Published by ACC Limited

February 2012, Vol. 86, No. 2, Rs. 65

Repair and Rehabilitation

Concrete with mineral admixtures
Dry mix mortars
 Founded in 1927

Published by ACC Limited, L.B. Shastri Road, Near

Teen Haath Naka, Thane (W) 400604.
The contents of this journal are contributions
of individual authors, and reflect their FEBRUARY 2012 VOLUME 86 NUMBER 2
independent opinions, findings, conclusions
and recommendations and do not necessarily
imply that they reflect the views of the Publisher,
ACC Limited. The Publishers are not liable for any
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The Indian Concrete Journal, ISSN 0019-4565
Technical Papers
Copyright © 2012 ACC Limited.
ACC Limited - Registered Office – Cement House,
121, Maharshi Karve Road, Mumbai 400 020.
Strength, bond and durability related properties of concretes with
09
The copyright, database rights and similar rights
in all materials published in The Indian Concrete mineral admixtures
Journal are owned by ACC Limited. None of this S. Bhaskar, Ravindra Gettu, B.H. Bharatkumar and M. Neelamegam
material may be used for any commercial or public
use, other than for the purpose of fair dealing,
Harnessing fly ash potential for developing high strength and high
17
research or private study, or review of the contents
of the journal, in part or in whole, and may not durability concrete
be reproduced or stored in any media for mass R.K. Dhir, M.J. McCarthy and J. Bai
circulation without the prior written consent of the
publisher.

publishing / Editorial / THEME : repair and rehabilitation

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05 News & Events

REPAIR AND REHABILITATION: Performance evaluation of

27 concrete I - Girder of a bridge
R.K. Morchhale, S.S. Waghmare, M.D. Goel and S. Murali
Editor: A.N. Singh
POINT OF VIEW: Structural concrete repair – A durability based revised
37
Editorial Team:
approach is needed
Ulhas F. Fernandes
C.S. Suryawanshi
Sushma V. Mathur
REPAIR AND REHABILITATION: Structural retrofitting to protect
For Subscription Tariff, 45 deteriorated building
Alok Sarkar
please see page 2

Real estate developers are

50 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR: Views on prevalent construction practices

using products of advanced REPAIR AND REHABILITATION: Detection of defects in bridges using joint
technology such as slip
form construction, pre-cast
51 shear wave technique: A laboratory study for structural health monitoring
P. Desai and N. Grace
construction, dry wall
techniques and aluminium
form work construction 59 BOOK REVIEW: fib bulletin 60 – Prefabrication for affordable housing

system to bring in cost

NEW PRODUCT FEATURE: Silo logistics for drymix mortars market,
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The picture on the cover shows aluminum form-
61 applications, technology and regional trends
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68
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FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 

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Editorial
Making ultra high strength concrete with locally
available materials and equipment
A lthough concrete’s compressive strength is
not its essential characteristic rather it is its
durability that is more important, attempts to achieve
record compressive strength have been going on for
several decades. Based on a few published work, this
editorial attempts to look at the various factors that are
important for developing high compressive strength
concretes.1,2,3
Cement paste’s properties are one of the important factors
in developing high strength concrete. In conventional
strength concrete (40 MPa), the strength of the paste
is a function of water to cement ratio. This is true also
for high strength concrete. However, in high strength
concrete, the effect of porosity within the paste, the
particle size distribution of the crystalline phases ( C3S,
C2S, C3A, C4AF) and the presence of inhomogeneities
within the hydrated paste (C-S-H) must be considered in
detail. Lower water to cement ratios, optimized particle
size distribution of cementitious materials and finely
1. http://www.nrmca.org/aboutconcrete/cips/33p.pdf
2. http://www.ce.berkeley.edu/~paulmont/165/Hsc.pdf
3. Aitcin P.C., Binders for durable and sustainable concrete, Modern Concrete
Technology, Taylor and Francis, p. 16.
divided reactive materials such as silica fume contribute
to an increase in packing density and reduced porosity.
Those cements that are coarsely ground are usually
unsuitable. The use of superplasticiser in preventing the
flocculation of Portland cement particles and distributing
materials such as silica fume homogenously improves
paste strength. The strength of the paste, however,
will be limited by the flaws in the paste that form the
weakest link. The weakest link could be caused either by
inhomheneities or capillary porosity. So, for improving
the paste strength, all such flaws must be minimized.
The transition zone is the next important factor for
achieving high strength. If the transition zone between
the paste and the coarse aggregates is weak, the
strength of the concrete will not increase beyond a
point. In conventional concretes, the transition zone
is quite large and is characterized by a high porosity
and large crystalline hydration products such as
Portlandite Ca(OH)2. Reducing water to paste ratio and
incorporating silica fume in the concrete contribute to
reducing the width and improving the strength of the
transition zone. Reduced bleeding within the paste also
reduces the potential for accumulation of water around
particles.
FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 
Finally, in high-strength concrete, the aggregate
plays an important role on the strength of concrete.
When the transition zone between the paste and the
aggregate is strong, the transfer of stress from the paste
to the aggregates particles becomes more effective.
If the aggregates are not strong enough to take the
stress, they become the ‘weakest link’. Therefore,
aggregates’ mechanical properties play an important
role in achieving a high compressive strength. During
quarrying and crushing operations, aggregate particles
may be severely micro cracked. The number of micro
cracks will be greater in larger particles; therefore smaller
particles in the range of 10-14 mm are recommended for
producing high strength concretes. Fine aggregates for
high strength concrete should be such that the particles
are rounded and their slit, clay and dust contents are as
low as possible. Since most high strength concrete mixes
contain a larger amount of fine materials in the cement,
the finest fraction of the fine aggregate are no longer
essential to increase workability or prevent segregation.
A coarser grading (fineness modulus 2.7 to 3.0) would
be suitable.
In summary, the basic target of these actions is to
decrease the porosity of cementitious materials, increase
their packing density and use strong aggregates.
Applying these principles many researchers and
concrete producers have prepared high compressive
strength (strength in excess of 55 MPa) concrete without
any special treatment.
Incidentally, the perception of what level of compressive
strength constitutes ‘high strength’ has been continually
revised upwards over the past 20 years or so and
may well continue to rise in the near future. A simple
definition would be ‘concrete with comprehensive
strength greater than that covered by current code and
standards. In India, this would include concrete with a
characteristic compressive strength of 55 MPa or more.
4. Willie Kay, Naaman A.E. and Parra-Montesinos G.J. , Ultra-high performance
concrete with compressive strength exceeding 150 MPa : A simpler way, ACI
Materials Journal, January-February 2011, pp 46-54.
 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012
But developing strengths over 150 MPa without special
treatments such as heat curing and pressure treatment
has long been a challenge. The properties and particle
size of materials used, mixture proportions, the mixing
procedure, specimen preparation and test method once
again play a part in posing this challenge but at a different
level. A paper published recently gives information for
developing ultras high strength in a simpler way and
without the need for either heat curing or pressure and
while using a conventional concrete mixer.4 The authors
recommend the following for developing a 150 MPa
concrete mixture:
Cement: ASTM Type I with moderate fineness and
less than 8 % C3A content. (To reduce demand for
water which influences compressive strength); sand
to cement ratio: 1.4 for a maximum grain size of 0.8
mm; Silica Fume (SF) and Glass Power (GP): 25 %
of the cement weight each. (A median particle size
of 1.2 µm and 1. 7 µm for SF and GP respectively,
for containing the water demand); high range water
reducer: PCE 1.4 to 2.4 % by weight of cement and
water to cement ratio: 0.22.
(Note this mix proportioning contains no coarse
aggregates)
The mixing sequence recommended using a food-type
mixer is as follows:
Mix silica fume and sand for 5 minutes, add other dry
components such as cement and glass powder and mix
for another 5 minutes. Add all water within 1 minute, all
the admixture and mix for an additional 5 minutes.
The above composition could give strength up to 190
MPa. The material has the potential for use in blast and
impact resistant structures.
We would like to hear about your experiences
of developing high strength and ultra high
strength concrete. Please send in your reports
at icj@acclimited.com.
News & Events
Concrete Show India 2012
UBM is delighted to announce the launch
of the Concrete Show India 2012 taking
place from 23-25 February 2012 at
the Bandra Kurla Complex in Mumbai,
India. The three day event will bring
together the buyers and sellers within
the concrete industry to experience and
interact with the full range of concrete
products and services, develop business
relationships, and participate in thought
provoking seminar programmes. Since
concrete plays a vital role in each
construction project a dedicated event
for this region is long overdue hence
why Concrete Show India will be the only
unique platform serving the needs of the
entire concrete industry. During the show
attendees will have the chance to find out
more about the current state of the Indian
construction sector and the opportunities
available for the industry through the
launch of Building Magazine’s White
Paper.
The launch of Concrete Show India is
based on the success of Concrete Show
South America, the leading exhibition
for the concrete and civil construction
industry in Latin America with over 500
exhibitors and over 25,000 visitors.
Now in its 6th year, over $400 million
dollars of business was generated in
new business by the exhibition at its
5th edition. Concrete Show India will
expand on this success and continue
to provide a dedicated platform for
concrete professionals around the globe.
Several leading names have confirmed
participation including Sany, Lafarge,
Hess Group Adeka India and Atlas
Copco India.
Today India is the second fastest
growing economy in the world with
investment in construction accounting
for nearly 11 percent of India’s Gross
Domestic Product. High economic
growth, a shortage of residential and
office space, a thriving retail sector and
strong industrial output have all played
a vital role in this booming sector. The
launch of Concrete Show India comes at
a time when the building industry gathers
momentum. Sanjeev Khaira, Managing
Director of Concrete Show India 2012,
said that there was no better time to
invest in India than at present. “India is
emerging as one of the most attractive
business destinations globally and is an
opportunity not to be missed. Concrete
Show India will ensure that suppliers,
buyers, contractors, developers and
other key players connect over the
three days in a dynamic business
environment. With Construction being
the biggest beneficiary of the surge in
infrastructure investment over the next
five years the market is clearly surging
forward and becoming increasingly
competitive. Concrete Show India will
allow companies to set themselves apart
from competitors as well as reach out to
potential clients.”
For more details, please contact
Kavita Chhatani
UBM India
A 615 – 617, 6th Floor, Andheri Kurla Road,
Sakinaka Junction, Andheri (E),
Mumbai 400072
Tel: +91 22 6612 2679
Fax: +91 22 6612 2626
Mob: +91 9819418496
Email: kavita.chhatani@ubm.com|
Website: www.concreteindia.net
FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal
Construction Chemicals
International Conference
(C3)
The Construction Chemicals
Manufacturers’ Association (CCMA) is
organising a conference during February
17-18, 2012 at Hotel Ramada, Powai,
Mumbai.
The theme for the event is ‘Emerging
Materials, Methods and Practices’ and
is targeted at Resellers of Construction
Chemicals, EPC Contractors,
Construction Chemical Professionals,
Architects & Builders, Consultants, Civil
Engineers, Applications, etc.
The list of the speakers for the conference
include: Ashraf Wahib, Saify Attarwala,
Dr. Bruce J. Christensen, Colin Richardson,
C.M. Dordi, Eugen Kleen, Imran
Merchant, Klaus Meyer, Professor P.D.
Kumbhar, Laurent Bonafus, Manish
Mokal, Matt Ross. C.K. Pithawalla,
J.K. Prasad, M.N. Ramesh, Dr. Ravindra
Gettu, Professor Ravindra K. Dhir,
Satish Dhupelia, Ulrich K. Weber and
Willie Kay.
For more details, please contact:
Event Co-Convenor - Construction Chemicals
International Conference (C3)
102/11, Tripti Apartments
Marshalls Road, Egmore
Chennai 600008
Telefax: 044-28586703
Mob: 91-9381237996
Email: ccma2012@gmail.com
Website: ccmaindia.org

Glass facades will doom
city: Experts
Glass facade is the new in look for the
architectural landscape of Mumbai but
may spell doom for its environment and
safety, warn scientists from the National
Environmental Engineering Research
Institute (NEERI). Researchers who set
out to study the environmental impact of
such structures found that temperatures
at one glass facade building peaked as
high as 17 degrees celsius more than its
surrounding areas.
The findings raise pertinent questions
about urban development at a time
when Mumbai is undergoing a mirrored
makeover. Corporate offices, malls,
hotels and even the landmark Churchgate
railway station are shunning concrete
structures for snazzy glass facades. While
environmentalists say the rampant use of
glass is unsafe for Mumbai’s congested
streets and inconducive to its hot and
muggy climes, architects and planners
believe glass represents GenNext of
construction and has positives if used
properly. The jury is still out.
NEERI scientists used high-tech IR
thermographic cameras to record
temperatures around glass buildings in
Nariman Point, Worli-Parel and BKC. At
one point, when the ambient temperature
was 25.5 degrees Celsius, we found that
the temperature near the glass structure
went up to as high as 42.4 degrees. This
could be because of the heating effect
caused by the use of glass, said NEERI
head Dr. Rakesh Kumar.
–The Times of India 16.01.2012
Second Indian Drymix
Mortar Conference
The International Community for Drymix
Mortars, drymix.info, is organising the
Second Indian Drymix Conference on
March 15, 2012 at The Leela Mumbai,
near international airport.
The emerging market of the Indian
sub-continent continues to attract new
investments in the construction industry.
drymix.info is supporting this development
 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012
by bringing together experts of the
drymix mortar industry. The conference
will feature distinguished speakers from
the Indian and International drymix
mortar industry. The event will also have
showcase booths by key raw material
suppliers. The following companies are
likely to send the representatives to make
presentations at the seminar: Akzo Nobel
(Elotex Div.), Ashland, CCMAI, Conmix,
Kerneos, MYK Laticrete, Rockwood
Additives, Wacker. Delegate Admission
is 210 €.
For more details, please contact:
Ferdinand Leopolder
drymix.info, the International Community for
Drymix Mortars
Tegernseer Landstrasse 26, D-81541
Muenchen,
GERMANY
Email: info@drymix.info
Construction Chemicals
Conclave 2012
The Federation of Indian Chambers
of Commerce and Industry (FICCI)
jointly with Department of Chemicals
and Petrochemicals, Government of
India is organising the 3rd International
conference on Construction Chemicals
“Construction Chemicals Conclave-
2012” during February 09-10, 2012,
Hotel Le Royal Meridian, Chennai. The
Theme of the Conference is “Current
Trends in Construction Chemical Industry
Worldwide”.
With growth primarily driven by increasing
construction activities in both new
construction and repairs & rehabilitation
technologies, demand for construction
chemicals has increased. Many recent
products give better performance and
results. Hence there is a shift in demand
to products favouring better performance
value-added products such as silicon
caulks, specialty cement additives,
polymer-based grouts and mortars etc.
The conference aims towards learning
and understanding recent developments,
trends, challenges and strategic
recommendations in the construction
chemical industry.The event is targetted
at Manufacturers, Builders, Engineers,
Marketing professionals, Consultants,
Contractors, Architects and Traders,
For more details, please contact:
Mr P. S. Singh
Head-Chemicals Division
FICCI
Federation House, 1 Tansen Marg,
New Delhi-110001
Tel: +91-11-23316540 (Dir)
EPBX: +91-11-23738760-70 (Extn 395)
Fax: +91-11-23320714/23721504
Email: prabhsharan.singh@ficci.com
Repair and Rehabilitation
of Dams
The Central Soil and Materials Research
Station, is organising a training course
on ‘Repair and Rehabilitation of Dams’
during February 16-17, 2012 at CSMRS,
New Delhi.
The repair and rehabilitation of concrete
dam or appurtenant structures plays
an important role for the successful
functioning of any Hydro-electric project
or Irrigation system. It is, therefore,
essential for any construction engineer to
understand the different factors involved
in affecting the integrity and durability
of the structure. If these factors are
taken care of during the design, pre-
construction and construction stages
itself, the safety of the same can be
ensured to a maximum extent resulting
in successful functioning of the structure
over their designed life. However, in
some cases it becomes imperative to
undertake repair or rehabilitation due
to ageing or other factors. Keeping
this in view, this training course has
been planned to impart training to
engineers, professionals, researchers
and academicians involved directly or
indirectly in the design, quality control and
maintenance of concrete structures.
The contents of the training course
includes: Dam safety paradigm in
India; Distress in concrete due to Alkali
aggregate reaction; Investigations for
rehabilitation of dams; Instrumentation of
dams and monitoring; Safety evaluation
of dams; Investigative methodologies;
Case studies.
The programme is targeted at officers
of the rank of Deputy Director/Executive
Engineer/Assistant Engineer, etc from
Central/State Government Departments,
Research Institutions Public and Private
Sector Undertakings engaged in design,
construction, repair, rehabilitation and
monitoring of dams.
For more details, please contact:
Rajeev Kumar
Course Coordinator,
Central Soil & Materials Research Station,
Olof Palme Marg, Near IIT Hostels,
Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110 016
Telefax : 011- 26532554
Mobile: 09968312991
Fax: 91-11-2685 3108
E-mail: rajeevcsmrs@nic.in
Web: www.csmrs.gov.in
Sustainability and
Advances in Concrete
Technology
The Department of Civil Engineering,
National Institute of Technology Calicut,
Kerala, is organising an international
workshop on Sustainability and Advances
in Concrete Technology (SACT 2012)
during May 7-8, 2012 at campus.
The concepts of sustainability and
sustainable development are receiving
greater attention nowadays as the
causes of global warming and climate
change are discussed in various forums.
The World Commission on Environment
and Development established by the
United Nations says that sustainable
development is the development that
meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.
Since concrete is the most widely used
construction material on the earth,
Sustainable Technologies for concrete
constructions allow for reduced cost,
conservation of resources, extension
of service life and the enhancement of
environmental benefits. Sustainability
also relates to the life of a structure, which
in turn depends on concrete durability.
Replacing a building because of fire,
extreme wind events, blast, or seismic
events is costly and expends valuable
resources. Considering robustness,
engineers can design reinforced
concrete structures to resist extreme
events. The lifetime of the structure has
a direct impact on sustainability. When
the structure deteriorates, it must be SPICON2012
destructed and rebuilt. Increasing the The Civil Engineering Department, Sardar
service life of concrete structures from Patel College of Engineering, Mumbai is
the present 50 years to 100-150 years organising an international conference
and enhancing the long term durability on Recent Advances In Engineering,
is one of the best solutions to improve Technology and Management during
sustainability. Modern concretes such as May 31 – June 02, 2012 at campus.
fibrous concrete, geopolymer concrete,
high performance concrete, reactive
The objective of the conference is to
powder concrete, self compacting
provide a platform to students, scientists,
concrete, self curing concrete, etc., not
engineers and working professionals to
only enhance the properties of concrete
bring together, interact and exchange
but also increase the life of structures
their experience through research
built with them. Recent research have
publications and lectures. It is proposed
been directed towards the improvement
to conduct the Conference in parallel
of the engineering properties of
sessions. Thus the event will be a forum
cementitious composites such as
for the presentation of recent advances
strength, ductility, energy absorption
and research outcomes in the fields of
capacity, fracture toughness etc. so that
Civil Engineering.
they exhibit better characteristics both in
compression and tension. ABOUT THE
The proposed theme of the conference
WORKSHOP The primary objective of
are Construction Management; High
the workshop is to provide a common
Rise Buildings; Concrete Technology;
platform for exchanging ideas and
Construction Materials; Environmental
initiate deliberations in the field of
Engineering; Geotechnical Engineering;
sustainable concrete constructions,
Infrastructure developments and Public
use of supplemental cementitious
Private Partnership; Ocean and Coastal
materials, techniques, development of
Engineering; Repairs and Retrofitting of
environmental friendly durable concrete.
Structures; Remote Sensing, GIS and
This workshop is intend to bring together
GPS its applications; Soft Computing
the international experts from U.S.A, UK,
Techniques; Soil Structure Interaction;
Canada, Australia, Norway, Singapore,
Structural Health Monitoring; Traffic
Japan, China, India and other countries to
and Transportation Planning; Water
create a forum which would act as a focal
Resources Engineering.
point for practicing engineers, scientists
and academicians to exchange views
For more details, please contact:
on the sustainable concrete and recent
advances in Concrete Technology.
Dr. Ajaykumar R. Kambekar
Coordinator, SPICON2012
The themes of the workshop are
Department of Civil Engineering
Sustainable construction technologies
Sardar Patel College of Engineering (SPCE),
& development initiatives; Supplemental
Andheri (West), Mumbai 400 058
Cementitious materials; Recycled
Tel: 91-22-26232192-279
Materials; Advanced cementitious
91-22-26289777-279
composites; Innovative construction
Fax: 91-22-2623 7819
materials; Performance-based Concrete;
E-mail: spicon2012civil@spce.ac.in
C o n s t ruction and environmental
arkambekar@gmail.com,
issues.
a_kambekar@spce.ac.in
For more details, please contact:
Dr. N. Ganesan
Queen's University Belfast
Department of Civil Engineering ICDCS 2012
National Institute of Technology Calicut The School of Planning, Architecture and
NIT Campus P.O. Calicut 673 601, Kerala Civil Engineering, Queen’s University
Tel: 04952286204, 04952286213 Belfast, UK is organising the 3rd
E-mail: sact2012@nitc.ac.in International Conference on Durability
Website: www.sact2012.nitc.ac.in of Concrete Structures during 17-19
September 2012 at campus.
FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 
The general topics to be covered
include: Influence of environments on
durability; Ionic/molecular transport
and modelling -- Materials for durability
enhancement; Material deterioration
mechanism; Performance of deteriorated
structures; Durability design; Life-cycle
management of concrete structures;
Testing, inspection and monitoring
methods; Repair and maintenance;
Novel cementitious materials; Practical
applications
Cement and Concrete Science
2012
The 32nd Conference on Cement
and Concrete Science will be held
during 17-18 September 2012 at the
School of Planning, Architecture and
Civil Engineering, Queen’s University
Belfast.
This conference provides an opportunity
for researchers and professionals to
discuss their ongoing research in the
area of cement and concrete science.
For more details, please contact:
Ms. Roslyn Barnes
Conference Co-ordinator
Queen’s University Belfast
David Keir Building, Stranmillis Road, Belfast
Northern Ireland, BT9 5AG, U.K.
Tel: + 44 (0) 2890 974214
Fax: + 44 (0) 2890 974278
Email: cber-events@qub.ac.uk
cement@qub.ac.uk
Asia Ascending: Age of the
Sustainable Skyscraper
City
The Council on Tall Buildings and Urban
Habitat (CTBUH) is organising its 9th
World Congress during September
19-21, 2012 at Grand Hyatt Jin Mao,
Shanghai, China
The Council on Tall Buildings and Urban
Habitat brings its 9th World Congress to
the dynamic skyscraper city of Shanghai
to examine these poignant issues. Is
the skyscraper a sustainable building
 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012
type? Can tall buildings truly reduce
and harvest enough energy to become
carbon-neutral? What is the full impact on
the city and the lives of its inhabitants by
developing skyward? And what support
mechanisms and urban infrastructure
are required for such growth? The
2012 Congress will convene the world’s
leading tall building owners, developers,
contractors, architects, engineers,
planners, policy-makers, and others to
ultimately answer the question: does
the vertical city offer the best chance for
human survival in our rapidly-populating,
urbanizing, consuming, and resource
dwindling world? Join us in Shanghai
to find out…
There will be three themed tracks running
across the three-day event:
Track 1: Planning and Infrastructure
for Sustainable Skyscraper Cities
Track 2: Best-Practice Urban and
Building Case Studies: Asia
Track 3: The Latest Design & Technical
Advances in Tall Buildings
The event is targeted at Building
Owners & Managers; Developers &
Contractors; Architects & Urban Planners;
Engineers (all disciplines); National &
Local Government Officials; Code &
Regulatory Authorities; Cost Consultants
& Surveyors; Funders, Insurers & Legal
Firms; Project/Construction Managers;
Fire & Life Safety Professionals; Elevator
Consultants/Suppliers; Transport,
Infrastructure & Landscape Companies;
Building Façade Design Firms; Material &
Building System Suppliers; Geotechnical/
Foundation Firms; Energy Companies;
NGO’s & Academics;
For more details, please contact:
CTBUH 2012 Registration
MCI Shanghai
Suite 2301, Wise Logic International Centre
66 North Shanxi Road
Shanghai 200041, China
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 Strength, bond and durability related
properties of concretes with mineral
admixtures
S. Bhaskar, Ravindra Gettu, B.H. Bharatkumar and M. Neelamegam
This paper reports the strength, bond and durability
related properties of concretes with fly ash and silica fume
as cement replacement materials (CRM). It includes
out pullout tests carried out following IS 2770 (Part-I)
and RILEM. While the durability properties obtained
were on the expected lines, the bond performance in
specimens with 30 percent fly ash and 10% silica fume
showed lower strengths, with 6 to 16% variations,
compared to the concretes of OPC alone. Nevertheless,
the bond stresses were higher than those recommended
by IS 456:2000.
Keywords: Admixture, fly ash, silica fume, pull-out test,
bond strength.
Introduction
Durability of concrete plays an important role in the
service life of RCC structures. It can be enhanced by
improving impermeability, resistance to chloride ion
diffusion and abrasion resistance. One of the ways to
achieving this is by adding superplasticisers and mineral
admixtures.1 Also, high performance concrete (HPC)
can be produced by minimising the water cement
ratio with the help of superplasticisers and carefully
selecting mineral admixtures such as fly ash, ground
granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), metakaolin and
silica fume.2,3 Many researchers have demonstrated the
beneficial effects of using GGBS and fly ash as CRMs
and obtained a reduction in the rate of penetration of
chloride ions into concrete reducing the potential of
chloride induced corrosion.4,5
The other aspect of this investigation – bond strength, is
an interfacial property between the steel and surrounding
concrete. It is essential for the efficient load transfer from
concrete to steel and vice versa. Gjorv et al conducted
pull-out tests to study the effect of condensed silica fume
(CSF) on the mechanical behaviour of the steel concrete
bond and reported that adding up to 16 percent CSF
by weight of cement showed an improving effect on
pull-out strength up to 76 MPa compressive strength.6
They explained the increase based on the reduced
accumulation of free water at the interface during
casting and densification of the transition zone due to
pozzolanic reaction between calcium hydroxide and
CSF. De larrard et al observed that bond strength in HPC
was higher than that in OPC concrete. They attributed
the increase to tensile strength and bar confinement
improvements in HPC.7 On the other hand, Hwang et al
reported that replacing cement with silica fume in their
HPC experiment decreased the bond strength.8 They
concluded that the presence of silica fume in concrete
was responsible for the loss of adhesion between
concrete and steel at the ribs. Galeota et al studied the
mechanical properties of high volume fly ash concretes
including the bond strength between steel and concrete.9
FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 
Table 1. Physical and engineering properties of raw Table 2. Chemical composition of Fly ash
materials Compound Percentage content
Physical Properties Cement Sand Aggregate SiO2 52.52
Specific gravity 3.15 2.67 2.68 Al2O3 32.63
Bulk density, kg/m3 - 1680 1600 Fe2O3 6.16
Fineness modulus - 2.78 6.81 CaO N.D
Initial setting time, minutes 110 - - MgO N.D
Final setting time, minutes 220 - - Na2O 0.02
Compressive strength of mortar 52.40 SO3 4.95
- -
cubes @ 28 days, N/mm2 MnO 0.03
K2O 0.11
Loss on ignition (LoI) 1.39
They demonstrated in 28 day cured specimens that
the average bond stress values decreased by about 25
percent compared to the reference concrete (without fly The water used was ordinary potable ground water. Fly
ash). Their test results also suggested that the adhesion ash was obtained from Ennore thermal power plant,
between steel and concrete in fly ash specimen was less Chennai and belonged to class-F. Table 2 presents the
than that of the OPC specimen. chemical analysis of fly ash. A well known brand of silica
fume was used. Its chemical and physical properties
Research significance are presented in Table 3.12 The polycarboxylate ether
based superplasticiser (SP) was used to get a slump of
Research reports on the effect of mineral admixtures on 80-150 mm. The superplasticiser complied with IS 9103
the fresh and long term properties of high performance requirements with specific gravity of 1.09 and solid
concrete are many, however, literature on the bond content of not less than 30%.
behaviour of rebars embedded in concrete containing
pozzolans such as fly ash and silica fume is scarce. In this investigation, concrete specimens with three types
From the environmental and sustainability point of of binders were studied; (i) OPC alone, (ii) OPF (OPC
view, there is a growing need to use supplementary with 30% fly ash as cement replacement material, CRM),
cementitious materials such as fly ash and silica fume and (iii) OPS (OPC with 10% silica fume as CRM). For
in RCC construction in India and world wide. The each specimen type, three water to binder (w/b) ratios
structural behaviour of reinforced concrete is affected were used viz. 0.55, 0.45 and 0.35. Thus, a total of 9
by several variables such as quality of raw materials, concrete specimens were prepared. ACI 211 guidelines
geometry of rebar, method of casting and compaction. were followed while proportioning the mixes.13 Table 4
The lack of sufficient information on the bond behaviour gives the quantities of materials per cubic metre.
of concretes with supplementary cementitious materials
necessitated the present study. This paper attempts to
evaluate the effect of locally available fly ash and silica
fume on the bond characteristics of deformed bars.
Experimental studies were conducted on different Table 3. Chemical and physical properties of silica
concretes made of OPC alone (OPC), OPC with 30 fume
percent fly ash (OPF) and OPC with 10 percent silica Compound Percentage content
fume as cement replacement material (CRM).10,11 SiO2 96.5
CaO 1.40
Fe2O3 0.15
Experimental details
MgO 0.20
Materials used Al2O3 0.15
The materials used in the study were cement (53 grade), K2O 0.04
fine aggregate (river sand passing through 4.75 mm), Na2O 0.20
coarse aggregate (crushed granite stone 60% passing Physical properties
through 20 mm and 40% passing through 12 mm), Specific gravity = 2.3
class-F fly ash, silica fume, superplasticiser and water. Bulk density = 225 kg/m3
Table 1 gives the properties of cement, sand and coarse Specific surface = 20,000 m2/kg
aggregate. Average particle size = 0.14 mm

10 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012

Table 4. Quantities per cubic meter (kg/m3)
No. Mix (w/b) Cement Fly ash Silica fume Sand Coarse aggregate Water
1 OPC (0.55) 300 - - 881 1056 165
2 OPC 0.45) 367 - - 824 1056 165
3 OPC (0.35) 471 - - 735 1056 165
4 OPF (0.55) 210 90 - 845 1056 165
5 OPF (0.45) 257 110 - 781 1056 165
6 OPF (0.35) 330 141 - 679 1056 165
7 OPS (0.55) 270 - 30 870 1056 165
8 OPS (0.45) 330 - 37 811 1056 165
9 OPS (0.35) 424 - 47 718 1056 165
w/b: water to binder ratio

Tests conducted removed from the mould and water cured for 28 days.
The main objective of the investigation was to understand The IS pull-out test specimen was a 150x150x150mm
the bond behaviour of deformed rebar in these concrete cube with a rebar cast vertically, conforming to
mixes. Tests were also performed to evaluate the IS 2770 and IS 1786. The RILEM test specimen was a
mechanical and durability properties using standard test 160x160x160mm cube with a rebar cast horizontally. The
specimens (150 x 150 x 150 mm cubes for compressive embedding length of the 16 mm diameters rebar was
strength, 100 x 100 x 500 mm prisms for flexural maintained at 80 mm in both IS and RILEM specimens.
strength, 150 diameter and 300 mm height cylinders for This facilitated the loading the specimen in a Universal
split tensile strength, 75 mm diameter 150 mm height Testing Machine (UTM) for measuring the free end slip.
cylinders for water absorption and 100 diameter and 200 In the BIS specimen, a 6 mm diameter mild steel rod
mm height cylinders for rapid chloride permeability). In was used as the transverse reinforcement with a pitch
addition. The ultrasonic pulse velocity test was carried of 25mm such that the outer diameter of helix (spirals)
out on the cubes specimens before testing them for was almost equal to the size of the cube ( Figure 1).15
compressive strength. Each end of the helix was welded to the next turn. Since,
RILEM pull-out moulds were readily not available in
For understanding the bond behaviour, two types of the market; they were prepared by following the RILEM
specimens are common in the literature; pull-out test specification (Figure 2).15,16
specimens and beam test specimens. Popular standard
pull-out test methods include the concentric pull-out A sleeve of PVC conduits with a diameter slightly higher
test methods specified in the American society for than that of the rebar ensured the correct bar embedment
testing materials (ASTM), Union of testing and research length, 80 mm, was in contact with the concrete.
laboratories for materials and structures (RILEM),
British standards (BS), Bureau of Indian standards (BIS
or IS) and Chinese Standard, The beam test methods
are specified by ASTM and RILEM.14 In this study, the
bond behaviour was studied using both BIS or IS 2770
and RILEM pull-out test specimens.15,16 Although pull-
out tests are controversial because concrete surrounding
the embedded steel bar is compressed during pull-
out, unlike the actual loading situations encountered
in service, especially in flexural members, several
researchers have used this tests for evaluating steel-
concrete bond characteristics.17, 18-21 Notwithstanding the
controversy surrounding the pull out tests, experimental
studies were carried out due to the simplicity of these
tests and for comparison of various specimens.

During casting, specimens were compacted using a

vibration table. After 24 hours, the specimens were

FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 11

 Result and discussion
Mechanical and durability tests
Compressive and flexural strength tests were carried
out on these specimens following IS 516. Split tensile
strength tests were also carried out. All the tests were
performed on three identical specimens and the average
is reported in Table 5. From the table, it can be found that
the average cube compressive strengths of the specimens
(OPC, OPF and OPS concretes with 0.55, 0.45 and 0.35
water to binder ratio) are ranging from 24 to 62 MPa. A
comparison of the strengths made at the same water to
binder ratio reveals that incorporating fly ash or silica
fume made little difference to the compressive strength.
The compressive strength was 3 to 7 percent lower in
OPF concretes and was up 9 percent in OPS concretes
compared to that of the reference OPC concretes. In
A 12 mm thick wooden plank with a 20 mm diameter addition, the results showed an increase in flexural
hole was used at the bottom of the IS pull-out mould and split tensile strength of ‘OPF’ and ‘OPS’ concretes
such that the rebar projected 10 mm from the mould over the corresponding OPC concretes . The increase in
bottom. Before starting to pour the concrete, the rebar flexural tensile strength was 6 to 10 percent in OPF and
was placed in the hole vertically and held firmly. 12 to 17 percent in OPS concretes.
After pouring a small quantity of concrete, the spiral
reinforcement was placed at the centre of the mould and The ultrasonic pulse velocities were recorded using the
then the pouring was completed Portable Ultrasonic Non-destructive Digital Indicating
Tester (PUNDIT) on the cubes before carrying out the
RILEM pull-out specimens were cast in the larger compressive strength test. The UPV values are also
moulds without providing any transverse reinforcement. presented in Table 5. It can be seen from this table that
A vibrating table ensured that the concrete was well the pulse velocity increased from 4.75 to 4.98 km/sec for
compacted. A wooden sheet 150x150mm with a 20mm OPC, 4.8 to 4.96 km/sec for OPF and 4.8 to 4.96 km/sec
diameter hole at centre was placed on the top of the for OPS concretes as the water to binder ratio decreased
mould to ensure verticality of the rebar. Specimens were from 0.55 to 0.35.
kept in the moulds for 24 hours before demoulding and
keeping them in water for 28 days for curing. For the water absorption test, cylinders of 75 diameter
and 150 mm height were cured, oven dried at 105 ±5 ºC
for 24 hours in order to evaporate the moisture in the
concrete and then weighed . Cooling the specimens for
24 h and then immersing them in water for 24 h gave
their saturated surface dry weights. The water absorption
Table 5. Mechanical properties of concrete mixtures at
28 day
No. Mix type Compressive Flexural Split UPV Table 6. Durability properties of concrete mixtures at
(w/b) strength, strength, tensile values, 28 day
MPa MPa strength, km/sec Water absorption, RCPT (Rating as per ASTM
MPa Mix type (w/b)
percent C 1202)
1 OPC (0.55) 25.9 4.1 2.0 4.75 OPC (0.55) 3.4 3000 (Moderate)
2 OPC (0.45) 41.3 4.7 2.5 4.80 OPC (0.45) 2.8 2600 (Moderate)
3 OPC (0.35) 58.8 5.1 3.2 4.98 OPC (0.35) 2.5 2100 (Moderate)
4 OPF (0.55) 24.1 4.5 2.6 4.80 OPF (0.55) 3.1 1600 (Low)
5 OPF (0.45) 40.2 5.0 3.2 4.90 OPF (0.45) 2.7 1300 (Low)
6 OPF (0.35) 57.0 5.4 3.8 4.94 OPF (0.35) 2.4 1100 (Low)
7 OPS (0.55) 28.2 4.7 2.8 4.80 OPS (0.55) 3.4 2100 (Moderate)
8 OPS (0.45) 41.0 5.3 3.4 4.91 OPS (0.45) 2.8 1800 (Low)
9 OPS (0.35) 62.0 6.0 4.1 4.96 OPS (0.35) 2.4 1500 (Low)

12 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012

(%) values thus obtained are presented in Table 6. It can
be seen from this table that water absorption decreased
from 3.4 percent to 2.5 percent in OPC, 3.1 percent to 2.4
percent in OPF and 3.4 to 2.4 percent in OPS concretes as
the water to binder ratio decreased from 0.55 to 0.35.
The rapid chloride ion penetration test (RCPT) was
conducted on concrete discs following ASTM C 1202.
Cylinders of 100 diameter 200 mm height were cut into
discs of 50 mm thickness. The specimens were subjected
to RCPT test by impressing 60 V. For this purpose, two
halves of the discs were sealed in PVC containers. One
side of the PVC container was filled with 3% NaCl
solution (cell will be connected to the negative terminal
of the power supply) and the other side was filled with
0.3N NaOH solution (connected to the positive terminal
of the power supply). Current was measured at every
30 minutes up to 6 h. From the results using current and
time, chloride permeability was calculated in terms of
Coulombs at the end of 6 h. Table 6 also shows the RCPT
results of all the mixes after 28 days of water curing.
From the table, it is clear that the chloride permeability
decreased significantly for concretes of OPF and OPS
series. The ranges of RCPT values for OPC, OPF and
OPS (for the water to binder ratios 0.55, 0.45 and 0.35)
were 3000-2100, 1600-1100 and 2100-1500 coulombs
respectively. Replacing cement with fly ash and silica
fume reduces the rapid chloride ion penetrability of
concrete from moderate to very low ratings.
Pull-out tests
Pull-out tests were conducted using a 200 kN Universal
Testing Machine. The test specimen was mounted such
that the bar was pulled axially from the cube. The pull-
out load was applied on the longer end of the rebar. A
dial gauge of 0.002 mm accuracy measured the free end
slip. Pull-out loads corresponding to the pre-defined free
end slips were recorded manually such that minimum
15 readings were recorded by the time the free end
slip reached 0.25 mm. Figures 3, 4 and 5 show the
average load - slip curves for BIS and RILEM specimens
using ‘OPC’, ‘OPF’ and ‘OPS’ concretes with water to
binder ratios 0.55, 0.45 and 0.35, respectively. These
figures show at initial slips, nearly a linear relationship
between load and slip. This near linearity was up to
60 to 70 percent of the ultimate load (stage I). Later, a
continuous slip with small increase in bond resistance is
observed (stage II). Thereafter a continuous decrease in
bond resistance with rapid increase in slip is observed
(stage III), as shown in Figure 4 for BIS-OPF. A simple
pull-out or bond-slip failure was observed for the all
the specimens.
The bond-slip failure could be due to the local crushing of
concrete in front of the bar ribs. Local crushing dominates
when the confinement provided by either surrounding
concrete or transverse reinforcement is large or the rib
height is small. Splitting of the concrete dominates when
the confinement is small or the rib height is large.22 The
FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 13
Table 7 Bond Stress Values of ‘OPC’, ‘OPF’ and ‘OPS’ Series at 0.025 mm and 0.25 mm slip
28 days average Bond stress, MPa, BIS specimens Bond stress, MPa, RILEM specimens
Mix (w/b) cube compressive
strength, MPa 0.025 mm 0.25 mm 0.025 mm 0.25 mm

OPC (0.55) 25.9 10.60 12.68 4.60 7.76

OPC (0.45) 41.3 13.52 16.32 5.60 9.70
OPC (0.35) 58.8 15.17 21.20 6.54 11.04
OPF (0.55) 24.1 9.20 11.44 5.10 08.26
OPF (0.45) 40.2 12.00 14.70 6.09 09.45
OPF (0.35) 57.0 13.60 19.20 7.21 10.73
OPS (0.55) 28.2 09.65 11.94 5.35 8.45
OPS (0.45) 42.0 11.44 14.61 5.72 8.95
OPS (0.35) 61.0 14.22 19.15 6.47 10.20

slope of the linear part of the average bond stress at free
end slip curve defines the initial tangent modulus.23
This slope also gives an idea about the stiffness of the
interface layers between concrete and steel. It can be
observed from Figures 3, 4 and 5 that the initial tangent
modulus in the RILEM tests is less than that in the BIS
tests. The minimum side-cover thickness available in
both RILEM and BIS specimens was 72 mm and 67mm
respectively. Though the minimum cover available
for RILEM pull-out specimen was more, the pull-out
resistance offered by BIS specimen was more. One of
the reasons could be the confinement effect due to the
presence of transverse helical reinforcement in BIS pull-
out test specimens. Figures 6 and 7 show the load - slip
curves of all concretes for BIS and RILEM specimens.
It can be observed from these figures that the stage II
effect is relatively more in ‘OPC’ concretes than in ‘OPF’
or ‘OPS’ concretes. Also, the ultimate bond resistance is
more in ‘OPC’ concretes.
Bond stresses are calculated from the applied loads on
the bar and the total bond surface area of the embedded
portion of the bar, thereby representing an average value
of stress along the bonded length of the bar. As per IS
specification, bond stresses corresponding to 0.025 mm
and 0.25 mm slips can be used for relative comparison.15
Even though RILEM does not specify the slip for
calculation of bond stress, for relative comparison in the
present investigation, 0.025 mm and 0.25 mm slips were
considered for both BIS and RILEM specimens. The test
results are given in Tables 7 and 8 for different grades
and type of concretes (‘OPC’ ‘OPF’ and ‘OPS’). It can be
seen from Table 7 that the average bond stress values
increases as the compressive strength increases. It can
also be seen that BIS pull-out test results in a higher bond
stress than the RILEM pull-out test. All the specimens
showed that the initial load slip behaviour was stiffer
and linear until the formation of micro cracks. Once the
micro cracks were formed due to pull-out load, the load
gradually increased and reached its peak. The stiffness
of the load-slip curve got reduced substantially and
finally the resistance offered continuously decreased
thus leading to bond-slip failure. Table 8 shows decrease
in bond stress in OPF and OPS specimens considering
the OPC specimens’ bond stress as the base value. The
variation range is about 6-16 percent at 0.025 mm slip
and about 6-10 percent at 0.25 mm for BIS specimens.
This reduction may be attributed to the loss of adhesion

14 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012

Table 8. Percentage decrease in bond stress over ‘OPC’ Table 9. Design bond stresses as per IS 456 [26]
concrete Grade of M40 and
M20 M25 M30 M35
BIS specimens RILEM specimens concrete above
No. Mix (w/b)
0.025 mm 0.25 mm 0.025 mm 0.25 mm Design bond
1.92 2.24 2.40 2.72 3.04
1 OPF 0.55) 13.2 9.8 (-) 10.9 (-) 6.4 stress, MPa
2 OPF (0.45) 11.2 9.9 (-) 8.9 2.6
3 OPF (0.35) 10.3 9.4 (-) 10.2 2.8
4 OPS (0.55) 9.0 5.8 (-) 16.3 (-) 8.9 to binder ratios were studied. Concretes with mineral
5 OPS (0.45) 15.4 10.5 (-) 2.1 7.7 admixtures showed better durability properties. The
6 OPS (0.35) 6.3 9.7 1.1 7.6 load-slip graphs of pull-out tests at initial slips show
a nearly linear relationship up to 60 to 70 percent of
the ultimate load for all the specimens of ‘OPC’, ‘OPF’
between steel and concrete due to the presence of fly ash and ‘OPS’ concretes. The bond strengths were obtained
and silica fume. following BIS and RILEM specifications. The former
gave a higher value than the latter, though the bonded
Treece and Jirsa recognised the importance of the friction length of the rebar was same.
component of the bond.24 In addition, Bilal and Maher
laid emphasis on these aspects.25 When the friction The increase in strength was about 2.3 to 2.4 times
between the concrete and the steel is lost, the only active for 0.025 mm slip and about 1.65 to 1.9 times for
component of bond is the bearing force perpendicular to 0.25 mm slip. The BIS bond stress of the of ‘OPF’
the face of the rib. The vertical component of the resultant and ‘OPS’ concretes was lower compared to the
bond force is the radial pressure that is controlled by ‘OPC’concretes both at 0.025 mm and 0.25 mm slips. The
the resistance of the concrete cover to splitting. The 28 days compressive strengths of ‘OPF’ concretes were
horizontal component is the effective bond strength. If slightly lower (3 to 7 percent) and ‘OPS’ concretes were
the resistance to splitting is the same, with friction and slightly higher (up to 9 percent) when compared to the
without friction, then the bar with no friction will have reference (‘OPC’) concrete for the respective water to
a smaller bond capacity. binder ratios. During the initial stages of slipping, the
pull-out resistance offered by the BIS specimen was more
In the case of fly ash or silica fume concretes, frictional than that offered by the RILEM specimen. This could be
component may be less, but, the radial pressure due to the presence of transverse reinforcement in BIS
component of the bond will be greater than that of specimen that offered more confinement (resistance) and
‘OPC’ concrete. Since, fly ash and silica fume increase delayed the initiation and propagation of micro cracks
durability and tensile strength of concrete as observed around the periphery of the rebar.
in the study, the resistance of the cover concrete to
splitting improves. The experimental results showed that for the selected
raw materials and mix proportions, the mechanical (such
However, RILEM specimens, showed a better bond as flexural and splitting tensile strengths) and durability
beahviour with ‘OPF’ and ‘OPS’ concretes than with properties (such as water absorption and Chloride ion
‘OPC’ specimens. The exact reason is not known. Further penetration) for OPF and OPS concretes improved, but
investigation at microscopic level is needed to explore the bond strengths were slightly lower compared to
the reasons. However, it should be noted that the bond ‘OPC’ concretes in the BIS pull out test. The decrease in
strength values obtained by using both BIS and RILEM bond stress at 0.025 mm slip was about 6-15 percent and
specimens of ‘OPF’ and ‘OPS’ concretes corresponding 0.25 mm is about 6-10 percent. The reduction in may be
to 0.025 mm slip were greater than the design bond due to loss of adhesion between steel and concrete at the
strengths required by IS 456.26 The IS 456 design bond ribs due to the presence of fly ash and silica fume. At
stresses for deformed bars are arrived at by increasing the same time, there was an improvement in durability
60% to the values reported in Clause 26.2.1.1 and are properties due the presence of fly ash and silica fume.
presented in Table 9. It was also observed that the RILEM specimens gave a
better bond behaviour with ‘OPF’ and ‘OPS’ concretes
Conclusion showing bond stress increase upto 16 percent at 0.025
The mechanical, durability and bond behaviour of rebars mm slip and up to 9 percent at 0.25 mm slip) compared
in concrete with different binders [OPC], OPC with fly to ‘OPC’ specimens. But the exact reason is not known.
ash [OPF] and OPC with silica fume [OPS] and water Further investigation is needed to explore the reasons

FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 15

at microscopic level. However, it should be noted that
the bond strengths obtained for both BIS and RILEM
specimens of ‘OPF’ and ‘OPS’ concretes corresponding
to 0.025 mm slip were greater than the design bond
strengths reported by IS 456.
Acknowledgement
This paper is published with the kind permission
of the Director, CSIR-SERC, Chennai. Authors also
acknowledge the assistance rendered by the technicians
of Advanced concrete testing & evaluation laboratory
(ACTEL), Advanced Materials Laboratory (AML) and
Structural Testing Laboratory (STL), Council of Scientific
and Industrial Research – Structural Engineering
Research Centre (CSIR-SERC).
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Cement and Concrete Research, 32(9), (2002), 1395-1405.
12. Product information sheets, Elkem materials, 2008.
13. ACI Committee 211.4R-93. Guide for selecting proportions for high-strength
concrete with Portland cement and fly ash, ACI Manual of Concrete Practice,
1996, Part 1, pp.211.4R-1 to 13.
14. Bhaskar S, Chellappan A, Prabakar J, and Srinivasan P, A review on ‘Different
bond test procedures and bond behaviour of rebars in concrete, SERC
Research Report No. MLP-12841-RR-02, September, 2007.
15. Indian Standard Methods of testing bond in reinforced concrete (Part I
Pullout test), IS: 2770-1967, Indian Standards Institution, New Delhi.
16. RILEM/CEB/FIP Recommendation, Bond test for reinforcing steel”,
Materials and Structures, 6(32), (1973), 97-105.
17. Chana PS, A test method to establish realistic bond stresses, Magazine of
Concrete Research, 42(151), (1990), 83-90.
18. Saraswathy V and Ha-Won Song, Improving the durability of concrete by
using inhibitors, Building and Environment, 42 (2007), 464-472.
16 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012
19. Saraswathy V and Ha-Won Song, Corrosion performance of rice husk ash
blended concrete, Construction and Building Materials, 21 (2007), 1779-1784.
20. Cairns J, and Abdullah R, An evaluation of bond pullout tests and their
relevance to structural performance, The Structural Engineer, 73 (11), (1995),
179-187.
21. Bhaskar S, Prabakar J, Srinivasan P and Chellappan A, Effect of rebar
corrosion on the behaviour of bond in reinforced concrete, The Indian Concrete
Journal, Vol. 80 (9), 2006, pp.19-23.
22. Ichinose T, Kamayana Y, Inoue Y and Bolander Jr JE, Size effect on bond
strength of deformed bars, Construction and Building Materials, 18, 2004,
549-558.
23. Mohamed A.H.A., and Yousef, M.A., “Bond slippage in reinforced
concrete flexural members-experimental investigation”, Journal of Structural
Engineering, SERC, 1988, 24, 4, 189-194.
24. Treece R.A., Jirsa J.O., “Bond strength of epoxy coated reinforcing bars”,
ACI Materials Journal, 1989, 86(2), 167-174.
25. Bilal S.H., Maher S.I., “Bond strength of reinforcement in high performance
concrete, The role of silica fume, casting position, and superplasticizer
dosage”, ACI Materials Journal, 1998, 95(5), 499-511.
26. _______ Indian Standard code of practice for plain and reinforced concrete
(Reaffirmed 2005) IS 456-2000, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
S. Bhaskar received his M.Tech (Structures)
from Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University,
Hyderabad. He is a Senior Scientist at CSIR-
Structural Engineering Research Centre (SERC)
Chennai. His areas of interest are strength and
durability of RCC structures, investigation and
condition assessment of RCC structures using
NDT techniques. Currently, he is working on the evaluation of
durability parameters and bond characteristics of concretes
with different admixtures.
Professor Ravindra Gettu holds a PhD degree
from Northwestern University, Evanston, USA.
He is Professor of Civil Engineering at IIT
Madras, Chennai. His areas of research interests
are the effective use of admixtures, fibre
reinforced concrete, self compacting concrete
and housing.
Dr. B.H. Bharatkumar holds a PhD degree
from Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. He
is a Principal Scientist at CSIR-SERC, Chennai.
His areas of interest are reinforced concrete,
concrete composites including fibre reinforced
concrete and repair and rehabilitation of concrete
structures. He is a member of many Committees
of Bureau of Indian Standards.
Dr. M. Neelamegam holds a PhD degree
from Nihon University, Japan on the topic
‘Development of advanced cementitious
composites with hybrid reinforcement’. He is a
former Chief Scientist and Head of ACTEL, CSIR-
SERC, Chennai. His research interests include
development of concrete composites, high
performance concrete, repair and retrofitting of concrete
structures and ultra high performance concrete.
 Harnessing f ly ash potential for
developing high strength and high
durability concrete
R.K. Dhir, M.J. McCarthy and J. Bai
This paper briefly describes a study undertaken to
evaluate the potential for developing high performance
concrete using fly ash. Three fly ashes of low lime content
(ASTM Class F) with a range of fineness were used,
together with silica fume for comparative purposes.
The results obtained show that provided it is of suitable
fineness (for pozzolanic reaction and minimising
voids within the cement paste system) and has low
water demand (for reducing the water/cement ratio of
concrete at a given cement content), fly ash can, on its
own, be used to produce high strength and durability
concrete. In addition, the quality of such a concrete can
be comparable to or better than that produced with the
more commonly used silica fume in this role. Where fly
ash is not sufficiently fine to fulfil the required criteria
of suitability indicated above, this can be compensated
by using a tertiary blend with up to five percent of silica
fume.
Keyword: Fly ash, silica fume, physical and chemical
characteristics, concrete, high performance, strength,
durability related properties.
Introduction
The concept of high performance concrete (HPC) in
terms of high strength (HSC) and/or high durability
(HDC), as we know it, is in itself not new. Many books
and technical papers have been written and conferences,
seminars and workshops held on this subject since the
early 1990’s.1,2 Indeed, in 1997 the Council of Scientific
and Industrial Research (CSIR), in implementing the
Government of India’s United Nations Development
Fund Umbrella Programme, organised an International
Workshop in order to promote HPC and its applications
in India. One of the authors (R. K. Dhir) was invited to
speak at this Workshop on trends towards a holistic
approach to material selection for HPC.3 Similarly, the
fundamentals of designing HPC are not new either
– they are aimed at, in the first place, selecting and
harnessing the potential of materials for making concrete
to optimise its performance, such as consistence (in
terms of slump), compressive strength, or durability (e.g.
resistance to chloride ingress). Ideally, HPC should also
be cost effective and routinely producible and useable.
However, it was not until the use of chemical
superplasticisers (SPs), designed to reduce considerably
the water demand of concrete mixes, became routinely
accepted, that HPC came into vogue. Indeed, the
application of SP is an essential requirement for
designing HPC as it allows control of the water content
and, thereby, manipulation of cement paste quality in
a concrete mix. For example, by:
1. Reducing concrete mix water content whilst
maintaining its consistence (workability). This
will lower the water/cement (W/C) ratio of a mix
FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 17
Table 1. Characteristics of the cementitious materials Prior to Option 2 being considered and becoming
used possible, silica fume (SF) was commonly associated with
Properties Cementitious materials HPC (particularly for durability). Clearly, there is no
PC FA-1* FFA-1 FFA-2 SF reason why other fine pozzolanic materials such as fly
(a) Physical Properties
ash and ground granulated blastfurnace slag could not
be considered for such applications. Indeed, the limited
Density (g/cm3) 2.99 2.14 2.20 2.31 2.20
amount of work that has been reported since the early
Fineness 45 mm retention 1990’s suggests that fine fly ash can potentially be used
— 5.9 1.0 0 0
(%)
for producing HPC, particularly when such materials,
Fineness Blaine (cm2/g) 3550 4285 5345 5600 200000 unlike SF, on their own are likely to lower the water
Fineness PSD (cm /g) 2
4450 5625 8285 10370 20900 demand of concrete.4-9
Setting time (hr:mm) 02:05 02:25 02:16 02:41 —
LOI (%) — 2.08 2.21 0.44 2.29
This paper reports briefly a study undertaken to establish
the potential for using fine fly ash (FFA) in developing
Particle Size Distribution (Laser diffraction particle size analyser,
see also Figure 1)
HPC mixes in terms of strength and durability, in
comparison to more commonly used materials, such
D90 ( µm) 34.24 47.22 25.38 12.71 22.29
as SF.
D50 ( mm) 12.38 14.07 6.92 4.25 1.05
D10 ( mm) 1.64 1.85 1.18 0.99 0.55 Experimental programme
(b) Water requirement and reactivity
Materials
Water requirement, % 100 91 89 84 —
Three fly ashes, FA-1, FFA-1 and FFA-2 were used,
Strength factor, % 100 81 88 100 — one was of normal fineness (FA-1) complying with
Activity index, % 100 83 91 106 — specifications such as BS EN 450: Type S and the other
(c) Chemical compositions (%) two (FFA-1 and FFA-2) were fine fly ashes. Whilst fine
CaO 62.70 7.19 4.41 2.46 0.81 fly ash FFA-1 was from the same source as FA-1, FFA-2
was from a different source. All three fly ashes were of
SiO2 21.32 51.22 50.32 46.38 95.51
low lime content (ASTM, Class F), with the two fine fly
Al2O3 5.86 27.30 31.78 29.82 0.76 ashes showing some differences in morphology.
Fe2O3 3.62 3.60 3.56 5.96 0.25
MgO 2.39 1.35 1.13 0.879 0.64 SF, which is normally used for producing HPC, was
MnO 0.10 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.04 included for comparison. The physical and chemical
characteristics of these materials are given in Table 1
TiO2 0.32 1.38 1.53 1.48 0.00
and Figure 1.
K2O 0.70 1.55 1.24 1.22 0.86
Na2O 0.21 0.58 0.32 0.24 0.34 The coarse aggregates used were natural gravel in two
SO3 2.99 0.46 0.46 0.59 1.22 fractions, having maximum sizes of 20 and 10 mm and
(d) Mineralogical component
conforming to BS EN 12620. They were combined in the
ratio of 2 to 1. The fine aggregate was a natural sand of
Amorphous, % 7.3 63.0 53.1 66.3 <100
medium grade, also in accordance with BS EN 12620.
* to BS EN 450 (Type S)
The SP used to control the consistence of concrete mixes
and thereby improve the quality of cement paste conformed to BS EN 934-2.
(i.e. its porosity and thereby its impermiability)
leading to enhanced resistance of concrete to the Concrete mix design: The basics
ingress of harmful species. For a given exposure, concrete is designed for a specified
strength for structural requirements and consistence
2. Allowing the use of fine fillers/additions, such as (workability) for its placing and compaction into
ground limestone (inert material) and fine fly ash formwork. Whilst strength is a function of W/C ratio,
(reactive pozzolanic material), to improve cement workability, depending upon its intrinsic water demand,
paste quality by enhancing its particle packing is achieved by varying the water content of a concrete mix.
density, without having to increase mix water Although often not generally appreciated, the quantity
content and thereby its W/C ratio, which would of water used, for a given W/C ratio, plays an important
negate the benefits achieved.

18 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012

role in controlling the level of performance concrete • The consistence of concrete, measured as slump,
achieves (improving as the water content is reduced).10 increased with the level of FFA for both fine fly
Along with this, minimising voids in a concrete system ashes.
is an essential requirement for improving performance
• At 20% addition, the increase in slump with the
in both the fresh (consistence and stability) and hardened
two fine fly ashes (FFA-1 and FFA-2) was greater
(strength and durability) states.
than the corresponding increase with normal fly
ash FA-1 to BS EN 450: Type S.
Fresh concrete
• The consistence of concrete with fine fly ash
It is commonly acknowledged that, in addition to its
FFA-2 was approximately twice that obtained
pozzolanic nature and ability to refine particle packing,
with fine fly ash FFA-1, at all levels of addition,
the use of fly ash in concrete can reduce its water demand
from 5 to 20%.
(and this is suggested for the fly ashes in Table 1 (cf water
requirement). In the study undertaken, water demand
was measured for concrete using the slump test as To visualise the potential impact of this improved
described in BS EN 12350: Part 2. The results obtained, consistence with fine fly ashes, a set of mixes were
with a fixed amount of water at 160 l/m3 and SP dosage designed with constant cement content (400 kg/m3)
at 0.25% by mass of cement, required to produce the and SP dosage (0.25% by mass of cement) as before, but
corresponding concrete mix with silica fume having a
slump of 50 mm, are shown plotted in Figure 2(a). From
this it can be seen that:

FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 19

in this case, for each mix the slump was kept constant
at 50 mm by controlling the water content. The water
demands of the mixes thus established are shown plotted
in Figure 2(b), from which the following observations
can be made:
• The water demand of mixes reduced with
increasing fine fly ash addition level, with
considerably higher water reductions being
achieved with FFA-2 than FFA-1.
• The fine fly ashes (FFAs) were more effective in
reducing the water demand of concrete mixes
than fly ash FA-1 to BS EN450.
20 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012
The practical implications of the results shown in Figure
2(b), are that unlike SF, which essentially requires the
use of SP to achieve the design slump of concrete, fly
ashes can in fact improve the mix consistence. Therefore,
for a given slump, and in addition to its contribution
to pozzolanic reactions and particle packing, fly ash
can offer the possibility of reducing water content,
thus leading to further improvements in the quality of
concrete.
The other point of interest that emerges from these
results is that all fine fly ashes were not equally effective
and in this case the superior performance of FFA-2
compared to FFA-1 is due to its better particle shape,
surface texture and greater fineness compared to FFA-1
(Figure 1).
In summary, given the results of Figure 2, it follows that
fine fly ashes can potentially be suited to producing HPC
and that this will vary with their ability to effect water
reduction in a concrete.
Hardened concrete
All tests were carried out on concrete mixes having a
total cement content of 400 kg/m3 and equal SP dose of
0.25% by mass of cement. A constant slump of 50 mm
was maintained by adjusting the water content and
hence the W/C ratio varied. It should be noted that as
the SP dose at 0.25% was fixed with 160 l/m3 of water
for the PC mix, modifications to water content were only
required for the mixes with additions. Concretes were
cured in water at 20oC until testing.
Development of strength
Specimens in the form of 100 mm concrete cubes were
tested for strength in accordance with BS EN 12390 at
ages of 3, 7, 28, 60 and 90 days, for the combinations
indicated below, and the results obtained are shown
plotted in Figures 3 and 4.
1. FA-1 at a level of 20%
2. FFA-1 and FFA-2 at levels of 5, 10, 15, 20%
3. SF at levels of 5 and 10%
It should be noted that as the test mixes having equal
consistence were produced by varying water contents,
the results obtained reflect a combined effect of material
reactivity and mix water demand, and thereby the
resulting W/C ratio. From the results obtained, it can
be seen that:
1. Contrary to the commonly held belief, fly ash
FA-1 to BS EN 450: Type S developed comparable
strengths to the corresponding PC mixes at all
ages (Figure 3d).
2. Concrete mixes with fine fly ash FFA-1 developed
higher strengths than the corresponding PC
mixes, with the difference increasing with fly

Table 2. Other property comparisons for fly ash and SF concretes at equal consistence
Properties
2 2 -17
ISAT10, ml/m / kint, m ×10 ASTM chloride, 8 Weeks 12 Weeks
s×102 coulombs carbonation, mm shrinkage, %
PC at w/c=0.40 35.5 3.6 Moderate 5.4 0.053
5% Replacement (Addition) Level
FFA-1, 5% at w/c=0.394 30.5 1.8 Moderate 5.3 0.058

SF 5% at w/c=0.413 31.5 1.1 Low 4.5 0.055

FFA-2, 5% at w/c=0.368 29.5 1.6 Moderate 4.0 0.055

10% (Replacement) addition Level
FFA-1, 10% at w/c=0.388 29.0 1.2 Moderate 5.3 0.058

SF 10% at w/c=0.425 31.0 0.9 Low 9.4 0.054

FFA-2, 10% at w/c=0.350 28.0 0.9 Low 3.5 0.055

15% (Replacement) addition Level
FFA-1, 15% at w/c=0.381 30.5 1.2 Low 5.9 0.056

FFA-2, 15% at w/c=0.345 30.0 1.0 Low 4.4 0.054

20% Replacement (addition) Level
FFA-1, 20% at w/c=0.375 32.5 1.3 Low 6.9 0.055

FA-1, 20% [EN450] at w/c=0.388 37.2 1.9 Moderate 8.7 0.056

FFA-2, 20% at w/c=0.338 32.0 1.2 Low 5.6 0.054

FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 21

 ash level. Although at the 5% level it developed
lower strength than the corresponding SF mixes,
at 10%, the two sets of strengths were generally
comparable.
3. Fine fly ash FFA-2 gave clearly the best performance
and at both levels developed strength greater than
the corresponding SF mixes, with differences
increasing with replacement level.
Drying shrinkage
Drying shrinkage results of concrete mixes exposed to
conditions of 20oC and 55% relative humidity, for up to
12 weeks, are given in Table 2. As can be seen, drying
shrinkage values of the concretes were essentially
similar for the various cement combinations used in
the study.
Initial surface absorption (ISA)
The ISA tests at 10 minutes (ISAT-10) were performed
at 28 days on 150 mm cubes using the method described
in BS 1881: Part 208 (with oven drying at 105oC) and the
results obtained are given in Table 2 and shown plotted
in Figure 5. It can be seen that:
Air permeability
Air permeability (k int) measurements give a better
indication of the structure of concrete. The test was
performed at 28 days, using the method developed by
Dhir et al during the late 1980’s and the results obtained
are given in Table 2 and shown plotted in Figure 6.11 It
can be seen that:
• Concrete made with fly ash FA-1 at 20%
replacement level had an air permeability value
that was about half that of PC concrete. All other
measurements were lower than that of concrete
made with this fly ash.
• At all levels of addition, FFA-2 performed slightly
better than FFA-1.
• The optimum effect of fine fly ashes was achieved
with 10% addition (as for ISA) and at this level
FFA-2 performed similarly to SF, with both
materials achieving the lowest air permeability
value of about 0.9 m2x 10-17.

• Concrete made with fly ash FA-1 to BS EN 450:

Type S at 20% had an essentially similar ISAT-10
value to PC concrete.
• Concrete made with both fine fly ashes performed
slightly better than the corresponding SF mixes,
with those made with FFA-2 marginally lower
than FFA-1.
• 10% addition of fine fly ash was the optimum level
for ISA of concrete.

22 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012

FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 23
Rapid chloride permeability
Chloride ingress was assessed using the rapid chloride
permeability test, RCPT, in accordance with ASTM C
1202. Although recognised by the authors as having
limitations as a research tool, this test was adopted in
the study because of its short duration.
The results given in Table 2 indicate that FFA-2 had
a ‘Low’ rating from 10% addition, while this was
achieved for FFA-1 at 15%. SF was ‘Low’ from the 5%
addition level, while FA-1 was ‘Moderate’ at 20%. A
similar rating of ‘Low’ was also noted for FFA-2 and SF
concretes at the 10% addition level. The tests, therefore,
suggest that improved chloride resistance is achieved
both with finer materials and increasing levels used in
concrete. The rapid nature of the test, however, means
that the chemical properties of fly ash, which contribute
to the chloride resistance of concrete are unlikely to be
reflected in the test results.12,13 Clearly, this is an area
that would benefit from further investigation using
longer-term tests.
Carbonation resistance
The carbonation results obtained at 8 weeks using an
accelerated test method developed by Dhir et al in the
mid-1980’s are given in Table 2.14 It can be seen that
these were lower for concrete made with fine fly ash
than corresponding concrete with fly ash to BS EN450,
as well as SF, and between the two fine fly ashes FFA-2
performed somewhat better than FFA-1.
Effect of SF on FFA-1 binary cement
combination
Of the two fine fly ashes, FFA-1 was generally found to
be less effective than FFA-2, which performed as well as
or better than SF. To further enhance the performance of
fine fly ashes, where required, it was decided to study the
effect of introducing SF into a binary cement combination
of PC/FFA-1. This combination was chosen because of
its poorer performance compared with FFA-2.
The data from the study suggest that best results may be
obtained with concrete containing FFA-1 between 15 to
20% and, therefore, it was decided to select these levels
as a reference and to include SF to give tertiary blends.
In each case, the cement content was kept at 400 kg/m3,
with the SP dosage at 0.25% and consistence at 50 mm
slump (therefore the water content was allowed to vary
in each mix).
The results obtained are shown plotted in Figure 7,
where comparisons are made with those obtained for
24 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012
FFA-2 at the 10% addition level, considered to give
optimum performance. From an examination of Figure 7,
it can be seen that, in general terms, the performance of
FFA-1 could be further improved by using about 5% SF in
combination with FFA-1 at the 15 or 20 % addition levels.
Overall, including cost considerations, the combination
of FFA-1 at 10%, with SF at 5% (i.e. 15% addition level)
could be considered the optimum tertiary blend.
Conclusions
1. Processing fly ash to greater fineness than the BS
EN 450 specification will make it more effective
in improving the performance of concrete, but
the magnitude of this effect will be determined
by the physical and chemical characteristics of the
material. This is supported by test results obtained
for two fine fly ashes tested, where fine fly ash
FFA-2 was found to be of better quality (Table 1)
and accordingly produced concrete with better
performance than fine fly ash FFA-1.
2. Notwithstanding the above, the results show that
fine fly ash FFA-1 is a better quality material than
the corresponding BS EN 450 fly ash from the
same source and as such FFA-1 can be used to
produce concrete of high performance quality.
3. Fine fly ashes of quality similar to that of
FFA-2, have potential for producing HPC, both in
terms of its strength and durability, comparable
to or better than that produced with SF, thereby
offering an alternative material for this type of
application.
4. When used at higher addition levels in combination
with 5% SF, fine fly ash of FFA-1 (lower quality
than FFA-2) could also be used to produce HPC
of quality comparable to that produced with SF.
This concept of tertiary (triple) blend cement is
well suited for the production of HPC.
References
1. Shah S P And Ahmed S H. High Performance Concrete. New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1994.
2. Jones M R, Mccarthy M J And Dhir R K. Chloride resistant concrete. Concrete
2000: Economic and Durable Construction through Excellence, E & F N Spon,
Ed. R K Dhir and M R Jones, 1993, pp.1429-1444.
3. Dhir R K. Towards a holistic approach to material selection for high
performance Concrete. Proc. TCDC Int. Workshop on Advances in High
Performance Concrete Technology and its Applications, 1997, pp I 1-18.
4. Butler, W B. Superfine fly ash in high strength concrete. Concrete 2000, Eds.
R K Dhir and M R Jones, 1993, pp 1825-1831.
5. Cornelissen H A W., Hellewaard R E. And Vissens, J L J. Processed fly ash
for high performance concrete, CANMET/ACI Conference, Wisconsin,
USA, 1995,pp 67‑81
6. Dhir R K., Jones, M R And Booth, A P J. Feasibility of Processing PFA to
Improve It’s Quality for Use in Concrete, Internal Report, University of
Dundee, 1998, 321 pp
7. Seedat E Y. A surfine pozzolanic class F fly ash for superior concrete, Ash
Resources, South Africa, 2000, 16 pp.
8. Haque M N And Kayali O. Properties of high strength using fine fly ash,
Cement and Concrete Research, 28(10), 1998, pp 445-1452.
9. Matsufuji U. Study on properties of concrete with ultrafine particles produced
from fly ash silica fume, slag and natural pozzolans in concrete, Proc. Int.
4th Conference, Istanbul, Turkey, 1992, ACI SP-132, pp351-365.
10. Dhir R K, Tittle P.A.J. And Mccarthy M J. Role of cement content in
specifications for durability – A review, Concrete, Nov/Dec 2000, pp 68-
76.
11. Dhir, R K., Hewlett, P C & Chan, Y N. Near surface characteristics of concrete:
Intrinsic permeability. Magazine of Concrete Research, 41 (147), June 1989,
pp 87‑97. Discussion 42 (152), 1990, pp 187-188, 1990
12. Dhir, R K, Mccarthy, M J & Jones, M R Cement Additions. Concrete
Production and Performance in Aggressive Environments. Keynote Paper.
Proceedings of International Conference, Concrete in Hot and Aggressive
Environments, Bahrain, 27-29November 2006.
13. Dhir R K. Specifying concrete durability: Are we getting there? Proc. Joint
Symposium on Concrete and Bridge Research in Ireland, Eds.E.Cannon, R.
West and P. Fanning, National University of Ireland, Galaway, December,
2008, pp 3-14.
14. Dhir, R K., Jones, M R & Munday, J G L. A practical approach to studying
carbonation of concrete. Concrete 19 (1), October, pp 32-34, 1985.
Dr. J. Bai obtained his PhD in Concrete Technology
and Construction from University of Dundee, UK. He is
a Senior Lecturer at the University of Glamorgan, UK.
His areas of interest are concrete science, technology
and construction, involving pozzolanic materials,
particularly those derived from waste/recycled
products, development of thermal mass and energy
efficient materials for innovative applications, low-cost/
low-energy cements from waste such as wastepaper sludge ash and
its potential applications, high performance fly ash and metakaolin
concrete, artificial intelligence with applications in modelling and
simulation of performance of concrete materials and structures and
specifying concrete in performance terms using expert system and
neural networks. He is an active committee member (Wales Region)
of Concrete Society UK and American Concrete Institute, serving
on the ACI Committees: Concrete with Recycled Materials and
Sustainability of Concrete.

Professor R.K. Dhir OBE, who received BSc (Applied

Science) and PhD from University of Durham and
Sheffield UK, has specialised in fly ash since the
What is your opinion?
1970’s and has been Principal Investigator to 40
research projects, covering many areas such as fly
ash characterisation, standards, processing (in its
fresh, condition, landfill, lagoon and co-combustion
state) and further its use in concrete, mortar and
geotechnical applications. He is Director of Applying Concrete
Knowledge, Emeritus Professor, University of Dundee UK and Adjunct
Professor, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland. His research interests
cover areas, such as cement additions/fillers, sustainability (including
the development of low energy/low emission cements and reduced
cement content concrete mixes), recycling/ reuse of materials and
durability of concrete under different exposures. He is the founding
Director of Concrete Technology Unit which he established in 1988
and developed it into an internationally acknowledged Centre of
Excellence. His approach to research is visionary and creative and
by working with industry he ensures dissemination of his research
into practice. He also led the establishment of extensive Outreach
Programme, Centre for the Development of SMEs in Construction
Industry, Knowledge Transfer Partnerships, UK/Far East Collaborative
Concrete Research. He has won many awards and honours, including
the Order of the British Empire, DTI Secretary of State Awards,
Beacon Award from Environmental Fun and Honorary Fellowships of
Institute of Concrete Technology and Indian Concrete Institute. He
has been President of Concrete Society UK in 2009/10 and is member
of several technical committees, including Advisory Editorial Board of
the Magazine of Concrete Research. He has published 2 Books, 57
Conference Proceedings, and 396 Papers and supervised 79 PhD and
39 MSc research theses and 70 MSc Dissertations.
Do you wish to share your thoughts / views
Dr. M.J. McCarthy received his Bachelor’s degree and regarding the prevalent construction practices in
PhD from the University of Dundee, UK. Presently, he
is a Senior Lecturer in the Concrete Technology Unit, the construction industry with our readers?
Division of Civil Engineering at the same University. His
areas of interests are fly ash including soil stabilisation, If yes, The Indian Concrete Journal gives a
grout, use of concrete through investigations on chance to the engineering fraternity to express
coarse, high addition level, conditioned/lagoon and
co-combustion fly ash, recovery and processing of fly their views in its columns.
ash after long-term storage, production from modern combustion
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FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 25

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 Repair and Rehabilitation
Performance evaluation of concrete I - Girder of a bridge
R.K. Morchhale, S.S. Waghmare, M.D. Goel and S. Murali
This paper presents a performance evaluation case
study of a girder based on ultrasonic pulse velocity
measurements. The exercise was undertaken to assess
the uniformity and integrity of a concrete I-girder of
Bridge no 135/4 on Bhopal-Jabalpur section of the
National Highway 12. The findings from the field
work and the procedure recommended for repair and
rehabilitation are reported.
Introduction
Among the several non-destructive tests (NDT) available
to estimate the in-situ strength of concrete in bridge
structures, the rebound hammer (RH) and the ultrasonic
pulse velocity (UPV) measurements are popular ones
and recommended in the code of practice as well.1
However, the impact energy used in the rebound
hammer test is relatively small; so the test indicates
the quality of concrete only near the surface. On the
other hand, in the ultrasonic pulse velocity test, the
velocity is influenced by those properties of concrete
which determine its elastic stiffness and mechanical
strength. The variations obtained in a set of pulse
velocity measurements made along different paths in a
structure reflect a corresponding variation in the state of
the concrete. When a region of low compaction, voids or
damaged material is present in the concrete under test, a
corresponding reduction in the calculated pulse velocity
occurs and this enables the approximate extent of the
imperfections to be determined. As concrete matures
or deteriorates, the changes, which occur with time
in its structure, are reflected in either an increase or a
decrease, in the pulse velocity. This enables changes to
be monitored by making tests at appropriate intervals.
In other words, UPV gives more realistic results to check
the uniformity of concrete and for monitoring changes in
concrete with time than the rebound hammer.2 Another
reason that makes the UPV measurement popular is its
simplicity and cost effectiveness.3 In view of above, this
test was chosen to evaluate the quality of in-situ concrete
of the I-girder of a concrete bridge on NH12. This
paper highlights the findings of the field investigation
and describes the procedure recommended for crack
repairing and bridge rehabilitation works.
Description of the structure
The UPV investigation was carried out on a concrete I-
girder of Bridge No.135/4, span-1 of Bhopal – Jabalpur
highway (NH-12) from Jabalpur end on the central
span of 13.2 m. Figure 1 shows the photographic view
of the bridge. The rehabilitation of this bridge across
Karriya nallah at Km 135/4 was carried out by Public
Welfare Department, National Highway, Sub-division,
Bareli during 2006-07. The concrete I-girder under
investigation was divided width-wise into 66 segments
of 200 mm each for covering the entire the central internal
FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 27
 Repair and Rehabilitation

portion of 13.2 m. To investigate the concrete condition at

bottom of the flange, the ball headed hammer was used
to hit at the bottom. This exercise revealed the very poor
concrete condition with inadequate cover and exposed of
reinforcement bars as shown in Figure 2. Continuing the
investigation, the web and the bottom flange of I-girder
were diagnosed using the UPV test.
Methodology
The principal advantages of ultrasonic pulse velocity
measurement are its non-destructive nature and speed
of testing, that reflect the interior properties of a body
of concrete.
The technique is valuable where a large number of
readings are required for assessing the uniformity of
hardened concrete.4 It measures the velocity of ultrasonic
pulses of longitudinal vibration passing through
hardened concrete and uses them for understanding the
homogeneity of the concrete, presence of cracks, voids
and other imperfections. Changes in the structure of the
concrete, relative quality of concrete and dynamic elastic
modulus of the concrete are also determined using this
technique.5-7
V = L/T
Where, L is the path length (mm) and T is the time taken
by the pulse to transverse the given length (µs).
The principle for assessing the quality of concrete is such
that comparatively higher velocities are obtained when
the quality of concrete in terms of density, homogeneity
and uniformity is good. In the case of poorer quality,
lower velocities are obtained. If there is a crack, a void
or a flaw inside the concrete which comes in the way of
pulse transmission, then the pulse passes around the
discontinuity taking a longer path. In the process its
strength is attenuated. Consequently, lower velocities
are obtained. The actual pulse velocity depends
primarily upon the materials and the mix proportions
of concrete. Density and modulus of elasticity of
aggregates also significantly affect the pulse velocity.11

The ultrasonic pulse is generated by an electro acoustical

transducer. When the pulse is induced into the concrete
from a transducer, it undergoes multiple reflections at
the boundaries of the different material phases within
the concrete. A complex system of stress waves are
developed, which includes longitudinal (compression),
shear (transverse) and surface (relight) waves. The
receiving transducer detects the onset of the longitudinal
waves, which is the fastest.8-10

The pulse velocity V (in km/s) is given by

28 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012

 Repair and Rehabilitation
Once the velocity is determined, an idea about quality,
uniformity, condition and strength of concrete tested
can be developed.12
There are three basic ways in which the UPV transducers
can be arranged:
• Direct Transmission: Placement of transducer
and receiver on the opposite faces of the concrete
member.
• Semi-direct Transmission: Placement of transducer
and receiver on adjacent faces of the concrete
member.
• Indirect Transmission: Placement of transducer
and receiver on the same face of the concrete
member.
Whenever possible, the direct transmission arrangement
should be used because in this arrangement, the transfer
of energy between transducers is maximum. The accuracy
of velocity determination is governed principally by the
accuracy of the path length measurement. The semi-
Table 1. Pulse criteria for quality grading of concrete
Pulse velocity (km/s) Quality of concrete
Above 4.5 Excellent
3.5 to 4.5 Good
3.0 to 3.5 Medium
Below 3.0 Doubtful
direct arrangement can be used
satisfactorily, if the angle between
the transducers is low, and the path
length is not large. The indirect
transmission is the least satisfactory
arrangement, because the received
signal amplitude may be less than
3% of that for a comparable direct
transmission. The received signal
is dependent upon scattering of
the pulse by discontinuities and is
subjected to errors.
The UPV technique requires an
adequate acoustical coupling between
the concrete and the faces of each
transducer. To ensure this a thin
layer of a coupling medium such
as petroleum jelly, grease, soft soap
or kaolin-glycerol paste is applied
to the transducers. The surface
roughness of the concrete should be
removed by smoothening and levelling it before placing
the transducers because UPV values may be affected
by surface texture. Other parameters that affect the
measurement include moisture content, temperature,
specimen size, reinforcement and stress. Table 1 presents
the classification of concrete quality based on pulse
velocity as given in BIS 13311 (part-1): 1992.
Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) test is basically a
wave propagation test and consists of transmitting
ultrasonic pulses of 50-60 KHz frequency through a
concrete medium and measuring the travel time of
ultrasonic pulses for a known or measured length. The
length divided by time gives the velocity, which can be
correlated to the quality of concrete.
For each member, the statistical parameters, such as,
the number of readings, minimum velocity, maximum
velocity, mean velocity, standard deviation and
characteristic velocity corresponding to 90 percent
confidence limit are calculated as:
Vck = Mean – 1.64 x SD
where Vck is characteristic velocity and SD = standard
deviation.
Field measurement
The UPV testing was carried out in a systematic manner
by divided the central internal portion of 13.2m length
of concrete I-girder of bridge number 135/4 span No. 1
FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 29
 Repair and Rehabilitation

Table 3. The quality of concrete as per pulse criteria

ranges
S. Structural Total Number of locations
No Members locations Doubtful Medium Good Excellent
1 Web 313 212 90 11 0
2 Flange 111 108 3 0 0
Overall
3 (Web + 424 320 93 11 0
Flange)

than 3 km/s) and high coefficient of variation, (19.99 and

into well defined grid of 200mm in both directions. The
web as well as bottom flange of concrete I-girder were
diagnosed by the direct transmission technique. The
measurements of transmit time, T, were made at each
grid points and the velocities, V, were calculated by
dividing the thickness or path length, L, of the member
by transit time. To obtain a steady and stable reading, the
surface of the concrete at each grid point was thoroughly
cleaned and smoothened and a small quantity of grease
was applied at the test locations in order to obtain the
perfect acoustic coupling. When the reading obtained in
the instrument remained steady, it was recorded. It was
ensured that the points of measurement were exactly
opposite to each other. The UPV testing was carried
out by using the portable ultrasonic non-destructive
digital indicating tester (PUNDIT). Figure 3 shows the
test in progress and Figure 4 shows the arrangement for
transducer placement.
Discussion of test results
Table 2 presents the statistical analysis of the UPV data
and Figure 5 shows the corresponding histogram. The
quality classification of concrete following BIS 13311
(Part-1): 1992 is presented in Table 3.
The mean velocity in the web, flange and overall of
concrete I-girder was 2.74 km/s, 1.32 km/s and 2.37
km/s respectively. The low characteristic velocity (less
51.05 for the data from the web and flange respectively)
reveal the quality of concrete was very poor to doubtful.
The UPV of less than 3.0 km/s existed in 67% of the web
portion , 97% of the flange portion and 75% overall of
concrete I-girder .
The UPV between 3 to 3.50 km/s indicates satisfactory
concrete quality but points to loss of integrity due to
the presence of minor voids and cracking in concrete.
The web, flange and overall concrete I-girder test spots
registering this velocity-range were 29%, 3% and 22%
respectively.
The locations with the UPV of less than 3.5 km/s
indicating doubtful to medium quality of concrete
were marked for repairs to improve the integrity of
concrete.
Further, the targeted concrete I-girder was inspected
visually. This examination revealed multiple cracks
and honeycombing patches at the central portion
which were responsible for sagging of the I-girder. To
improve the service life of the girder, it was proposed
that all-visible cracks must be repaired using proper
techniques. In addition, epoxy injection and cement
pressure grouting were recommended for filling the
hollowness, honeycomb and cracks.
Repair proposals
Dormant cracks’ with width ranging from 0.05 mm or
less (crazing) to 5 mm or more, that are not likely to move
further, have traditionally been filled by cleaning them

Table 2. Statical analysis of ultrasonic investigation of Concrete I-Girder

No. of Ultrasonic pulse velocity (km/s) Standard Coefficient
No. Structural Members Vck (km/s)
points Min. Max. Mean deviation of variation
1 Web 313 0.33 3.96 2.74 0.55 19.99 1.84
2 Flange 111 0.54 3.44 1.32 0.68 51.05 0.2
Overall
3 424 0.33 3.96 2.37 0.85 36.06 0.98
(Web + Flange)

30 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012

 Repair and Rehabilitation
and then sealing them with epoxy resin or cement grout.
Live cracks, those judged to be still moving must be
sealed with a flexible material which can accommodated
the movement in the crack. For live cracks, a wide variety
of materials are available including polyurethane resins,
acrylic gel and flexible epoxy resin.
Epoxy injection
For repairing small cracks of 0.05 to 2 mm width, an
epoxy injection under pressure is suitable. because it’s
tensile and compressive strengths are greater than those
of the concrete. Epoxy materials used for structural
repairs should conform to ASTM C881 Type-VI. 13
Crack repairing should be done following the American
Concrete Institute Committee report ACI 224.1R-93.
The following steps are recommended for repairing
small cracks using epoxy injection.
1. Clean the cracks thoroughly with compressed
air.
2. Install the entry ports (nipple) using an adhesive
material. The nipples should be placed 200 mm
apart. Where the cracks continue to the other side
of the concrete I – girder, the nipples need to be
installed on both sides of the I – girder following
a staggered arrangement.
3. Seals the cracks with putty to retain the injected
epoxy.
4. Dry the putty thoroughly
5. Inject the epoxy from the lower nipples till it
reaches the upper nipples. Only when the putty
has dried out, repeat the process till all the cracks
are completely filled with epoxy resin.
6. Remove the nipple after epoxy dries out .
The smaller the cracks, the higher the pressure needed
for epoxy injection. Accordingly ports should be closely
spaced to obtain complete epoxy penetration.
Cement grouting
For repairing cracks wider than 2 mm, a cement-based
grout is preferred because of its total compatibility
with the parent material and its ability to maintain
an alkaline environment around reinforcement. The
procedure for grouting consists of cleaning the concrete
along the crack; installing built-up seats (grout nipple)
at intervals astride the crack (to provide a pressure tight
connection with injection apparatus); sealing the cracks
between the seats with a cement paint, sealant, or grout
or IPN putty; flushing the crack clean and testing the
seal; and then grouting the whole area. Grout mixtures
may contain cement and water or cement plus sand and
water, depending on the width of the crack. However
water-cement ratio should be kept as low as practically
possible to maximize the strength and minimize the
shrinkage. Water reducer or other admixtures may be
used to improve the grout property. For small volumes,
a manual injection gun may be used; for large volumes,
a pump should be used. After the crack is filled, the
pressure should be maintained for several minutes to
insure good penetration. In this case, the cement grout
should be done with a water cement ratio of 0.45± 0.05
from bottom to top and left to right using grout injection
machine after inserting nozzles at suitable interval in
a zigzag manner on both face of the web of the girder.
The cement grout should be completely used within 15
minutes of mixing and the grouting machine must be
properly cleaned immediately after use. The grouted
portion should be cured for 14 days.
Conclusions
The ultrasonic investigation data showed that the quality
of concrete used in downstream concrete I-girder, span
no. 1 from Jabalpur end was very poor to doubtful in
quality. A number of honeycomb patches were found
in the web caused by the presence of jumbled up
reinforcement bars at bottom as well as shear zone.
The concrete had not reached such areas especially the
bottom flange portion.
For the rehabilitation works, the complete span of the
flange as well as the visible cracks was recommended
for grouting with epoxy. The complete web portion was
recommended for grouting. To analyse the effectiveness
of rehabilitation works, it was also recommended to
carry out the UPV diagnoses of concrete I-girder to
check the improvement in strength of concrete. Keeping
in view of the expenditure involved in rehabilitation
works, the option of replacing the particular span was
also suggested.
Acknowledgement
The authors are thankful to the Director, AMPRI,
Bhopal for providing facilities to carry out this field
investigation.
FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 31
 Repair and Rehabilitation
References
1. Mohammed Firdous M.Z., Chellapan A., Prabhakar J. and Srinivasan
P., Assessing quality of in-situ concrete in turbo generator foundation
using UPV measurement, The Indian Concrete Journal, February 2005,
Vol.70, No.2, pp 41-46.
2. Prabhakar J., Ramanjaneyulu K., Chellapan A., Srinivasan P.,
Mohammed Firdous M.Z. and Annamali S., Investigation of a prilling
tower, The Indian Concrete Journal, October 2003, pp 1354-1360.
3. Komlos K., Popvics S., Nurnbergerova T., Babal B. and Popvics J. S.,
Ultrasonic pulse velocity test of concrete properties in various standards,
Cement & Concrete Composites, 18 (1996) 357 – 364, Elsevier Science
Limited.
4. __ Non-destructive Testing of concrete method of test – Ultrasonic Pulse
Velocity, IS 13311: Part 1: 1992, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Delhi.
5. __ Recommendation for measurement of velocity of ultrasonic pulse
in concrete, BS 1881: Part 203: 1986, British Standard Institution,
London, 1986.
6. __ Guideline to the use of non-destructive methods of test for hardened
concrete, BS 1881: Part 201: 1986, British Standard Institution, London,
pp 14-15.
7. Shishir Kumar Sahu, Assessment of concrete quality from Pulse Velocity
test, CE and CR, August 98, pp 43-45.
8. Shiv Kumar, Non destructive testing of bridges, Indian Railways Institute
of Civil Engineering, Pune 2005, pp 11-22.
9. Shiv Kumar, Bridge inspection and maintenance, Indian Railways
Institute of Civil Engineering, December 2005, pp 71-73.
10. Ayaz Mahmood, Structural health monitoring using non destructive
testing of concrete, Thesis submitted to National Institute of
Technology, Rourkela for B.E., 2008.
11. Mohammed Basheer P. A. and Long Adrian E., Testing concrete for
strength: salient non-destructive and partial destructive testing, The Indian
Concrete Journal, June 2005, pp 39-50.
12. __ Standard test method for pulse velocity through concrete, ASTM C 597
– 83, American Society of Testing and Materials: Annual Book of
ASTM Standards, Vol. 4.02, Philadelphia, PA, September 1984.
13. __ Cause, evaluation and repair of cracks in concrete structures, ACI
224.1R-93, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI, 1993.
Be an I C J Author
We at ICJ offer an opportunity to our readers to contribute articles and be a part of
a big family of ICJ authors.
In particular, we will appreciate receiving contributions on the following:
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Contact: The Editor, The Indian Concrete Journal, ACC Limited, L.B.Shastri Marg, Thane 400 604.
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32 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012
R.K. Morchhale Ph.D (Civil) and is a scientist
at AMPRI, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. He is
actively involved in research, development and
consultancy projects in the area of reinforced
concrete structures for more than 20 years. His
main areas of interest include NDT analysis,
durability of concrete structure, building
materials testing and characterization. Presently, he is
working on development of alternative building materials
from industrial wastes and design and development of
instant house for disaster management.
S.S. Waghmare a post-graduate in
Environmental engineering, a scientist, erstwhile
in AMPRI, Bhopal and presently in NEERI, Nagpur.
He has experience in condition assessment of
RCC buildings and bridges using NDT and PDT
techniques. He is also engaged presently in
development of building materials from waste.
Currently, he is working in design and development of
instant house and polymer composites from sisal fibre as
well as research, design and development of environmental
sustainability of various materials & components”.
M.D. Goel, a post-graduate in Offshore
Engineering (IIT Bombay), B.E. (Gold Medalist)
Nagpur University, has been working in Advanced
Materials and Processes Research Institute
(CSIR) Bhopal as a scientist. His main areas
of interest include Computer simulation and
modeling of high strain rate events, Structural
Dynamics, Finite Element Analysis of Structures, Aluminum
Foam & composites development from sisal fibres.
S. Murali, a post-graduate in Energy engineering
and pursuing Doctorate in Civil (Environmental)
engineering from MANIT Bhopal, has been
working as a scientist in AMPRI Bhopal. He has
20 years of professional experience in soil and
water engineering, industrial wastes utilisation
for Agriculture and development of building
materials. At present, he is working on utilisation of fly ash
for wastelands reclamation and agriculture, development of
sisal polymer composites.
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 Point of View

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Structural concrete repair – A durability based revised approach is needed

C.S. Suryawanshi

“Just as walking is but a succession of interrupted falls,
the entire history of human progress is a succession
of stumbling half-truths and misinterpreted facts.
The ‘accepted facts’ of today become the ‘recognized
fallacies’ of tomorrow.”
– ACI Past President Herbert J. Gilkey (1950)
In recent years, durability problems, poor performance,
and, most of all, repair failures have tarnished the
public’s image of concrete. Repair failures and endless
“repair of repairs” make a substantial contribution to
the current perception of concrete. Concrete often gets
a bad name because premature repair failure is one of
the most visible manifestations of poor design decisions
and details, and inadequate field practice.
Concerned with the current state of concrete repair
technology, the author wrote this article in an attempt
to improve the performance of repaired structures. To
do so, the author has analysed some common problems
with structural repairs especially those in coastal regions,
explored issues that must be investigated further and
attempted to provide revised opinions on various
concrete repair issues.
Introduction
Various factors have impeded improvements in the
durability of concrete repairs, including: inadequate
condition evaluation and design; lack of quality
construction practices and quality control; and the choice
of repair materials (that may be incompatible with the
existing substrate). It is necessary to reconsider some
recent developments in structural repairs from the view
point of extending the service lives of structures under
repairs.
Because the subject of this article is devoted to “what
is wrong?” and “what the confusing issues are”, one
should first discuss several key issues in an attempt
to establish the facts. This paper covers a broad field,
hopefully in a thought provoking manner. One should
fully realize, however, that an attempt to deliver
comprehensive analysis and offer solutions to concrete
repair problems in one article is too ambitious and quite
an impossible task. Let’s share, however, Aristotle’s view
that “a plausible impossibility is always preferable to an
unconvincing possibility”.
'Confused state of the affairs' – A
complex problem
Concrete deterioration is a complex problem that requires
the designer to understand concrete’s microstructure (for
diffusion of chemical species) and its macrostructure
(for permeation through cracks and damage). The
heterogeneity of the components in a composite repaired
structure requires an understanding of the interaction

FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 37

 Point of View

of the existing materials and the repair materials. In
addition, it is also important to understand that the
durability of the repair is a function not only of its
basic components, but also as to how such components
(and the system as a whole) respond to the exposure
conditions of the structure. The durability of a repaired
concrete structure depends on its ability to resist a
variety of chemical and physical agents that attack all
parts of the composite structure with different degrees
of intensity, externally and internally.
There is a need for increased knowledge in many of
the research studies, design practices, and construction
practices in the concrete repair field. Too often, product
developers do not pay sufficient attention to the needs
of the marketplace. As a consequence, some materials
are often being developed and marketed without there
being demands from the field. If the “hit-or-miss”
methods often used in concrete repair were applied to
new construction, one wonders what would happen to
some of our structures.
Analyses of failures of new and repaired structures
around the world clearly demonstrate that materials
contribute less to the problem, whereas design and
in-place workmanship are more influential. The basic
principles that affect repair durability are widely known,
but very little is being done to improve durability. More
often than not, many believe that the simple answer
to the repair problems is improving the compressive
strength of the concrete or accelerating its strength
gain.
Repair materials – What are 'better'
materials?
As we have accelerated the pace of concrete construction,
we have required cement-based materials to become
stronger sooner and to set faster. At the same time,
we’ve increased concrete’s brittleness and reduced its
resistance to cracking. In this attempt, we have damaged
concrete’s “immune system.” Concrete that continues to
hydrate offers increased resistance to aggressive agents.
The “old-time” concrete used to gain strength, density,
and the ability to resist environmental attack over its
service life; “new” concrete does not.
A repair material has value only when it permits an
engineered product—a concrete structure—to fulfil its
intended use/purpose, its function.
It means that any considerations of material needs,
innovations, and performance must relate to the
performance of the final engineering product
(Figure 1).
Because repair failures may lead us to believe that
the material didn’t perform well, the repair solution
is often focused on “better materials.” But what is a
better material? Experience clearly demonstrates that
conditions that impair the effectiveness of a repair
material in one structure would not necessarily impair
the effectiveness of that same material in another
structure.
Repairs correct deterioration or distress that affects
a structure’s serviceability or aesthetics. In major
structure rehabilitation, many repairs are on a scale
where structural integrity becomes significant and it
is necessary to ensure the transfer of load between the
concrete substrate and the repair. With such repairs,
problems do arise fairly quickly because of the different
properties of the repair material and the concrete
substrate. Differences between repair materials and
existing concrete that affect repair durability include:
• Shrinkage of the repair material relative to the
concrete substrate
• Thermal expansion or contraction differences
between the repair material and concrete
substrate

There has been unquestionable progress made in the

field of repair materials. But the material that has the
required properties for a particular application is only
one part of the complex system that makes up a concrete
repair.

38 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012

 Point of View

Table 1. General requirements of patch repair materials feels that testing of the composite repair under simulated
for structural compatibility field conditions is more appropriate.
Property Relationship of Repair mortar (R)
to Concrete substrate (C)
Strength in R≥ C
Design and field practice
Compression, tension The concrete industry could learn a lot from concrete
and flexure repair failures had adequate information been available.
Modulus in R= C Unfortunately, it seems that only catastrophic structural
Compression, tension
and flexure
failures (resulting from inferior design and poor
Dependent on modulus and type of
quality materials and workmanship) are publicized.
Poisson’s Ratio repair Information about other repair failures, although they
may be serious and extremely costly, is generally not
Coefficient of Thermal R= C
expansion available. A better understanding of the initial factors
Adhesion in Tension and R≥ C and properties affecting the performance of repaired
Shear structures is critical to the longevity of a repair. Because
Curing and long term R≤ C data on causes of concrete repair failures do not exist,
shrinkage let us take a look at the results of various analyses of
Strain capacity R≥ C damage in concrete construction.2 The British Cement
Creep Dependent on whether creep causes Association reviewed factors that contributed to the
desirable or undesirable effects failure of structures. They found the following attributes
Fatigue performance R≥ C corresponded to the respective percent of failures:3
Chemical reactivity Should not promote alkali-aggregate
reaction, sulphate attack or corrosion • 11.6%, low cover
of reinforcement in the substrate.
Electrothermal stability Dependent on permeability of patch • 38.5%, environment
material and chloride ion content of
substrate.
• 15.8%, poor quality concrete
• 7.2%, poor quality detailing
• 4.2%, poor workmanship
• Differences in stiffness and Poisson’s ratio causing
unequal load sharing and strains resulting in • 1.5%, wrong specification
interface stresses
• 7.7%, failure of joint/waterproofing
• Differences in creep properties of repair material
• 0.5%, inadequate conceptual design and
and the concrete being repaired; and
• 13%, wrong material selection.
• Relative fatigue performance of the components
in the composite repaired structure.
The ACI survey of faults in concrete construction
revealed9,6
Such differences do result in initial tensile strains that
either crack the repair material or cause debonding at the • 57% of defects occurred in design and
repair-substrate interface. Both of these results normally
• 50% of defects occurred in construction.
reduce the load-carrying capacity and durability of the
structure. Therefore, selecting the appropriate material
for the repair is imperative. Table 1 lists the properties The total of 107% is due to the multiple errors associated
generally required of repair materials when compared with the same failures.
with the concrete substrate to produce long-term
structurally efficient repairs.1 Literature shows that 99% of quality-related defects
were due to poor design, detailing, specifications,
The lack of widely agreed upon methods of testing workmanship, and management. 4,2 Other factors,
leaves repair materials subject to a limited evaluation including materials, account for the remaining 1%.
that is driven more by manufacturers than by users. At the global level, one can conclude that even with
All too frequently only the isolated properties of repair substantial advances in the field of repair materials, the
materials are emphasized, whereas the more important industry will still have an unacceptable high level of
properties of the composite are neglected. The author defects and failures.

FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 39

 Point of View
It is generally observed “In this era when there is a
great push in our industry for improved construction
materials and practices, it will do us no good to have
technology that provides ‘high-performance concrete’
(buzzwords of the early 1990s) if we don’t have ‘high-
performance people’ to implement this technology.”5
A lack of attention to detail in design, poor in-place
workmanship, and inadequate quality control cause the
majority of faults and problems in the concrete repair
field (as well as in new construction). Adequate attention
needs to be given during the condition evaluation phase
of the project, but it is often ignored. Repairing concrete
is somewhat analogous to the treatment of disease.
Before remedies can be correctly prescribed, the illness
has to be diagnosed, and before the accurate diagnosis is
possible, the doctor has to have a thorough knowledge
of the disease and its various symptoms treatments and
history.
The concrete “doctor” needs similar knowledge to
prescribe successful treatments for troubled structures.
It may be shocking to observe a professional structural
engineer who has a limited knowledge of cement-based
materials. It must be clear to an engineer that overstress
is always the cause of cracking produced in materials,
regardless of what factors induced the stress in excess
of the material’s strength.
It also must be recognised and understood that a repair
is not a ‘Band-Aid ®’ that simply covers a concrete
structure problem. This incorrect view lends credence
to the prevailing viewpoint that concrete repair is so
simple that anyone can do it. Most India and most U.S.
construction can be characterized as “low-bid, hard-
dollar contracting,” and, as an Engineering News-Record
editorial of December 1, 1988, stated, “Clients that want
cheap will get cheap.”6
The cost to design and construct repairs for durability
is minimal when compared with the cost of repairing a
prematurely deteriorated, already-repaired structure.
When addressing problems with repair technology
one must also mention the habitual use of outmoded
specifications for concrete repair. How good should
the repair material be to serve the intended purpose?
Supposedly, the most cogent answers should be found in
the specifications for a particular project. But, how many
specifications list a drying shrinkage limit instead of a
slump and 55 MPa (8000 psi) compressive strength?
Design details and specifications are usually a mixture of
referenced standards and “cut and paste” clauses from
previous projects. The old adage “a little knowledge
40 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012
is dangerous” is often evidenced by the engineer’s
specifications and his or her on-site direction. Adding
to poor workmanship are the specifications, which are
in legal language and make frequent reference to the
“direction” of the so called engineer-in-charge. This
uncertainty makes sound bidding nearly impossible
and may later place the contractor in an unfair unilateral
situation. It is also very troubling the way we often
do things with regard to concrete repair, sometimes
making very questionable assumptions (for simplicity)
and then applying high precision requirements. The
engineer is also under economic pressure. This pressure
may deter engineers from presenting the client with a
sound remedial solution based on sound judgment. The
engineer has an obligation to the profession and to the
client to offer the most promising design solution within
the reasonable limits of the economy. The choice of the
best alternative must be the engineer’s alone, and the
responsibility of the efficiency of the work is also the
engineer’s alone.
Construction practices and workmanship bring us to
the problems associated with the people who actually
make and repair concrete. Artisans and supervisors
are truly the backbone of the concrete repair industry,
and unless they are skilled, a great part of the time
and money spent in condition evaluation, design, and
materials manufacturing is wasted. There is an urgent
need for technical training and skills improvement of
field personnel. The use of adequate design and “good”
materials is of critical importance, but they are not
enough without proper execution.
Research—problems and
opportunities
Research has substantially improved our knowledge of
cementitious materials, the fundamentals of concrete
deterioration from carbonation-induced corrosion,
chloride-induced corrosion, sulphate attack, alkali-
aggregate reaction, and frost. Several research studies
in the repair field have been concerned with the
improvement of properties of repair materials and
their dimensional behaviour relative to the existing
substrate. But these activities will lead to improvements
in repair durability only if the issues of electrochemical
compatibility are also addressed. Removing deteriorated
concrete (see Figure 2) and replacing it with a repair
material, even with the best one, may result in accelerated
reinforcing steel corrosion due to macrocell formation.
In view of the serious and insidious nature of the
corrosion of steel in concrete repair and repair failures,
 Point of View

6. Significant knowledge to design durable repairs

already exists in a relatively “quite refined state,”
as Mather stated.7 But the manner in which this
knowledge is used is primitive.

Many areas need further studies, but the priorities must

be given to:
• Relating testing to construction practices;
• Resolving the complex issue of electrochemical
incompatibility—risk of premature corrosion in
repaired structures; and
• Educating in the field of concrete durability and
repair.

The ability to define the macro-environmental changes in

a composite system caused by a repair is still needed.
it is surprising that progress in this area has been so
slow. This ought to be a major challenge to applied research.
The foggy issue of the response of the repaired structure
The fact that the progress has been slow is probably to the changes exerted by the repair must be understood.
attributable to some combination of the following: There is an urgent need to know how to properly assess
the nature and severity of the interior environment
1. Concrete repairs are a complex system of materials
in the repair system, the possible changes inside the
exposed to exterior and interior environments and
system, and the possible interaction of the repair with
its interaction
the exterior environment to get a reliable estimate of
the service life of the repaired structure or the time to
2. Fundamental guidance for addressing corrosion
the next remedial action. One should then, from the
problems does not exist. The mechanism of
analysis of environmental influences and repair system
passivation and corrosion of steel is poorly
constitution, use guidance and criteria by which to select
understood in complex repair environments. At
materials, protective systems, and repair methods that
this time, the whole area concerning “additional
will, with a reasonable probability of success, and in
protection” of reinforcement in repair is subject
compliance with the budgetary limits for their project,
to numerous speculations
give a repaired structure that will not prematurely fail.
In extreme conditions, following the basics may be
3. Corrosion of steel embedded in cement-based
insufficient to achieve the intended service life without
materials is a complex phenomenon involving
additional protective measures. These measures can be
environmental, metallurgical, interfacial, and
taken in addition, but not as substitutes, for getting the
continuum considerations. Most of the research
basics right.
in this area is being done by the civil engineering
departments of universities where few workers
To create confidence in the technology, science should
have knowledge outside their respective
provide a basis on which prognoses of performance and
specialities
longevity can be made. We have to be able to evaluate
the repair materials in such a reproducible way as to be
4. Industry and government agencies have limited
confident when specifying and using them. At the same
their support of research that could lead to a
time, our scientific understanding should broaden so
resolution of the problem
that practical exploitation is soundly based.
5. Most hope that repair problems can be resolved
If this task is reached, we will be better able to make
by using “high-performance” materials, corrosion
intelligent adjustments when deviations in performance
inhibitors, protective coating, or “belt and
are experienced.
suspender” systems; and

FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 41

 Point of View
Suggested initiatives
As discussed earlier, a lack of attention to condition
evaluation, design objectives and details, and poor
construction practices cause the majority of faults and
problems in concrete repair field.8,9,10 Unless the designer
and the artisan are skilled at their jobs, the great part of
the money spent in developing improved performance
materials is wasted.
Therefore, it is necessary to approach the improvement
in rehabilitation/repair performance in two stages.
Stage 1 must address the most serious problem at hand
reduction of design and worker errors. The success in this
stage can only be achieved by improved education and
training of all involved in the concrete rehabilitation/
repair process. ACI, ICJ, IBC, ICI, universities, and others
must take the leadership position in achieving this.
Stage 2 then will address the introduction of improved
performance materials for the intended use. The
success of this stage will be possible only when Stage
1 is complete and the incidence of errors is greatly
minimized. The attempt to introduce Stage 2 before or
simultaneously with Stage 1 will simply divert attention
from more critical issues and will most likely hold back
(rather than help) the achievement of the desirable repair
durability.
A reasonable route forward, therefore, seems to be
to look for radical changes in education, design,
and construction practices, and for incremental
improvements in materials.
In achieving cost-effective durable concrete repair
projects, we must combine a fundamental understanding
of the deformability of materials and the deterioration
processes, derived from short-term laboratory studies,
with long-term data from field structures including good
and bad performances. We will need to develop standards,
change design practices, material specifications, contract
procedures, and site practices. Our success in the
repair field may depend on our ability to resolve the
controversies, to differentiate sense from nonsense.
42 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012
To finish on a positive note—the author is convinced
that the trend in concrete repair field has been slow
but always forward moving. There are promising
activities at work to change the progress in this field
from “pedestrian” to “high speed.” There is hope that
these combined activities may be a springboard for
substantial progress.
And if we are in agreement that the future is controlled
by the amount of work yet undone, then the future of
concrete repair is assured.
References
1. Mays G., and Wilkinson W., Polymer repairs to concrete: their influence on
structural performance, Concrete Durability, Katharine and Bryant Mather
International Conference, SP-100, V. 1, J. M. Scanlon, ed., American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1987, pp. 351-375.
2. Suryawanshi, C.S. (Dr) Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures 1995, Thesis
Submitted to the University of Amravati, India.
3. British Cement Association, Development of an holistic approach to ensure
the durability of new concrete construction, Final Report to the Department of
the Environment, BCA, Crowthorne, UK, October 1997, pp. 81.
4. King N.P., Efficient Concreting Practice: A Review of Current Procedures,
Proceedings of International Conference Concrete—2000, E&FN Spon, 1993
5. Hoff, G.C., “President’s Memo,” Concrete International, August 1993, Vol.
15, No. 8, pp. 5-6.
6. Engineering News-Record, Editorial, December 1, 1988.
7. Mather, B., Realising the potential of concrete as a construction material,
Proceedings of the International Conference, Sheffield, England, 1999, pp.
1-10.
8. Urreta J. I., Pathology investigation of the whole road bridges of a region:
methodology and correlations, Proceedings of Structural Faults and Repair
– 93, V. 1, 1993, pp. 13-22.
9. Fraczek J., ACI Survey of Concrete Structure Errors, Concrete International,
December 1979, Vol. 1, No. 12, pp. 14-20.
10. Hauser R., Lessons from European Failures, Concrete International, December
1979, Vol. 1, No. 12, pp. 21-25.
Dr. C.S. Suryawanshi, B.E. (civil), M.Tech
(Structures), M.E. (Construction management),
LL.M (Contracts), Ph.D (Analysis and
Rehabilitation of structures), is a former Chief
Engineer and Joint Secretary to the Government
of Maharashtra. Currently, he is a structural
consultant and Contract Specialist, actively
involved in design and execution of concrete structures such
as rigid pavements, flyovers, bridges, tunnels and Contract
Arbitrations.
 Repair and Rehabilitation
Structural retrofitting to protect deteriorated building
Alok Sarkar
Well established retrofitting techniques for structural
retrofitting of buildings are not readily available. Current
available methods are based on experience, hence they
are empirical in nature. In the case of strengthening
of existing buildings however, the engineer must
depend on inspection, analysis and to a very large
extent on engineering judgement to determine the
areas of weaknesses that are to receive attention. The
existing building codes do not have any provision for
remedial work. The engineer must be capable of using
his judgement so that the structure is upgraded to full
requirement of code. That is to say that after retrofitting,
the allowable stresses shall be within the specified limit
as stipulated in building codes.
Strengthening practice
Existing elements are generally improved by increasing
their cohesive nature through injection of grout or other
structural adhesives. Mass of a structural member can
be increased by encasement, by increasing its dimension
with the addition of section or a combination of the above.
Sometimes, they may be strengthened by bracing, by the
addition of ties, struts or other connecting elements.
Shear walls are often improved by the addition of
section. Existing holes/cavities are filled in with repair
materials. Strengthening of roof and floor diaphragms
can be achieved by increasing their thicknesses or
the addition of stiffening ribs. Foundation elements
are improved by increasing their plan dimensions,
extending their depth or both. Underlying soil may be
stabilized by grouting.
Retrofitting materials
Shotcrete
Shotcrete, also known as gunite or pneumatically
applied concrete has been used for repair as well as for
new construction for many years. Shotcrete may be
applied by either a ‘dry mix’ or ‘wet mix’ process.
In dry mix process, cement and aggregate are thoroughly
mixed. The mixture is fed into special mechanical feeder
or gun called the delivery equipment. The material
is carried by the compressed air through the delivery
hose to a nozzle. The nozzle is fitted inside a water ring,
through which water is introduced under pressure and
intimately mixed with other ingredients. The material is
jetted from the nozzle at high velocity onto the surface
to be shotcreted. Wet mix shotcrete is somewhat newer
development. It involves pumping of a premixed cement
mixture to the work location. At this point a blast of
compressed air diffuses the mixture and impels it onto
the substrate surface. Shotcreting is a convenient repair
method. There is no need of formwork, less expensive,
and the operation is very fast compared to conventional
concreting. In this process, w/c ratio can be controlled
easily due to which rate of production can be varied
according to the requirements of the job.
Preplaced aggregate concrete
Preplaced aggregate concrete is cast by pumping mortar
into the pores of previously placed large aggregate.
FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 45
 Repair and Rehabilitation

The intrusion mortar is composed of cement, sand and footings or mats, the most frequent treatment involves
an admixture that promotes expansion. Epoxy resin increasing the length, breadth or depth. Figure 1 shows
materials though expensive have also been used for a typical example of foundation augmentation. Where
rapid curing. existing depth is increased, the work is usually done
in alternate segments. (Between 1.5 to 3 m in length)
Epoxy resin Conventional concrete or shotcrete is generally used in
such work. Continuity is maintained by placing new
Epoxy resin materials are available in a wide variety of
reinforcing steel or dowels through existing concrete.
types and consistencies which provide a nearly infinite
These are placed in position by driving holes, and filling
range of physical properties after curing. In general,
in the holes with epoxy grout.
epoxies offer very high bond strength and for this reason
have received wide usage, and in some cases, been
In the case of pile foundation, piles are installed parts
acclaimed as a “magical repair material’. Epoxy resin is
by parts. A number of short steel sections are welded
a polymeric product which is formed due to a chemical
and driven according to design requirement. Where
reaction between ethylene oxide rings with a reactant
steel tubing is used, dirt forced into the interior thereof
plastic material. Because of this very broad definition,
there are literally an infinite number of chemical
formulations that can properly be considered epoxies.
Epoxy resins can remain the same for a very long time.
They are useful only when reacted with hardeners. It
is not possible to describe properties that are typical of
all potential epoxy formulations. However, most of the
commonly used epoxy systems possess the following
properties. They are easy to apply, develop quick
strength, have high compressive and bond strengths.

Epoxy resins have low modulus of elasticity and exhibit

chemical resistance to both acids and alkalis. They are
unaffected by ambient temperature, and the finished
product has a long life with a reasonably hard surface
that does not crack easily. Epoxies can be made to work
even under water. There are innumerable ways in which
an epoxy formulation can be prepared by the addition
of solvents, diluents, fillers etc. It can be pigmented to
almost any colour to satisfy aesthetic considerations.
Excepting use as grout in filling narrow cracks, epoxy
systems are always fillerised. This is basically to reduce
heat and co-efficient of thermal expansion along with
improvement in other mechanical properties of the
mixed system. The amount of filler is dependent on
viscosity of the system (i.e. resin + hardener) and the
end use.

Retrofitting specific structural

elements
Foundation
Sometimes strengthening of foundations become
necessary either due to increased dead load or because of
loads resulting from high overturning forces generated
during an earthquake or wind. A detailed engineering
analysis and design calculations are essential for
developing proper retrofitting methods. Where the
foundation system consists of conventional spread

46 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012

 Repair and Rehabilitation
is cleaned out and replaced with concrete. Cast-in
drilled hole concrete piling can also be provided in
some cases.
Sometimes soil is strengthened by compaction grouting
or by chemical solidification in the case of relatively
permeable granular soil. Compaction grouting reduces
the potential for liquefaction of soil. Reduction of
liquefaction potential in granular soil can be provided
by cohesion through chemical solidification.
Strengthening of existing shear walls
Existing shear walls are frequently strengthened by the
addition of section, most often by shotcreting. Figure 2
shows a typical shear wall strengthening procedure.
The existing wall is sandblasted so that the surface is
well prepared with significant aggregate exposure.
New reinforcing rods and epoxy set dowels are placed
in position to satisfy the design provision i.e., these rods
and dowels are placed according to design calculations.
New rebars are installed by drilling through the existing
pilaster or floor slab as called for in the design drawings.
These bars should be well set in position with the help of
FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 47
 Repair and Rehabilitation
epoxy resins. New shear walls are generally constructed
of conventional reinforced concrete or shotcrete. Where
such walls are cast between existing members, continuity
of its reinforcing steel or the use of epoxy set dowels
can be used in a manner similar to that used for the
strengthening of existing walls.
Strengthening of existing columns and beams
Existing columns and beams are frequently upgraded
by the addition of properly reinforced shotcrete. Proper
preparation of the surface to receive new concrete is
imperative. New reinforcing steel is placed with special
emphasis to insure continuity through or around other
conflicting elements. Shear transfer and continuity
are provided by the use of chipped shear keys, wedge
anchors or grouted bars. Typical examples of such
strengthening are shown in Figures 3 and 4.
48 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012
Strengthening of floor and roof diaphragms
Floor and roof act as a diaphragm to transmit horizontal
forces (due to wind or seismic load) to end walls of a
building. Strengthening of existing diaphragms is often
accomplished by the addition of an overlay of either
concrete or shotcrete. Sometimes new diaphragms are
added by filling in abandoned shafts, stair wells etc.
The removal of existing concrete and total replacement
of diaphragms is occasionally made as well. The
preparation of surfaces and installation of flexural
or shear reinforcement is similar to that used in the
strengthening of beams and columns.
Conclusions
Repair or retrofitting of structures has never been
performed on a large scale basis. So, there are no
 Repair and Rehabilitation
established guidelines available for this purpose. Existing
building codes do not address this problem adequately.
In the case of large or important projects, often elaborate
and costly testing programs become necessary. Building
codes should be modified to include simplified repair
procedures. Present methods for evaluation of existing
structures deal with static loadings. No provision is
available for dynamic loadings. Better methods for
determining the behaviour of structures under dynamic
loading conditions are to be studied and reported.
Epoxies and other polymers are widely used for
retrofitting jobs. This field of chemistry is extremely
complex. It is imperative to carry out further research
for additional development and understanding of these
magic materials.
Bibliography
1. James Warner, “Methods for Repairing and Retrofitting (Strengthening)
Existing Buildings.” Workshop on Earthquake­-Resistant R.C. Building
Construction, University of California, Berkeley, July 11-15, 1977.
2. Morris Schupack, “Divorces and ruptured relations between epoxies and
concrete, “Concrete construction, October 1980.
3. Thomas J. Reading, “Shocrete for building repairs,” Concrete construction,
May 1981.
4. Warner J., and Fera. T, “Rehabilitation of concrete Pavement”, ASCE Journal,
Construction Division, PP 395-403, September, 1977.
Alok Sarkar holds a BSc (Civil Engg.) from
the Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu
University and Professional Civil Engineer
degree from Columbia University, New York,
USA. He is Associate Professor at Dr. B.C. Roy
Engineering College, Durgapur, West Bengal.
He has experience in design, analysis, and
construction management of buildings, bridges and special
structures, with restoration of buildings and bridges.
FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 49
 Letters to the Editor
Views on prevalent construction practices
The enormous quantum of construction activities
in various sectors has suddenly created a big void
in the availability of experienced and competent
technical professionals. This has adversely affected
the accuracy and quality of construction. Since 1984
Civil Engineering courses are not offered in majority of
engineering colleges. This has added to the deterioration
in construction standards. Highly specialized jobs such
as silos and chimneys, which require a higher degree
of care during construction, have ended up with a few
major accidents and failures.
This problem is experienced in an extreme form at many
places where specialized technical personnel are not
engaged / deputed.
In recent times, numerous cases of defective construction
of silos have been noticed at different locations, and
some of them have involved truly major faults. The
volume of defective construction has created a need for
high profile civil engineering faculty who are specialized
in the rehabilitation and retrofitting of defective silos.
Such retrofitting and rehabilitation has been carried out
in some places, to enable the defective silos to be brought
back into use. However, the process is complex in nature,
time-consuming and costly.
Construction of silos is done with the slip-form
shuttering system. This system works on the basic
concept of slipping (sliding) the form-work while the
concrete is in the plastic stage. The speed of slipping the
form work is so adjusted that it slips when the concrete
achieves a plastic stage between the initial setting and
the final setting. Once the concrete starts hardening,
the slipping undergoes a rough operation resulting into
honeycombing, de-bonding and de-lamination of the
concrete surface. The hardening of concrete is faster
in summer and slower in winter. As concrete comes
50 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012
into contact with the moving shuttering plates, the
imperfection affects the surface, cover and shell wall
thickness of the silo.
The entire process of concreting of silo requires the perfect
synchronization of all the multiple construction activities
viz. concreting, placing of prepared reinforcement,
slipping, curing and repairing of defective patches of
green concrete.
To achieve this, it is essential to maintain a co-ordination
between the speed of reinforcement placing and the
speed of concreting. Generally, it is observed that there
is no coordination between reinforcement placing and
concreting. In the case of a larger-diameter silo, the
quantum of reinforcement to be placed for every lift of
the slip form is higher. Inefficient lifting arrangements,
inadequate manpower, improper concrete placing
equipment and batching, and improper management
are the causes which restrict and affect the speed of
slipping.
In the Indian climate, barring locations in the far north,
the speed of slipping should generally be maintained at
3m /24 hours during summers and 2 to 2.5m /24 hours
during winters. It is very essential that appropriate
arrangements for placing of reinforcement and concrete
should be organized so that the correct speed of slipping
is achieved.
S.S. Kutumbale, Managing Director
N.Y. Choudhary, Director
Kutumbale Consultants & Engineers Pvt. Ltd.
101 Ravindra Nagar,
Bhoraskar Complex
Indore 452001
 Repair and Rehabilitation

Detection of defects in bridges using joint shear wave technique:

A laboratory study for structural health monitoring

P. Desai and N. Grace

This paper reports on a study carried out regarding
the performance of bridges. The applicability of a non-
destructive testing instrument called MIRA which uses
the powerful joint shear wave principle is demonstrated
by working on laboratory test specimens. MIRA
gives a superior performance as compared to other
non-destructive testing instruments (such as ground
penetrating radar) especially for concrete structures.
The results obtained are recorded, with an explanation
of how this instrument will help in discovering defects
in bridge structures. A concrete box beam and a column
were taken as test specimens in this study.
develop an intensive maintenance/inspection plan for
such bridges. The present work reports on a detailed
investigation of the specimens available in the lab using
joint shear wave analysis with the non-destructive testing
instrument MIRA. The non-destructive joint shear wave
analysis is capable of investigating a number of quality
control issues such as injection quality of the cable duct
(cable ducts are injected with grouting materials and
injection quality depends upon the injection speed and

Introduction
Many of the pre-stressed concrete (PSC) bridges, after
their construction, are susceptible to corrosion, cracks and
voids due the extreme weather and loading conditions. It
is necessary to evaluate the performance of such bridges
and then to rehabilitate them. Figure 1 shows a typical
PSC box girder bridge. The levels of protection of the
post-tensioning system in the bridge should appear
to be in line with the current practice. Three current
post tensioning tendon protection levels are: 1) a duct
with grout providing durable corrosion protection 2) a
watertight, impermeable envelop providing a leak tight
barrier and 3) integrity of tendon or encapsulation to be
inspectable or monitorable. Recent efforts to enhance
the durability of post-tensioned bridges effectively have
led to focused inspection procedures. It is necessary to

FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 51

 Repair and Rehabilitation
grout viscosity), voids in the cable
ducts of the bridge girders, concrete
delamination, bonding quality of the
overlays and corrosion of the strands.
The joint shear wave analysis is a
versatile and powerful technique
which is capable of mapping three-
dimensional (3D) images of the
internal section of the structure.
A few non-destructive testing methods
are discussed in this section from the
past literature. Ground penetrating
radar (GPR) has been established
for several decades in geophysics
for soil investigations. 1 With the
development of high-frequency
antennas, as well as efficient computer
systems, it is now also possible to examine smaller
structures in remote areas. Thus this method has been
successfully applied to solve civil engineering problems,
such as the assessment of concrete and masonry
structures and the determination of moisture content and
distribution. 2-5. Among the non-destructive testing
methods, GPR has been one the most successful
techniques in which 3D imagery can be produced.
Although 3D GPR images have been very successful in
showing the orientation and location of the embedded
targets, such as reinforcing steel, utility lines etc., less
successful results have been obtained when trying to
produce a 3D image of internal voids and cracks. In
addition, the use of GPR to locate voids in post-tensioned
metal tendon duct systems has yielded unsatisfactory
results.
Scanning impact-echo (SIE) systems have also been
recently developed to provide 2D and 3D images of
concrete structures. The SIE systems have developed
a more automated approach, thus relying less on the
interpretation of the operator. Although test results to
locate internal voiding in concrete have shown some
success, further research and testing is necessary to
fully understand the capabilities and shortcomings of
SIE systems. The description of a newer method for
concrete testing based on the dry point contact ultrasonic
transducers technology, advanced methods of computer
tomography and new techniques of signal processing
using the SAFT algorithm have been presented in
literature.6
The use of a recently developed instrument known as
MIRA, which utilizes a patented phased array of dry
point contact shear wave transducers to produce 2D
52 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012
and 3D tomography images of concrete structures is
discussed in another paper.7 The MIRA instrument is
not based on any new test concept, rather a merging
of well-known stress wave propagation principles and
the advent and application of advanced hardware and
analysis software packages. The use of ultrasonic stress
wave propagation dates back more than 60 years. In fact,
the end of the Second World War propelled research
into stress wave propagation in construction materials,
particularly steel and concrete.8 The development of the
laboratory equipment known as the soniscope and the
ultrasonic tester paved the way for the development
of a widely used non-destructive test method for
concrete – known as the ultrasonic pulse velocity
(UPV) method.9,10 The UPV test method traditionally
employed the use of two transducers: a transmitting
transducer and receiving transducer. To allow the
transfer of the mechanically induced ultrasound waves,
both transducers (transmitting and receiving) typically
required a coupling agent to make the proper contact
between the transducers and the surface of the concrete
structure.
The MIRA system is capable of creating cross-sectional
2D scans and 3D images of the concrete elements in
less than 4 seconds after data collection.11 Similarly,
data at individual inspection points are collected at
a rate of about 3 seconds per location. MIRA utilizes
powerful shear waves with a default frequency of
50 KHz for detection of defects. The forty transducers of
the antenna are positioned in ten rows, each consisting
of four transducers. During operation, the first row of
transducers simultaneously sends out a joint shear wave,
which, after reflection, is picked up by the remaining
nine rows of transducers. Immediately afterwards, the
second row of transducers sends out a shear wave while
 Repair and Rehabilitation

composite cable (CFCC) pre-stressed and non-prestressed

strands, and CFCC shear reinforcement. The box-beams
were 18”(457 mm) wide and 11”(279 mm) deep with an
effective span of 31’(9.45 m). They were cast with a 5”(127
mm) ×10”(254 mm) hollow portion. Each box-beam had
five transverse diaphragms equally spaced along its
length. The box-beam’s cross-section and longitudinal
section are shown in Figures 3 and 4 respectively. Two
different box beams were studied in the laboratory.

Test locations on the surface of the both the beam

specimens were marked. The instrument was placed on
each of these markings and, at every step, readings were
taken. Figure 5 shows these markings 1, 2, 3, 4… on the
specimen. The nearer the markings, the more accurate
are the results..

There are four modes of operation of the MIRA

the others pick up the reflection and so on, as shown in
system:
Figure 2(a). The operating principle and details of the
MIRA antenna are shown in Figure 2. In this manner a 1. Calibration -This mode is used at the start of
large number of reflected shear waves are available for testing to determine the shear wave speed of
analysis, which is done by means of SAFT (Synthetic the concrete. It is recommended that testing be
Aperture Focusing Technique) and transformed into done at eight or more positions to obtain a good
color presentations as later described. estimate of average wave speed.

The key features that distinguish MIRA from other flaw
detection devices include: (1) the use of point transducers
to introduce into the concrete pulses of shear waves with
a nominal center frequency of 50 kHz., and (2) the use of
an array of point transducers to obtain rapidly 180 transit
time measurements during each test. More details can
be found in the manual MIRA TOMOGRAPHER11. The
test results coincided 100% with the expected as well as
the actual injection quality (injection speed and grout
viscosity) tested by the X-rays.
Experiment
A typical box girder was taken as a reinforced concrete
test specimen for the purpose of operating the instrument
MIRA. The box-beam was reinforced with carbon fiber
2. Explore -This mode is intended for preliminary
testing at arbitrary locations on the surface of the
test object. Ideally, preliminary tests should be
done at locations where the internal conditions are
known. This mode is used to check the settings of
the instrument before beginning actual scans.
3. Scan -This mode is used to acquire the data
that will be used to evaluate the test object.
Data are stored automatically after completion
of measurements at the antenna location. The
method for conducting a scan is an important task
and is discussed in the followed section.
4. Review -This mode is for detailed study of the
processed data acquired during the scan.

FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 53

 Repair and Rehabilitation

After the data are acquired along all the scan lines, a axis of the specimen which are shown in the figure have
signal processing technique called synthetic aperture to be taken carefully while taking the readings. From
focusing (SAFT) is used to reconstruct a 3D tomographic these pictures, the depth of the level of corrosion and
image of the interior of the concrete member. The views location of voids in the grouted duct that is visible with
on the three orthogonal planes have formal names. A this instrument is apparent.
C-scan shows the reflecting interfaces projected on a
plane parallel to the test surface; that is, a C-scan is Discussion
a “plan view” of the reflectors. A B-scan shows the
Figure 5 shows the different slices from section B, and
reflectors projected on a plane perpendicular to the test
different scans from sections B, C and D of box beam 1.
surface and perpendicular to the scan direction; that is,
The hollow section, the diaphragm section and a duct
it provides an “end view” of the reflectors. A D-scan
in this box beam are clearly seen in the images. Figure 6
shows the reflectors projected on a plane perpendicular
shows the same box beam’s 2 left sections; a grouted duct
to the test surface but parallel to the scan direction; that
is seen in the picture, with some voids in it; the duct is
is, it provides an “elevation view” of the reflectors. It
seen as black in colour. Figure 7 shows the same box
is also possible to look at specific “slices” through the
beam’s 2 right sections with an empty duct; the empty
member in each of the three directions by defining the
duct is clearly seen as black in colour.
Z-coordinate for a C-scan image, the X-coordinate for a
B-scan image, and the Y-coordinate for a D-scan image.
To explore the use of the instrument, a column specimen
Figures 5 to 8 clearly show the three different scans, B,
was also studied (Figure 8). It was a steel I-section
C and D for the visualization of details for box beams
column with holes in the flanges and web section; from
and column Here, the axis of the instrument and the
Figure 8 it is clearly seen that the holes are visible in

54 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012

Repair and Rehabilitation

FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 55

 Repair and Rehabilitation
the scan image taken from the instrument and the web
section is easily identifiable.
Figure 9 shows the results obtained when using a
different frequency. It was observed, as seen from the
different frequency readings, that the MIRA instrument
is able to detect the voids and unevenness on the surface
with a frequency range of 100 KHz and 150 KHz;
however, at the same time, the diaphragm solid section
of the beam (which should be visible) disappears, and is
56 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012
visible only in the optimum frequency range of 50 KHz.
In this way, depending upon the requirement and the
type of problem, the frequency can be changed and
optimized. This feature is helpful in monitoring cracks:
the growth of new cracks in addition to the previously
marked cracks in the bridges. Three dimensional
(3D) images using the non-destructive equipment for
further analysis are obtained. These images aid us in
determining the percentage of voids in the ducts and
reveal whether this percentage is consistent with other
recently inspected bridges.
Repair and Rehabilitation

FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 57

 Repair and Rehabilitation
Conclusions
A concrete specimen was used in the laboratory as a
test sample to examine experimentally the potential
of powerful shear waves (with a default frequency
of 50 KHz) to evaluate the quality of bond between
grouted duct and post-tensioning ducts. Also, the study
demonstrates the efficiency and feasibility of the MIRA
equipment for more accurate and effective detection
of different defect types, a higher resolution of testing,
and MIRA’s applicability for deeper thicknesses of the
tested object. In fact, these specimens contained the
inclusions and features which might have occurred in
the components of a real bridge. The shear wave test
using MIRA was carried out at different facings of the
specimen. The final results of testing were obtained on
the display as a combination of several scans (B, C and
D scans) of the tested areas. The findings of this research
will strongly support the use of non-destructive test
methods as a new means of inspective procedure used
to evaluate the effectiveness of post-tensioned grouting
operations and the adhesion of the grout to post-
tensioning ducts in existing bridges. Also, this study will
help in the recommendations and design guidelines for
the durability of bridges.
Acknowledgement
This study was carried out at Centre for Innovative
Material and Research (CIMR), Lawrence Technological
University (LTU), Michigan, USA. The author is grateful
to Dr. Nabil Grace, (University Distinguished Professor
and Dean of Engineering, LTU) for providing the
laboratory to perform this experiment and his valuable
and kind suggestions. Dr. Grace’s support is gratefully
acknowledged.
References
1. Daniels D., Ground penetrating radar, 2nd ed. London, UK: The Institution
of Electrical Engineers, 2004.
2. Rhazi J. E., Dous O., Ballivy G., Laurens S. and Balayssac J.P., Non-destructive
health evaluation of concrete bridge decks by GPR and half cell potential
techniques, International symposium non-destructive testing in civil engineering
(NDT-CE), Berlin, Germany, September, 2003, Proceedings on BB 85-CD,
V57, Berlin, pp. 16–19.
3. Funk Th., Maierhofer Ch., Leipold S., Borchardt K., Non-destructive
location of tendon ducts in concrete for the installation of noise insulating
walls using impulse radar, 7th International Conference on Structural Faults
and Repair, Edinburgh, UK, vol. 2. Edinburgh: Engineering Technics Press;
1997. pp. 323–9.
4. Colla C. and Maierhofer Ch. Investigation of historic masonry via radar
reflection and tomography, 8th international conference on GPR 2000,
Gold Coast, Australia, (Noon D., Brisbane, May 2000, SPIE vol. 4084, pp.
893–898.
5. Maierhofer Ch, Leipold S., Schraurich D, Binda L, Saisi A., Determination of
the moisture distribution in the outside walls of S. Maria Rossa using radar,
7th International Conference on Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), Lawrence,
USA, (Radar Systems and Remote Sensing Laboratory, Lawrence, 1998)
May 1998, Vol. 2, p. 509–14.
58 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012
6. Bishko A.V. , Samokrutov A.A. and Shevaldykin V.G., Ultrasonic echo-pulse
tomography of concrete using shear waves low-frequency phased antenna
arrays, 17th World Conference on Non-destructive Testing, 25-28 October 2008,
Shanghai, China.
7. Haza A.O., Petersen, C.G. and Samokrutov, A., Three dimensional imaging of
concrete structures using ultrasonic shear waves, pp. 1-12.
8. Malhotra V.M. and Carino, N.J., Handbook on Non-destructive Testing of
Concrete, CRC Press, Second edition.
9. Leslie J.R. and Cheesman W.J., An ultrasonic method of studying
deterioration and cracking in concrete structures, ACI Journal Proceedings,
1949, Vol. 46 (1), pp. 17.
10. Jones R., The application of ultrasonic to the testing of concrete, research,
London, 1948, 383.
11. MIRA© Tomographer, German Instruments, Inc. 8845 Forest View Road,
Evanston, Illinois 60203, USA.
Dr. Payal Desai received her PhD
(Computational Structural Mechanics) from the
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute
of Technology Bombay, Mumbai. She has been
a post doctorate fellow at IISc Bangalore
and at Lawrence Technological University,
Southfield, Michigan USA. She has also worked
as a Manager at a structural engineering consultancy firm in
Mumbai. Presently, she is the post doctorate fellow at The
Dow Chemical International Pvt. Ltd., Global R&D centre,
Pune. Her research interests include plates/shells theories,
computational structural mechanics, smart and nano
materials and analysis of bridges.
Dr. Nabil F. Grace, PhD, P.E., received his
bachelor’s degree from Cairo University, Egypt,
Master’s and PhD (civil engineering) from the
University of Windsor, Ontario, Canada. He
is a University Distinguished Professor, Dean
of Engineering, and Director of the Centre for
Innovative Materials Research for Lawrence
Technological University in Southfield, Michigan. Dr. Grace’s
research interests include application of carbon fibre
composites to structural engineering.
What is your opinion?
Do you wish to share your
thoughts/views regarding
the prevalent construction
practices in the construction
industry with our readers?
If yes, The Indian Concrete Journal gives a chance to the
engineering fraternity to express their views in its columns.
These shall be reviewed by a panel of experts. Your views could be
limited to about 2000 words supplemented with good photographs
and neat line drawings. Send them across by e-mail to
editor@icjonline.com.
Book Review
f ib bulletin 60
Prefabrication for affordable housing
The need for affordable housing has
increased significantly during the
last decades all over the world. It is
felt particularly in countries where
the population growth rate is high
and the economy is developing fast.
As people shift from rural areas to
towns, the housing becomes critical.
The need for affordable houses
arises for other reasons also; rapid
urbanization, slum rehabilitation
projects , rural areas getting upgraded
to industrial or commercial areas,
workers’ settlements in remote
regions, rebuilding dwellings
destroyed by natural disaster such
as earthquake, floods or wars and
even holiday’s resorts and leisure
dwellings.
Large construction projects always
face cost and time constraints. Local
conditions may vary from site to
site, with respect to the physical,
social and market environments.
Thus, minimizing cost and time
of construction, while maximizing
quantity and quality of product,
may lead to different solutions. The
concept of ‘affordable’ meaning
compatibility of demand and
means is well understood as such
every-where, although its practical
application may be different from
place to place.
Concrete is a material that lends it-
self well to affordable housing; it is
durable, has good thermal inertia,
can be used both as structural
and finishing material and is not
sensitive to organic attack. It also has
some disadvantages such as higher
cost in some developing countries
compared to developed countries
and a potential lack of materials
mainly cement or admixtures. The
availability of workforce possessing
the right skill sets for preparing
and using concrete could also be
a challenge at some places. Under
these conditions, the alternative of
prefabrication, with its adaptability
and quality consciousness, may offer
valid, speedy and cost effective and
sustainable solutions.
FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal
Fib Bulletin 60 offers an overview
of prefabricated housing systems
as well as information on a number
of systems without entering into
the details of the solutions. The
bulletin includes a historical review
of prefabrication, a brief text on
the general features considered
in preparing the report, a list of
safety requirements, health related
requirements and energy saving
requirements in affordable housing.
It has a brief review of materials used
in such constructions. However, it is
the texts and illustrations on precast
structural systems that form the
main body of the bulletin.
The section on the selection of a
structural precast system gives
whys and hows of using precast
systems such as frame systems,
wall systems and monolithic room
cell systems in housing projects.
The section on frame systems
describes beam column hinged
frames, moment–resting beam-
column frame systems, structural
59
 An illustrative system description:
This system:
• uses panels both for wall and
slab elements. All of them are
made of reinforced concrete.
Every component of the system is
prefabricated at a fixed plant.
• consists of precast concrete ribbed
panels fixed to a reinforced
concrete in situ foundation and
joined between them trough a dry
connection; the slabs are directly
rested on to the panels; door and
window frames are included in
the panels. Finally, traditional
solutions for the cover can be
used.
• allows incremental construction.

Maximum dimensions of the panels are

0.04 m thickness, 1.20 m width and 3.70
m length, with a maximum weight of
about 3 10 kg.
Only one height is allowed REFERENCE: CYTED. Catalogo Iberoamericano de Tecnicas constructivas Industrializadas
para vivienda de interes social.

integrity of frame systems, and
column to foundation connections
of frame systems with diagrams.
The wall systems’ description are
for arrangement of load bearing
walls in buildings and includes cross
wall systems, long-wall systems and
two-way span systems. Connection
detailing between different wall
systems are explained with the help
of clear diagrams.
In addition, considerable text is
devoted for explaining issues such
as production transportation and
erection process, water proofing
and insulation, services and
installations.
A large number of industrialized
housing systems that are used in
several parts of the world have
been illustrated in the Bulletin. The
section on housing systems gives 38
examples from about 18 countries.
In selecting the system examples
several parameters were kept in
mind. The systems were required to
be all industrialized systems that are
used in their respective environment
for affordable housing. They were to
have at least some important part that
was built with precast concrete. Other
selection criterion included varieties
with respect to country, material
(concrete, mixed construction),
structural system (wall, frame
mixed), climate (dry, wet, flooding,
medium), seismicity (high, low,
none), construction (contractor, self
built, both), possibility of incremental
construction (yes, no), handling
capacity ( <1.5t, <5.0 t, > 5.0 t), level
of technology ( low, medium, high)
and whether the installation was
included or not (yes, no) .
In summary, this 122 pages document
illustrates precast structural systems
for affordable housing with 36
figures and 38 system descriptions.
The bibliography section gives a list
of 44 references. fib Bulletin 60 aims
to make possible a comprehensive
comparison which should help
in learning, exchanging and
developing ideas on how to better
meet the housing needs everywhere,
at sustainable cost. A document of
this kind was not available before;
it is therefore expected to be of great
interest and a source of ideas for all
those who have to confront with the
problems of affordable housing.
For more information on this bulletin,
please visit www.fib-international.org/
publications

60 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012

 New Product Feature

Silo logistics for drymix mortars market, applications, technology

and regional trends

Ferdinand Leopolder

With increasing volumes, the evolution of dense urban prefabricated concrete parts, cement became the material
agglomerations and the resulting traffic and growing of choice for architectural materials (non-structural
environmental awareness, bulk delivery of drymix applications) such as wall renders, flooring screeds and
mortars in movable silos became state-of-the-art in tile laying materials.
the highly developed markets for building materials in
The reconstruction of Europe after the Second World
Western Europe. This trend started in the early seventies War yielded increased mortar usage. Masonry mortars
of the last century. Over the last four decades, the (both fresh and dry) and renders were in increased
sophistication of the equipment as well as the efficiency demand. Initially all mortars were mixed at the jobsites
of the process increased permanently. In this article, the in barrel mixers, using cement, sand, other binders
author tries to summarize the silo development during (such as lime) and sometimes other additives. Into the
the last decades, to follow the movement on a global level drum, the necessary quantity of water was added and
and to give an outlook of potential markets to come. the fresh mortar was used instantly. Apart from the use
of manpower for mixing, this mixing method, had some
additional fundamental problems:
Introduction
Minerally bound Mortars have been in use since over
2500 years. A milestone for modern mortars was the
availability of dry performance binders since the early
1800s. The discovery of the manufacturing of Portland
Cement by Joseph Aspdin and Isaac Johnson, patented
in Britain 1824, as well as similar successes in the field
of lime, hydrated lime and gypsum processing marks a
decisive stepping point in the evolution of dry mortars.
Initially only used for brick laying, the existence of these
dry binders (and here especially the existence of cement)
yielded the creation of all sorts of specialty mortars for
various applications in the 20th century. Apart from its
importance as a structural material (concrete) and for

FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 61

 New Product Feature

• sand was often sourced locally, not dried or introduced for applications such as tile adhesives,
screened and often contained contaminations decorative renders and special flooring compounds in
such as clay and other fine matter the 1960s. In that same decade, the demand for basic
mortars (masonry mortars and renders) increased even
• open sand pile subject to the weather
more. For this product group packaging in individual
• cement was delivered mostly in bags which had bags was no option, since the bags would have cost more
to be disposed of than the mortar contained in them (and needed to be
disposed of ). So, for a long time, the volume applications
• varying ratio sand : cement
of masonry mortars and basic renders stayed in "the
• no possibility to include very small quantities of stone age" - they were mixed from stockpiles directly on
additives the jobsites. Special mortars, where smaller quantities
• no control for the developer whether additives are needed (e.g. tile adhesives) are usually being mixed
were used at all or in the specified quantities
• varying ratio mortar : water (=> also varying Table 1. The most important applications of drymix
water : cement ratio!) mortars, sorted by complexity (=value)
Short Classification and
Application Packaging
Main Function
All in all, a consistent quality of mortars could only
Masonry
be achieved by the most experienced and dedicated Mortar
joining of bricks and blocks silos, stockpiles*
personnel. While this method of preparing a mortar has
(Thick) Flooring levelling of concrete floors,
been all but eliminated in Western and Central Europe, Screeds sound insulation
silos, stockpiles*
it is still being used today in most parts of the World,
levelling and finishing of silos and big
even when mortars of higher sophistication have to be Renders, basic
exterior walls bags, stockpiles*
used. silos, big bags
levelling and finishing of
Plasters and bags,
interior walls
The common opinion, that the hand-mixing is cheaper stockpiles*
than buying a premixed mortar is wrong: the realtively joining of special
cheap sourcing of the raw materials is more than Special construction materials such
compensated by additional cost in manpower, material Construction as Aerated Lightweight big bags, bags
Adhesives Concrete blocks (ALC
loss and thicker installation. The only thing that should blocks)
count is the cost per square meter of installed mortar.
finishing, structuring
Renders,
and coloring the exterior bags
Not only due to the increasing labor cost and quality decorative
surfaces of a building
problems, but also triggered by the tremendous demand Tile Adhesives fixing of wall and floor tiles bags
and thus the need of speed and efficiency on the jobsites,
filling of tile joints,
the concept of premixing all mortar ingredients and Tile Grouts decorating tiled surfaces on bags
packaging this newly created material into bags became walls and floors
popular (= drymix mortars). Drymix mortars were Exterior
silos, mini-silos,
Insulation thermal insulation of the
big bags and
and Finishing exterior of a building
bags
Systems EIFS
Concrete repair of damages to load-
bags
Renovation bearing concrete structures
protection of concrete,
piping, storage tanks from
waterproofing adverse climate effects or
big bags, bags
slurries bactriological and chemical
decay, also subgrade
protection
levelling of floors,
SLU (thin
preparation for installation
flooring bags
of flooring materials such as
screeds)
tiles, parquet or carpets
* stockpiling is common in many countries outside Europe, even for
higher value-added materials

62 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012

 New Product Feature

Table 2. Process steps in modern bulk mortar
applications
Action Description
Filling of Drymix Mortar into
Filling
silo at the mortar plant
loading of prepared silo by
Transport special positioning trucks,
transport to the jobsite
setting of the silo in the desired
Positioning
location on the jobsite
metered discharge of drymix
mortar from the silo into
mixing the mixing or conveying
equipment, metered mixture
with water
conveying of mixed mortar to
application site (or pneumatic
application
conveying of dry mortar to
mixing station)
re-filling of already positioned
re-filling silos by bulk silo truck on the
jobsite
in small batches in buckets or tubs by hand using a drill
auger.
on construction activity, the global production of drymix
mortars is estimated to reach between 120 mio t and
Equipment 150 mio t in 2011. The collapse of several important
markets in Europe (e.g. Spain, Ireland, Portugal and
silo
the volume business in Italy) is being compensated by
the growth in large markets such as Turkey, Brasil and
positioning truck,
silo,
China.
positioning truck, Silo and machinery for mortars
silo
Bulk mortar handling and mixing machinery became an
silo or minisilo, economic necessity only when the cost for manpower
mixer or increased in the 20th Century and when the projects
combined unit became bigger. The machinery used was developed
in order to increase mixing homogeneity and output
(efficiency). Drymix mortar delivery in silo makes sense
mortar pump,
hoses, discharge where large volumes of one single, machinery-applicable
nozzle or tub material are being used. This rules out specialty
applications such as tile adhesives and grouting, where
silo-truck, silo many different products are being used in a relatively
slow, manual process. Therefore the main applications
for silo-delivery are
• masonry mortars
• cementitious or anhydrite-based floor screeds

The Evolution of drymix mortars • cementitious renders for the exterior

Apart from the availability of clean, processed, dry • renders and plasters for interior applications
aggregates in homogeneous quality, an important step
• (recent addition) adhesives and reinforcement
for the production of readily formulated drymix mortars
mortars for EIFS/ETICS
was the development of dry additives such as special
cellulose ethers for water retention and redispersible The logistical process steps require the support of highly
powders as complementary, flexible binder. This specialised equipment:
brought the breakthrough of drymix mortar technology.
Strongholds of technological evolution were in Germany, In 1970, Putzmeister and pft introduced a combination
where both the volume demand for most applications as of mixer and pump, which allowed easy conveying
well as the presence of leading chemical supliers spurred
the evolution of sophisticated mortars. Substantial
contributions to this development came from Italy (CTA,
Grouts), Scandinavia (Self-Levelling Underlayments)
and France (Renders "Monocouches") and soon, the
technology spread throughout Europe. After the first
Oil Crisis (in 1973) the thermal insulation of buildings
became very important. External Insulation and
Finishing Systems (EIFS, also called External Thermal
Insulation Composite Systems, ETICS) were developed
and introduced into the markets, the introduction in
Central Europe was flanked by legislative measures. In
the 1980s, drymix mortar technology was established
on all continents. The political changes in the Warszaw
Pact Nations brought a huge demand for most drymix
mortar applications in the nineties. Year 2000 marks the
explosion of demand in Asia, especially in China and the
Middle East. Despite the financial crisis and its impact

FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 63

 New Product Feature

several floors up (especially of renders and screeds).

This equipment was soon adapted to handle materials
from silos. The first complete systems were developed
by m-tec - a daughter company of Mathis (maxit) today
part of Saint-Gobain Weber - in the 1970s.
Mobile Silo Technology
Once, reliable machinery for mixing had been developped,
it was only a small step to eliminate the usual 25 to 40 kg
mortar bags by transporting the drymix mortars in silos
to the jobsite. The dynamic of this development had the
following reasons:
• large demand in urban agglomerations
• tight net of drymix mortar plants (approx. 800 by
2009; the delivery radius for masonry mortars is
approximately 100 km)
• reduction of waste materials (empty bags,
pallets)
• reduced loss of material (open bags, spillage)
• increase in efficiency
• optimized use of space on the (usually cramped)
jobsites
• the need to satisfy warranties => consistent
quality
A complete silo system consists of
a) Mobile silos
These silos vary in size from 10 to 22 cubic meters,
height is usually around 4 to 5 m, they are being set
on a base area of only four square meters. Smaller size
silos do exist (e.g. for coloured renders by Sto, these
are 1 cubic meter silos, set by a forklift), there are also
silo systems that contain liquid components. Silos are
usually equipped with a manhole, a loading nozzle,
a vent/depressurizing device and a discharge nozzle
with a butterfly valve. They are also equipped with a

Table 3. Silo mortars in Europe 2008 (Market size 40

mio t, of which Silo Mortars 36 mio t) Table 4. Applications of silo mortars in Europe
Silo mortars estimates of importance by country)
Application volume in Percent
Eastern
Europe ( 2007) Application D/A/CH ES UK F
Europe
masonry mortars 8 mio t 20
Overall use very high high high medium increasing
cementitious or anhydrite-based
9 mio t 20 a) masonry
floor screeds +++ +++ ++ ++ +
mortars
cementitious renders for the
11 mio t 25 b) screeds +++ + ++ + ++
exterior
c) ext
renders and plasters for interior +++ ++ +++ ++
7 mio 15 renders
applications
d) renders &
(recent addition) adhesives and +++ + ++ + +
plasters
reinforcement mortars for EIFS/ 1 mio t below 5
ETICS e) EIFS + + emerging

64 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012

 New Product Feature

Table 5. Types of drymix mortar manufacturers
Type Description
volume volume mortars of prices between 60 Euro/t
mortars and 75 Euro/t, sensitive to transportation costs,
manufacturing close to the main (metropolitan)
markets, use of bulk equipment
specialty technical mortars and adhesives for prices from 100
mortars Euro/t to 400 Euro/t, wide reach (less sensitive to
transportation cost), bagged materials
multi- combined product portfolio of Type 1 and Type 2
channel
strategy
mounting flange for in-line equipment. For pneumatic
conveying, pressures up to 6 bar have to be calculated,
special silo design is necessary.
b) Positioning truck
The positioning truck carry the full silos to the jobsites
and pick up empty ones from there. The truckmounted
silo-erecting device is usually operated by a separate
hydraulic motor and system. Trailers with silo-erecting
units also exist, so that two silos can be transported in
one go. Each truck usually handles 25 to 35 silos.
c) Silo truck
A silo truck contains usually up to 20 t of drymix mortars.
It is used to transport materials to large jobsites, where
the silo stays for a longer period of time. The material
is being conveyed pneumatically to the local unit, the
silo itself stays until the end of work at site and is then
removed by the positioning truck. This way, the same
silo can be filled with different materials as construction
progresses.
Remark: the question how many trucks are needed to
transport which amount of silos is a complex one: it
depends upon the product portfolio, the customer size,
the delivery radius and the size of the jobsites/projects,
to name just the most important denominators. Also, in
mature markets such as Germany, many clients farm out
the silo positioning to specialized logistic contractors,
which operate the equipment much more efficiently,
since they can work for several clients and drymix
mortar manufacturers. This reduces the investment on
the side of both the clients and mortar manufacturers.
In total there are four distinctly different systems of
machine-handling drymix mortars on the jobsites:
a) The continuous mixer
This simple piece of equipment is being mounted
directly under the silo and mixes a volumetrically
measured amount of mortar with similarly adjustable
amounts of water. It dumps into a wheelbarrow or into
mortar tubs, these can then be moved by a crane to the
work location.
b) The mixer/Screw pump combination (mixing
pump)
These machines consist of a mixing chamber and a
screw pump (with additional mixing action), the pump
can convey the wetted material up to 50 m, maximum
height is 30 m.
c) Pneumatic conveying (and then mixing and
applying, using a) or b)
With this technology, the dry material is being
transported by pressured air to a receiving vessel, where
it is either being run through a continuous mixer or a
Mixer/Screw Pump combination. There it is being mixed
with water and then applied to the wall or floor.
d) Truck-mounted mortar plant (Scandinavia only,
used mostly for thick screeds)
Truck mounted equipment consists of a silo for drymix
mortar, a water tank, dosing and weighing equipment as
well as a mixer/screw pump combination. These trucks
come to the jobsite and deliver finished screed into the
building; this technology is exclusively being used in

Table 6. Examples of Silo Use by company/group in Europe

Company D/A/CH ES UK F I BeNeLux Scand Central Europe Eastern Europe others
Saint Gobain/maxit x x x x x x x x China
Hasit/Fixit/Röfix x x x x
Quick-Mix x x x x China
Alsecco/DAW x x x Turkey, China
Koch Marmorit/Knauf x
Cemex x
Parex x x
Uniland x

FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 65

 New Product Feature
Scandinavia and here almost entirely by Optiroc/Maxit
(now Saint Gobain Weber).
Introduction strategies and market
development
In order to gain acceptance for the silo systems (and
also for the machinery), companies such as Maxit, Hasit,
Quick-Mix and others pioneered by providing both
silos and machinery free of charge to the applicators
in the 1980s. Soon it became evident, that abuse of
machinery, reluctance to clean the screws and chambers
after use and other negligence led to increased need of
maintenance of the equipment. From 1980 onwards,
leasing contracts replaced the old agreements and today,
in Western and Central Europe, most applicators own
their own downstream equipment and also see to their
repair and maintenance.
Since the mid nineties, a silo positioning fee is being
leveraged by the drymix mortar producers in Europe,
in Germany, this fee is around 100 Euro (which includes
positioning and picking up of the silo). The success of
the silo technology was quite breathtaking: while until
1960, almost all mortars were mixed on-site from sand,
cement and (sometimes) liquid additives, packaged
materials replaced those hand-mixes in the 1960s; with
the introduction of machinery and silos, the bagged
mortars were replaced in the volume applications in
Western Europe from 1980 onwards within a decade
only. Another push for efficiency took place in the late
1990s in Spain, England, France and Germany, when
efficiency increase became a pressing necessity, growing
applications, which reach considerable volumes today
(EIFS) are currently in the transformation process from
hand to machinery assisted application.
Michelberger, Friese and Kamp have made an estimate
of the efficiency, comparing hand mixing with the use
of a mixing pump: the labor cost for 500 square meters
of exterior rendering (assuming low wages between 0,44
Table 7. Dynamics of Silo introduction in choice countries (growth rates in %)
D/A/CH ES UK F China
1970 10 10
1980 40 10 10
1990 20 20 15 10
2000 < 10 30 20 ? 10
2005 15 40 35 15
2010 <5 -40 -30 -10
66 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012
and 0,54 Euro/hour) was 175 Euro (hand-mix) versus
52 Euro (drymix mortar with mixing pump).1 Also, the
daily rate was low in handmix (80 square meters) and
high using the mixing pump (250 square meters).
Here is an example for increased efficiency (main
driver): Germany experienced a recession from 1996
until 2007, in this period of time, the overall construction
market showed zero or negative growth, the workforce
was reduced in half from over 2 Mio to below 1 Mio
employees. Due to the increased demand for renovation,
however, drymix mortar increased each year with low
double digit growth rates - it can be said that efficiency
was increased by 100% in this period, also by the wide-
spread use of silo technology.
The use of silo technology spread from Germany into
almost all markets in Western Europe in the 1980s and
1990s. The main promoters of this technology are of
course the volume manufacturers such as Maxit (today
Saint Gobain Weber), Quick- Mix, CPI (GB, from 1992),
Optiroc (later Maxit, Truck- Pumps), Koch Marmorit
(Knauf), Röfix (today Hasit/Fixit), Hasit, Quarzolith (A),
Baumit (A). Outside of Europe a considerable market for
drymix mortars in silos exists today only in China. It is
estimated that in Europe over 100.000 silos, mostly with
sizes of above 15 cubic meters are in use today.
The silo technology is being used today throughout
Western and Central Europe, parts of Asia and in Brasil.
Since 2000, it has been introduced into China, flanked by
decisive legislation from the Chinese Government. The
main drivers of this technology are the need for speed
and efficiency, congested traffic situations, large and
cramped jobsites and increased quality requirements.
Today, of course the most densely "silo-populated"
country in Europe is Germany, followed by Spain and
the UK, and other European countries, such as France
and Italy,
Romania Poland Russia Indonesia
20 30 10
50 40 20 25 10
25 <5 -10 -15 20
 New Product Feature
Global players
A strong consolidation process of (volume) mortar
manufacturers started in the mid-1990s. Today, the
main markets for volume mortars in Europe are being
dominated by groups, led by far by Saint Gobain Weber
(former Opticor/maxit activity). These companies are
also the promoters of this technology throughout the
world.
The mortar manufacturers can be divided into two
different types, often the volume-mortar manufacturers
entertain a certain closeness to or are being owned
by cement manufacturers, the specialty mortar
manufacturers are mostly family owned groups (Mapei,
Ardex, Custom Building Products etc.). There are smaller
and larger companies with combined portfolios, too (eg.
Quick-Mix), and Saint Gobain Weber, initially a specialty
mortar company (Weber et Broutin) has obtained a
mixed portfolio by acquiring Maxit and thus becoming
the undisputed market leader for drymix mortars.
Delivering mortars in silos requires an intimate supplier
<=> customer relationship. Only this way, the complex
logistical process can be profitably used. Also, the
mortar plants have to be quite near the main markets
in order to be able to optimise the use of the delivery
equipment (positioning trucks, silo trucks). Therefore,
volume mortar companies have to have excellent roots
and ties in the respective region in order to compete
well in the markets.
Future trends
Since the markets for drymix mortars are generally
growing outside Europe, silo logistics and jobsite
equipment will grow there, too. Another reason for the
growth of silo technology outside Europe is the fact, that
the market in Europe currently has an over-capacity of
mortar. In the past few years, major mortar groups have
internally reduced production and stalled expansion to
reduce product availability.
Of course, silo technology finds its ideal conditions in
the heavily populated areas of eastern China, not only in
the Capital Beijing and the Metropolis Shanghai but also
in the numerous mega-cities from Tianjin in the North
down to Guangzhou and Hong Kong in the South. in
these new markets, the drymix mortar technology is
being operated by mostly inexperienced, non-trained
personnel (work migrants), therefore, the challenges for
the equipment industry are the following
• easy to use equipment
• robust and weather resistant design
• (standardized) spare parts supply throughout all
regions where the equipment is being used
• high throughput units
Numerous manufacturers of equipment have emerged
in China already, and they will expand into Asia and
onto other continents, whenever the demand in China
stalls.
Due to its excellent performance in confined jobsites,
silo technology will be needed in almost all mega
cities throughout the world. The current hotspots in
terms of population, outdated infrastructure and the
resulting traffic problems outside of China are Mexico
City, Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, New York City, Los
Angeles, Moscow, Istanbul, Cairo Osaka, Tokio, Seoul,
Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Singapore, Jakarta, Bangkok,
Kuala Lumpur and (to name just a few). In most of
those cities, building products are already delivered
in silos by technology pioneers. For various reasons,
other megacities such as Bogotá, Kinshasa, Lagos,
Tehran, Dhaka, Manila still require the introduction of
sophisticated mortar technology and thus cannot profit
(yet) from the advantages of shipping mortars in silo.
Reference:
1. Andreas Michelberger, Michael Kamp, Axel Friese, Handling of Drymix
Mortar Products on the Building Site, in: SEADMA Technical Bulletin
03,Muncih 2008, ISBN 978-3-9811328- 4-7
Ferdinand Leopolder has over two decades
of experience in the drymix mortar industry.
He was responsible for global market
development for Wacker Chemie GmbH until
2000. In 2001, he founded drymix.info,
the International Community for Drymix
Mortars and publishes a monthly newsletter
for the industry. Ferdinand Leopolder is also
Secretary General of the Middle East Drymix
Mortar Association MEDMA and the South East Asia Drymix
Mortar Association SEADMA.
FEBRUARY 2012 The Indian Concrete Journal 67
 Test Your Knowledge

ICJ Quiz
1. Who first developed the concept of Reactive
Powder Concrete (RPC)?
(a) Pierre-Claude Aitcin
(b) Pierre Richard
(c) Hans Henik Backo

2. Who is the author of the book 'Architecture in

India since 1990'?
(a) Charles Correa
(b) Hafeez Contractor
(c) Rahul Mehrotra

3. Who won the Holcim Awards Contest Next

Generation Prize (Asia Pacific Region)?
(a) Students led by David Getty
(b) Mishkat Irfan Ahmed
(c) Martin Fernandez de Lema

4. Who designed the Burj Khalifa?

(a) Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, LLP
(b) Adler & Sullivan
(c) Boller Brothers

5. Where is India’s first green industrial building

located?
(a) Mumbai, Maharashtra
(b) Pune, Maharashtra
(c) Chanda, Maharashtra

To participate in the draw for a 1 year E-journal subscription,

please email your answers to info@icjonline.com. Entries close
on February 22, 2012.

Congratulations to L.S. Kannan of Porur, Chennai, who

correctly answered the November 2011 quiz.

68 The Indian Concrete Journal FEBRUARY 2012

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