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A distinct feature of the human complex is the idea that we are curious and constantly
trying to find reason and purpose. What is the purpose of life? What is the origin of our being? Is
there a better way of explaining how the known world exists than the stories that have been
passed down to us. These and many other questions were true of some of the ancient Greeks
hundreds of years before common era. They sought to break the mold of what was considered
truth in their time and place by providing logical explanations for the world around them and
how one should conduct themselves in that world, which would bring about and fuller life, a
more robust community and a stronger government. This paper will detail the philosophies of
Xenophanes through Plato, spanning roughly 250 years and understanding their impact on
To better understand ancient greek philosophy one must understand the climate of
thinking that was present during this time. Today, in the western world, a child would be brought
up attending school for the first eighteen years of life being exposed to mathematics and the
sciences having a general understanding of the natural world, how living things sustain life, a
working concept of the cosmos and so on. This is not the case for the ancient greek world.
Education would be provided only to the elite and void of 2,500 years of progress that we have
today. The world and the cosmos were a black box which little was known of their functionings.
To explain the miracle that was the world around them they gave credit to the mythological gods.
These gods were merely superhuman in the sense that they bore many of the physical and
emotional characteristics of humans. They did not entirely transcend the human condition and
exhibit infinitely or even vastly better character than did humans, they possessed human-like
bodies and lived in a physical location. It was these gods that were the cause of the world and
cosmos. Xenophanes, an ancient greek philosopher, noted the type of character that the gods
exhibited, “…Homer and Hesiod have attributed to the gods all things that are blameworthy and
For the thinking, progressive mind this was a problem. How could it be that creatures
similar to us are responsible for the world that we inhabit? This question puzzled one mind in
particular. Xenophanes of Colophon was reported to have said, “Now if cattle, horses, or lions
had hands and were able to perform works like men, horses like horses and cattle like cattle
would draw the forms of gods, and make their bodies Just like the body each of them had.”2 In
his mind we had created gods similar to us, not other way around. It was concepts like this that
paved the way for philosophy to take hold in the ancient greek world because it catered to the
idea that we could come to understand the world in a rational way if we thoughtfully observe
one’s surroundings.
As history continues we see the pursuit of explaining the natural and social world from
Parminedes, Socrates and Plato. Each philosopher tried to challenge the status quo in their own
respect. Each philosopher seemed to be burdened with a thought or project that they could not
help but to pursue and ask deep questions about. As for one of these philosophers, Socrates, was
so compelled by the need to pursue his project that it would lead to his conviction and sentence
1Daniel W. Graham The Texts of Early Greek Philosophy: The Complete Fragments and
Selected Testimonies of the Major Presocratics (Cambridge, Cambridge Univ. Press, 2011) 1.
2 Daniel W. Graham The Texts, 1.
Parminedes is said to have, “radically transformed the early philosopher’s interest in
cosmology, the study of the universe as a rationally ordered system (cosmos), into ontology, the
study of being.”3 Parminedes crafted the logical argument for that which is and that is which is
not. He concluded that which is not, is nothing, and has no place is reality. That which is, is
being, and being is a fundamental, eternal essence that is not perceived by the senses. This
argument refuted that things change, it argued that things only have the appearance of change.
This was important for its time because it was an attempt to rationally and thoughtfully question
the origin of the natural world and to give reason about how things are ordered instead of trusting
Socrates did not set out to tackle the cosmological argument as did Parminedes but chose
to focus his work on moral code and ethics. Socrates’ maxim was to “know thyself”, this would
mean deep reflection of oneself and how a person ought to live. In his view, a life that was not
spent in reflection and careful observation is not a life that is valuable. Virtue and wisdom were
the prize of a thoughtful life and this would lead to a quality society and a better community.
Socrates gave a way for moral and ethical philosophy to take root which was in contrast to the
culture of the time that valued sportsmanship and being a fierce warrior as being the pinnacle of
human achievement. Socrates would direct his pupils to discover what he believed to be truth not
by lecturing from a podium for hours on end but rather engaging with the student in a series of
questions. This method of instruction would come to be known as the “Socratic Method.”
Plato continued the ontological project that Perminedes had been working on an
introduced the idea of the Forms which Plato would go on to explain as the eternal essence of a
horse. It’s true essence is beyond itself and gives it it’s being. This idea of the Forms was to help
solidify the notion of absolute truth in the face of the popular relativism of his time. Relativism
thought that there was no absolute truth but rather that truth varies from one community to
another as a set of changing, developing cultural norms. Furthermore, Plato also developed a
philosophy of politics. He believed that the best form of government to be a hierarchy with a
philosophically minded king. This, in his mind, would be the most successful type of
government but, he admitted, could end in a tyranny if the top leader were to be corrupt.
Each one of these philosophers directly or indirectly argued for a type of universal truth
and explanation of reality. They made arguments for truth as a means of something that was
ultimate and transcends the human experience but is also tangible in the way that it could be
Though these four examples of ancient greek philosophers were not entirely unified on
their philosophies with one another nor did they all set out to accomplish the same specific goal,
what they did accomplish was building the first foundation for the western philosophical
tradition. They had successfully moved away from the dogma of the mythical gods to a rational
explanation of the world around them. This would set the scene for others to come behind them
and build on and challenge their process for the pursuit of knowledge, wisdom and
understanding.
Bibliography
Graham, Daniel W. The Texts of Early Greek Philosophy: The Complete Fragments and
2011.