IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 21, NO.

3, JULY 2006 1191

Series Compensated Line Protection Enhancement

by Modified Pilot Relaying Schemes
Tarlochan S. Sidhu, Fellow, IEEE, and Mojtaba Khederzadeh

Abstract—In this paper, a comprehensive analysis of the impact
of series capacitor on the performance of communication-aided
distance protection schemes of transmission lines is presented.
It is shown that not only the series capacitor and its overvoltage
protection affect the distance protection of its line, but also the
adjacent lines would experience protection problems. Mitigation
of this problem is proposed by using new communication-aided
schemes. The proposed schemes use the information available at
the substation to inhibit relay malfunctions. The performance of
the techniques is studied for different series capacitor locations in
the transmission line. Real Time Digital Simulator (RTDS) and
four sophisticated commercial relays are used for testing. The
results verify the impact of series capacitor on the conventional
communication-aided schemes and also the effectiveness of the
proposed methods.
Index Terms—Communication-aided distance schemes, pilot re-
laying systems, power system protection, protective relaying, series
capacitor, series compensated line.
I. INTRODUCTION
applied. These communication or pilot channels can be used
for the exchange of information between the protective relaying
systems, called pilot relaying systems, to determine whether
the fault is internal or external to the protected transmission
line. The most widely used pilot relaying system is directional
comparison. An IEEE survey published in 1988 [4], showed
that about 80% of the most important lines in 116 utilities in
the USA, have directional comparison protection. The main
reasons for this wide acceptance are the low communication
channel requirements and the inherent redundancy and backup
protection of directional comparison systems.
The objective of this paper is to analyze and investigate the
impact of SC on the performance of conventional communica-
tion-aided distance protection schemes and propose solutions
to mitigate the problem by using the available facilities in the
power stations avoiding essential changes and investments. For
an accurate and reliable analysis, the tests are done by Real
Time Digital Simulator (RTDS) and sophisticated commercial
relays. SC is modeled with overvoltage protection and the

S ERIES CAPACITORS (SCs) are used in transmission

systems to increase load capacity, enhance system stability,
improve load division on parallel paths, and reduce losses. SCs
power system is designed with traveling wave transmission line
models. In most of the works done up to now, the operation of
a single relay is considered; while in this paper simultaneous
and their overvoltage protection devices (typically Metal Oxide
behavior of 4 commercial relays located at the ends of the main
Varistors, MOVs), in spite of their beneficial effects on the
compensated line and its adjacent line is analyzed.
power system performance, introduce additional problems and
The results indicate that SC not only affects the distance pro-
make the operating conditions unfavorable for the protective
tection on the main compensated line but also the protection of
relays that use conventional techniques. The most important
the adjacent lines. Some problem areas are directional integrity
singularity lays in the fact that the positive sequence impedance
and forward overreach of a fault on the main line and the ad-
measured by traditional distance relays is no longer an indi-
jacent lines and insufficiency of the conventional communica-
cator of the distance to a fault. The apparent reactance and
tion-aided distance schemes. To mitigate the problem, different
resistance seen by the relay are affected due to the variation
methods based on pilot relaying schemes are proposed. The
of series compensation voltage during the fault period. The
proposed techniques use new logics for tripping and sending
typical problems faced by the relays have been addressed in
permissive/blocking signals using extra data normally available
many publications [1]–[3] and include such phenomena as
at the stations. The test results show the effectiveness of the
voltage and/or current inversion, subharmonic oscillations,
methods to overcome the important issues of overreaching and
and additional transients caused by the air gaps triggered by
directional integrity.
thermal protection of the MOVs. Overreaching and directional
The paper is organized as follows. Section II briefly presents
integrity of the distance elements are the major critical conse-
the analysis of the impact of SC on distance relays. In
quences of these phenomena. To mitigate the impact of series
Section III, the test results showing the SC impact on sample
compensation for faults occurring on a compensated transmis-
networks for the conventional communication-aided schemes
sion line or adjacent lines, communication channels can be
are presented. Section IV presents the methods to mitigate
the problem. Section V shows the test results of the proposed
Manuscript received August 8, 2005. Paper no. TPWRD-00466-2005. methods.
T. S. Sidhu is with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5B9, Canada (e-mail:
II. SC IMPACT ON DISTANCE RELAY
sidhu@eng.uwo.ca).
M. Khederzadeh is with the Electrical Engineering Department, Power Fig. 1 shows a simplified equivalent circuit of a power system
and Water University of Technology, Tehran 16765-1719, Iran (e-mail:
khederzadeh@pwit.ac.ir). with the SC and its overvoltage protection in the middle of the
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2006.876982 transmission line.
0885-8977/$20.00 © 2006 IEEE
1192
Fig. 1. Equivalent circuit for 3 phase fault.
The overvoltage protection comprises of a metal oxide
varistor (MOV) and/or bypass gap across the series capacitor.
A circuit breaker is also installed across the capacitor to bypass
it if a severe fault or equipment malfunction occurs. A current
limiting inductor, Ld, is incorporated in the circuit to restrict
the magnitude and the frequency of the capacitor current during
the capacitor bypass operation [5].
A. No Overvoltage Protection Operation
The apparent impedance seen by the relays and in
Fig. 1 for the faults behind SC depends on the SC overvoltage
protection mode. In normal operation, the overvoltage protec-
tion does not operate and the SC equivalent impedance is a pure
capacitive reactance. When a fault occurs behind SC and the
fault current is low, the overvoltage protection does not operate,
and a significant compensation exists, so the conventional dis-
tance relay, , overreaches considerably. For this case, relay
may lose its directional integrity and see the fault in the for-
ward direction.
B. Overvoltage Protection by MOV Conduction
A varistor limits the temporary overvoltage across the capac-
itors by conducting the excess transmission line current. This
condition occurs on each half cycle during the overcurrent con-
dition or until the parallel bypass breaker closes or the bypass
gap fires. Typically, the varistor will be designed to withstand
the current and energy associated with specified external line
section faults so that the series capacitor in the unfaulted line
remains in service during the fault [6].
When MOV operates during a fault, the distance relay sees
the combination of the capacitor and MOV, so the relay would
overreach but differently from the case without MOV operation
[7].
C. Bypass Gap Operation
When the internal line section faults can cause much higher
varistor current and energy, the series capacitor protection
system typically incorporates a parallel gap to bypass the series
capacitor at high speed for a close-in fault. If the SC is located
out on the transmission line, it becomes more practical to
omit a parallel bypass gap and to limit the duration of varistor
conduction for a fault by closing the bypass switch. In this case,
the apparent impedance of the SC is the inductive reactance of
the reactor, , so the distance relay would underreach slightly.
According to Fig. 1, if is a self-polarized mho relay, then
it is possible to see the fault at F1 in the reverse direction due to
the voltage reversal. To overcome this problem, it is common to
use memory polarized mho relay [8] using a positive sequence
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 21, NO. 3, JULY 2006
Fig. 2. Polarized MHO circle for fault in forward direction. Solid circle
(no-load), dashed circle (load exporting), dashed dot circle (load importing).
memory voltage as the polarizing value. Fig. 2 shows polarized
mho circle for faults in the forward direction. In this figure is
the impedance of the line between relay and the fault point.
is the reach setting. The negative X-values do not correspond
to faults in the reverse direction, but rather to measured negative
short circuit reactance for faults in the forward direction, which
arises when the short circuit reactance is capacitive, i.e. for faults
behind SC. By measuring the angle between and in Fig. 2
instead of and as is the case for self-polarized relay, the
fault is correctly seen in the forward direction even if is pure
capacitive as long as capacitive reactance of SC is less than ,
because the measured negative short-circuit reactance remains
within the circle up to this limit value.
In the case of reverse faults for , the current in relation-
ship to voltage is inverted. Faults in the reverse direction must
therefore be represented in a separate diagram. Fig. 3 shows the
memory polarized mho circle for faults in the reverse direction.
Faults behind SC in the reverse direction, which appear as pos-
itive reactances are seen correctly, as long as by
considering only SC between the relay and fault point [9].
Memory polarization is affected by the load flow. The key
factor is the difference in angle between the pre-fault voltage at
the relay location and the voltage at the equivalent source. The
characteristic circle is therefore rotated by the load angle. Ac-
cording to Fig. 2, on the end exporting power, the circle would
be rotated in the lagging sense, and for the end importing power;
the rotation is in the leading sense. This means that for forward
faults the condition where load flow direction and fault current
flow are opposite is a favorable condition from overreaching as-
pect, since the polarizing and operating voltages are both shifted
in the same direction. When the load flow is in the tripping direc-
tion, then adequate security against overreaching might not be
SIDHU AND KHEDERZADEH: SERIES COMPENSATED LINE PROTECTION ENHANCEMENT
Fig. 3. Polarized MHO circle for fault in reverse direction. Dashed circle
(no-load), solid circle (load importing).
Fig. 4. Sample networks used for simulation, (a) SC in the middle (b) SC at
the ends.
available. The load angle rotation is expected to have the largest
influence during faults in the reverse direction, because in this
case the largest phase shifts between the in-feed voltage, and the
voltage at the relay location exists. Fig. 3 shows the rotation of
the circle when the load flow is in nontripping direction for a
reverse fault. This case provides a greater tendency to trip erro-
neously, compared to the case when the load flow is in tripping
direction. These points will be verified in the next section.
III. SC IMPACT ON DISTANCE RELAYS: RESULTS
Fig. 4 shows the single line diagrams of the sample networks
used for testing. The data for these networks are presented in
Table IX. In Fig. 4(a), the SC is considered in the middle of the
line and in Fig. 4(b) the SC is split into two equal modules lo-
cated at the line ends. The behavior of the relays of the main line
AB and adjacent line DA for faults behind SC is investigated.
RTDS and commercial relays are used for performing the tests.
Test arrangements are shown in Fig. 5. The voltage and current
signals are injected from the RTDS to the relays and the outputs
of the relays are used to open the breakers.
1193
Fig. 5. Test system arrangements.
TABLE I
BEHAVIOR OF RELAYS USING CONVENTIONAL SCHEMES IN
FIG. 4(a) WITH LOAD FLOW FROM BUS D TO C
Test arrangements of Figs. 5(a) and 5(b) are used for testing
the configurations in Figs. 4(a) and 4(b) for faults behind SC as
indicated by F1 and F2 in the figures, respectively.
Tables I–IV present the results obtained for different conven-
tional schemes, fault types, fault locations, load flow directions
and system configurations.
The commercial distance relays used for testing are all the
same and have the feature of series compensated line protection.
In these relays the effects of a voltage reversal on the distance el-
ements is mitigated by the use of positive-sequence voltage with
memory to polarize the distance elements. The security of the
relay is further enhanced by the addition of control equations
that add logic to extend the blocking if the fault first appears
to be external to the relay. The performance of the negative-se-
quence directional elements for voltage reversal conditions is
1194
TABLE II
BEHAVIOR OF RELAYS USING CONVENTIONAL SCHEMES IN
FIG. 4(a) WITH LOAD FLOW FROM BUS C TO D
TABLE III
BEHAVIOR OF RELAYS USING CONVENTIONAL SCHEMES IN
FIG. 4(b) WITH LOAD FLOW FROM BUS D TO C
improved by selecting the impedance thresholds for the negative
sequence directional elements, Z2F and Z2R, such that the neg-
ative-sequence directional elements will properly determine the
fault direction even if the negative-sequence voltage reverses.
The main settings for the relays of the adjacent lines
without SC are , ,
in reverse direction, neg-
ative-sequence directional elements
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 21, NO. 3, JULY 2006
TABLE IV
BEHAVIOR OF RELAYS USING CONVENTIONAL SCHEMES IN
FIG. 4(b) WITH LOAD FLOW FROM BUS C TO D
and , where is the
rated current of the relay (1 Amp). For the compen-
sated line, the settings are the same as above except
, and
.
Tables I and II show the results for the configuration of
Fig. 4(a) and Tables III and IV show the same results for the
configuration of Fig. 4(b). It is worth noting that Zone 1 (direct
tripping) and (communication-aided tripping) are combined
by an OR logic in the control equations of the relays, so each
of them can individually issue the trip command.
As Table I indicates RD1 and RA2 trip erroneously for the
faults behind SC and on the line AB to disconnect line DA,
which is due to deficiency in security and directional integrity,
respectively. In Table II, the overreaching effect of RD1 is re-
duced and the directional integrity of RA2 is increased which is
in accordance to Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, i.e., the case where load flow
direction and fault current flow are opposite. The results for the
same fault locations presented in Tables III and IV for the con-
figuration of Fig. 4(b). Table IV indicates that the overreaching
and directionality are less severe than for the reverse load flow.
This means for reverse faults when the load flow is in nontrip-
ping direction, according to Fig. 3, the relay suffers more from
the directional integrity.
IV. PROPOSED METHODS TO MITIGATE THE PROBLEM
The pilot protection systems using channel principle can be
classified as blocking systems for trip operations not requiring
channel; and transfer trip systems for trip operations requiring
channel [10].
Directional comparison systems can be classified as
• directional comparison blocking (DCB);
• permissive overreaching transfer trip (POTT);
• directional comparison unblocking (DCUB).
SIDHU AND KHEDERZADEH: SERIES COMPENSATED LINE PROTECTION ENHANCEMENT
Fig. 6. Proposed mitigation method based on DCB.
Direct tripping schemes cannot be applied in lines with SC,
because unconditional Zone I trips the relay instantaneously due
to the overreaching or directional integrity.
A. Mitigation Based on DCB
This method requires two distance zones: a fast starter zone
which sends the blocking signal to the remote end when the
fault is in the reverse direction; and a directional overreaching
zone in the forward direction, which inhibits the blocking signal
during faults in the forward direction, and initiates tripping if no
blocking signal from the remote end is present.
For the main line protection, i.e., line AB, this method is ap-
plicable, since for faults on the main line the blocking signal will
not be sent by both RA1 and RB2, hence tripping command is
issued after the tripping delay time TA. This is the same for both
configurations, i.e., SC in the middle or at the ends of the line.
When the fault is on the line BC, RA1 overreaches but does not
trip due to receiving the blocking signal from RB2. The same
situation applies for the faults on line DA.
The adjacent lines can not be protected by this method, since
for some cases when the fault is on the main line, the directional
integrity concerns by RA2 causes the fault to be seen in Zone
1 by this relay so blocking signal will not be sent to the remote
relay RD1, which has already seen the fault in Zone 1 due to
its overreaching effect. In this case both relays of the adjacent
line DA or BC will trip erroneously in Zone I. For solving this
problem the solution in Fig. 6 is proposed. As can be seen from
this figure, nonoperation of RA1 in Zone I is a pre-requisite for
operation of RA2 in the forward reach, and also its operation
triggers sending the blocking signal to RD1, as does the opera-
tion of RA2 in Zone III.
1195
The significant advantage of the blocking procedure is that
no signal needs to be transferred during faults on the protected
line. The disadvantage of the method is the trip time delay
for internal faults. In case of channel failure, overtripping oc-
curs on adjacent lines for faults on the main line and vice versa,
so this method tends toward higher dependability than security.
It is worth noting that the blocking procedure for the adjacent
lines can be used for the main line also. In this way, there is a
unique solution based on DCB for both type of lines. In con-
ventional systems, the DCB is used for Zone II acceleration, so
the tripping time delay is equal to
. In this case, the tripping time
delay would be . In this case, the
tripping time delay would be .
B. Mitigation Based on POTT
In the classical sense, this method only achieves fast tripping
when the relays at both ends of the line detect a fault in the over-
reaching zone and send each other a release signal. Usually zone
1 with 80% to 90% coverage of the line trips unconditionally,
while zone 2, which extends beyond the remote end trips in-
stantaneously upon receipt of permissive trip signal. POTT with
unconditional zone 1 trip cannot be used here, so the only possi-
bility is releasing an overreaching distance zone by the received
signal. In this method, sending the signal is triggered by the for-
ward overreaching zone.
For the main line POTT can be used successfully. For the
faults on the main line, both end line relays see the fault at their
overreaching zone and send transfer trip signal to each other, so
the only delay is channel time. For faults beyond SC and on the
adjacent line, the overreaching of RA1 or RB2 can be compen-
sated by the refraining of remote relay to send trip signal.
POTT cannot inhibit adjacent line relays from false tripping
when the directional integrity of RA2 or RB1 is lost. In this case,
the modified scheme in Fig. 7 is proposed. As this figure shows,
permissive trip signal transfer is dependent on the nonoperation
of the main line relays RA1 and RB2, so when the RA2 or RB1
relays incorrectly see the fault in the forward direction, false
tripping is avoided. The proposed scheme can be used for both
main line and the adjacent lines. The dependency of the permis-
sive trip to the condition of the other relays is not required for
the main line. The salient advantage of this method is fast trip-
ping of internal faults, because no intentional delay is required
and upon receiving the permissive signal the trip command is
issued. Transfer trip systems tend toward higher security than
dependability. A failure to receive the channel signal results in
a failure to trip for internal faults. Hence, channel failure delays
the tripping by the time of zone 2 unconditional trip. So this
scheme is proposed for the cases with high channel reliability.
C. Mitigation Based on DCUB
The blocking procedure has the disadvantage that during un-
faulted system operation no signal is transmitted. The commu-
nication channel is therefore not monitored. The unblocking
technique does not have this disadvantage; moreover, this tech-
nique is also somewhat faster. During internal faults, the signal
is changed to a permissive signal similar to the POTT method.
1196 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 21, NO. 3, JULY 2006

Fig. 7. Proposed mitigation method based on POTT.

Fig. 8. Proposed mitigation method based on DCUB.

This implies that no trip delay is required to wait for an even- TABLE V
tual block signal. This procedure offers a good compromise of BEHAVIOR OF RELAYS USING THE PROPOSED SCHEMES IN
FIG. 4(a) WITH LOAD FLOW FROM BUS D TO C
both high dependability (channel not required to trip) and high
security (blocking is continuous).
Fig. 8 shows the proposed method. The proposed method can
be used both in the main line and the adjacent lines. In this
method like the previous one, the dependency of the unblocking
signal transfer to the condition of the other relays is not required
for the main line. The logic is so implemented that 20 ms after
channel failure, it releases the zone ZF for a period of 100 ms.
If this happens during a fault, then tripping will occur provided
that the relay has seen the fault in forward direction correctly.
If channel failure occurs during normal system operation, no
consequences arise because ZF is not picked up. 100 ms later,
the protection is again blocked for the duration of the channel
failure. This blocking is removed (re-set time of 100 ms) when
a signal is again received.

V. PERFORMANCE OF THE PROPOSED METHODS

Commercial relays have control equations for different tasks
such as conditions to assert the output contacts; elements and
conditions to trigger event reports; elements to trip uncondition-
ally; and elements to trip with communications assistance. The
methods proposed in the previous section are implemented by
control equations. Tables V–VIII show the performance of the
proposed method for the study systems of Fig. 4(a) and Fig. 4(b), only the primary protection operation is mentioned in these ta-
respectively. Table IX shows the system data for these networks. bles. The performance of the back-up relays is as expected,
Comparison of Tables V–VIII with Tables I–IV shows the sig- but with some overreaching effects. As it can be deduced from
nificant capability of the proposed schemes to enhance the pro- Tables V–VIII, the SC impact such as forward overreach and
tection of the main line and adjacent lines. For sake of simplicity, directional integrity are solved. The results of extensive testing
SIDHU AND KHEDERZADEH: SERIES COMPENSATED LINE PROTECTION ENHANCEMENT
TABLE VI
BEHAVIOR OF RELAYS USING THE PROPOSED SCHEMES IN
Fig. 4(a) WITH LOAD FLOW FROM BUS C TO D
TABLE VII
BEHAVIOR OF RELAYS USING PROPOSED SCHEMES IN FIG. 4(b)
WITH LOAD FLOW FROM BUS D TO C
on study systems indicate that all the proposed methods based
on communication-aided schemes provide very high reliability
and mitigate the SC impact on the protective relays.
A. Channel Failure Effects
Proposed method based on DCB needs a fixed time delay
for receiving blocking signal before releasing trip for internal
faults. While this is a disadvantage for healthy channel, it would
turn to an advantage for internal faults when the channel fails,
1197
TABLE VIII
BEHAVIOR OF RELAYS USING THE PROPOSED SCHEMES IN
FIG. 4(b) WITH LOAD FLOW FROM BUS C TO D
TABLE IX
SYSTEM DATA
since no extra delay occurs for release trip. Overtripping is a
disadvantage of this method for faults on the adjacent lines. The
method based on POTT has the advantage of fast tripping of
internal faults upon receiving the permissive trip signal but it
has long time delay for channel failure. Channel failure does not
cause any overtripping for external faults. The proposed method
based on DCUB seems more efficient, because the channel is
supervised continuously, while it has the advantage of tripping
internal faults without any intentional delay.
B. Implementation
The salient feature of the proposed schemes is the possibility
of using conventional numerical relays and common communi-
1198
cation channels that are used in the stations, without the neces-
sity of changing embedded relay algorithms. The user through
the inputs, outputs and logic equations can apply the modifica-
tions. The required data for the proposed methods are available
in the same station and it could be hard-wired or soft-wired by
using the existing local area network (LAN).
C. SC Out of Service
When SC is out of service, there is no difficulty for normal
operation of the relays by using the proposed methods, because
the imposed restriction always asserts in usual power system
operation.
Comparison of the Tables I and III with Tables V and VII
indicates that the proposed method has improved the serious
effect of the load flow direction as discussed by the Figs. 2 and
3 on the performance of the relays for the forward and reverse
faults.
Although the positive-sequence voltage with polarized
memory mitigate the impacts of a voltage reversal on the
distance elements, but the security of the relays can further be
enhanced by the application of the proposed method.
VI. CONCLUSION
A comprehensive analysis of the impact of SC on the pro-
tection of transmission lines during system disturbances is pre-
sented. RTDS and four sophisticated commercial relays with the
capability of compensated-line protection are used for testing.
The results indicate that SC has significant impacts on the pro-
tection of the main compensated line and also adjacent lines
using common pilot distance schemes. This impact is intensi-
fied when the power flow is in tripping direction for the for-
ward faults and when the power flow is in nontripping direc-
tion for the reverse faults. Mitigation of the problem by modi-
fied communication-aided schemes is proposed. The proposed
methods are obtained by the modification of the classical DCB,
POTT and DCUB schemes, which are well proven for utilities
and are available in the commercial relays. The methods can be
implemented by using inputs, outputs and trip logic equations
of the numerical relays. The results of the proposed methods
indicate the effectiveness of the modified schemes. The pro-
posed methods have a very desirable feature that they do not
require any new equipments or major modifications in the ex-
isting plants.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 21, NO. 3, JULY 2006
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
M. Khederzadeh would like to thank the support of Power
and Water University of Technology (PWIT) for the Sabbatical
leave to the University of Western Ontario (UWO).
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[6] D. L. Goldsworthy, “A linearized model for MOV-protected series ca-
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[7] R. J. Marttila, “Performance of distance relay MHO elements on MOV,
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[8] L. M. Wedepohl, “The polarized Mho distance relay,” Proc. Inst. Elect.
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[9] G. Ziegler, Numerical Distance Protection: Principles and Applica-
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Press, 1999.
Tarlochan S. Sidhu (M’90–SM’94–F’04) received the B.E. (Hons.) degree
from Punjabi University, Patiala, India, in 1979 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. de-
grees from the University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada, in 1985
and 1989, respectively.
Currently, he is Professor and Hydro One Chair in Power Systems Engi-
neering and Chair of the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada. His research interests are
power system protection, monitoring, and control.
Dr. Sidhu is a Fellow of the Institution of Electrical Engineers (U.K.) and the
Institution of Engineers (India). He is also a Registered Professional Engineer
in the Province of Ontario and a Chartered Engineer in the U.K.
.
Mojtaba Khederzadeh received the B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from
Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, in 1980, the M.Sc. degree in elec-
trical engineering from Tehran University, Tehran, in 1990, and the Ph.D. degree
in electrical engineering from Sharif University of Technology in 1996.
Currently, he is Assistant Professor and Director of Power System Protection
and Control Researches in the Department of Electrical Engineering, Power and
Water University of Technology, Tehran, Iran. His research interests include
power system protection, control and monitoring, and power system dynamics.