UNDERSTANDING PASTURES:

A GUIDE FOR GUYANA

R. N. Cumberbatch & O. Homenauth

Table of Contents

1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 9
2. FACTORS THAT CAN AFFECT THE GROWTH AND YIELD OF PASTURES ........ 11
2.1 Climatic Factors....................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Radiation ................................................................................................................. 12
2.3 Photoperiod ............................................................................................................. 13
3. SOILS FOUND IN THE MAIN LIVESTOCK PRODUCING AREAS .......................... 16
3.1 The Coastal Plains .................................................................................................. 16
3.2 The Intermediate Savannahs .................................................................................. 17
4. TYPES OF PASTURES FOUND IN GUYANA .......................................................... 19
5. HOW TO SELECT IMPROVED PASTURE PLANTS ................................................ 21
5.1 Requirements of a good pasture species ................................................................ 21
6. AGRONOMIC DESCRIPTION OF PASTURE PLANTS............................................ 24
6.1 Pasture grasses ...................................................................................................... 24
6.2 Pasture legumes ..................................................................................................... 26
7. RECOMMENDED PASTURE GRASSES AND LEGUMES ...................................... 30
8. ESTABLISHMENT OF IMPROVED PASTURES ...................................................... 44
8.1 Land Preparation ..................................................................................................... 44
8.2 Methods of Establishment ....................................................................................... 45
8.3 Seed Preparation .................................................................................................... 46
8.4 Planting ................................................................................................................... 46
8.5 Management of a new pasture ................................................................................ 48
9. HOW TO ESTIMATE THE FRESH AND DRY MATTER YIELD OF THE PASTURE 50
9.1 How to calculate the fresh weight yield of the available forage in the pasture ......... 50
9.2 What is dry matter (DM?) ........................................................................................ 51
9.3 How to determine the dry matter yield of the pasture .............................................. 52
9.4 How to calculate the moisture content of forage ..................................................... 52
9.5 What is the forage dry matter intake or dry matter demand of an animal? .............. 53
10.1 Factors that could affect the production per animal. .............................................. 55
10.1.1 Factors that determine the quality and quantity of the available forage .............. 56
10.1.1.1 What is stocking rate? ..................................................................................... 56
10.1.1.2 What happens when the wrong stocking rate is used? ................................... 58
10.1.1.3 How to calculate stocking rate on some improved grasses ............................. 60
10.2 Grazing Pressure.................................................................................................. 63
10.3 Carrying Capacity ................................................................................................. 63
11.1 Managing the pasture for optimum nutrients ......................................................... 65
11.2.1 Zero Grazing ...................................................................................................... 67
11.2.2 Continuous grazing ............................................................................................ 69
11.2.3 Rotational stocking ............................................................................................. 70
11.3 Planning the forage budget ................................................................................... 73
12.CONSERVATION OF FORAGE............................................................................... 75
12.1 Silage .................................................................................................................... 75
12.1.1 What is Silage..................................................................................................... 75

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12.1.2 Forage best used for silage making ................................................................... 76
12.1.3 How to make silage ............................................................................................ 77
12.1.5 Types and sizes of silage storage systems ........................................................ 80
12.1.6 How much silage should be made?.................................................................... 80
12.2 Hay making........................................................................................................... 82
12.2.1 Why should farmers make hay ........................................................................... 83
12.2.2 What is hay......................................................................................................... 83
12.2.3 General Information ........................................................................................ 84
12.2.3.1 How to make hay............................................................................................. 85
12.2.3.2 Making of hay by small farmers ....................................................................... 87
12.2.3.3 How to store hay ............................................................................................. 87
12.2.3.5 How much hay should be given to the animal ................................................. 89
13.FENCES FOR LIVESTOCK ..................................................................................... 91
13.1 Types of fences ..................................................................................................... 91
13.1.1The Conventional Barbed wire fence .................................................................. 91
13.1.2 Fence structure for the conventional fence ........................................................ 92
13.2.1 Semi conventional fence .................................................................................... 93
13.2.1.2 Chain Link Fence ............................................................................................. 95
13.3.1 Electric fences .................................................................................................... 96
13.4 Paddock/pasture layout ........................................................................................ 98
14. WEED CONTROL IN PASTURES ........................................................................ 100
14.1 Mechanical Control.............................................................................................. 100
14.2 Chemical Control ................................................................................................. 100

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List of Tables

No Tables Page
number
1 Some important forage species in Guyana in relation to their 13
adaptability and response to the environment
2 21
Requirements of good pasture species
3 Recommended pasture species for Guyana 31
4 Some recommended fertilizer rates for establishment and 48
maintenance of pastures in Guyana
5 Animal class/age and animal unit equivalent for cattle and sheep 57
6 Cattle live weight, estimated daily forage dry matter demand and 57
animal unit equivalent
7 Animal units and forage demand per day, month and year 58
8 Stocking rate and animal gain for some selected forage species in 58
Guyana
9 An example of a feed budget that may be used on the improved 74
pastures located on the coast and Intermediate Savannahs in
Guyana
10 Weights of chopped silage in various types of storage 81
11 Length of wire required for fencing one row of a one ha 98
paddock/pasture with different long and wide sides
12 Length of wire required for fencing one row of a one acre 99
paddock/pasture with different long and wide sides

4
List of scientific and common names

Scientific names Common names

Andropogon gayanus Gamba grass
Andropogon leucostachyus Andropogon
Brachiaria arrecta Tanner grass
Brachiaria brizantha Signal grass
Brachiaria humidicola UF717
Centrosema pubescens Centro ( Legume)
Cynodon dactylon, Bermuda grass
Cynodon plectostachyus Star grass
Desmodium adcendens, Sweet heart (Legume)
Desmodium ovalifolium Desmodium (Legume)
Digitaria decumbens Pangola grass
Echinochloa pyramidalis Antelope grass
Eleocharis mutata Bisi-Bisi
Gliricida sepium Quick Stick (Legume)
Hemarthria altissima Limpo grass
Hymenachne amplexicaulis Bamboo grass
Ischaemum timorense Lucuntu
Leersia hexandra Fine grass
Leucaena leucocephala Wild tamarind (Legume)
Paspalum conjugatum, Sour grass
Paspalum distichum Guinea pig grass
Paspalum virgatum Razor grass
Pennisetum purpureum Elephant grass
Pueraria phaseoloides Kudzu (Legume)
Rhynchosia minima Burn mouth vine (Legume)
Setaria sphacelata Monkey tail grass
Stylosanthes capitata Stylo (Legume)
Trachypogon plumosus Trachypogon (savannah grass)
Vigna luteola Yellow flower weed

5
List of Figures
Figure Topic Page
number number
1 Photograph of native pasture on the coastlands of Guyana 19

2 Photograph of planted pasture of antelope grass 20

3 Diagram of the grass plant 25

4 Diagram of grass stolons and rhizomes 26

5 Diagram of pasture legume with flowers and seeds 27

6 Photograph of nodules on the root of a legume plant 28

7 Legume plants with seeds, pods and flower 29

8 Photograph of gamba grass 32

9 Signal grass photograph 33

10 Photograph of UF 717 pasture 33

11 Photograph of tanner grass 34

12 Photograph of star grass 35

13 Photograph of limpo grass 36

14 Photograph of elephant grass 37

15 Photograph of monkey tail grass 37

16 Photograph showing a stand of calapo mixed with grass 38

17 Photograph of centro 39

18 Photograph of desmodium 39

19 Photograph of quick stick 40

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20 Photograph of wild tamarind 41
21 Photograph of Kudzu 41

22 Photograph of stylo 42

23 Photograph of a well-prepared pasture seedbed on the coastal clay 44

soils
24 Photograph of flooded pasture prior to planting of ant31elope grass 45

25 Photograph of vegetative planting material showing how to pr34epare 46

root sett for planting
26 Quadrant or square to used measure forage yield 50

27 Reusable cloth forage sample bag 51

28 Photograph of an over grazed pasture 59

29 Diagram showing relationship between animal output and animal 61

stocking rate
30 Diagram of pasture plant showing digestibility coefficient 68
31 Harvested forage used for a cut and carry system 69

32 Diagram of a continuous stocking grazing method 70

33 Diagram of a rotation stocking method 71
34 Photograph of a manual forage chopper 78

35 Photograph of a mechanical forage chopper 78

36 Photograph showing how to compact the forage for the making of 79
silage

37 Photograph showing filled plastic bags with silage 79

38 Photograph showing good quality silage made in large plastic bags 82

39 Photograph of farmer with grass for making of hay 83

40 Diagram of the wire basket drier 84

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41 (A) Photograph of a wooden hay baler 85
41 (B) Diagram of metal hay baler 86
42 Photograph showing completed bales of hay 86
43 Diagram of drier that could be used to make a large quantity of hay 88

44 Photograph of hay rack and cattle eating hay 89

45 Photograph of barbed wire rolls 92

46 Diagram of barbed wire fence 92

47 Diagram of conventional barbed wire fence 93

48 Diagram of semi-conventional barbed wire fence showing stays or lath 93

49 Diagram of the barbed wire Australian slung fence 93

50 Diagram of a chain link fence 94

51 Diagram of a solar electric fence unit 97

52 Photograph of a poorly managed pasture, overgrown with weeds 100

8
 UNDERSTANDING PASTURES: A GUIDE FOR GUYANA

FOREWORD

1. INTRODUCTION

The successful management of a pasture is a unique science that could result in the
maximum benefits from a piece of land (pasture) for a very long time. Emphasis on the
management of the pasture is usually placed on obtaining high levels of production from
the pasture and this should be encouraged because pastures continue to provide the
cheapest source of feed for the ruminant or grazing animals in Guyana.

A well-managed pasture is capable of having a productive life of 12-15 years and in

some instances much more if properly handled. There are however a range of factors,
which can influence the growth of pasture thereby affecting the yield and production of
the pasture.

The measure of the influence on the overall productivity of pastures must include the
output of animal products, which are derived from pastures. Other factors, which must
be taken into consideration, are those, which may influence the quantity, quality and
nutritive value of the pasture. Therefore, in a well managed pasture, young growing
heifers and bulls should gain in excess of 0.5 kg of meat per day, milking cows should
be able to produce in excess of 8L of milk from pastures alone and sheep and goats in
excess of 150 g per day from grazing properly managed pastures.

These gains, from good quality well managed pastures in Guyana, could result in beef
cattle gaining in excess of 150 kg per year, thereby reaching market weight in about 24-
28 months and sheep attaining a live weight of 45kg in 12 months. While the above
stated gains could be achieved from cattle and sheep on pastures alone, the
management of the pasture must be of such that would allow for adequate feed of a
high quality to be available to the grazing animal for the entire period. The quality of the
pasture therefore must be maintained in spite of the fact that the coastal plains of

9
Guyana and the Intermediate Savannahs both experience a bimodal rainfall distribution
and also two distinct dry periods, both of which tend to have an adverse effect on the
availability of forage.

The purpose of this manual therefore is to illustrate how to manage improved pastures
to derive an increase of the production and productivity of pastures and as a
consequence, the increased profitability of the ruminant livestock enterprises in Guyana.

This manual is a guide for technicians and students, it has made liberal use of research
information generated over a period of approximately 15 years from a number of
livestock and forage related projects on the coastal plains and Intermediate Savannahs
of Guyana. It is felt that this manual would be of some importance particularly at this
juncture in Guyana’s development, given that the country has been certified as being
free from Foot and Mouth disease and is working assiduously to become an exporter of
beef to CARICOM.

It is envisaged that both technicians and students could use this manual to assist them
to make sound judgement decisions in order that pastures could be treated in a manner
as to extend the productive life, and assist in reducing some of the poor management
practices such as overgrazing and overstocking.

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 2. FACTORS THAT CAN AFFECT THE GROWTH AND YIELD OF PASTURES

The yield and production of pastures, like most crops, can be influenced by a range of
factors. These factors can be placed into four broad categories, which are:

1. Climatic factors;
2. Soil related factors;
3. The selection of the forage species; and
4. Management of the selected species.

2.1 Climatic Factors

The climatic factors, which would have the greatest influence on pasture growth and
production in Guyana, are moisture, radiation and day length.

Guyana is located between 10-80 N, therefore the climatic factor that has the greatest
effect on pasture growth is rainfall, which regularly occurs in a distinctive bimodal
pattern and coincides with the warmer months of the year. Both the coastal pastures
and those in the Intermediate Savannahs are located in areas best described as the wet
humid tropics where the average annual rainfall exceeds 2300 mm per annum. The
rainy season has two seasonal peaks and some rain can be expected in every month of
the year.

Therefore, on the flat coastal clay soils, the wet months of between May-July not only
pose numerous problems for forage production, but also on the ability of the grazing
animal to harvest the forage in the generally flooded or waterlogged conditions. Those
forage species, which cannot tolerate the flooded and/or waterlogged conditions on the
coastlands, suffer from reduced yields and death, because of wilting induced from a
lack of oxygen.

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Forage growth on the savannahs does not encounter the same problems that are
generally experienced on the costal clay soils during the wet months, mainly because of
the higher elevation and sandy nature of the soils of the savannah. Therefore, it is
generally the dry periods that are problematic for forage growth in the savannah region.
Moisture deficits are the major limitations to pasture production and as the soil moisture
declines usually in the dry period of February and March and between September and
October, internal water deficits tend to develop in the pasture plants, causing the plants
to reach a state of wilt.

Some pasture plants have therefore developed drought tolerant mechanisms, which
basically is the ability of the plants to survive the dry period. Some other plants have
drought avoidance systems such as curling and shedding of leaves and development of
deep root systems to assist the plants to reduce water deficits during the dry period.

2.2 Radiation

Tropical pasture plants have an important relationship between photosynthesis and

radiation receipts, because tropical pasture grasses and legumes have evolved a
different bio-chemical pathway to photosynthesis (c4 pathway). As a result of this the
tropical grasses are better adapted to high radiation and temperature conditions,
thereby enabling them potentially to have better growth rates.

During the months when moisture receipts are most favourable (May-July and
November-January), there is usually prolonged cloud cover, thereby limiting plant
growth as a result of low radiation receipts.

In the dry season good pasture production could be attained if systems are put in place
to provide moisture to the pastures. The provision of moisture would ensure that an
adequate amount of forage is on offer to the grazing animal in the dry period, when
forage production tends to decline rapidly, thus resulting in the loss of condition that
grazing animals experience every year during the dry season and/or when severe
drought conditions occur.

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Therefore, in the dry season if adequate moisture is provided, increased production of
forage is possible because the radiation regime which is the basic determinant of plant
growth through the direct input of energy into the photosynthesis system, the
transpiration system and subsequently into the leaf of the plant could be fully exploited
in the dry periods.

2.3 Photoperiod

In a wide range of pasture plants, changes in day length tend to trigger a change in
plants from the vegetative state of growth to reproductive development. This response
is perceived in the leaves of the plant, which causes a floral stimulus thus resulting in
the vegetative meristem changing to reproductive development.

As a result of these phenomena pasture plants have been classified according to how
they respond to the changes in day length. It must be admitted that while the change in
day length is not very great in the countries of the low latitude tropics such as Guyana,
where the change in day length is as low as 30-45 minutes between the long day and
the short day period, the change from the vegetative growth to reproductive
development is observed. Table 1 highlight the changes in reproductive development of
some pasture plants in Guyana.

Table.1: Some important forage species in Guyana, and their response to the
environment.

FORAGE SPECIES Flowering Growth habit Flood Drought

date tolerance tolerance
Andropogon gayanus May-Octo Erect Poor Excellent
Brachiaria arrecta Stoloniferous Excellent Poor
Brachiaria brizantha May-Octo Stoloniferous Poor Good
Brachiaria humidicola June-Sept Stoloniferous Excellent Good

13
Cynodon Octo-Nov Stoloniferous Excellent Fair
plectostachyus
Echinochloa pyramidalis All year Stoloniferous Excellent Poor
Hemarthria altissima June-Aug Rhizomatous Excellent Fair
Pennisetum purpureum Octo-Mar Erect Fair Good
Setaria sphacelata June-Aug Erect Excellent Good
Centrosema pubescens Octo-Jan Twining Excellent Good
Desmodium ovalifolium Octo-Jan Shrub Good Good
Gliricida sepium Erect Poor Good
Leucaena leucocephala All year Erect Poor Fair
Pueraria phaseoloides August Twining Good Good
Stylosanthes capitata Shrub Fair Good

Agricultural Research Guyana. Vol. 7: 1987

The data presented in Table 1 could assist in the better management of pastures, thus
ensuring that there is adequate forage available to the grazing animal. This information
is useful because there is usually a decline in forage production during the period of
reproductive development of pasture plants. In addition, particularly for legumes,
knowledge of how these plants respond to photoperiod can assist in that component
remaining in the system, by reducing grazing activity and allowing the plant to set seed
prior to intensive grazing activities.

In Guyana some grasses such as the Brachiarias and in particular B. humidicola tend to
flower and set seeds in the long day period of June–August, while plants such as
elephant grass, Pennisetum purpureum responds to the short day period December-
January. It therefore should be noted that the change is not initiated by the length of the
day, but more importantly the night length or dark period; as a result of this
phenomenon, pasture plants are classified as, short day plants, long day plant,
intermediate plants and indeterminate plants.

14
Short day plants are those plants that would change from the vegetative state to
reproductive development if they have a relatively long dark period and will not flower if
the night lengths are shorter than some critical minimum length.

Long day plants are those plants that would respond to a range of relatively long days
and usually require a short night period for floral initiation.

Intermediate plants are those plants that flower within certain limits of day length,
whereas indeterminate plants are not sensitive to photoperiod and will flower over a
wide range of day lengths.

Therefore, knowledge of the response of pasture plants to photoperiod can assist in

ensuring that the pasture is managed properly and particularly for the legume
component it would assist in the regeneration and the survival of the pasture.

15
 3. SOILS FOUND IN THE MAIN LIVESTOCK PRODUCING AREAS

Ruminant livestock production in Guyana is primarily forage based. Because the

pastures used are mainly of unimproved forage varieties, which have both low nutritive
values and dry matter yields, low animal production levels are common.

Improved grasses and legumes could have a tremendous impact on livestock

production; however, this potential is rarely exploited on the coastal clay soils and acid
sandy soils of the Intermediate Savannahs of Guyana. Animals in the two eco-zones
generally graze mainly native grasses, which are low yielding and are only abundant
during the wet season.

3.1 The Coastal Plains

The coastal soils are fertile but acidic. The fine-particle grayish blue clays of the coastal
plain are composed of alluvium deposits. They overlying white sands and clays can
support intensive agriculture but must be subjected to fallowing to restore fertility.

Pegasse or the acid sulphate soils, a type of peat, occurs behind the coastal clays and
along the river estuaries, while silts line the banks of the lower rivers. Reef sands also
occur in bands in the coastal plain.

The flat coastlands, where the greater number of animals can be found, also comprise
of saline soils. The saline soils are particularly problematic for crop and indeed pasture
production because of high levels of salt and other ions. Salinity is known to cause a
reduction of water availability in plant tissue, leading to a reduction of tillering and plant
damage; consequently there is reduced forage growth particularly during the dry
periods.

The acid clay soils have a high water holding capacity, and because of the flat nature of
the land, these soils are easily prone to flooding and water logging in the wet season.

16
On the other hand, during the dry period they become hard with massive cracks on the
soil surface, thereby increasing the difficulty of establishing and maintaining pastures on
these coastal soils.

The acid-sulphate soils generally have high acidity and aluminium levels. When these
areas are under water, because of oxidation-reduction and a higher pH value, forage
establishment particularly the establishment of Echinochloa pyramidalis (antelope
grass) and Brachiaria arrecta (tanner grass) is easily achieved, however when these
soils are dry the establishment of forage is somewhat problematic.

3.2 The Intermediate Savannahs

The Intermediate Savannahs located 58o W and 5o N in the north-eastern quadrant of

Guyana extend over approximately 2700 km2 and lie immediately south of the coastal
plains, east and west of the Berbice river.

The savannahs have a gentle to moderately sloping topography and are colonized with
poor quality grasses mainly of the genera Andropogon and Trachypogon. The
savannahs have deep sandy and loamy sandy soils of a well to moderately draining
nature; the soils have a naturally low fertility, high P fixing capacity and low organic
matter.

Well drained Ultisols, Oxisols and Entisols predominate. They are all coarse to medium
textured, ranging from pure white quartz sand to yellowish red sandy loams. The
common feature of these soils is their relatively low pH, ranging from 4.3 to 5.9 within
profiles and among types. They are of low inherent fertility in both surface and subsoil.
CEC and base saturation are typically low with high Al saturation. Available P is low and
is considered a major limiting nutrient. Organic matter content of these soils is
negligible.

17
Despite these soil related problems, however, forage has been successfully grown on
these lands, for example Echinochloa pyramidalis (antelope grass) on the coastal clay
soils and Brachiaria humidicola (UF717) on the acid sandy soils of the savannahs.

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 4. TYPES OF PASTURES FOUND IN GUYANA

There are three types of pastures found in Guyana, these are the natural pastures
located both on the coastal plains and the savannahs, a combination of native pastures
with some improvement and improved or planted pastures.

4.1Natural Pastures

Natural or native pastures are grasslands where there is an absence of sown or planted
species. They should never be considered as a stable plant community. These
grasslands are ever changing as a result of changing climatic conditions, natural plant
migration and in the savannah areas, fire. The rate of change is greatly increased by the
activity of man, grazing animals and/or the removal of vegetation. These pastures
consist of native or uncultivated grasses and/or legumes, which are well adapted to the
existing conditions and in most cases, are the only feed material available during the dry
season. However, the forage yield from native pastures is extremely low even during
the wet period and the nutritive value of the native grasses is also low.

The forage vegetation commonly found in the native pastures in Guyana are, Cynodon
dactylon, Hymenachne amplexicaulis, Leersia hexandra, Paspalum distichum, P.
conjugatum, P.virgatum, Ischaemum timorense, Eleocharis mutata, Desmodium
adcendens, Vigna luteola and Rhynchosia minima, whereas in the savannahs
Andropogon leucostachyus, Trachypogon plumosus and Stylosanthes spp predominate.

Fig.1. Photograph of a native pasture on the coastlands of Guyana

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4.2 Combination of Native Pastures

The second type of pastures employs a combination approach, this is where some
introduced grasses or legumes are planted within the native pastures by strip seeding
with a grass such as UF717 or a legume. In this method, strips are made on the land
and grasses and or legume seeds are sown in the strip, or they could be planted as a
protein bank.

Burning and fertilizing can improve these combination pastures; and may result in small
improvements. Burning, however, may expose the soil to erosion and if not controlled
may cause brush fires.

4.3 Improved Pastures

The third type of pasture is the improved or introduced pasture, where the existing or
native vegetation is replaced by an introduced species.

Fig.2. Photograph of a planted pasture of antelope grass

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 5. HOW TO SELECT IMPROVED PASTURE PLANTS

In choosing forage for improved pasture production, the livestock producer must be
careful in selecting a particular forage species for the particular area, the producer
should first consider.
1. The intended use of the forage species, viz. either grazing or cutting, or both.
2. The animal species or animal class utilizing the forage.
3. The likeliness of adaptation to local soil and moisture conditions.
4. The tolerance of the forage to shade, poor drainage and nutrient deficiency.
5. The extent to which the forage will spread and cover the ground.
6. The ability of the forage to withstand heavy grazing, cutting and most
importantly burning.
7. The maintenance requirement of the forage.
8. Ease of propagation and period between establishment and use of forage.
9. The value of the land for an alternative crop or use.

5.1 Requirements of a good pasture species

A good pasture species, which is to be used either for grazing and/or cutting, should be
selected to meet the following nutritional requirements:

Table 2: Requirements of good pasture species.

COMPOSITION DESIRED RANGE (PERCENT)

Dry Matter 20-30

Digestibility >55

Crude Protein >10

Calcium >0.1

Phosphorus >0.05

The forage should be palatable, in order that animals are able to consume between 11-
12% of their body weight of fresh green material daily and/or between 2-5% of their
body weight in dry matter. Therefore, when selecting a forage species for the cultivation
of improved pastures, the forage must meet the following criteria.

21
5.1.1 High yield of good quality forage. Since the total dry matter yield of a
forage species is an important characteristic, determining to a large extent the
carrying capacity of a pasture, the forage selected must be capable of
continuously yielding large amounts of material. In addition, the selected
forage should have a high leaf–stem ratio and a high nutritive value.

5.1.2 Persistence. A good pasture is an expensive long-term investment,

which infers a degree of permanence and must be able to survive the rigors
of regular defoliation, trampling, soiling and seasonal changes such as flood
and drought conditions. There are certain conditions that are related to the
persistence of a pasture plant and these are:
1. Tolerance to grazing;
2. Ability to withstand water stress, water logging and flooding;
3. Ability to withstand high temperature e.g. burning;
4. Tolerance/resistance to disease and insect pests; and
5. Ability to regenerate from stolons and rhizomes and seeds very easily.

5.1.3 Associative ability with other desirable species. Mixed pastures

have an advantage over a mono-specific pasture because different species
may have different seasons of growth and have different chemical and
nutrient composition. If the legume component is also part of the association,
the legume may also contribute a higher crude protein concentration and
through nitrogen fixation may provides a nitrogen input into the pasture
system.

5.1.4 Ease of propagation. The ability to readily establish a pasture from

seed or vegetative cuttings is an important consideration in large scale
pasture sowing. The planting of pastures particularly by vegetative cuttings is
an extremely costly and time consuming exercise.

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5.1.5 Adequate feed quality. A dry cow or sheep usually requires about
70g/kg of crude protein in its diet for maintenance. If the crude protein
concentration falls below this value, the animal will lose weight,
therefore grasses and legumes must provide a good quality of feed.

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 6. AGRONOMIC DESCRIPTION OF PASTURE PLANTS

The proper maintenance of a pasture is important for the production of a long-term

stable pasture system. Therefore, it is important that the identification of the improved
introduced forage species along with their adaptability to different soil and climatic
conditions, as well as the ability of the forage to niche within a specific area is known.

In order to make good pasture management decisions, we would need to understand

the growth habit of grasses and legumes. Pasture use and production could be
improved by carefully managing the grazing of the pasture plant. Making grazing
decisions based on plant growth may seem difficult, but it is the key to successful
grazing management.

Pasture grasses and legumes are members of the plant kingdom, and within the plant
kingdom plants are grouped according to similarities. Consequently, the reproductive
structure of the plant serves as the principal means of classifying plants. Emphasis is
placed on the reproductive structure because it is less susceptible than the vegetative
structure to changes brought on by environmental and other factors such as drought,
flood, grazing animal activity and fire.

6.1 Pasture grasses

Africa is the centre of origin or area of diversity of most of the important improved
grasses used for pasture production in Guyana. These grasses belong mainly to two
tribes the Andropogoneae and the Paniceae. These two tribes contain most of the
tropical grasses and members of the former tribe are generally found in regions where
the rainfall is unimportant, grasses belonging to this tribe could be found in both the arid
and humid climatic zones. The members of the Paniceae tribe however, are generally
found in areas where the temperature is high.

Grasses are monocotyledonous plants; they have one cotyledon in the seed. Grasses
also have long narrow leaves with a parallel vein; a vascular system scattered

24
irregularly through the stem, fibrous root systems that occur at the base of the plant and
sometimes at the joints of stems. The flowers of grasses have no sepals or petals and
are usually wind pollinated.

There are three kinds of stems occurring in grasses, the culms, rhizomes and stolons.
The main stem of the grass is the culm and this is the axis on which the inflorescence or
flower head as well as the leaves are borne.

Fig 3. Diagram of the grass plant

Rhizomes and stolons are also stems that in most instances provide the means by
which grasses creep. Rhizomes are stems that occur below the ground and are different
from roots because they have joints, reduced leaves or scales arising at the joints.
Stolons however are stems that creep along the ground and not below the surface of
the ground; and are referred to as the basal branches of the culms; stolons develop
roots and shoots at some of the nodes.

25
 Fig 4. Diagram of Stolons Diagram of Rhizomes

The inflorescence of grasses is usually made up of smaller units known as spikelets;

there is a wide variation in structure, size and shape of the spikelets. The fruiting bodies
of grasses are referred to as the seeds. There are various kinds of seeds of grasses
and each fruit or grain contains a seed.

Pasture grasses are generally propagated by the use of seeds, however, stolons,
rhizomes and root setts are also referred to as seed material and are used to vegetative
propagate grasses, often times the latter three being the only means by which grasses
can be propagated.

6.2 Pasture legumes

The main centres of origin for the forage legumes found in Guyana are the South
America, Southern Mexico and Central America and the Indian centre. The pasture
legumes are generally classified as dicotyledonous plants; they are broad leaf plants,
belonging to the family Leguminosae or Fabaceae, which is a rather large and easily
recognised family.

Legumes are a special class of plants that can fix atmospheric nitrogen into their own
plant-available nitrogen. Legume development differs from that of grasses. Stems begin
to grow in length immediately, with leaves arranged alternately on opposite sides of the
stem. Legume stem length and amount of branching varies among species. Legumes
can branch at leaf-stem junctions. Flowers can form on the main stem or on branches.

26
The pasture legumes have compound leaves that are pinnate, trifoliate or digitate and
have leaf veins radiating finger like from a mid-vein throughout the leaf and
interconnected by a network of finer veins.

Fig. 5. Pasture legume with flowers and seeds.

The rooting system of the forage legume plants is a branching taproot with numerous
small swellings called nodules. Nodules develop on the roots of the plants as a result of
the symbiotic association formed between plant and soil bacteria called Rhizobium
species, which help to fix nitrogen in the soil.

27
 Fig. 6. Photograph of nodules on the root of a legume plant

The pasture legumes have either herbaceous or woody stems. They also have a
proliferation of growth habits, which could be erect, prostrate, climbing, or twining; and
can be used for grazing, browsing or cutting. Other uses particularly for the types with
woody stems are shade trees, wind breaks and lives fences.

The flowers of legumes are conspicuous usually resembling a butterfly. The fruit is the
pod and the plant has a non-endosperm seed covered by a thick seed coat.
Propagation of most forage legumes is by seeds; however some species can be grown
from cuttings, rhizomes and stolons.

The pasture legumes have been classified as plants with special characteristics. Their
deep tap root systems allow them to grow better than grasses during the dry season.
Legumes have better feed quality than grasses because they have higher levels of both
protein and minerals. Legumes can be grown in pure stands to provide feed reserves
during the dry season or they can be grown in association with grasses in a sown
pasture. Legumes do not require nitrogen fertiliser, since they can enrich the soil with
nitrogen, which may cause grasses to be more productive.

28
 Fig. 7. Legume plants with seeds, pods and flower

Legumes, however, do require regular applications of phosphorus and potassium. It is

essential to have good control over the access of animals in areas sown to legumes,
because uncontrolled grazing will destroy the stand, especially if the legume is an
annual.

29
 7. RECOMMENDED PASTURE GRASSES AND LEGUMES

Introduced improved forage species were recommended for pasture production in

Guyana, mainly because of the reduced yields of the native vegetation particularly
during the drier months of the year, when these native forages tend to disappear from
the pasture system.

The early attempts at pasture improvement on the coast and savannahs involved the
use of the Digiteria species, mainly pangola grass; this grass was highly productive,
provided that high levels of inorganic fertilisers were used. During the 1970,s however
when the acquisition of inorganic fertiliser became problematic as a result of a lack of
foreign exchange to purchase fertiliser, this forage species ceased to be of importance
and was replaced by other forage genera such as the Echinochloa, Brachiaria,
Pennisetum, Setaria, Panicum and Hemarthria.

In addition, Digitaria decumbens, pangola grass, which was the forage species most
widely used, developed numerous problems. It was affected by a stunt virus problem
particularly in the dry season, as well as by plant rust and insects. The species pangola
was replaced by Transval digit grass, which showed some resistance to the virus and
rust.

Grasses have been traditionally selected for their superior growth, nutritive value and
persistence, therefore viable seed producing capabilities diminished, resulting in most
grasses being propagated by either stem or sod cuttings, this method of propagation is
costly and time consuming. Although seeds are available for most grass species, the
quality is usually poor and quantities limited. Fortunately the same does not apply for
legumes, however most legume seeds may require some form of scarification prior to
planting.

Most forage species generally respond favourably to moisture, however because of the
prolonged flooding that generally occurs on the coastlands, production can be adversely

30
affected. Therefore the semi-aquatic type grasses that are adapted to the conditions on
the coastal clay soils should be planted on the coastal plains and those grasses that
cannot withstand waterlogged conditions can be planted on high well-drained
elevations. Dry conditions particularly in the poor water holding soils of the savannahs
also affect grass growth especially if they have been recently defoliated; hence it is
important to manage these recommended grasses and legumes to prevent them having
to exist in the adverse conditions.

Based on experiences generated from various production studies both on the coast and
Intermediate Savannahs the following grasses and legumes are recommended for
pastures of Guyana (Table 3).

Table 3: Recommended pasture species for Guyana

FORAGE SPECIES Acid Saline Acid sulphate Savannah
Clay Clay Clay
Andropogon gayanus X
Brachiaria arrecta X X
Brachiaria brizantha X
Brachiaria humidicola X X X
Cynodon plectostachyus X
Echinochloa pyramidalis X X X
Hemarthria altissima X X
Pennisetum purpureum X X X
Setaria sphacelata X X X
Centrosema pubescens X X
Desmodium ovalifolium X
Gliricida sepium X X X X
Leucaena leucocephala X X X
Pueraria phaseoloides X X
Stylosanthes capitata X

31
7.1 The Grasses

7.1.1 Andropogon gayanus, also called gamba grass is a perennial that is native to
Africa; this grass is a tussock forming grass growing in large tufts, with distinctive leaves
that are petioled. This grass is well adapted to the acid sandy soils of the Intermediate
Savannahs, and spreads slowly from seed; it can also be planted by root cuttings. This
forage species is tolerant to both fire and drought conditions. Utilizing a stocking rate of
1.2 Au/ha, animals grazing this grass in a pure stand in the Intermediate Savannahs
were reported to have gained 0.4 kg/day.

Fig. 8.Photograph of gamba grass

7.1.2 Brachiaria brizantha is a stoloniferous perennial grass. The planting methods

could be sod or stem cuttings as well as seeds. This grass is well adapted to the
Intermediate Savannahs; however it could also be grown on the acid clay soils. This
forage species has a good tolerance to drought conditions, but its tolerance to flooded
conditions is poor, and it cannot withstand fire, (the grass disappears after burning).
Research studies conducted in the Intermediate savannahs with beef cattle showed that
at a stocking rate of 1.2 Au/ha, animals gained 0.5 kg/day on this grass without a
legume component present in the pasture. The common name of this grass species is
palisade or signal grass.

32
 Fig. 9. Photograph of signal grass
7.1.3 Brachiaria humidicola, commonly called UF717 in Guyana, is a robust
stoloniferous perennial with a creeping growth habit, giving a complete ground cover on
both the acid clay and savannah soils. In fact, UF 717 is the forage species of choice on
the acid sands of the savannahs in Guyana. This grass is usually planted by sod
cuttings or seed; however, the seed viability is usually very poor. The tolerance to
drought conditions is very good and it performs excellent under flooded conditions; the
grass can survive burning. The establishment phase of this forage is slow and in most
instances pastures would have to be in excess of eight months of age prior to first
grazing. This grass must be properly managed if maximum use is to be had from it in
relation to quality. Research studies show that beef cattle are capable of gaining
0.35kg/day at a stocking rate of 1.2 Au/ha, on this grass in the Intermediate Savannahs.

Fig.10. Photograph of UF 717 pasture

33
7.1.4 Brachiaria arrecta, commonly called tanner grass, prefers swampy and flooded
areas. This grass performs excellent on the acid soils of the coast of Guyana; however,
it does not tolerate saline soil conditions. Tanner grass is a stoloniferous grass that
roots readily at the nodes and is generally propagated from stem cuttings. Managing
tanner grass in the dry period may be problematic and because of its reduced yields
during the dry period, this grass should never be used in a monospecific pasture. If the
dry period is severe the pasture may require harrowing or some form of land
preparation prior to the rains to assist in the regeneration of this forage species. This
forage can tolerate fire.

Fig.11. Photograph of Tanner grass

7.1.5 Cynodon plectostachyus, star grass should never be used as a forage species on
the acid clay soils; however this forage species is best adapted to the saline clay soils of
Guyana and it can be considered as an excellent grass for the saline environment.
Tolerance to drought is good and the grass can tolerate flooding for a short period. The
forage has also exhibited good resistance to fire. This grass is a creeping perennial with
stolons and is planted by sod or stem cuttings.

34
 Fig. 12. Photograph of star grass

7.1.6 Echinochloa pyramidalis, antelope grass is native to Africa, This grass persists
well on the low lying flat acid clay soils of Guyana, and with favourable soil moisture and
fertility this grass would yield in excess of 1800 kg dry matter in a four week harvest
interval. Antelope grass is usually planted by stem cuttings; it is a stoloniferous grass
that branches and roots at the nodes. The forage is adaptable to a wide range of soil
types, however it generally prefers the swampy acid clay soils; it is also a good grass for
the saline soils. Tolerance to drought is poor, particularly if the forage has been recently
defoliated, however if the grass is planted on beds and not in the system commonly
used in Guyana, the roots would be forced to penetrate deep into the soil in search of
moisture, therefore, the grass would be better able to tolerate the dry conditions.
Tolerance to fire is excellent.

Beef cattle grazing antelope grass on the coastal clay soils gained 310-g/day live
weights, the recommended stocking rate for beef cattle grazing antelope grass on the
coast is 1.12 Au/ha.

At the St. Stanislaus College Farm, a rotational stocking system is used to graze dairy
cattle, there are 24 sub-divisions, and therefore the pastures have a 23 day rest period
after grazing. The stocking rate used on the farm is 5.3 Au/ha, animals are grazed for a
total of 6-7 hrs daily and the forage utilization on the farm is greater than 75 percent.

35
The average milk production per animal per day is 12 litres and the milk production per
hectare is in excess of 12,000 litres.

7.1.7 Hemarthria altissima, commonly called limpo grass is propagated either by stem
or sod cuttings, however, both methods result in an extremely slow establishment rate.
The grass is a creeping branched rhizomatic perennial, which has a decumbent growth
habit rooting at the lower nodes. This grass is well adapted to the clay soils, however it
does not tolerate saline soil conditions, its tolerance to both flood and drought
conditions is excellent and particularly on the coastal clay soils it can withstand extreme
dry conditions, and still maintain a high dry matter digestibility. It has good tolerance to
fire. Sheep grazing a pure stand of limpo grass at the Mon Repos Livestock farm
without supplemental feed have been reported to gain 150g/day.

Fig. 13. Photograph of limpo grass

7.1.8 Pennisetum purpureum, elephant grass is an erect perennial, which is usually
planted by stem cuttings, this grass can however become stoloniferous forage with a
creeping rhizome. Elephant grass is adapted to the higher elevations on the coastland,
such as dams etc, this grass does not tolerate saline conditions, its tolerance to drought
and fire is excellent once it becomes established, and however it will not tolerate
flooded conditions.

36
 Fig. 14. Photograph of elephant grass
7.1.9 Setaria sephacelata, monkey tail grass, can be grown by both seed and sod
cuttings, it is a tussock form forming perennial, which grows well on the acid, acid
sulphate and savannah soils, and Setaria is moderately tolerant to the saline soils. Its
tolerance to drought is good and its tolerance to flooded conditions is excellent. This
grass can also tolerate fire. In grazing studies in Guyana, animals did not readily graze
this forage particularly after it became mature.

Fig. 15. Photograph of monkey tail grass

37
7.2 The Legumes

7.2.1 Calopogonium mucunoides, calapo is a vigorous, creeping, twining or trailing,

short-lived perennial herb, up to several metres long, forming a tangled mass of foliage
30-50 cm thick, with densely pilose stems with long rust-coloured hairs. This legume is
widely distributed throughout the tropics. The legume grows on a wide range of soil
types, but prefers clay soils with pH 4.5-5.0. In Guyana, it grows well on the acid
infertile soils of the Intermediate Savannahs. The legume has poor tolerance to salinity.

Fig. 16. Photograph of stand of calapo mixed with grass

Calapo is generally regarded as being of low-moderate value; cattle in confinement
have refused to consume freshly cut material, eating the legume only if wilted. In other
situations, the legume is consumed after cattle become accustomed to it. It has been
reported that cattle grazing signal grass (Brachiaria decumbens ) and B. brizantha
pastures at 3.1 head/ha gained 0.35 kg/head/day over a 3 year period, whereas grass
pastures over sown with C. mucunoides gained 0.40 kg/head/day over the same period

7.2.2 Centrosema pubescens, centro as it is commonly called is a vigorous climbing

legume that is native to tropical South America. Centro grows well in the wet areas and
because of its deep roots it is fairly drought tolerant. In Guyana, particularly on the
coastal pastures it can be found growing on the dams and on the fences, but is rarely
seen in the pasture or forming part of a grass legume mix.

38
Centro is adaptable to a wide range of soils and two species C. acutifolium and C.
brasilianum have both performed well in studies in the Intermediate Savannahs, and in
combination with both gamba grass and signal grass, it was reported that beef cattle
gained 550g/day live weight.

Fig. 17. Photograph of centro

7.2.3 Desmodium ovalifolium, is a perennial shrub that grows up to 60 cms, this legume
is quite hardy and can survive on both the savannahs and the coastal clay soils. The
legume has good drought tolerance and it can withstand some amount of water logging.
Desmodium is one of the legumes that can be planted in a mixed sward with UF717.
Studies with beef cattle on pastures planted with UF717 showed that animals gained
450-g/day live weight.

Fig.18. Photograph of desmodium

39
7.2.4 Gliricida sepium, quick stick, is a legume tree, growing up to 15m. This legume is
native to Mexico and the West Indies and grows well in Guyana from both seed as well
as cuttings. Gliricida can be planted directly in the soil and like Leucaena is best
managed as a protein bank. Other uses for quick stick are live fence posts and shade
trees.

Fig.19. Photograph of quick stick

7.2.5 Leucaena leucocephala, wild tamarind, is also a leguminous tree or shrub that
originated from Mexico. This legume grows best on neutral or alkaline soils but can be
grown on acid soils if limestone is used. It is also recommended that the seeds be
planted in bags and some lime added to the potting mix. If planted in bags the plants
should be transplanted to the pasture when the plants are 4-6 weeks old. Seeds may
require scarification prior to planting. Hot water, acid treatment or mechanical methods
may be used.

40
 Fig, 20. Photograph of wild tamarind
7.2.6 Pueraria phaseoloides, kudzu is a vigorous twining and climbing hairy perennial
legume. It is a deep-rooted legume that grows well in areas of high rainfall and can
tolerate waterlogged conditions; however it would not tolerate drought conditions. In a
prolonged dry spell kudzu would shed its leaves. Kudzu spreads mainly by runners and
tends to colonize pastures on the coastal clay soils if not properly managed.

Fig.21. Photograph of kudzu

7.2.7 Stylosanthes capitata is a native to tropical America; it is an erect branched
perennial, woody at the base. The legume can grow up to one metre high. The legume
does best on acid sandy soils, but not on the clay soils. Stylo is a heavy seed producer
and is resistant to most pest and diseases. Seeds are normally spread by the activity of
the grazing animals.

41
Fig.22. Photograph of stylo

42
7.3 Why select the following forage species?

The grasses and legumes above have been recommended primarily on their
adaptability to the environmental conditions found in the areas described, the dry matter
production potential of the grasses and legumes as well as the nutritive value
characteristics. These forages were superior to the other improved and native forage
species tested.

There is wide variation in what would be considered the ideal harvesting regime to
ensure the optimum yield and nutritive value while maintaining persistence of the
recommended species. This is mainly because defoliation management is generally
characterized by intensity, frequency of harvest and time of defoliation.

43
 8. ESTABLISHMENT OF IMPROVED PASTURES

The grasses and legumes selected should be adapted to the area in order for them to
become established and produce well. For grasses and legumes as for other crops the
best time for establishment is during the rainy season. The establishment phase of a
pasture is the period during which the land is prepared, the pasture planted either by
seed or vegetative material and is managed in such a way that it would stimulate
maximum growth and production.

Methods of establishment will vary with the species of pasture to be sown. Sowing
patterns may range from sowing an entire field, planting alternate strips or spot planting.

8.1 Land Preparation

Traditionally, land preparation for pastures in the Intermediate Savannahs should

involve one pass with the plough and two with a disc plough or harrow. These
operations should provide a good and suitable seedbed. A good seedbed is essential
for the successful establishment of pastures.

Ideally, the initial land preparation operation should be done in the dry season, because
the plough tends to turn up the roots of weeds and other plants and reduce weed
infestation and the cost of weedicide.

Fig. 23. A well-prepared pasture seedbed on the coastal clay soils

44
On the coastal clay soils, land preparation should be at least two cuts with the plough
and two with the harrow. Ideally a good seedbed should be provided for the planting
material. Cambered beds should be used when planting pastures on the coast, because
the coastal plains are subjected to occasional flooding. If the semi-aquatic forage
species antelope grass is used this grass could be planted on flat land.

Fig.24. Photograph of flooded pasture prior to planting

8.2 Methods of Establishment

Pastures are usually established from seed or by vegetative means.

1. Most legumes and some grasses are established by seed, e.g. grasses that are
established by seed are guinea grass, gamba grass and signal grass.

2. The use of vegetative material is the principal method used to establish grasses,
however some legumes are also established by vegetative means one such
legume is quick stick.

3. If seeds are to be used a seed rate of five kilograms per hectare is usually
recommended and for vegetative means one hectare can effectively plant 10
hectares.

45
8.3 Seed Preparation

Seeds of grasses and legumes are usually dormant just after harvest, and must be
treated, (a process called scarification) to break the dormancy before planting. Long
storage is usually a very effective method of scarification, however, dormancy can also
be broken by hot water treatment, which involves pouring hot water over seeds and
letting the seeds remain soaked for 24 hours.

If vegetative material is to be used the material must either be dug up from the ground
with some root or cut into node pieces before planting. These can be planted as whole
tillers or shoots in furrows.

Fig.25. Photograph of vegetative planting material showing how to prepare root

sett for planting

If the vegetative material is not going to be planted immediately after harvest covering
them with a wet sack or soaking with water may preserve them.

8.4 Planting

Seeds may be sown or planted directly into the soil by broadcasting, planting in rows or
sticking in holes in the grown at pre determined intervals. Plant spacing may be
between rows 0.5-1m and within rows 12-200 cm. Pastures can be direct seeded once
it is recognized that pasture seed is generally smaller than seeds of most other crops

46
hence sowing should be shallow. Direct seeding is less labour intensive and faster than
using vegetative material.

Once direct seeding is done, the seed should be covered by about 1 cm of soil. If seed
is broadcast, rolling or dragging a tree branch over the field after broadcasting will cover
the seeds.

If grass legume pastures are to be established from seed, it is recommended that the
different species be planted in strips, thereby reducing competition. Seeding of the
pasture should be done to allow for about 100,000 to 200,000 plants per ha. Therefore if
seeds are to be used the seeding rate should be between 5-12 kg of seed per ha if the
germination percentage is between 70-80 percent. If however the germination
percentage is lower the seeding rate must be increased to compensate for the low
germination percentage.

If the pasture is to be planted by vegetative methods, generally it would require about

one ha of planting material to plant a 10 ha pasture, and most pastures would take
about six months to become established.

Establishment by vegetative means generally is the way most grasses are established
in Guyana, because of the absence of a reliable supply of good quality seed. Planting
could be done by root sets or by stolons/rhizomes.

When planting by root setts the clump of grass should be dug from the soil and
separated into smaller sections. Most of the above ground material should be cut off to
about 20 cm prior to planting to prevent moisture loss. The section with roots attached
should be planted in the prepared seedbed leaving about 5-10 cm exposed; the soil
should be compacted around the planted section.

A. gayanus, B. arrecta, B. brizantha, B. humidicola, C. plectostachyus, H. altissima and

S. sphacelata could all be planted by root setts.

47
B arrecta, B. humidicola, C. plectostachyus, E. pyramidalis, H. altissima and P.
purpureum are the grasses that can be planted by stolons/rhizomes. The parent stand
should have stolons at least 60 cm long with several nodes. The material should be cut
close to the ground; the stolons can then be spread over the surface of the seedbed
and be incorporated into the soil.

8.5 Management of a new pasture

New pastures must be managed to ensure:

a. Good establishment;
b. Persistence; and
c. Production of good quality feed

8.5.1 Fertilizer requirements

Pastures require plant nutrients like any crop and should be supplied with chemical
fertilizer. When fertilizer is used the pasture can be used for grazing in a shorter time
however if no fertilizer is used, some forage species may take up to three years before
they can be used for grazing. When fertilizers are used in the establishment phase at
the recommended rates it can promote forage growth in newly established pastures to
the point where grazing may be achieved in six months.

Table 4: Some recommended fertilizer rates for establishment and maintenance of

pastures in Guyana.
Element Rate (kg/ha) Source & rate Application
(kg/ha)
Nitrogen 100 Urea (200) Grass only 4 and 14
weeks after planting
Phosphorus 50 Triple Super Grass and legumes at
Phosphate (100) planting
Potassium 50 Muriate of Potash (80) Grass and legumes
as for N

48
For maintenance half of the amount of N and P and all of the K as recommended for the
establishment phase should be used in two applications during the rainy season, the
second application should be just before the end of the rainy season.

Forage production studies both on the coastal plains and the Intermediate Savannahs,
have shown that most of the introduced grasses respond well to nitrogen fertilization,
and more so in the presence of adequate levels of phosphorus and potash. If legumes
were present in the pasture system the nitrogen requirements decreased, however
because of the higher protein content of the forage as a result of the presence of the
legume component there is usually an increase in the output per animal.

49
 9. HOW TO ESTIMATE THE FRESH AND DRY MATTER YIELD OF THE PASTURE

The utilization of the pasture is the degree to which the grazing animals have
succeeded in removing the current growth of the pasture, and this is expressed as the
percentage of growth within reach of the grazing animal.

In order to prevent overgrazing and/or overstocking of the pasture, the amount of

grazable forage or the amount of grass and or legume available for grazing in the
pasture must be known. Therefore, if the pasture is to be managed properly the farmer
must have a simple technique to assist him in determining the amount of forage in the
pasture, because the correct utilization of the pasture is one of the most important
components in good pasture management.

9.1 How to calculate the fresh weight yield of the available forage in the
pasture

In order to determine the fresh yield of the pasture, a number of methods have been
developed, some are more rapid and may be more detailed and accurate than others,
however the choice of method may depend on a number of questions.
1. The degree of refinement;
2. The elimination of bias; and
3. The cost.
A simple cost efficient method is the use of a square or quadrant to determine the yield
of a pasture. The equipment needed to establish the yield is a one metre square,
(I prefer a 0.25 metre square or smaller) quadrant.

Fig.26. Quadrant or square to measure forage yield

50
Reusable cloth sample bags in which to place the forage material, (the size of the bag
should be about 32 cm by 64 cm) a pair of garden shears to cut the forage material and
a scale to weigh the forage sample are needed. It is advisable to sample the pasture
more than once to get a more accurate measurement of the available forage.

Fig 27. Photograph of a reusable cloth forage sample bag

Randomly throw the quadrant or square in the pasture and pull all of the vegetation into
the square, with the shears cut each plant within the frame and put the harvested
material in the sample bag.

Hook the sample bag to the scale and weigh the sample to ascertain the fresh weight of
the forage sample per metre square. If a smaller square is used, for example the 0.25
metre square, multiply the fresh weight of the forage by 4 to ascertain the fresh weight
per metre square. In order to ascertain the fresh weight per hectare multiply the fresh
weight per metre square by 10,000.

9.2 What is dry matter (DM?)

Dry matter is the amount of solids in the feed without water and its percentage is found
by determining the percentage of water and subtracting the water content from 100

51
percent. Therefore, the dry matter is the percentage of forage that is not water. DM
equals 100% minus percent water.

9.3 How to determine the dry matter yield of the pasture

1. Harvest a known quantity of forage for example 100g, or use a quadrant to

harvest a given area.
2. Place the sample in either a cloth or paper bag and weigh the harvested forage
immediately after harvest to establish the fresh weight or weight before drying.
(Remember you must also weigh the empty bag to ascertain the weight of
the empty bag.)
3. Either oven-dry the known quantity of forage in an oven at 60 0C or air-dry the
known quantity of forage by leaving it in the bag in an open area, care must be
taken to prevent the air dry forage sample from becoming wet.
4. If forage is to be oven dried, weigh the forage sample every 24 hours until the
last two weights are constant, and if the sample is air dried, continue the process
until the back-to back weights are the same.
5. The moisture content of the forage could then be calculated by using the
equation below

9.4 How to calculate the moisture content of forage

The percent moisture content could be calculated using the following equation.
% moisture content = W1 – W2 x 100 ÷ W1
W 1 = weight of forage before drying or fresh weight
W 2 = weight of forage after drying or dry weight

Example: A one metre square sample of limpo grass had a fresh weight of weighed
250 grams. When the limpo grass sample was dried it had a dry weight of 75 grams.
What is the moisture content percent of the forage?
Using the formula above:
Percent moisture content = W1 – W2 x 100 ÷ W1

52
250-75 = 175 x 100 = 17500÷250 = 70 percent moisture

What is the dry matter percent of the forage sample?

Example: The moisture content of a specimen of limpo grass was 70 percent. What is
the dry matter percentage of the forage specimen?

Dry matter is equal to 100% -70% = 30%

What is the dry matter yield (kg) per hectare of the forage sample?

In order to ascertain the dry matter yield per hectare (kg/DM/ha) multiply the dry
weight per metre square by 10,000, and then divide by 1000, this would give you kg/ha
of forage dry matter available.

75 g x 10,000 sq metres = 750,000 g/ha ÷ 1000 g =750 kg/ha

9.5 What is the forage dry matter intake or dry matter demand of an animal?

As a general rule the forage daily dry matter intake or daily dry matter forage demand
for grazing animals should be estimated to be approximately 2-5 percent of their body
weight. This estimate depends on the grazing or feeding activity of the animal, the
physiological state of the animal and other such factors.
For example, a dry non-pregnant adult female or adult male animal would require forage
dry matter of approximately 2.0 to 3.0 % of its body weight daily for maintenance only,
depending on the degree of activity. A confined animal with minimal activity would
require 2% of its body weight forage dry matter daily, but animal grazing pastures with
sparse vegetation would need to consume 3% of its body weight forage dry matter daily.

Female animals in the early stages of pregnancy would need to consume an additional
10% over that which is required for maintenance. Female animals in the last stages of

53
pregnancy would be required to consume daily an additional 50% over that which is
required for both maintenance and early pregnancy.

These requirements increased by an additional 30% during lactation. Actual nutritional

requirements during lactation are based on milk yield and number of animals being
nursed. An animals nursing twins would require more nutrients that those nursing single
births.

For example: A farmer has five Barbados Blackbelly ewes which are confined and fed in
a pen on his farm. The average weight of the ewes is 50 kg. How much forage must be
provided to the five ewes daily in each physiological stage?

Production Phase Percent forage dry Total forage dry

matter required daily for matter fed per day
each animal (kg)
Maintenance 2 5 kg

Maintenance +first week 15 2.2 5.5

weeks of pregnancy

Maintenance +last 6 week of 3.3 8.25

pregnancy

Maintenance +lactation (1 lamb) 4.2 10.5

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 10. HOW TO MANAGE THE PASTURE

The total amount of forage (grass/legumes) produced by the pasture would ultimately
determine how many animals the pasture could support. In pasture production, the
management of the pasture for increased forage yield is critical because the value of
the pasture could only be determined by the amount of meat or milk produced by the
grazing animal. Therefore, whether improved or native pastures are being grazed by the
animals, the output of milk or meat per unit area is a function of the production per
animal and the number of animals per unit area.

Production per animal x number of animals per area = Production per area

The production per animal and the production per area are both dependent on the
number of animals being grazed in the pasture, or in other words, the number of
animals per area or the rate of stocking of the pasture.

Let us then assume that in the pasture enclosure there are a few animals, not enough
animals to consume all of the forage growing in the pasture, then the forage in the
pasture would not be properly utilized and the full potential of the pasture would not be
realized. Consequently, if we have a situation where there are too many animals
grazing in the pasture, productivity per animal would be reduced, because the available
feed or forage would have to be shared by too many animals. These are both good
examples of poor pasture management systems.

10.1 Factors that could affect the production per animal.

Production per animal is a function of:

1. The quality and quantity of the available forage;
2. The genetic potential of the animal; and
3. The standard of animal management.

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10.1.1 Factors that determine the quality and quantity of the available forage

The number of animals that should be grazed in a pasture of a particular size or in other
words the number of animals per area could only be determined by the amount of
forage in the pasture and therefore it is a function of the forage yield of the pasture or
the amount of forage dry matter available.

In Guyana, one of the most neglected aspects of rearing ruminant livestock is the
number of animals in the pasture, in other words the rate of stocking. Using the correct
stocking rate is one of the most important management decisions that could be made by
the farmer. The use of the correct stocking rate will influence the total amount of animal
products the livestock operation is able to produce. The use of the correct stocking rate
could impact on both the persistence and productivity of the forage in the pasture.
However, there are several questions you must ask yourself to help you to determine
what would be the optimum stocking rate of a particularly forage species.

10.1.1.1 What is stocking rate?

If pastures are to be managed properly it is important to be able to determine the

number of animals that could be supported by the pasture. This relationship is referred
to as the stocking rate and in its simplest form is defined as the number of animals
grazing an area of land (pasture) at a particular time. In order that there can be some
standardisation, when referring to animals grazing on pastures, the various animal
classes and types of grazing animals, the term animal unit (AU) or livestock units is
used to describe this relationship. Therefore the stocking rate could be defined as the
number of animal units (AU) grazing a unit area of land at a particular time.

The following tables below could be used to assist in computing the number of animal
units grazing a particular pasture, the dry matter demand of animals according to the
weight of the animal, and the amount of forage dry matter consumed by an animal unit
per day, month and year.

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Table 5: Animal class/age and animal unit equivalent for cattle and sheep

Cattle
Calf (1-8 months) = 0.35
Weaner (8-12 months) =0.40
Heifer/Steer (1 year) =0.7
Breeding cow =1.0
Breeding bull = 1.25
1 Animal unit = 400kg
Sheep
Wether/maiden ewe =1S.E
Lamb (1-9 months) =0.5 S.E
Breeding ewe/ram =1.7 S.E
1 AU = 8 S.E
1 sheep equiv (S.E) = 40 kg

The table above equates an animal unit as 400 kg, and a sheep equivalent as 40 kg,
the table further suggest that 8 sheep equivalents are equal to one animal unit.
Sheep generally graze very low to the ground and this is the main reason why 8 S.E.
are equal to 1 A.U.

Table 6 below shows the animal weight, the animal unit equivalent and the amount of
forage dry matter to be fed or made available to cattle on a daily basis. For sheep, the
animal unit equivalent that could be used to estimate adult sheep and goats is 0.2
animal units and it is estimated that they would consume 2.5 kg DM daily.

Table 6: Cattle live weight, estimated daily forage dry matter demand and animal unit
equivalent
Cattle live weight Animal unit Daily dry matter
equivalent demand (kg)
140 kg 0.4 4
180 kg 0.5 5.5
225 kg 0.6 7
275 kg 0.7 8
400 kg 1.0 12
500 kg 1.25 14.5

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Table 7: Animal units and forage demand per day, month and year.

Parameters Abbreviations Definitions

Animal units AU 400 kg
Animal units per day AUD 12 kg of dried forage per day
Animal units month AUM 360 kg of dried forage per
month
Animal units year AUY 4,320 kg of dried forage per
year

N.B. These tables are just a guide and it should be noted that animal dry matter
demand would be determined by the physiological state of the animal.

The stocking rates that can be used by animals grazing some of the improved grasses
in Guyana, and the animal gains to be expected without fertilizer are as follows:

Table 8: Stocking rate and animal gain for some selected forage species in Guyana

Forage species Stocking Rate (AU/HA) Animal gains (kg/day)

Antelope grass 1.12 0.31
U.F.717 1.2 0.35
Limpo grass 1.1 0.4
Palisade grass 1.2 0.5
Gamba grass 1.2 0.4

10.1.1.2 What happens when the wrong stocking rate is used?

In Guyana, generally when the wrong stocking rate is used in most instances there are
just too many animals on the pasture grazing the available forage, and the end result is
that there is a reduced level of forage intake by the grazing animal. This condition is
referred to as overgrazing. When the pasture is overgrazed the most desirable species
is grazed first and continuously, this practice would eventually lead to the undesirable

58
plant species or those grasses or legumes not eaten by the grazing animals
proliferating. Therefore, overgrazing may be defined as the continued heavy grazing of
a pasture, which exceeds the recovery capacity of the forage plants and creates
deterioration of the grazing lands. Aggressive non-forage or weed species on the
pasture can be expected to magnify the deleterious effects of heavy grazing on the
desirable forage plants because of differential defoliation levels and enhanced
competition. The deleterious effects of heavy grazing may merely be masked by a
series of favourable rainfall years and remain mostly invisible until triggered by severe
drought.

Since the undesirable species are generally not grazed by the animals, they continue to
grow and flourish and eventually would replace the more desirable species. Therefore in
an overgrazed situation, both the pasture and the animal suffer because the forage
would become scarce in the overgrazed pasture; and the animals would have to spend
more time looking for food, resulting in a slowing down of the growth rate of the animal.

Fig 28.Photograph of an over grazed pasture

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10.1.1.3 How to calculate stocking rate on some improved grasses

Calculating stocking rate is relatively simple once the concept and terminology are
understood. The ability to calculate stocking rate and make timely management
decisions is vital to maximizing net returns from the livestock operation.

A simple calculation could be done to determine the stocking rate of the pasture to
assist in preventing the destruction of the pasture by overgrazing.

Example 1: Assuming a cattle farmer in Mahaicony has on the 20 ha farm, 10 breeding

cows, eight heifers, 12 calves, 25 breeding ewes and 10 lambs. What is the stocking
rate of the farm?
This example used the data presented in Table 5 Animal class and animal unit
equivalent
The calculation is as follows: (10 x1) + (8 x 0.7) + (12 x 0.35) + (25 x 1.7 8) + (10 x
0.58) = 10 + 5.6+ 4.2 + 5.31 +0.62 = 25.73 AU are on the 20 ha farm. Therefore the
stocking rate on the farm is 25.7320 = 1.28 AU/ha.

Assuming that the pasture was planted with antelope grass, from table 8 above we see
that the recommended stocking rate of antelope grass is 1.12 AU/ha, this therefore
means that the farmer has too many animals on the pasture.

If there are too many animals on the pasture.

1. Production per animal will be reduced because too many animals must share the
available forage.
2. Too many animals for the available forage results in sub ad libitum levels of
intake, as a result of overstocking.
3. The forage may disappear because the number of animals grazing is too great.

Consequently if we had discovered from our calculations, that the farmer in Mahaicony
had a stocking rate of 0.8 AU/ha, then the farmer would have had too few animals on
the pasture, and this would have resulted in the forage not being fully utilized, thus the

60
pasture potential would not be fully utilized, but the animal potential being fully
exploited. Under-grazing results in selective grazing and the under-utilization of the
pasture.

The “Mott’s curve” below shows the relationship between animal output (per animal
and per unit of land area) and pasture stocking rate. As forage production increases,
there must be an increase in the number of animals grazing the available forage. At a
low stocking rate, available forage and productivity per animal tend to be high, but
output per acre is low.

Fig.29. Diagram showing relationship between animal output and animal stocking rate.

This concept could best be illustrated using another example. Assuming that a livestock
operation was located at Kimbia in the Intermediate Savannahs, and the farm had 100
hectares of UF 717 pasture. The long-term production records of the pasture indicate
that the pasture is capable of producing 2,500 kg forage DM per hectare over a growing
season of 120 days. In this particular example, the producer may wish to know how

61
many head of weaned calves of an average weight of 225 kg he may be expect to stock
on the pasture.

The first task would be to estimate the total amount of available forage DM based on
historical records of the pasture and the percent utilization factor. (The utilization factor
that may be used for improved pastures located in the savannahs could be estimated at
55% and on the coast the utilisation factor could be estimated to be 45%. (At the St.
Stanislaus Farm the utilisation factor is 75%; however these high utilisation systems use
a high stocking rotational stocking system).

Example 2: Calculation to determine the amount of forage available for grazing:

(Average DM in kg per hectare) x (number of hectares) x (% Utilization Factor)
2,500 x 100 x 0.55 =137,500kg of forage DM

Next, estimate the number of animal units that could be stocked on the pasture, using
the forage production potential calculated above. In other words, calculate the stocking
rate in Au’s assuming that the animals would graze the pasture for a total of 120 days.

Example 3: Calculation of stocking rate (number of head) based on available

forage:

(Total Forage DM) ÷ [(# Grazing Days) x (Daily Forage Demand for animal weighing
225 kg)] = Number of head of animals
137,500÷ [(120 days) x (7kg DM per day)] = number of head of animals
137,500 ÷ 840 = 164 head of cattle
(The daily forage dry matter demand is obtained from table 6)

In this example, the UF 717 pasture was assumed to be capable of producing 2,500kg
of forage DM per hectare and it was estimated that a stocking rate of 164 head of
weaned calves weighing an average of 225 kg could be grazed on the pasture for the

62
120-day growing season. In order therefore to express this production scenario as a
stocking rate, you would have to return to the equation used in Example 1.

Example 4: Calculation of Animal Units from Animal Unit Equivalents:

# Head x AUE = Total AUs

164 head x 0.6 = 98.4 AUs
(The animal unit equivalents are located in table 6)

Now simply use the equation developed in Example 1 to calculate the stocking rate.
(Number of AUs) ÷ (Total land area) = Stocking Rate
98.4 ÷ 100 = 0.984 AU per ha

10.2 Grazing Pressure

The amount of forage produced will determine the number of animals a plot of land
could support. Hence, the term grazing pressure is used to relate the number of animal
units to the amount of forage available, for example, forage dry matter per animal or the
number of animals per unit of available forage. Grazing pressure is the only term that
takes into consideration the amount of forage produced by the pasture.

10.3 Carrying Capacity

There is generally great confusion in attempting to determine what is stocking rate and
carrying capacity. Carrying capacity is defined as the number of animals per area at the
optimum grazing pressure; consequently, carrying capacity could be defined as the
stocking rate that is sustainable over time per unit of land area. A critical factor to
evaluate is how well the stocking rate agrees with the carrying capacity of the land.

Generally, in managing pastures it is important to remember that animals graze

selectively, usually seeking plant species and plant parts of higher nutritional value. The
grazing process also causes changes in the structure of the pasture species, because
grazing animals tends to remove the uppermost leaves first, followed by leaf bearing

63
stems. Thus, an increase in animal production levels is highly dependent on the amount
of leaf or green material the animal has as against the total dry matter of the pasture.

64
 11. GRAZING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

11.1 Managing the pasture for optimum nutrients

Improved pastures used by the grazing animals could be a good source of all the
nutrients required by the grazing animals, however, there are numerous factors, which
could influence the growth and production of the improved pasture. These factors
include the climate, rainfall, moisture, etc. It is very important that the improved pasture
should be well managed to ensure that the grazing animal could retrieve from the
pasture the maximum nutrient value available and the animal is able to select forage
from the pasture with an average digestibility of greater than 58%.

Grazing management is the manipulation of animal grazing to achieve desired results

based on animal, plant, land, or economic responses. The continuing immediate goal is
to supply the quantity and quality of forage needed by the grazing animal for grazing to
achieve the production function intended. It is important because this is where theory is
put into practice. It should be noted that the digestibility of tropical grasses decline
rapidly as they become mature, therefore the pasture must be carefully managed to
keep the forage from becoming too mature.

In Guyana, one pasture that is managed to ensure that the animals receive the
maximum nutrient value available is the pasture located at the St. Stanislaus Dairy
Farm. This pasture is planted with antelope grass and is managed to ensure that the
animals graze each enclosure once every 24 days. Antelope grass is considered as an
indeterminate plant and as such it is not sensitive to photoperiod and will flower
throughout the year, and we are well aware that when plants change from vegetative
growth to reproductive development, the nutrient value is reduced.

Generally, ruminant animals require seven percent protein in the diet for maintenance;
however, in tropical pastures when the protein concentration level is between 16-18
percent, the maximum amount of grazeable material at this level may only be available

65
for a total of 3-4 months of the year. At this level of nutrient 60 % of the energy
consumed by the animal would be available for growth and production, and the animal
may be able to have an average daily weight gain as high as 0.6-1 kg.

As the pasture grasses become mature there is generally a decline in quality and this
affects the intake of forage by the grazing animal, so that when intake of pastures
declines to 10 % only 30 % of the nutrient consumed by the animals is available for
growth and production. Additionally, as the forage becomes older the leaf-stem ratio,
which is a measure of quality, widens; and there is also a decline in protein, minerals,
rate of intake by the grazing animal and digestibility. Correspondingly, the fibre and
lignin content of the forage increases.

When the forage is between 60-90 days old, generally the total digestibility nutrient
percent of the forage falls below 50 %, and as such the growth and development pattern
of most planted grasses and legumes in Guyana, would include, a rapid rise in the lignin
and fibre content of the forage with an increase in maturity. There would also be a
decline in digestibility, which therefore makes it difficult to consistently supply good
quality forage in Guyana.

On the contrary, the high incidents of rainfall particularly on the coastal plains also tend
to compound the process of maintaining good quality pastures, because during the
rainy season, while forage production may be high and the young plants are generally
fairly nutritious, the dry matter content of the forage may be so low, that animal
utilization is affected, and animals may actually lose weight. The loss of weight could be
attributed to the low dry matter content of the forage (<20%) as a result of the amount of
water contained in the forage.

11.2 Pasture Management Systems

A grazing system is defined as a specialization of grazing management based on
rotating grazing animals among two or more paddocks while defining systematically
recurring periods of grazing and non-grazing. There are many different types of pasture

66
or grazing management systems used in Guyana, and indeed in animal production, the
main difference or comparison is between zero grazing, continuous grazing and
rotational stocking. There are also variations within these three types that differ in their
management requirements. The value of each system is dependent on the stocking
rate, growth rate of the forage and performance desired.

The grazing method selected could be used to tailor your own grazing management
strategy. Efficiently managing the quality and quantity of forage in your pastures should
be the ultimate goal, regardless of which grazing method you use. The decision of
which method to use depends largely on the resources you have available. Each
method has advantages and disadvantages which can help you choose which method
is right for your operation.

Therefore, a grazing method is a defined procedure or technique of grazing

management based on a specified period of grazing and/or period of non-grazing, which
is designed to achieve a specific objective. Achieving the optimal grazing intensity might
be considered the priority principle of grazing management, but the importance of
timing, frequency, and selectivity of grazing animals also play important supporting
roles.
11.2.1 Zero Grazing

Zero grazing as the name implies refers to the harvesting of forage to feed the animals
in confinement. The selection of elephant grass, antelope grass and other such grasses
which give relatively high yields or which would respond to high levels of fertilizer should
be considered for the zero grazing system.

Cut and carry systems tend to increase the carrying capacity of pastures, but result in
less opportunity for selection by the animal. Generally in a cut and carry situation
emphasis is placed on quantity rather than quality of the pasture. Ideally the forage fed
to the animal should be chopped rather than fed as the whole plant. Chopping tends to
increase intake, because generally animals would comsume100 % of the growing point
and mature leaves of plants, 86 % of old leaves, 49 % of the upper stem and less than 5
% of the lower stem when the forage is grazed or fed as the whole plant.

67
The whole plant only has 5 % as the growing point and old leaves, 25 % as mature
leaves and upper stems and 40 % as the lower stem. In addition, the digestibility
coefficients for tropical plants is between 60-70% for the growing point and mature
leaves, the upper stem and lower stem is 45-55% and 35-45% respectively and the
older leaves are about 50-55%.

Fig 30.

Therefore, when animals are zero grazed they should be offered at least two times the
animal intake when the digestibility of the whole plant is greater than 55 % and if the
digestibility is below 50 % four times consumption must be offered to the animal.
Animals would consume 11-12 % of their body weight of fresh material daily and
generally in tropical pastures digestibility is greater than 55 % only when the forage is
harvested at between 21 and 30 days.

68
Therefore in a cut and carry situation particularly on the coast during the rainy season, it
is recommended that the forage be left to dry or wither for a day or two prior to feeding.
In a grazing system however, managing the situation on the coast in the wet season is
somewhat more problematic, because the animals are forced to utilize the flooded
and/or waterlogged pastures. It is therefore suggested that supplemental feeds, the
feeding of conserved materials, such as hay or silage and other management practices
be used to maintain a high animal performance during the unfavourable periods.

Fig.31.Harvested forage used for a cut and carry system

11.2.2 Continuous grazing

Continuous grazing is when animals are confined to a single pasture. A continuously

grazed pasture may be set stocked, where the number of animals remains the same or
variable stocked, where the number of animals are adjusted depending on the
availability of forage. A continuously grazed system at the optimum-stocking rate will
give good results in terms of animal production and is cheaper to maintain because the
high cost of fencing is reduced. Advantages of continuous stocking are lower setup
costs and lower management requirements. The animals also have a larger area from
which to select their own diet.

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One disadvantage is that stocking rates must be lower. Other disadvantages are that
pastures may become patchy with some areas becoming overgrazed while others are
under grazed, potentially allowing encroachment of undesirable plants and decreases in
forage quality if not managed appropriately.

Fig.33. Diagram of a continuous grazing/stocking method

11.2.3 Rotational stocking

The rotational system requires that the pasture is sub-divided into a number of
enclosures with at least one more enclosure than groups of animals. It is advisable to
keep the number of enclosures to a minimum to allow for good animal and pasture
management, however as the enterprise becomes more complex more pastures would
be required.

Advantages of a rotational stocking system are that smaller paddocks give more
uniform utilization, areas could be closed for conservation, the forage has time to rest
and regrow after grazing and as a manager you can match periods of grazing to plant
growth. Additionally, the herds could be in different groups for better control, a higher

70
stocking rate could be used and there could be better utilization of the forage. Animal
dung and urine are more evenly distributed throughout the pasture as the animals move
between paddocks. Often the overall management of the operation also improves
because pastures and animals are being monitored more frequently.

Fig.33. Diagram of a rotation grazing/stocking method

Rotational stocking does have some disadvantages, one of which is that more time,
labour and a higher degree of management are required to manage the system.
Subdividing pastures will also mean additional costs for fencing and water. It is
important to note that rotational stocking may not work on every cattle and the success
of the system is dependent on the quality of soils, the type of forage used and/or the
farm layout itself.

In a rotational stocking system the time interval for the grazing of an enclosure is critical,
the interval may be long or short relative to the stocking rate and pasture production. If
the rotation is dependent on the stocking rate and pasture production then the rest days
of the pasture for adequate forage re-growth would determine the number of sub-
divisions required. The formula DG + DR
DG

71
Could be used to help to determine the number of enclosures required, where DG is
equal to grazing days and DR is rest days.

For example, if a pasture of antelope grass requires 28 days rest for adequate re-
growth prior to grazing, the number of paddocks that would be required if the animals
are to graze each paddock for seven days would be 7+28 = 35 =5.
7

In the example above please note no mention was made of the size of the pasture, just
the number of pastures required. The size of the pasture would depend on the number
of animals (the stocking rate to be used) to be grazed in each pasture, as well as the
forage yield.

Another important consideration is the number of days required for adequate re-growth
of the pasture before grazing and for each pasture species the number of days required
for re-growth should be known. This is important for all of the grazing systems but more
important for the rotational stocking system.

There are two deviants to a rotational stocking system, one is referred to as the High
Utilization Grazing system, this is when the animals are kept on the pasture for a long
time in order to fully utilize all of the grazable material, and the other system is the High
Production Grazing System, in this system the pasture is lightly grazed before moving
the animals to the next paddock.

One point to remember is that which grazing method is used is not as important as
stocking rate. The key is to think ahead when making plans for the future and having
organization within your farming operation. Try to assess what resources are going to
be available to you throughout the year. Reviewing records from previous years is a
good place to start. Plan for the changes in forage production that will occur during the

72
year and think about what management decisions will need to be made when those
times come.

11.3 Planning the forage budget

Forage supply and demand change constantly, therefore in livestock grazing situations
forage supply must always be adequate to meet the grazing demand by cattle and other
grazing livestock.

Factors that may affect forage supplies include the forage species and the yield
potential (some grasses and legumes are greater than that of others, for example,
antelope grass would have a higher dry matter yield that Bermuda grass), seasonal
productivity (it is expected that forage would produce more grazable material in the
rainy season), and soil fertility (low soil fertility reduces forage yields, particularly as in
the case in Guyana, where fertilizer is not generally used on pastures). Time of year
and environmental factors could also impact forage yields and quality. In Guyana, the
genera Brachiaria tends to flower during the period of June –September, and generally
when the forage move from the vegetative state to the reproductive state, yield is
affected.

Forage demand on the other hand varies with animal numbers, types, weights, stage of
production, and desired rate of gain. When forage supply exceeds demand, increasing
stocking rates or harvesting the forage for hay or silage can help balance forage supply
and demand to avoid under-grazing and forage maturity problems. However, in the dry
season when forage demand exceeds supplies, reducing stocking rates or using stored
forages and other feeds can help balance forage supply and demand.

Planning a forage/feed budget is therefore an important management tool that should

be used to ensure that the demand as well as the supply of forage is in adequate supply
for the animals. The forage budget is a management tool that is therefore used to
provide for the nutritive requirements for a predetermined number of livestock over a
period of one year or longer and secondly it is the most efficient use of charting the
available feed resources.

Table 9: An example of a feed budget that may be used on the improved pastures
located on the coast and Intermediate Savannahs in Guyana.

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 Forage value Months Time

Quantity Quality J F M A M J J A S O N D Grazing % of

total
days

Surplus Excellent X X X 91 25

Adequate Good X X X X X X 182 50

Adequate Fair X 30 8

Deficient Fair X X 62 17

Deficient Poor

Total 365

Accurate forage budgeting requires reliable estimates of forage production (yields and
timing of forage growth) and intake requirements of livestock. In addition to forage
yields, nutrient content (quality) must be considered in planning to meet animal nutrient
demands. These budgets identify seasonal deficiencies and surpluses in forage
availability. The surpluses are then used during the deficiency periods to best match
forage supply and demand.

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 12. CONSERVATION OF FORAGE

Conservation of forage is done to provide feed to the animal during periods of shortage,
or in Guyana during the major holiday periods when attendance of stockmen at work
cannot be guaranteed. Good quality hay and silage could be made from tropical
pastures, however the material should be at least 55 % or greater of digestibility and
greater than 7 % protein concentration.

12.1 Silage

Silage is a fermented feed resulting from the storage of high moisture crops, under
anaerobic conditions in a structure called a silo. The silo is an airtight structure designed
for the storage and preservation of the feed.

Conservation of forage is done to provide feed to the animal during periods of shortage,
or in Guyana during the major holiday periods when attendance of stockmen at work
cannot be guaranteed. Therefore the making of silage is done to help ease feed
shortage during the critical periods and to ensure that adequate feed is available all
year round and the animals remain in good health. It could also be used as a routine
feed supplement to increase productivity of animals, and more importantly to utilize
excess growth of pasture for better management and extended utilization.

Good quality hay and silage could be made from tropical pastures however the material
should be at least 55 % or greater of digestibility and greater than 7 % protein
concentration.

12.1.1 What is Silage

Silage is a fermented feed resulting from the storage of high moisture crops, under
anaerobic conditions in a structure called a silo. The silo is an airtight structure designed
for the storage and preservation of the feed. Silage can be stored for many months and
still have up to 85% of the energy and protein value of the original fodder crop

75
Allowing the forage material to ferment in the absence of air over a period of about three
weeks completes the preservation of the forage crops for silage. One problem that is
encountered when making silage with forage crops is that as a result of the low dry
matter and carbohydrates of the tropical forage they are prone to secondary
fermentation. In addition, the coarse stems of some grasses require a good quality
chopper and high mechanical power to cut them fine enough to ensure that enough air
is excluded during the packing process. A poor pack leads to spoilage and formation of
moulds.

Therefore, to make good quality silage from pasture crops the exclusion of air to ensure
a tight pack is important, a fine chop and heavy pressure to compact the material is
necessary. Molasses mixed with water must also be sprayed on to the material to
provide the cut material with sufficient sugar for desirable fermentation to take place.

The quality of silage made is determined by examining the colour and smell. Good
silage is usually yellowish green with a sweet smell, and the nutritive value is almost the
same as fresh forage or the material before the ensilaging process. Silage making has
the added advantage in that it is not dependent on the weather and provided that it is
well made it is readily accepted by the animals.

12.1.2 Forage best used for silage making

The quality of silage depends on the forage being conserved, and applies equally to
silage made in bags. Forage with high sugar content conserves well. Forage with low
sugar content, rots, leading to a bad reputation for silage in the tropics.

In Guyana the forage that could best be used for the making of silage include, antelope
grass, elephant grass, tanner grass, UF717 and sugar cane.

Problem fodders include mature grasses harvested during the wet periods, rice straw
and legumes in general. Wet grasses and legumes must be wilted before ensiling and
rice straw would require adequate moisture as well as additives to produce good silage.
Additives which may be used to enhance fermentation may be any compound which is

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cheap, not toxic or corrosive, and easy to apply. Molasses is such an excellent additive
and is easily available.

12.1.3 How to make silage

Silage is fermented feed. It results from storing green forage under anaerobic
conditions. Green forage packed in an airtight silo consumes oxygen and liberates heat
and water. As the oxygen in the silo is consumed, lactic acid producing bacteria are
activated and carbohydrates are fermented to lactic acid which reduces the pH of the
forage. When acidity reaches a pH of 3.5 to 4.0 bacterial activity is stopped and silage is
preserved.

The moisture content of the material is extremely important in making good silage. If the
moisture content is too low it is difficult to get rid of enough air to stop the fermentation
process. Excessive moisture causes poor and prolonged fermentation. The
recommended moisture level for good silage formation is 65-75% or 25-35% dry matter.
If it has been raining and the forage is wet, or if the forage seems immature then it is
best to harvest it and leave it in the sun for a few hours to wilt (too much water in the
forage can spoil the silage).

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 Fig. 34. Photograph of a manual forage chopper

Chopping the forage is also important as this allows for close packing and a reduction in
oxygen. In addition, tough stemmy plants such as sugar cane could be turned into
wholesome feed as a result of chopping.

Fig. 35. Photograph of a mechanical forage chopper

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Additives are usually added to silage to ensure fermentation and to increase the
nutritive value of the silage. Additives such as molasses, legume leaves, crop by-
product feeds such as rice bran and wheat middling could be used.

If molasses is used it may be added at the rate of 2 kg per 100 kg of forage to improve
fermentation, nutritive value and palatability.

If convenient a drum filled with water could be used to compact the material prior to
closing the silo.

Fig. 36. Photograph showing how to compact the forage for the making of silage

If plastic bags are used as the silo, care should be taken to remove as much air from
the bags.

Fig. 37. Photograph showing filled plastic bags with silage

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12.1.4 Filling the silo
Fill the chopped fodder into one of the plastic bags layer by layer without making any
holes in it. When using small shopping bags for ensiling, gently but firmly squeeze the
bag by hand to expel air; while compressed twist the neck of the bag then turn it over
and tie it tightly with twine as close to the material as possible and as tightly as possible.
This will compact the silage. Then seal it from air. Invert the bag of silage into a second
empty bag, close and tie it again. Carefully and step by step open a small portion of the
silage when need arises for feeding and seal the remaining silage immediately after the
removal.

Seal the silage material and make sure the silo is air tight. Remember silage is formed
through anaerobic fermentation by microorganisms.

12.1.5 Types and sizes of silage storage systems

The principles of silage making are the same regardless of size of operation, the major
difference being in the type of storage used. There are many ways to store silage.

1. Tower silo
2. Trench silo
3. Bunker silo
4. Pit silo
5. Stack silo
6. Plastic bags
7. Oil drum silo.

12.1.6 How much silage should be made?

The quantity of silage to store depends on several factors such as how many animals
are to be fed, how much they are to be fed, for how long they are to be fed, the storage
space available, the amount of excess feed to conserve, forage DM content, available
labor, etc. The following example shows the calculations for total silage requirements for
a small farm. Assume that a farmer has 10 sheep that need to be supplemented for 90
days on 1 kg fresh material at 20% dry matter (200 g silage DM/d) for each sheep.
To calculate total silage requirements:

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10 sheep x 1 kg/ sheep/day x 90 days = 900 kg fresh silage required.
In most storage systems, there will be a loss of about 15% due to fermentation.
Consequently, the fresh weight that needs to be stored for the total of 900 kg required
is:

1. 900 kg divided by 0.85 = 1059 kg fresh silage for 90 days.

2. This is equal to 1059/90 = 11.8 kg fresh silage/day.
3. If the farmer is using plastic bags to make silage, he will need silage stored in
2 plastic bags of size 30 x 30 cm (see Table 1 for capacity of plastic bags) each
with a capacity of 4-6 kg to feed his sheep daily. He will need 180 bags for the
90-day feeding period.

The typical weights of silage in various types of storage are listed in Table 8. Weights
will vary widely according to content of material, chop length, type of material ensiled
and how well it is compacted.

Table 10: Weights of chopped silage in various types of storage

Storage type Storage size Amount of material (kg)

Small plastic bag 30 x 30 cm 4-6 kg

Medium plastic bag 100 x 85 cm 35-45 kg

Small plastic drum 20 L 15-20 kg

Large plastic drum 120 L 60-120 kg

Steel drum 200 L 140-190 kg

Silage pits 300-500 kg/M3

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 Fig. 38. Photograph showing good quality silage made in large plastic bags

12.2 HAY MAKING

Reducing the moisture content of green forage to permit safe storage without spoilage
or loss of nutrients is the main objective of hay making. Water content in the material of
between 18-22 % is sufficient to permit the safe storage of hay. The improper harvest of
forage material however may cause losses in the hay material due to shattering, which
is a loss of leaves and leaching which is a loss of nutrients as a result of rain falling on
the product during the curing process.

Forage for the making of hay should be harvested when the nutrient level in the material
is high, because mature forage would result in low quality hay. The curing process for
hay making usually takes about 2-3 days, and baling should be carried out just as soon
as hay is sufficiently dry and it should be stored in a dry place.

The making of hay in Guyana is not a simple matter, because hay needs to be dried
properly prior to storage. If the forage is dried to 14 % moisture or less it can be stored
for a very long time, but because of the need to produce hay with a good protein
concentration it is necessary to cut the forage during the rainy season, thereby making
the drying process less problematic. Every time hay gets wet and is re-dried it losses
quality, however, artificial driers have been used successfully to dry hay for the small

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farmers in Guyana. When hay is made with legume-grass mixtures, hay should be
handled as little as possible, because legumes have the tendency of shattering its
leaves when dried.

12.2.1 Why should farmers make hay

Hay should be made because during the dry periods forage production is usually
inadequate for animal consumption. During the wet season, particularly on the flat
coastlands, there is usually too much water on the pasture or grazing areas, which
generally results in the animals being in a stressed situation and not getting enough to
eat.

Fig.39. Photograph of farmer with grass for making of hay

12.2.2 What is hay

Hay is sun dried forage (grass and/or legumes) without loss of nutrients or loss of
leaves from handling.

12.2.2.1 Objectives for making hay

To reduce the moisture content of grass or other forage crops sufficiently to permit safe
storage without spoilage or loss of nutrients.

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12.2.3 General Information

In Guyana, farmers do not have a tradition of storing feed for the periods of shortage.
With the advent of the new milk pasteurization plant and Guyana being declared free of
Foot and Mouth disease, there is going to be a ready market for farm products, (milk
and beef). Hence, the need for the conservation of feed, to ensure a stable and steady
supply of farm products.

Hay is probably one of the more common methods of storing forage on the farm, and it
can be used to level out the feed supply on the farm throughout the year. In countries
such as Guyana, however, there has not been a tradition of conserving feed, and
because there is generally excessive rainfall, and if we remember the old saying “make
hay while the sun shine,” then the making of hay may pose some difficulties, because,
to make good quality hay it is important for the grass to be dried very quickly. Therefore,
if rain falls on the hay it can lower the quality or feeding value of the hay as a result of
leaf loss and the leaching of nutrients.

Fig.40. Diagram of the wire basket drier

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Systems such as the basket driers have been successfully used to make hay for small
farmers. The hay could be used not only when there is a shortage of feed but more
importantly when labour is short such as at Christmas and other holiday seasons. This
basket drier could be used to make one bale per day.

12.2.3.1 How to make hay

The material to be used for the making of hay could be harvested with a cutlass or
motorized slasher. When grass is to be used for making hay the grass should be
harvested when it is between 28-42 days of age. Older grass would result in lower
quality hay being produced. On the other hand if grass is harvested before 28 days, the
nutritive value of the hay may be higher but the moisture content of the grass may be
too high for proper curing or drying.

Fig 41 (A) Photograph of a wooden hay baler

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 Fig.41. (B) Diagram of a metal hay baler

If the curing or drying process were to be done in the sun, a minimum of one to two
days of good sunshine is usually required for the drying process. If however, the drying
process were to be done indoors the curing process would take longer. The material
should be turned at least once per day to permit easy drying. Turning of the material too
frequently could result in shattering or loss of leaves.

Fig.42. Photograph of completed bales of hay

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12.2.3.2 Making of hay by small farmers

1. Small farmers making hay are best advised to cut the grass, later in the morning
after the dew has evaporated.
2. The cut grass should be placed in heaps of about 20-30 cm high and turned
frequently in the sun to encourage quick drying.
3. After the initial moisture has evaporated the material could then be placed under
the house or in a covered area and allowed to dry completely away from the sun.
4. In the rainy weather, a basket drier could be used. The grass is placed in the
drier and a plastic covering is placed over the drier to prevent the rain from
wetting the grass.
5. The basket drier, which is made from chicken mesh, allows air to circulate
through the material thus assisting the drying process.
6. The hay could be baled using either the wooden or metal baler
7. The hay bale is kept secure by using twine to tie the tie the hay, the twine must
be placed into the baler before putting in the hay. Ideally three pieces of twine
should be used.

12.2.3.3 How to store hay

Hay should be baled prior to storing in a cool dry place. The hay should be bale using a
baler made of wood or of metal. Baling of hay should be done when the grass is
completely dried, and to maintain the form of the bale the hay should be held together
with string. Care should be taken not to use wire to keep the bale intact because wire
may result in injury to the animal or the farmer.

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Fig. 43. Diagram of drier could be used to make a large quantity of hay

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12.2.3.4 How to feed hay

Hay should be fed in a grass or hay rack, if the hay is to be fed to animals on the
ground, and then small amounts should be fed to prevent wastage by trampling.

Fig.44. Photograph of hay rack and cattle eating hay

12.2.3.5 How much hay should be given to the animal

If the animal weight is 100 kg the animal should consume about 10-12 kg of fresh grass
per day (10-12 % of the body weight). However, if hay is to be fed then the animal
should be offered about 2-5 kg per day (2-5% of the body weight).

12.2.3.6 Some dos and don’ts to remember when making hay.

1. The highest amount of water that should be in the hay for safe storage should be
between 18-22%. Ideally hay should be stored at 15% moisture.
2. Hay, which is stored with excessive water or moisture, may get mould.
3. If hay is not harvested properly it may suffer losses due to shattering, which is a
loss of leaves or leaching, which occurs when rain falls on the hay during the
drying process.

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4. Baling should be carried out as soon as the hay is sufficiently dried.

5. Care should be taken when feeding hay to prevent losses by trampling of the

animals.

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 13. FENCES FOR LIVESTOCK

Good fences are an integral part of any farm improvement plan. Fences are usually
viewed as a tool for animal management, and are seen as being useful for keeping
animals on the property, out of the neighbour’s field, away from the road and as a
means of keeping animals separated. Although fencing is important for a number of
reasons pertaining to animal management, it is also important for good forage
management. It is better to have a few strong stock proof enclosures than to have many
fields of poor fences that the animals can pass through easily. Livestock protection and
confinement are not the only reasons to consider fencing. Fences can significantly
increase livestock grazing efficiency. Proper fencing layout is a powerful management
tool in efficient grazing systems.

The first step in planning livestock fencing is determining the purpose and goals of the
fencing program. Fencing needs vary depending on the type of grazing management
system and livestock species, class, and age. Determine the operation size, number of
animals, type of forage system, and number of paddocks needed before investing in
fencing materials and supplies.

13.1 Types of fences

There are three types of fences that are considered appropriate for both large and small
ruminant livestock management.
These are:

1. The conventional barbed wire fence;

2. The semi-conventional barbed wire fence also called elastic or suspended

fences; and

3. The electric fence.

13.1.1 The Conventional Barbed wire fence

In Guyana the conventional barbed wire fence is used both as a perimeter fence and an
internal fence. This fence is characterized by the use of barbed wire; a great number of
posts (either live or dead posts) and staples. The latter are required for securing the

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wire to the posts. This type of fencing requires a significant amount of materials and
labour for establishment and maintenance.

Fig. 45. Photograph of barbed wire rolls

13.1.2 Fence structure for the conventional fence

Fences used to restrain sheep and cattle should be sturdy. Posts should be planted 60-
90 cm (2-3 ft) deep in the ground. Posts should be spaced about 3 – 3.5 m (10-12 ft)
apart.

Fig. 46. Diagram of barbed wire fence

The total height of the fence should be about 1.4 m (4.5 ft). For cattle four strands of
wire should be effective and all four strands should be placed 30 cm apart.
Sheep generally require eight strands of wire for the fence to be effective, the first six
strands of wire from the ground should be about 15 cm (6 ins) apart. The last two
strands are generally placed at about 30 cm (12 ins) apart.

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 Fig 47 Diagram of a barbed wire conventional fence

Advantages
The main advantage of the conventional barbed wire fence is that any type of animal
can be handled (feral or docile as well as small or large).
When live posts are used the cost of the posts is reduced because the trees produce
their own posts.

13.2.1 Semi conventional fence

The semi-conventional fence is a barbed wire fence that is best suited for wide open
expanses of land. The materials used for the building this type of fence are barbed wire,
posts, sticks also called stays, droppers or battens. The main advantages of this type of
fence are that the distance between posts can be 6-15 m. As the name suggests, this
fence is suspended from the ground by small sticks or stays. The fence can be used
both as a perimeter fence as well as for internal divisions. Because the posts are
spaced 6-15 m apart, this means that fewer posts are required. The stays are used
between the posts to stretch the wire. The stays are used to maintain the wire and the
fence tight. This type of fence construction works well for cattle particularly cattle on
range pastures.

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Fig.48. Diagram of a barbed wire Semi-conventional fence showing stays or lath

13.2.1.1 The Australian slung fence

Fig. 49. Diagram of a barbed wire Australian Slung fence

The Australian slung fence is best used to establish fences on large ranches with
extensive land holdings. This fence structure use two large fence posts which are
placed 400 feet apart. Four strands of wire are used in the construction of this fence.
The top strand of wire is used to keep the fence up. This top strand is secured to the top

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of the post and is connected to the middle stay or lath, thus assisting in keeping the
fence off the ground. Stays or laths are strategically placed along the 400 feet span and
are used to keep the other three strands separated.

13.2.1.2 Chain Link Fence

Chain link fences are stronger than conventional/ suspension fences at the same
spacing, and when erected properly, will form a solid, impenetrable barrier to stock
particular sheep and goats. Depending on the size of the spacing, prefabricated fencing
can be used to exclude most animals, including lambs, pigs, rabbits and goats.
Effectiveness can be increased by adding electric or barbed wires.

Fig. 50. Diagram of Chain Link fence

Advantages

Very effective in controlling cattle, sheep and goats.

Most effective against lambs and kids.

Stays or droppers not needed

Fairly easy to erect

Disadvantages

Expensive

Susceptible to flood damage

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Difficult to follow curves

Difficult to repair where any wire is cut

13.3.1 Electric fences

Electric fences are commonly used in agriculture. Whereas standard fences are
constructed to form a physical barrier, electric fences are constructed to form a
psychological or mental barrier. The mental barrier is accomplished by introducing an
electric shock through the fence wire that both repels the animal and makes them less
likely to contact the fence again. Once the animal has been electrically shocked it will
remember the discomfort and learn to avoid the fence. Electric fences may be less
robustly constructed using lower cost materials than non-electric fences, but to be
effective they must have:
1. The physical structure (i.e. the posts and wire);

2. The electric circuit (i.e. a complete path for the current); and

3. Proper maintenance to ensure the circuit is not “shorted out”.

13.3.1.1 Characteristics of the electric fence

The Electrical Fence is characterized by the use of electricity either from electrical
current (110-120 Ac), dry battery (6-12 volts), vehicle battery (6-12 volts) or solar light
system that is converted into electricity. The fencer passes the electricity on a very thin
wire. When the animals come into contact with the fence they receive an electrical
shock. With this type of fencing, it is not the strength of the wire that holds the animals,
but the animal’s fear of the shock they would receive if they come into contacts with the
fence.
The electrical types of fences are recommended for use on well-managed and docile
animals (dairy cattle). Nervous cattle would not respect this type of fence. For small
animal’s calves, two to three rows of electrical wires are needed on this fence. All the
animals should be trained before they go into pasture. Generally for the training

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purpose, the electrical fence is established and on the wire, pieces of white paper are
hung to attract the animals’ attention to touch the wire in order to receive a shock.

Fig. 51. Diagram of Solar electric fence unit

Advantages

A possible improvement in livestock control;

Lower construction costs (materials and labour;

Temporary fence are easily moved (i.e. for grazing control;

They can be used to extend the life of existing non-electric fences;

They may reduce the livestock pressure on other farm fences (even those fences
which are non-electric); and
Less damage or injury to stock.

Disadvantages

The fence is (or may be) ineffective if the power is off or grounded out;
More frequent inspections and maintenance may be required;
Animals require training to become familiar with, and gain respect for, the fence (this
should be done prior to turning the animals out to the pasture);
Fence line weed control may be important to reduce shorting the electrical circuit;

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 It may be difficult to convert to a non-electric fence (if lightweight materials were
used); and
Usually not suitable for confined areas or where animals are crowded together.

13.4 Paddock/pasture layout

Paddock/pasture layout is critical when planning forage utilization programmes. The

number and size of paddocks needed depends upon the total acreage available,
number of cattle to be grazed, intended stocking densities, number of paddock rest
days desired between grazing rotations, and resources available to establish adequate
fencing, water, and shade for each paddock.

In Guyana, because of the lay of the land particularly on the coast we are constrained
by the shape of the pasture, therefore, when fences or paddock/pastures are to be
established efforts should be made to refrain from using rectangular paddocks. As far
as possible paddocks/pastures should be made square. If square paddocks/pastures
are used less fencing material would be required.
However, the paddock/pasture shapes in order from most efficient to less efficient for
perimeter fencing in terms of fencing material requirements are the circle, the square,
the rectangle with length two times width, the equilateral triangle (sides of equal length),
the right angle triangle (two sides of equal length and a 90-degree angle in one corner),
and the rectangle with length four times the width.

Table 11: Length of wire required for fencing one row of a one ha paddock/pasture with
different long and wide sides

Long side (m) Wide side (m) Length of wire required (m)
1 100 100 400
2 125 80 410
3 200 50 500
4 400 25 850
5 800 12.5 1625

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Table 12: Length of wire required for fencing one row of a one acre paddock/pasture
with different long and wide sides

Long side (ft) Wide side (ft) Length of wire required (ft)
1 210 207 834
2 264 165 858
3 363 120 966
4 726 60 1572
5 1452 30 2964

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 14. WEED CONTROL IN PASTURES

Effective weed control begins with good pasture management. Weeds are seldom a
problem in a well-managed vigorously growing pasture. Good management begins with
the proper choice of grass or legume species, adequate fertility, proper grazing
management and the control of major pests and diseases. However, if weeds become
established in the pasture they can be controlled by mechanical or chemical means.

Fig.52. Photograph of a poorly managed pasture, overgrown with weeds

14.1 Mechanical Control

Mechanical control is one of the most often used methods of weed control and this
includes brush cutting, weeding and rouging. Mechanical operations should be well
timed to prevent weeds from seeding.

14.2 Chemical Control

Ideally, chemicals should not be used on pastures to control weeds, however if

chemicals are to be used the proper rate and choice of chemical are of extreme
importance. Rates too low will not give adequate control and rates too high may injure
the grass or legume.

In addition, to controlling weeds in the pasture, efforts should be taken to prevent weeds
from infesting the pasture; therefore knowledge of how weeds are spread is important.
Weeds are spread by wind, water, in planted seeds, carried by man and animals and
moved by machinery.

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