. ‘springy’ material, bedrock)
–  a temporary change in shape of a material,
lasting only as long as a stress is applied.
–  storage of ‘strain energy’ - resisting force
•  irrecoverable or permanent strains
(e.g. viscous material – e.g. ice)
–  strain energy released – resulting in
permanent deformation or failure
–  yield stress – stress marking onset of
permanent deformation
–  forms of permanent stress:
•  brittle failure: material breaks along failure
•  ductile deformation: material undergoes
flow or creep Benn and Evans (2010)
Strain rate
‘Strain rate’ ε : - deformation per time [m/a] ε =
ε δu
=
Strain – commonly a mixture of pure and simple shear dt L
Simple shear: defined in terms of velocity δu δw

εxx = εyy =
extensional / compressional flow δx δy
velocity
component
changes along
Strain type:
Strain rate: its direction
Benn and Evans (2010)

stretched and flattened
1 ! δu δ w $
εxy = εyx = # + &
Pure shear: 2 "δy δx %
velocity
components
change in
perpendicular
direction
Ice Flow & Geometry

skewed G. Leysinger Vieli, January 22, 2015 14
Rheology:
Rheology – the way in which strain rate varies with applied stress for a
given material
Two basic properties:
•  yield strength yieldτ
–  Value of applied stress at the onset of permanent deformation [Pa]
–  τ yield = 0– permanent deformation occurs at any stress

•  stress-strain relationship
–  at higher stresses
Constitutive relation: equation relating the amount of rate of deformation

to applied stress and material property - found from experiments
•  Ice: Glen’s flow law
–  under low shear stresses: low strain rates
–  Under high shear stresses: increasingly higher strain rates
Rheology: Stress-strain relationship
a = perfectly plastic material, remains
rigid until the shear stress reaches the
yield stress (for ice approx. 100-150kPa)
b = newtonian,
linear-viscous
material, strain
rate is linearly
proportional to
shear stress
c = non-linearly
viscous material,
such as ice
Ice deformation – ice geometry
Ice Flow & Geometry Elefantfoot Glacier (Foto:

G. Leysinger Vieli, Dirk
January vanAs)
22, 2015 17
Perfectly plastic ice
•  Basal shear stress constant τb = τ0
–  Perfect plastic material with yield stress τ 0
•  Surface profile of an ice sheet
–  steady-state ice sheet on a flat horizontal bed
–  Stress at the ice sheet base (p. 8)
(b) dH
τb =σ xz = ρ gH H: ice thickness
dx
thickness at L – end of glacier –
–  integrate between x and L is zero
L 0
∫τ 0 dx = ∫ ρ gH dh 2τ 0
x H 2
1 L 0 H = (L − x)
∫
ρg x
τ b dx = ∫ H dh ρg
H
Ice deformation
•  Ice deforms under its own weight
(shear stress)
•  creep – displacement between ice

crystals
•  Glen’s flow law relates strain rate

and shear stress (Glen 1955; Nye
1957; Steinemann 1958):
Fold structures created by ice
ε ≅ Aτ n εij = Aτ σ ij"
n−1 deformation on Trapridge Glacier,
Alaska, (M. Hambrey)
ε: strain rate σ ij! : deviatoric stress

τ : shear stress τ : effective shear stress ! ε ε $
# xx xyExtensional
! σ( τ $
& = Aτ n−1 # xx crevasses,
xy
&
# εyx εyy &
A: rate factor (softness parameter) " Djankuat
# τ yx σ (yy &
% Glacier,
" Caucasus
%
n: flow exponent (≈3) σ !xx = σ !x = (σ x − σ n (C.
) Stokes)

Glen’s flow law for laminar flow (SIA)
•  Infinite, inclined plane – no stress gradients in x- δτ xz δσ
≠ 0, z ≠ 0
and y-direction only in z. δz δz
•  Approximation based on shallowness (height/width
dH
<< 1) èShallow ice approximation (SIA) τ xz = −ρ gz
dx
•  effective shear stress τ ≈ τ xz
0
therefore: εxz = Aτ τ xz ⇒ εxz = Aτ xzn

n−1
H x
≈0
1 ! δu δ v $ ! dH $ n
n z
# + & = −A # ρg & z u(H ) z(H )
" dH % n
2 " δz δ x % " dx % ∫ du = − ∫ 2A $# ρ g dx '&z dz
u(0) z(0)
H
udef = u(0) − u(h) 2A " dH % n+1
u(H ) − u(0) = − $ ρg 'z
n
n +1 #Extensional
dx & 0
crevasses,
" dH % H n+1 Djankuat Glacier, Caucasus
= 2A $ ρ g ' n
(C. Stokes)
# dx & n +1 ! dH $ H n+1
u(0) = us = 2A # ρ g & + u(H )
Ice Flow & Geometry
" dx % n +1
Glen’s flow law for laminar flow
•  Ice flow due to ice deformation: Glacier
Ice deformation
Surface
Flow speed
2 ⋅ A ⋅ τ n ⋅ h 2 ⋅ A ⋅ ( f ⋅ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ sin(α ))n ⋅ h n+1
ud = =
n +1 n +1
Depth
•  Ice flux due to ice deformation
Bed
2 ⋅ A ⋅ ( f ⋅ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ sin(α ))n ⋅ h n+2 ud h(n +1)

Qd = =
n+2 n+2
•  Averaged flow velocity is for n=3 80% of

the surface flow velocity us=u(H)
Cross section
Q n +1
u = = ud
H n+2
n +1 4
for n = 3 : = = 80%
n+2 5
Ice flux & geometry using Glen’s flow law
•  Ice flux: n
–  over a certain width 2AW ! dH $ n+2
Q= # ρg & H
n+2 " dx %
•  Ice sheet profile – Vialov solution (Vialov, 1958):
–  H0: thickness at the divide (origin)
2+2/n 1+1/n
!H $ !x$
# & +# & =1
" H0 % "L%
Ice flux depends on ice

thickness with the 5th power!
Temperature dependency
-16
of A
x 10
1.5
Flow factor A (Pa-3 y -1)

1
0.5
0
-20 -15 -10 -5 0
Eis -‐Temperatur A (Pa-‐3a-‐1) Ice temperature (deg C)
0o (temperiert) 1.4x10-‐16
-‐5oC 0.4x10-‐16
-‐20Ice
oC
Flow & Geometry 0.05x10
-‐16
Surface velocity
ELA
/100

Constitutive equation / mass conservation
Glacier in balance – mass conservation
Assumptions:
•  Flow in x-direction only
•  Ice is incompressible - changes in ice mass are
equivalent to changes in volume
δ H (x)  δQ(x)
= b(x) +
δt δx
 = b + b
b(x) S B
bS : balance rate at surface

bB : balance rate at bed

Extending / compressing flow
Velocity is increasing towards ELA and decreasing below
Ice is extending in
accumulation area
Ice is compressing
in ablation area
From: Hock/Adalgeirsdottir

If extending too fast à crevasses

28
G. Leysinger Vieli, January 22, 2015
Ice Flow & Geometry
Crevasses
•  Caused by divergent flow
(Strain/Extension)
–  longitudinal / transverse
–  shear
•  Critical strain/stress –
crevasse formation
•  Where ice velocities increase
– extension - crevasses
•  Where ice velocities decrease
Longitudinal and transverse
– compression – closing crevasses on Triftgletscher
•  convexe Surface/Bed – (A. Vieli)"
"
crevasses likely

Crevasse formation
Stress
•  Critical stress for ice
(τc≈120-‐150kPa)
•  Perpendicular to the main
tensile stress
•  Normal stress, shear stress
and combinations
Icefall on
Aletschgletscher"
above Konkordiaplatz"
"
Benn & Evans, 2010"
Transverse and longitudinal crevasses
•  ghjkfdas Transverse-‐ (leL) and
longitudinal crevasses (right)
(Photo, J.Alean;
glacieronline: hRp://
www.swisseduc.ch/glaciers)

Marginal and radial crevasses
Radial-‐ and marginal crevasses, Aletschgletscher

(top), Rhonegletscher (right)(Foto, J.Alean;
Iceglacieronline:
Flow & Geometry hRp://www.swisseduc.ch/glaciers) G. Leysinger Vieli, January 22, 2015 32
Bergschrund
(Photo, J.Alean; glacieronline: http://www.swisseduc.ch/glaciers)

Crevasse depth
Extensional ice flow near the surface:
τ xy = −ρ gzsin α ≈ 0
τ ≈ σ "x
at great depth
τ xy >> σ !x
τ 2 ≈ τ xy2
•  Crevasse depth dc 1/n
2 " εx %
Crevasse depth: dc ≈ $ '
ρ g cos α # A &
Example for: A=0.161 bar-3 a-1, n=3, cos α ≈1

and εx =0.2 a-1 è d=24.4m
Benn and Evans (2010) Filled with water crevasses

can penetrate to the bed
Summary – ice flow & geometry
Surface velocity – a combination of internal
deformation and basal motion us = ud + ub
Using Glen’s flow law
ε ≅ Aτ
n
τ d = ρi ⋅ g ⋅ sin(α )⋅ h
And the approximation of the gravitational
driving stress at the bed
τ b ≈ ρi ⋅ g ⋅ sin(α )⋅ h
n n
The surface velocity is: 2A ! dH $ n+1 2 ⋅ A ⋅ τ ⋅h
us = # ρg & H + u(H ) ud =
n +1 " dx % n +1
n
With the ice flux: 2AW ! dH $ n+2 Q n +1
Q= # ρg & H u= = ud
n+2 " dx % H n+2
incompressible material (ice) requires that

volume is conserved δ H (x)  δQ(x)
= b(x) +
Mass conservation when in balance – a change δ t δx
in thickness
Ice Flow & Geometry requires a change in flux G. Leysinger Vieli, January 22, 2015 35

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IHCAP – Indian Himalayas Climate Change Adaptation Programme: Level-2 course

Ice Flow & Geometry

Gwendolyn Leysinger Vieli

IHCAP – Indian Himalayas Climate Change Adaptation Programme

Ice Flow & Geometry G. Leysinger Vieli, January 22, 2015 2

Traction Traction components Force per unit area on a surface

Surface stress Surface stress

Ice Flow & Geometry G. Leysinger Vieli, January 22, 2015 4

Benn and Evans (2010)

A pair of tractions acting (a) grey arrows: (b) deviatoric stresses

Stress – a measure of how hard a material is being compressed,

for: τ max mean normal

comp- Shear stress &

IHCAP – Indian Himalayas Climate Change Adaptation Programme: Level-2 course

IHCAP – Indian Himalayas Climate Change Adaptation Programme: Level-2 course

IHCAP – Indian Himalayas Climate Change Adaptation Programme: Level-2 course

• Shapefactor f: resisting force from

Simple shear: defined in terms of velocity δu δw

Strain rate: its direction

Benn and Evans (2010)

Ice Flow & Geometry

– τ yield = 0– permanent deformation occurs at any stress

Constitutive relation: equation relating the amount of rate of deformation

Ice Flow & Geometry Elefantfoot Glacier (Foto:

• creep – displacement between ice

• Glen’s flow law relates strain rate

ε: strain rate σ ij! : deviatoric stress

Ice Flow & Geometry G. Leysinger Vieli, January 22, 2015 19

therefore: εxz = Aτ τ xz ⇒ εxz = Aτ xzn

2 ⋅ A ⋅ ( f ⋅ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ sin(α ))n ⋅ h n+2 ud h(n +1)

• Averaged flow velocity is for n=3 80% of

Ice flux depends on ice

Flow factor A (Pa-3 y -1)

Ice Flow & Geometry G. Leysinger Vieli, January 22, 2015 24

bS : balance rate at surface

Ice Flow & Geometry G. Leysinger Vieli, January 22, 2015 25

Ice Flow & Geometry G. Leysinger Vieli, January 22, 2015 26

IHCAP – Indian Himalayas Climate Change Adaptation Programme: Level-2 course

Ice Flow & Geometry G. Leysinger Vieli, January 22, 2015 29

Ice Flow & Geometry G. Leysinger Vieli, January 22, 2015 31

Radial-­‐ and marginal crevasses, Aletschgletscher

(Photo, J.Alean; glacieronline: http://www.swisseduc.ch/glaciers)

Example for: A=0.161 bar-3 a-1, n=3, cos α ≈1

Benn and Evans (2010) Filled with water crevasses

incompressible material (ice) requires that

S-ar putea să vă placă și

•  Shapefactor f: resisting force from

–  τ yield = 0– permanent deformation occurs at any stress

•  creep – displacement between ice

•  Glen’s flow law relates strain rate

•  Averaged flow velocity is for n=3 80% of

Radial-‐ and marginal crevasses, Aletschgletscher