Part3-5 Vertical Curves

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Introduction:
 Vertical curves provide the transition of roadway elevations between two grades
with an acceptable level of driver safety, driver comfort and proper surface
drainage from rainfall runoff.
 The points in a vertical curve are defined by their station kilometers and
elevations even if a horizontal alignment overlaps with the vertical alignment as
indicated by Fig. 3.33 below.
Figure 3.33 Vertical alignment overlapped with a horizontal alignment

1
Vertical Alignment
Introduction:
 Vertical alignments are classified in two categories: 1) Crest vertical curves and
2) Sag vertical curves, according to the AASHTO 2004 guidelines.
 A vertical curve defines the station kilometers and elevation of points along the
curve length (L) between the points PVC and PVT with an intersection point of PVI
as shown in Fig. 3.35.
 Vertical curves are designed in a way that half of the curve length (L/2) is
positioned before the point PVI while the other half after the point PVI (called
equal-tangent vertical curve) as shown in Fig. 3.34.
2
Figure 3.34 Crest vertical curves (on top), and Sag vertical curves (at bottom)
3
Vertical Curve Fundamentals
G1 = initial roadway grade in percent or (m/m) (this grade is also referred to as the
initial tangent grade, viewing profiles in Fig. 3.34 from left to right),
G2 = A final roadway (tangent) grade in percent or (m/m),

A = absolute value of the difference in grades (initial minus final, usually expressed
in percent),
L = length of the curve in stations or (m) measured in a constant-elevation
horizontal plane.
PVC= point of the vertical curve (the initial point of the curve),
PVI= point of vertical intersection (intersection of initial and final grades), and
PVT= point of vertical tangent, which is the final point of the vertical curve (the point
where the curve returns to the final grade or, equivalently, the final tangent).
4
Parabolic Vertical Curves
 Vertical curves are defined by a mathematical relationship correlating elevations

with the corresponding stations kilometer points.
 The most common mathematical relation used for vertical alignments is the
parabolic equations due to such reasons as:
o They provide constant rate of change of slope hence providing smooth

transition from one grade to another
o They are mathematically simple to calculate and lay out in the field
o They have good sight distance properties
 Details of a typical parabolic vertical curve are shown in Fig. 3.35
5
Figure 3.35 A typical parabolic vertical curve
6
G1 = initial roadway grade in percent or (m/m) (this grade is also referred to as the
initial tangent grade, viewing Fig. 3.35 from left to right),
G2 = A final roadway (tangent) grade in percent or (m/m),
Y = offset at any distance x from the PVC in (m),
Ym = mid-curve offset in (m),
Yf = offset at the end of the vertical curve in (m),
x = distance from the PVC in (m),
L= length of the curve in stations or (m), measured in a constant-elevation
horizontal plane,
PVC=point of the vertical curve (the initial point of the curve),
PVI= point of vertical intersection (intersection of initial and final grades), and
PVT= point of vertical tangent, which is the final point of the vertical curve (the point
where the curve returns to the final grade or, equivalently, the final tangent).
7
 The basic parabolic equation used for a vertical alignment in Fig. 3.35 is defined
as:
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 (3.43)
where
y = roadway elevation (m)
x = distance from the beginning of the vertical alignment PVT (m)
a, b = coefficients as defined below
c = elevation of the point PVC (when x = 0)
 To determine the coefficients a and b, the first and the second derivate are used
as follows:
8
 To calculate the constant b and a, take the first derivate with respect to x :
𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 (3.44)
𝑑𝑥
Since at point PVC (x = 0), the slope is G1, then

𝑑𝑦
𝑏= = 𝐺1 (3.45)
𝑑𝑥
Since at point PVT (x = L), the slope is G2, then

𝑑𝑦
= 𝐺2 = 2𝑎𝐿 + 𝐺1 (3.46)
𝑑𝑥
𝐺2 −𝐺1
𝑎= (3.47)
2𝐿
The equation of the curve can be written as

𝐺2 −𝐺1
𝑦= 𝑥 2 + 𝐺1 𝑥 + 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣. (𝑃𝑉𝐶) (3.48)
2𝐿
9
 For such equal-tangent parabolic curves, the rate of change of slope (d2y/dx2) is
equal to the average rate of change of slope through the vertical curve:
𝑑2 𝑦 𝐺2 −𝐺1
= 2𝑎 = (3.49)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐿
where,
G1 = initial roadway grade;
G2 = final roadway grade;
L = curve length spanning from PVC to PVT points
Note: Care must be taken to ensure that the coefficients a and b give the unit of
(m) when multiplied by x2 and x, respectively.
10
 The parabolic alignments have also other useful properties that can be calculated
to easily set them out. These properties are: mid-curve offset (Ym), end-curve
offset (Yf) and the K-value.
 The off-set distances shown in Fig. 3.35 can be calculated from the equal-tangent
parabolic curve properties as follows:
𝐴
𝑌= 𝑥2 (3.50)
200𝐿
where 𝐴 = |𝐺1 − 𝐺2 | is the absolute value of the differences in grades expressed

in percent.
 Based on Fig. 3.35 and Eq. (3.50), the mid-curve offset can be calculated as:
𝐴𝐿
𝑌𝑚 = (3.51)
800
11
 The end-curve offset can also be calculated in a similar manner as:

𝐴𝐿
𝑌𝑓 = (3.52)
200
 The K-value is another useful property that gives the horizontal distance required
to change 1% slope. Since the parabolic equation in Eq. (3.43) gives a constant
rate of change in slope, it can be shown that;
𝐿
𝐾= (3.53)
𝐴
where K = horizontal distance required to change 1% slope of the curve,

L = curve length (m),
A = |𝐺1 − 𝐺2 |, the absolute value of the difference in grades (%).
12
 The K-value can be used to compute the high and low point locations on the
crest and sag vertical curves, respectively (if high/low point does not occur on
PVC or PVT).
 High/low point location can be easily calculated by setting dy/dx=0 and solving
Eq. (3.44) for x and then replacing the value of a and b as determined from Eq.
(3.45) and (3.47) so that;
𝐿
𝑥ℎ𝑙 = |𝐺1 | = 𝐾|𝐺1 | (3.54)
𝐴
where x = distance from PVC to the high/low point; K, G1 (%) are as determined
before.
 The K-value is also used to simplify the sight distance calculations, as will be
illustrated in the subsequent sections.
13
Example 3.10: A 182.880 m equal-tangent sag vertical curve has the PVC at station
5+181.600 and elevation 304.800 m. The initial grade is -3.5%, and the final grade is
+0.5%. Determine a) the stationing, b) elevation of the PVI, the PVT, and c) the
lowest point on the curve.
Solution:
St. Km PVC: 5+181.600
Elevation PVC: 304.800 m
L = 182.880 m
PVC
PVT
G1
%
=-
0.5
3.
+
5%
=
G2
PVI
14
a)
Since the curve is an equal-tangent alignment, the station of the PVI and PVT will be:
St. Km PVI = 5+181.600 + 182.880/2 = 5+273.040 and
St. Km PVT = 5+181.600 + 182.880 = 5+364.480

b)
It is given that the initial grade G1 = -3.5% and the final grade is G2 = +0.5%. Then,
Elevation of PVI = Elevation of PVC + G1 x (distance from PVC to PVI).

Elevation of PVT = Elevation of PVI + G2 x (distance from PVI to PVT). Hence,
Elevation of PVI = 304.800 m -3.5% x (182.880/2) = 301.600 m
Elevation of PVT = 301.600+0.5% x (182.880/2) = 302.057 m
c) Since the G1 and G2 have opposite signs, the lowest point will be on the curve.
15
L 182.880
xhl = G1 K  G1   3.5  160.020m
A  3.5  0.5
Or
From Eq. (3.45), b = G1 = -3.5 /100
𝐺2 −𝐺1 0.5−(−3.5)
From Eq. (3.47), 𝑎= 𝑎= = 0.010936/100
200𝐿 200(182.880)
Substituting the value of a and b into Eq.(3.44) gives;

𝑑𝑦
= 2(0.010936/100)𝑥ℎ𝑙 + (−3.5/100) = 0 => xhl = 160.020 m
𝑑𝑥
St. Km of lowest point = St. Km PVC + x => 5+181.600 + 160.020 = 5+341.620
Elevation of the lowest point 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 =>

0.010936 3.5
𝑦=( )(160.020)2 + (− ) (160.020) + (304.800) = 302.000 𝑚
100 100
16
Example 3.11: An equal-tangent vertical curve is to be constructed between grades
of -2.0% (initial) and + 1.0% (final). The PVI is at station 3 + 352.800 and at elevation
128.016 m. Due to a street crossing the roadway, the elevation of the roadway at
station 3 + 413.760 must be at 129.388 m (point P). Design the curve ,(i.e. determine
the curve length)
Solution:
x=?
St. Km P: 3+413.760
Elevation P: 129.388 m
L=?
PVC
x
PVT
G1
P
=-
%
1.0
2.0
= +
%
G2
PVI
St. Km PVI: 3+352.800
Elevation PVI: 128.016 m
17
The purpose of the design problem is to determine the curve length such that the
station 3+413.760 is on elevation 129.388 m. Hence,
From Eq. (3.45), b = G1 = -2.0/100
𝐺2 −𝐺1 1.0−(−2.0) 1.5
From Eq. (3.47) with G1 = -2.0/100 and G2 = +1.0/100, 𝑎= = =
2𝐿 200𝐿 100𝐿
It should be noted that the elevation of PVC is equal to the constant c in Eq. (3.43).
c = Elevation of PVI - G1 x (distance from PVC to PVI). In this case,
2 𝐿
c = 128.016 + x = 128.016 + 0.01L
100 2
𝐿
St Km. P- St. Km PVI = (𝑥 − ).
2
(3 + 352.800) - (3 + 413.760 = x- 0.5L

x = 60.96 + 0.5L
Substituting the value of a, b, c and x into Eq. (3.43) gives;
18
1.5 2
2.0
129.388 = ( ) (60.96 + 0.5𝐿) + (− ) (60.96 + 0.5𝐿) + (128.016 + 0.01𝐿)
100𝐿 100
Solution of the above equation gives L = 410.978 m. Based on this result,
Elevation of PVC = c = 128.016 + 0.01L => 128.016+0.01(410.978) = 132.126 m
St. Km of PVC = 3+352.800 – 410.978/2 = 3+147.311

Elevation of PVT = Elevation of PVI + (L/2)G2 =>
Elevation of PVT = 128.016+(1/100) x (410.978/2) = 130.071 m

St. Km of PVT = 3+352.800 + (410.978/2) = 3+558.289
19
Example 3.12: A vertical curve crosses a 1.219 m diameter pipe at right angles. The
pipe is located at station 3 + 378.708 and its centerline is at elevation 332.720 m The
PVI of the vertical curve is at station 3 + 352.800 and elevation 334.792 m. The
vertical curve is equal-tangent, 182.880 m long, and connects an initial grade of +
1.20% and a final grade of -1.08%. Using off-set distances, determine the depth,
below the surface of the curve, on the top of the pipe and determine the station of
the highest point on the curve.
Solution:
St. Km PVI: 3+352.800
Elevation PVI: 334.792 m
PVI
0% G2
+ 1.2 =-
= 1.0
G1 8%
PVC PVT
182.880 m
St. Km Pipe: 3+378.708

Elevation Pipe: 332.720 m
20
St Km PVC = 3+352.800 – 182.880/2 = 3+261.360
Elevation PVC = 334.792 – (1.2/100)*182.880/2 = 333.695 m

The distance between PVC and the pipe location = (3+378.708)-(3+261.360)
= 117.348 m
Elevation of the initial tangent above the pipe = 333.695 + (1.2/100)*(117.348)
= 335.103 m
The offset above the pipe location at x =117.348 m,

𝐴
𝑌= 𝑥2
200𝐿
|1.2−(−1.08)| 2
𝑌= (117.348 ) = 0.858 m
200(182.880)
The elevation of the curve above the pipe = 335.103 – 0.858 = 334.245 m
The elevation of the top of the pipe = 332.720 + 1.219/2 = 333.330 m
21
Hence the pipe 334.245 – 333.330 = 0.915 m is buried below the vertical curve.
To determine the highest point on the curve, first calculate the K-value;
𝐿
𝐾= ->
𝐴
182.880
𝐾=| = 80.210
1.2−(−1.08)|
The distance from PVC to the highest point
𝑥ℎ𝑙 = 𝐾|𝐺1 |
𝑥ℎ𝑙 = 80.210|1.2| = 96.252 m
The station Km of the highest point = 3+261.360 + 96.252 = 3+357.612
22
Stopping Sight Distance and Crest Vertical Curve Design
 Length of the vertical curve is the most critical design element in terms of sight
distance properties.
 A vertical curve with longer curve length is costly to build, but safer in terms of
sight distance.
 Shorter curve length is less expensive to build, but does not provide enough sight
distance because of higher rate of change in gradient
 The required minimum sigh distance needs to be calculated and considered

separately for crest and sag vertical curves.
 The sight distance is also calculated separately, as for horizontal alignments,

whether the sight distance is shorter than or longer than the curve length, as
illustrated in the subsequent sections.
23
Stopping Sight Distance and Crest vertical Curve Design
Figure 3.36 Stopping sight distance for crest vertical curves
where
S = sight distance in (m),
H1 = height of driver's eye above roadway surface in (m),

H2 = height of object above roadway surface in (m),
L = length of the curve in (m),

PVC, PVI and PVT are as defined before
24
 The sight distance can be calculated for an equal-tangent vertical curve shown in
Fig. 3.36 as follows:
For S < L
𝐴𝑆 2
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2 (3.55)
200(√𝐻1 +√𝐻2 )
For S > L
2
200(√𝐻1 +√𝐻2 )
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2 𝑆 − (3.56)
𝐴
Where, A is as defined before (𝐴 = |𝐺1 − 𝐺2 |)
25
 For the adequate Stopping Sight Distance (SSD or Ss), the AASHTO (2004)
guidelines assume a driver eye height H1 of 3.5 ft (1080 mm), and a roadway
object height H2 of 2.0 ft (600 mm), which assumes height of an object to be
avoided before a collision.
 To calculate the minimum length of curve to provide adequate stopping sight
distance (SSD or Ss) which is calculated by Eq. (2.42), is set equal to the sight
distance (S) defined in Eq. (3.55) and (3.56);
S = S s = ds + d r (3.57)
Where,
ds = stopping distance given by Eq. 2.38 or Eq. 2.40
dr = distance travelled during perception reaction time, given by Eq. 2.41
26
 Equations 3.55 and 3.56 can be rewritten as

For SSD (Ss) < L
𝐴 x 𝑆𝑠2
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (3.58)
658
For SSD (Ss) > L
658
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2 𝑆𝑠 − (3.59)
𝐴
 For a given design speed, the SSD (Ss) for design can be obtained from Eq.2.43 by
assuming G = 0, or from the tabulated values in Table 2.2 or Table 3.7.
 By taking G= 0 Eq. 2.43 can be rewritten as follows
Vd2  Vd2
S s  0.278Vd tr  S s  0.278Vd tr  (3.60)
254(0.35  G ) 89
Where,
Ss = Stopping sight distance (m),
Vd = design speed (km/hr),
tr = perception reaction time (2.5 sec),
27
Table 3.7 Stopping sight distance (SSD or Ss)
28
 The minimum curve lengths calculated from Eq. (3.58) and (3.59) by using SSD
values obtained from Eq. (3.60) or from Table (3.7) are based on the assumption
that G = 0, which is a common practice of the most design agencies (i.e. the effect
of grades ignored completely).
 Some agencies apply corrections for grades greater than 3%, depending on initial
and final grades.
 The best way would be to calculate the actual grade by taking the first derivative
of the curve if the point of break application on the vertical curve is known, which
is not predictable.
29
 Eq. (3.58) valid for SSD < L condition can be expressed in the following form;
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐾𝐴 (3.61)
 Eq. (3.61) indicates that the relationship between A and Lm is linear. And the
linearity constant K is given by;
𝑆𝑠2
𝐾= (3.62)
658
 K is only a function of SSD (Ss) and it is constant for the selected design speed.
 Recall that K parameter (K = L/A) is the horizontal distance required to change 1%

slope of the curve and it is also called as rate of vertical curvature.
 Table (3.8) gives K values as a design control parameter of crest vertical curves
for various design speeds for SSD < L condition.
30
 Table 3.8 Design controls for crest vertical curves based on stopping sight distance

31
 Eq. (3.58) and (3.61) cannot be used when SSD > L because the relationship
between A and Lmin is no longer linear for this case.
 Calculation of the curve length to provide adequate SSD (Ss) using Eq. (3.58) or
(3.61) is always more conservative than using Eq. 3.59 because Eq. (3.58) or
(3.61) always generate longer curve lengths.
 For SSD > L condition, it is possible to get negative values of curve lengths from
658
Eq. (3.59) (𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2 𝑆𝑠 − ) for low values of A (|𝐺1 − 𝐺2 |) which is not
𝐴
meaningful. Hence, the common practice in design is to always use equations
3.58 or 3.61 (i.e. assuming SSD < L).
32
 In any case, application of vertical alignments with very short curve lengths
should be avoided since they are difficult to build and not safer. Hence, the
minimum curve length should range between 30 to 100 m.
 A rule of thumb that can be used is to take the minimum curve length as 0.6
times the design speed in km/h according to AASHTO (2004).
Lmin = 0.60 Vd (3.63)

Where,
Lmin = minimum vertical curve length suggested by AASHTO, (m)
Vd = design speed (km/h)
33
Example 3.13: A highway is being designed to AASHTO guidelines with a 120 km/h
design speed, and at one section, an equal-tangent vertical curve must be designed to
connect grades of + 1.0% and -2.0%.
a) Determine the minimum length of curve necessary to meet SSD requirements

b) Solve the same problem using the K-values in Table 3.2
c) If the grades intersect at station 3 + 048.000, determine the stationing of the

PVC, PVT, and curve high point for the minimum curve length based on SSD
requirements
34
Solution:
a) By assuming G = 0 and SSD < L, SSD can be calculated from Eq. (2.44) as 120
km/h. Therefore, using a = 3.4 m/s2, g = 9.807 m/ s2 ( i.e. a/g =b 0.346) and
tr = 2.5 s;
𝑉12 (120/3.6)2 120
𝑆𝑠 = + 𝑉1 𝑡𝑟 = +( )𝑥2.5
(
2𝑔 0.35 ) 2𝑥9.81𝑥0.35 3.6
Ss = 245.18 m. Then the curve length:
𝐴 𝑥 𝑆𝑠2 |1−(−2)| 𝑥 245.182
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = 274.07 m > SSD = 245.18 m. Hence the
658 658
initial assumption of SSD < L was correct.
b) From Table 3.8, K value corresponding to a speed of 120 km/hr is 95
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐾𝐴
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 95(1 − (−2)) = 285.00 𝑚
which is slightly greater than the value obtained in (a)
35
c) Because the vertical curve is an equal-tangent parabola;
using L = 285 m,
St. Km PVC = (3 + 048.000) – 285.00 /2= 2+905.50
St. Km PVT = (2+905.50) + 285.00 = 3+190.50

Location of the highest point = 𝑥ℎ𝑙 = 𝐾|𝐺1 |
𝑥ℎ𝑙 = 95(1.0)= 95.00 m.
Then,
Station Km of the highest point = (2+905.50) + 95.00 = 3+000.50
36
Stopping Sight Distance and Sag Vertical Curve Design
 Stopping sight distance in sag vertical curves is governed by the nighttime

conditions. During daytime conditions sight distance is unrestricted.
 The most important parameter for the sigh distance is the length of the roadway
that is illuminated by the vehicle headlights.
 Roadway length illuminated is a function of the height of the vehicle headlight

above the roadway and the inclination of the headlight beam relative to the
horizontal plane.
 Sight distance for an equal-tangent parabolic curve is shown in Fig. 3.37. The
minimum curve length for a required sight distance is calculated whether the
curve length is smaller than (S < L) or larger than (S > L) the curve length.
37
Figure 3.37 Stopping sight distance considerations for sag vertical curves.
where S = sight distance in (m),

H = height of headlight in (m),
 = inclined angle of headlight beam in degrees,

L = length of the curve in (m)
38
 For an equal-tangent curve, it can be shown that;
For SSD (Ss) <L

𝐴𝑆 2
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (3.64)
200(𝐻+𝑆tan𝛽 )
For SSD (Ss) > L

200(𝐻+𝑆tan𝛽)
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2 𝑆 − (3.65)
𝐴
where
S = sight distance,
Lmin = minimum length of vertical curve (m), and
A = absolute value of the difference in grades (|𝐺1 − 𝐺2 | expressed as a

percent,
39
 AASHTO (2004) use a headlight of 2.0 ft (600 mm), and upward angle of 1o in Eq.
(3.64) and (3.65) to calculate the sight distance. Therefore, the required sight
distance for an equal-tangent sag vertical curve is given by
For SSD (Ss) <L

𝐴 𝑥 𝑆𝑠2
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (3.66)
120+3.5 𝑆𝑠
For SSD (Ss) > L

120+3.5 𝑆𝑠
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2 𝑆𝑠 − (3.67)
𝐴
40
 As for the crest vertical curves, a K-value can also be computed for sag vertical
curves using Eq. (3.67 or obtained from Table (3.9) when SSD < L and G = 0 is
assumed;
For SSD (Ss) < L

𝑆𝑠2
𝐾= (3.68)
120+3.5 𝑆𝑠
Minimum curve length will be calculated by Eq. 3.61 (Lmin = KA).
 As discussed for the crest vertical curves, common design practice is to assume
that L > SSD providing a conservative estimate of the minimum curve length.
 Table (3.9) gives K values as a design control parameter of sag vertical curves
when L > SSD for various design speeds.
41
Table 3.9 Design controls for sag vertical curves based on stopping sight distance
42
 On sag vertical curves, passenger’s comfort is more affected because the

gravitational force and the centripetal force are in opposite direction.
 There is no easy way of measuring comfort because of change in vertical

direction as it is related a number of factors, such as vehicle body suspension,
vehicle body weight, tire flexibility, etc.
 AASHTO (2004) recommends that for a comfortable riding, the change in

centripetal acceleration must not exceed 0.3 m/s2. In this case, the minimum
curve length should be;
𝐴𝑉 2
𝐿= (3.69)
395
where L = length of sag vertical curve (m), V = design speed (km/h), and A = as
defined before.
43
Example 3.14: Determine the minimum curve length of a sag vertical curve between
a -3% and a +1% grade for a roadway with a design speed of 100 km/h.
Solution:
Calculate the stopping sight distance from Eq. 3.60 or from Table 3.7;
𝑉𝑑2
𝑆𝑠 = 0.278𝑉𝑑 𝑡𝑟 +
254(0.35 ∓ 𝐺)
1002
𝑆𝑠 = 0.278(100)(2.5) + = 181.986 m
254(0.35∓0)
This value can be rounded to 185 m (see Table 3.7).
44
Assume Ss < L,
𝐴 𝑥 𝑆𝑠2 |−3−(1)|1852
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 =  𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = =178.371 m < Ss =185 m. So
120+3.5 𝑆𝑠 120+3.5(185)
Assume Ss > L,
120+3.5(185)
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2(185) − |−3−(1)|
= 178.125 m
Passenger’s comfort criteria;

𝐴𝑉 2 |−3−(1)|1002
𝐿= 𝐿 = = 101.266 m
395 395
Hence, use L = 180 m according to Ss > L criterion.
45
Passing Sight Distance and Crest Vertical Curves Design
 Passing sight distance (PSD or Sp) is important for two-lane highways with crest
vertical curves. For sag vertical curves, the sight is unobstructed, during
nighttime driving the headlights of the oncoming and opposing vehicles can be
easily seen by the drivers.
 To calculate the passing sight distance, Eq. (3.55) and (3.56) can be used by
setting H1 = H2 = 3.5 ft. (=1080 mm). H2 = 3.5 ft means the minimum vehicle
height that will be visible to the driver that is performing maneuver for passing.
 By using H1 = H2 = 3.5 ft in Eq. (3.55) and (3.56) and setting Sp = S will yield the
following relationships for the passing sight distance;
46
For PSD (Sp) < L

A x 𝑆𝑝2
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (3.70)
864
For PSD (Sp) > L
864
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2 𝑆𝑝 − (3.71)
𝐴
Where, Sp is the passing sight distance (PSD) which can be determined by using
Table 2.5 and Eqs. 2.45, 2.46 and 2.47.
The other terms in Eq. 3.70 and 3.71 are as defined before.
47
 Similar to the case of stopping sight distance, a K-value can also be computed to
determine the minimum curve length when PSD < L is assumed;
For PSD (Sp) < L
𝑆𝑝2
𝐾= (3.72)
864
Minimum curve length can be calculated by Eq. 3.61 (Lmin = KA).

 Table (3.10) gives K values as a design control parameter of crest vertical curves
for various design speeds for L >PSD condition.
The minimum sight distance required for passing for a given design speed can
also obtained from Table 3.10.
 Notice that the passing sight distance is always larger than the sopping sight
distance; hence the required curve length necessary to meet the passing sight
distance criteria is always larger, which increases the cost of the vertical alignment.
48
Table 3.10 Design controls for crest vertical curves based on passing sight distance
49
Example 3.15: An equal-tangent vertical curve is 1219.200 m long and connects a

+2.5% an a -1.5% grade. If the design speed of the roadway is 90 km/h, does this
curve have adequate passing sight distance?
Solution:
K-value to determine the curve length;
For V = 90 km/h from Table 3.10 to get K = 438.
The required curve length for this design speed Lmin = KA
Lmin = 438*|2.5-(-1.5)| = 1752 m

Because L = 1219.200 m < Lmin = 1752 m, the curve does not provide enough passing
sight distance.
50
Underpass Sight Distance and Sag Vertical Curve Design
 Normally, the sight distance for sag vertical curves are designed according to
nighttime conditions. However, when the sag curves is built under an overhead
structure such as roadway or railroad crossing, shown in Fig. 3.38, the driver’s
line of sight is restricted and the entire curve is no longer visible.
Figure 3.38 Stopping sight distance considerations for underpass sag vertical curves
51
where
S = sight distance (m),
H1 = height of driver's eye (m),

H2 = height of object (m),
Hc = clearance height of overpass structure above roadway (m),
L = length of the curve (m),

G1 = initial roadway grade in percent or m/m,
G2 = final roadway grade in percent or m/m,
52
 The main principle in designing sag vertical curves should be to allow enough
curve length so that the rate of curvature is changing gradually, and the overhead
structure does not block the line of sight for the required stopping sight distance.
 Using the properties of equal-tangent vertical curve, the minimum length of a sag
vertical curve for a required sight distance should be;
For S < L
𝐴𝑆 2
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐻 +𝐻
(3.73)
800(𝐻𝑐 −( 1 2 ))
2
For S > L
𝐻 +𝐻
800(𝐻𝑐 −( 1 2 ))
2
𝐿𝑚 = 2𝑆 − (3.74)
𝐴
53
 AASHTO (2004) guidelines are currently using a driver eye height H1 of 8 ft (=2.4
m) for a truck driver, and an object height H2 of 2 ft (=600 mm) for the taillights
of a vehicle. Using these values in Eq. (3.73) and (3.74) and setting S = Ss yields;
For SSD (Ss) < L
𝐴 𝑥 𝑆𝑠2
𝐿= (3.75)
800(𝐻𝑐 −1.5)
For SSD (Ss) > L
800(Hc −1.5)
L = 2 𝑆𝑠 − (3.76)
A
54
 When constructing an overpass structure for an existing sag vertical curve, Eqs.
(3.80) and (3.81), whichever applies, should be solved for the necessary clearance
height Hc to provide for the necessary stopping sight distance.
 The clearance height Hc should then be checked against the minimum clearance
height requirement based on maximum vehicle height, AASHTO
recommendations, and the maximum vehicle height regulated by government
laws.
 AASHTO (2004) recommends a minimum clearance height of 4.4 m, preferably an

height of 5.0 m, and the clearance height that is not less than the maximum
allowable vehicle height to provide a safety margin for snow accumulation during
winter, elevation changes due to future roadway surfacing, and over-height
vehicles.
55
Example 3.16: An equal-tangent sag curve has an initial grade of -4.0%, a final grade
of +3.0%, and a length of 387.096m. An overhead guide sign is being placed directly
over the PVI of this curve. At what height above the roadway should the bottom of
this sign be placed?
Solution:
In this problem, the clearance height must be determined from the required stopping
sight distance, which needs to be calculated using the K-value for the given vertical
curve.
The K-value for the given curve;

𝐿
𝐾=
𝐴
387.096
𝐾= = 55.300
|−4 − 3|
56
From Eq. (3.74),
𝑆𝑠2 𝑆𝑠2
𝐾= 55.300 =  Ss = 223.272 m
120+3.5 𝑆𝑠 120+3.5 𝑆𝑠
Or, from Table (3.9), for K = 55.3 ≈ 54.4  Ss = 220 m can also be used.
Because Ss = 223.272 m < L = 387.096m, Eq. (3.75) can be used to calculate the
clearance Hc;
𝐴 𝑥 𝑆𝑠2
𝐿=
800(𝐻𝑐 −1.5)
𝐴𝑆𝑠2
𝐻𝑐 = + 1.5
800𝐿
|−4−3|(223.272)2
𝐻𝑐 = + 1.5 = 2.627 m
800(387.096)
57
General Controls for Vertical Alignments According to AASHTO (2004) Guidelines
 The final gradeline of the roadway should be smooth with minor changes in
grades rather than with numerous breaks and short lengths of grades.
 In the vertical curve design, even though the design criteria are the maximum
grade and the critical length of grade, the way they are applied on the terrain
determines the suitability and appearance of the finished construction.
 “Roller-coaster” or “hidden-dip” type profiles should be avoided as these curves

are unpleasant esthetically, difficult to drive, and generate difficulties to drivers
who try to pass. In the “hidden”dip” profiles, drivers cannot see whether there is
an opposing vehicle approaching beyond the dip or not.
 Undulating profiles with long momentum grades, when a downgrade is not

preceded by an upgrade, should be carefully evaluated in terms of their effect on
traffic flow. These grades may cause heavy trucks to operate at higher speeds,
increase possibility of conflict with other traffic.
58
 A “broken-back” gradelines, two vertical alignments in the same direction
separated by a short section of tangent, should be avoided especially for sag
vertical curves. These curves don’t seem to be pleasant when used on divided
highway sections.
 On long grades, the steepest section should be placed at the bottom while the
flatten section on the top of the gradeline. A long uniform section with a
gradeline that is slightly less than the maximum grade requirement should be
avoided. Instead, it should be divided into shorter flatter grades especially for
streets and roads with low traffic volume.
 When an at-grade intersection occurs on steep or moderate grades, it is

preferable to reduce the grade through the intersection, which will help easy
turns of vehicles and reduce crashes.
 Sag vertical curves should be avoided in cuts unless adequate drainage can be
provided.
59
COMBINED CURVES
General Guidelines for Combined Curves in AASHTO (2004)
 Design of horizontal and vertical alignment should be performed together as they

complement each other. Poorly designed alignment combinations can worsen
the benefits and even aggravate possible deficiencies.
 Design of combined horizontal and vertical alignments is closely related to

highway location.
 In suggesting guidelines for combined horizontal and vertical alignment, it is

assumed that the highway location is fixed and a specific design is to be
developed to achieve an economical, pleasant, and safe facility on which to
travel.
60
Combined Curves
Based on these considerations, AASHTO (2004) recommends the following general

guidelines in the design of combined horizontal and vertical alignment:
 Vertical alignment that is overlapped with horizontal alignment, or vice versa, is

desirable in design, but its effect on traffic should be carefully evaluated.
 Continuously changing the profile without combination with horizontal alignment

may cause a series of humps, which degrades the efficiency of roadway.
 Horizontal alignment with sharp curvature should not be used at or near a crest
vertical curve. This is undesirable especially during nighttime because the drivers
may not perceive the horizontal change of roadway. Instead, this deficiency
should be alleviated by making the horizontal alignment longer than the vertical
alignment.
61
 Similar to the previous guideline, a sharp horizontal alignment should not be
placed at or near the bottom of a steep grade or low point of a sag vertical curve,
which causes foreshortening of roadway view during driving.
 On two-lane roads, the requirement for passing sight distance should supersede
the guidelines for combination of horizontal and vertical alignment. A long
tangent section should always be preferred to provide enough sight distance.
 On divided roads and streets, design of horizontal alignment independent of

vertical alignment may be preferred depending on the traffic and topographic
conditions.
62
Example (3.17): A two-lane highway [two 3.6-m lanes] has a posted speed limit of 80
km/h and, on one section, has both horizontal and vertical curves, as shown in Fig.
3.39. A recent daytime crash (driver traveling eastbound and striking a stationary
roadway object) resulted in a fatality and a lawsuit alleging that the 80 km/h posted
speed limit is an unsafe speed for the curves in question and was a major cause of the
crash. Evaluate and comment on the roadway design.
Solution:
The evaluation will be done on the horizontal and vertical alignments separately.
First, evaluate the horizontal alignment for curve radius, superelevation, and sight
distance properties.
63
e = 8.0%
Plan view (horizontal

alignment) PC
St. Km = 0+487.686
m
6
48
sight
5.
PT
obstruction D = 80o
St. Km = 0+998.232
Profile view (vertical

alignment)
%
G1 =
-2.0% = +4.0
G2
PVT
PVC St. Km = 0+573.031
St. Km = 0+426.725
PVI
St. Km = 0+499.878
Figure 3.39 Plan and profile for Example 3.17

64
Horizontal alignment curve length:
L = St. Km PC – St. Km PT  L = 0+487.686 – 0+998.232 = 510.546 m
∆𝑜 𝜋 180 180
Using Eq. (3.5), 𝐿 = 𝑅 𝑅 =𝐿 𝑅 = 510.546 = 365.652 m
180 ∆𝑜 𝜋 80𝑜 𝜋
𝑉2 𝑉2
Using Eq. (3.21), 𝑅𝑚 =  𝑓𝑠 = −𝑒
127(𝑒+𝑓𝑠 ) 127𝑅𝑚
where Rm = R- w/2 = 365.652 - 3.6/2 = 363.852 m.

802
Hence 𝑓𝑠 = − 0.08 = 0.059
127(363.852)
Referring to Table 3.2 (Minimum Radius Using Limiting values of e and fs),
it can be seen that for e = 0.08 and V = 80 km/h  fs = 0.14 and Rmin = 230 m.
Because the actual side friction (fs = 0.059) is smaller than the maximum available side
friction (fs =0.14), and the actual radius (R = 365.652 m) is larger than the minimum
allowable radius (R = 230 m), the alignment is safe in terms of superelevation and
curve radius.
65
In terms of sight distance on horizontal curve:
The clearance distance available (neglecting shoulder width if any):

Ms = 5.486 + 3.6/2 = 7.286 m,
L = (0+998.232) – (0+487.686) = 510,55 m

Refereeing to Table 3.7 for stopping sight distance when V = 80 km/h  Ss = 130 m
Since L > Ss Eq. 3.31 is applicable
Using Eq. 3.31 and solving for 𝑆𝑠 gives;

𝑅𝑚 −𝑀𝑠 363.852−7.286
𝑆𝑠 = 2𝑅𝑚 [𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( )]  𝑆𝑠 = 2𝑥363.852 [𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( )] = 145.872 m
𝑅𝑚 363.852
𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
Because the actual sight distance (𝑆𝑠 = 145.87 m) is larger than the minimum
stopping sight distance (Ss = 130 m), the alignment is safe in terms of sight distance.
66
Evaluation of the vertical alignment:
The curve length, L = St. Km PVT–St. Km PVC = (0+573.031) - (0+426.725) = 146.306 m

𝐿 146.306
Using Eq. 3.61 (Lmin = K *A), 𝐾 =  𝐾 = | = 24.384
𝐴 4−(−2)|
However, the K-value in Table 3.9 for sag vertical curves is given as K = 30 for V = 80 m/h.
Because the actual K-value (𝐾𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 24.384) is smaller than the minimum K-value (K =
30), the vertical alignment does not provide enough stopping sight distance.
The same conclusion can also be found by computing the stopping sight distance for
K = 24.384 using Eq. 3.68 as follows;
𝑆𝑠2 𝑆𝑠2 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

𝐾=  24.384 =  𝑆𝑠 = 111.570 m < Ss = 130 m (Table 3.9)
120+3.5 𝑆𝑠 120+3.5 𝑆𝑠
67
However, it should be noticed that the accident occurred on a sag vertical curve
during daytime conditions. Stopping sight distance for sag vertical curves is important
only during nighttime driving.
Therefore, even though the alignment does not have enough stopping sight distance,
it should be concluded that the design of the vertical alignment, in fact, did not cause
the accident.
68

Part3-5 Vertical Curves

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VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

Figure 3.33 Vertical alignment overlapped with a horizontal alignment

G2 = A final roadway (tangent) grade in percent or (m/m),

 Vertical curves are defined by a mathematical relationship correlating elevations

o They provide constant rate of change of slope hence providing smooth

 Details of a typical parabolic vertical curve are shown in Fig. 3.35

Figure 3.35 A typical parabolic vertical curve

Since at point PVC (x = 0), the slope is G1, then

Since at point PVT (x = L), the slope is G2, then

The equation of the curve can be written as

where 𝐴 = |𝐺1 − 𝐺2 | is the absolute value of the differences in grades expressed

 The end-curve offset can also be calculated in a similar manner as:

where K = horizontal distance required to change 1% slope of the curve,

A = |𝐺1 − 𝐺2 |, the absolute value of the difference in grades (%).

St. Km PVT = 5+181.600 + 182.880 = 5+364.480

Elevation of PVI = Elevation of PVC + G1 x (distance from PVC to PVI).

Elevation of PVT = 301.600+0.5% x (182.880/2) = 302.057 m

Substituting the value of a and b into Eq.(3.44) gives;

St. Km of lowest point = St. Km PVC + x => 5+181.600 + 160.020 = 5+341.620

Elevation of the lowest point 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 =>

(3 + 352.800) - (3 + 413.760 = x- 0.5L

Elevation of PVC = c = 128.016 + 0.01L => 128.016+0.01(410.978) = 132.126 m

St. Km of PVC = 3+352.800 – 410.978/2 = 3+147.311

Elevation of PVT = 128.016+(1/100) x (410.978/2) = 130.071 m

St. Km Pipe: 3+378.708

Elevation PVC = 334.792 – (1.2/100)*182.880/2 = 333.695 m

The offset above the pipe location at x =117.348 m,

The elevation of the top of the pipe = 332.720 + 1.219/2 = 333.330 m

The distance from PVC to the highest point

 The required minimum sigh distance needs to be calculated and considered

 The sight distance is also calculated separately, as for horizontal alignments,

Figure 3.36 Stopping sight distance for crest vertical curves

S = sight distance in (m),

H1 = height of driver's eye above roadway surface in (m),

L = length of the curve in (m),

Where, A is as defined before (𝐴 = |𝐺1 − 𝐺2 |)

 Equations 3.55 and 3.56 can be rewritten as

 Recall that K parameter (K = L/A) is the horizontal distance required to change 1%

Lmin = 0.60 Vd (3.63)

a) Determine the minimum length of curve necessary to meet SSD requirements

c) If the grades intersect at station 3 + 048.000, determine the stationing of the

𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 95(1 − (−2)) = 285.00 𝑚

which is slightly greater than the value obtained in (a)

St. Km PVT = (2+905.50) + 285.00 = 3+190.50

𝑥ℎ𝑙 = 95(1.0)= 95.00 m.

 Stopping sight distance in sag vertical curves is governed by the nighttime

 Roadway length illuminated is a function of the height of the vehicle headlight

where S = sight distance in (m),

 = inclined angle of headlight beam in degrees,

PVC, PVI and PVT are as defined before

 For an equal-tangent curve, it can be shown that;

For SSD (Ss) <L

For SSD (Ss) > L

Lmin = minimum length of vertical curve (m), and

A = absolute value of the difference in grades (|𝐺1 − 𝐺2 | expressed as a

For SSD (Ss) <L

For SSD (Ss) > L

For SSD (Ss) < L

Minimum curve length will be calculated by Eq. 3.61 (Lmin = KA).

 On sag vertical curves, passenger’s comfort is more affected because the

 There is no easy way of measuring comfort because of change in vertical

 AASHTO (2004) recommends that for a comfortable riding, the change in

This value can be rounded to 185 m (see Table 3.7).

Passenger’s comfort criteria;