FM Global

Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets 5-23

January 2007
Page 1 of 16

EMERGENCY AND STANDBY POWER SYSTEMS

Table of Contents
Page

1.0 SCOPE ................................................................................................................................................... 2

1.1 Changes .......................................................................................................................................... 2
2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................................... 2
2.1 Electrical .......................................................................................................................................... 2
2.2 Operation and Maintenance ............................................................................................................ 4
3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................... 5
3.1 Emergency and Standby Power Systems Information ................................................................... 5
3.1.1 General .................................................................................................................................. 5
4.0 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................................... 5
4.1 FM Global ........................................................................................................................................ 5
4.2 NFPA ................................................................................................................................................ 5
4.3 Other ................................................................................................................................................ 5
APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS ....................................................................................................... 5
APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY ....................................................................................... 6
APPENDIX C GENERAL INFORMATION ................................................................................................... 6
C.1 General ........................................................................................................................................... 6
C.2 Description ...................................................................................................................................... 6
C.2.1 Engine-driven Generators ..................................................................................................... 6
C.2.2 Batteries ................................................................................................................................ 9
C.2.3 Uninterruptible Power Systems .......................................................................................... 10
C.2.4 Multiple Utility Ties .............................................................................................................. 10
C.2.5 Motor-Generator Set and Alternator ................................................................................... 13
C.2.6 Hydroelectric Generating Plants ......................................................................................... 14
C.2.7 Switching ............................................................................................................................. 14
C.2.8 Required Power .................................................................................................................. 15

List of Figures
Fig. 1. Engine-driven arrangement. ............................................................................................................... 7
Fig. 2. Engine-driven block diagram. ............................................................................................................. 7
Fig. 3. Diesel-driven generator. (Courtesy of Caterpillar Tractor Co.) ........................................................... 8
Fig. 4. Uninterruptible power supply. (Courtesy of Cyberex Inc.) ................................................................ 11
Fig. 5. Inverter. ............................................................................................................................................. 12
Fig. 6. Continuous UPS. .............................................................................................................................. 12
Fig. 7. UPS with ac bypass. ......................................................................................................................... 12
Fig. 8. Multiple utility feeders, connected to two separate transformers. .................................................... 13
Fig. 9. Multiple utility feeders, connected to primary of one power transformer. ........................................ 13
Fig. 10. Motor-generator set. ....................................................................................................................... 13
Fig. 11. Paralleled units. ............................................................................................................................... 16

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5-23 Emergency and Standby Power Systems
Page 2 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

1.0 SCOPE
The purpose of this data sheet is to describe the types, operation, and protection of emergency and standby
power systems, and to provide guidelines for their application. Recommendations pertaining to internal
combustion generator drivers do not apply to fire pump drivers since these are adequately covered in other
FM Global standards.

1.1 Changes
January 2007. The reference to NFPA standard was corrected under recommendation 2.1.28.

2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS

2.1 Electrical
2.1.1 When emergency power is needed, provide one of the following sources. Unless otherwise noted, power
should be installed in accordance with Article 700 of the National Electrical Code as summarized below.
• Storage batteries should be capable of maintaining at least 87-1⁄2% voltage to the emergency load for a
minimum of 1-1⁄2 hours. Automatic battery charging should be provided.
• Provide means for automatically starting engine driven generators and transferring the critical load to the
emergency source. The transition time should be a maximum of 10 seconds. On-site fuel supplies should
be provided sufficient to operate the prime mover for 120 minutes at full load. Where internal combustion-
engine-driven generators are required as an emergency supply for electric-motor-driven fire pumps, the
on-site fuel supply should be increased to eight hours. Batteries used for starting should be provided with
an engine-driven equalizing charger in addition to an ac line powered float charger.
• Two utility services should have separate service drops and be separated sufficiently electrically and
physically to minimize the possibility of a simultaneous interruption of supply.
• A connection on the line side of the main service disconnecting means should be sufficiently separated
from the main disconnect to prevent simultaneous interruption of supply from a fault within the plant.
See Article 700 for complete details.
2.1.2 Install standby power systems in accordance with Article 750 of the National Electrical Code. They
should be equipped with means to automatically start the auxiliary source and transfer all required loads within
60 seconds of the normal power failure. Onsite fuel storage should be sufficient for operation at full load
for at least two hours.
See Article 750 for complete details.
2.1.3 Provide emergency power with sufficient capacity for an orderly shutdown or continued operation for
any process control and supervisory systems where a serious hazard would result from a loss of power.
2.1.4 a. Provide emergency or standby power for important equipment which could be damaged extensively
during a prolonged power outage or goods in process which could be seriously damaged because
of the failure.
b. Provide such power if a considerable business interruption would result from an extended outage.
2.1.5 Provide emergency power for the operation of combustion safety controls on large or important boilers,
ovens, or furnaces.
2.1.6 Provide sufficient emergency lighting and communications to permit fire fighting and salvage operations.
Adequate emergency lighting should be provided in transformer and switchgear rooms to facilitate repair
of any failed equipment.
2.1.7 Provide an uninterruptible emergency or standby power system for any operation or equipment, such
as some computer and communication systems, which can tolerate no power system disturbance at all.
2.1.8 Provide emergency power to maintain ventilation in any area where flammable vapors may be released
and could result in a room vapor explosion hazard such as flammable liquid storage, dispensing, and
processing areas.

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2.1.9 Where steam turbine lube oil systems are provided with dc motor driven auxiliary pumps, a reliable
source of dc should be provided. Storage batteries or rectifiers supplied by the emergency power source
would be considered a reliable source of dc if properly maintained.
2.1.10 Provide emergency power for signaling systems in accordance with Data Sheets 5-2, Proprietary
Protective Signaling Systems and 5-5, Local Protective Signaling Systems.
2.1.11 Provide emergency or standby power for space conditioning in areas such as computer rooms and
laboratories where temperature and humidity are critical.
2.1.12 Provide sufficient emergency or standby power in electric utility generating plants to allow startup
with a dead plant (black start).
2.1.13 a. Provide a diesel engine drive where reliable starting of an engine driven emergency or standby
power system is critical.
b. Install engines used to supply the auxiliary power required by some state and local building codes
in accordance with recommendations for fire pump drivers in Data Sheet 3-7N/13-4N, Centrifugal
Fire Pumps.
2.1.14 Provide a visual and/or audible alarm in a constantly attended location indicating:
1. System on normal power;
2. System on emergency power;
3. Failure of auxiliary power system.
2.1.15 Provide each load served by an auxiliary power system with an individual overcurrent device when-
ever practical. The system’s main overcurrent device should be one which can be coordinated with the indi-
vidual devices to prevent unnecessary tripping.
2.1.16 Provide drivers with an alarm and/or automatic trip on the following functions where applicable:
1. Overspeed alarm and trip;
2. Low lube oil pressure alarm and trip;
3. High engine cooling water temperature alarm and trip;
4. Low battery voltage alarm.
2.1.17 Provide engine-driven generators with starter overcrank protection.
2.1.18 When used, provide transfer switches of a type which prohibit the connection of the ac line and aux-
iliary supply simultaneously. They should be adequately sized for the maximum continuous, in-rush, and
short circuit currents required.
2.1.19 a. Provide batteries and battery racks constructed in accordance with Article 480 of the National
Electrical Code.
b. Provide sufficient ventilation to prevent an explosive accumulation of hydrogen gas.
c. Maintain the battery room or area as close to 77°F (25°C) as possible to limit the production of
hydrogen.
d. Provide overcurrent protection by means of fuses or molded case circuit breakers.
e. Provide battery chargers with both undercharge and overcharge protection.
f. Locate batteries where they will not be exposed to mechanical damage, heat dust accumula-
tions, or hazardous processes.
2.1.20 Governors and regulators should be of a type which will maintain the frequency and voltage within
the limits required by the load served.
2.1.21 Locate emergency and/or standby power systems in noncombustible buildings remote from main build-
ings, or within areas cut off from the remainder of the building by walls having a minimum of one-hour fire
resistance.

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2.1.22 Protect with automatic sprinklers those areas housing systems driven by internal combustion engines
or existing installations of combustible construction.
2.1.23 Arrange and protect fuel storage and piping in accordance with Data Sheets 7-32, Flammable Liquid
Operations, 7-50, Compressed Gases in Cylinders, and 7-88, Storage Tanks for Flammable Liquids.
2.1.24 Provide adequate floor drainage to remove spilled fuel and water from sprinklers and hose streams.
2.1.25 Provide ventilation and exhaust, where applicable, to prevent overheating of equipment, to provide
fresh air for combustion, and to prevent the accumulation of toxic or combustible vapors.
2.1.26 Maintain areas housing diesel-driven generators at a minimum of 70°F (21°C) for reliable starting.
An acceptable alternative would be to provide lubricating oil or cooling water heating.
2.1.27 Protect, arrange, and maintain gas-turbine-driven generators in accordance with Data Sheet 7-79,
Fire Protection for Gas Turbines.
2.1.28 Provide emergency electrical systems for health care facilities in accordance with NFPA No. 99,
Standard for health Care Facilities.
2.1.29 Install internal combustion engine exhaust piping in accordance with Data Sheet 3-7N/13-4N,
Centrifugal Fire Pumps.

2.2 Operation and Maintenance

2.2.1 Conduct maintenance and testing of motors and generators in accordance with Data Sheet 5-20,
Electrical Testing.
2.2.2 Keep static devices, including inverters, exciters, and voltage regulators, clean, cool, and dry. They
should also be inspected for loose connections at least annually.
2.2.3 Run engine drives at least weekly for one half hour under full load. Where it is not possible to energize
the emergency load during the weekly tests, provide a dummy load. The driver and fuel system should be
checked for adequate lubrication and fuel levels as well as fluid leaks. The generator output should be checked
for adequate voltage and frequency.
2.2.4 Make necessary adjustments and tighten loose connections monthly, lubricating where needed.
2.2.5 Change the oil filter and check the air filter every six months. Change governor and lubricating oil if
necessary.
2.2.6 Change the fuel filters annually. Thoroughly check the engine cooling system for rust accumulations
and plugging. Check for adequate room temperature or oil or water heating.
2.2.7 Maintain batteries as follows:
1. Weekly:
a) Inspect battery terminals to make sure that they are clean, tight, and free of corrosion.
b) Remove any dust or dirt accumulations on top of cells, and keep them clean and dry.
c) Check level of electrolyte. Refill to proper level, when necessary, using only water recommended for
battery use. Record amount of water used. Abnormal use of water indicates overcharging.
2. Monthly:
Check and record specific gravity and voltage of the pilot cell on each battery or group of cells to indicate
the state of charge of the entire battery.
3. Quarterly:
Give the battery an equalizing charge to ensure that it is fully charged.
4. Semiannually:
a) Check specific gravity and voltage of each individual cell. Uneven cell voltages and specific gravity
indicate trouble or approaching failure. If trouble is due to undercharging, an equalizing charge will restore
all cells to normal.

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Emergency and Standby Power Systems 5-23
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 5

b) Check for adequate ventilation in the area where the battery is located.

3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1 Emergency and Standby Power Systems Information

3.1.1 General
Most of the problems with emergency and standby power systems in the past can be attributed to a few
basic causes. Consideration of the following aspects will help provide reliable, trouble-free auxiliary power.
1. An adequately sized power system will eliminate overloading problems and assure adequate power to
all critical loads.
2. Adequate ventilation and exhaust, where applicable, will prevent overheating of equipment, provide
fresh air for combustion, and eliminate the accumulation of combustible or toxic gases.
3. A regulated output will prevent overvoltages and undervoltages which result in overheating and shortened
life of the load.
4. Proper flammable liquid and gas piping, handling, and storage will reduce the fire and explosion
hazards of engine-driven power systems.
5. Adequately sized and coordinated overcurrent protection throughout the emergency or standby power
system will prevent loss of power to an unnecessarily large section of the critical load should a fault develop.
If properly protected, a fault should not affect equipment other than that in which it originated.
6. Adequate maintenance and periodic testing will assure reliable starting and operation.
7. An emergency plan to locate and correct faults and to check the operation of auxiliary sources during
a power failure will limit the duration of outages and assure the continuity of power to critical processes.

4.0 REFERENCES

4.1 FM Global
Data Sheet 3-7N/13-4N, Centrifugal Fire Pumps.
Data Sheet 5-2, Proprietary Protective Signaling Systems.
Data Sheet 5-5, Local Protective Signaling Systems.
Date Sheet 5-15/13-14, Electric Generating Stations.
Data Sheet 5-20, Electrical Testing.
Data Sheet 7-32, Flammable Liquid Operations.
Data Sheet 7-50, Compressed Gases in Cylinders.
Data Sheet 7-79, Fire Protection for Gas Turbines.
Data Sheet 7-88, Storage Tanks for Flammable Liquids.

4.2 NFPA
NFPA, No. 99, Standard for Health Care Facilities.

4.3 Other
Article 480, National Electrical Code
Article 700, National Electrical Code
Article 750, National Electrical Code

APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS

This document does not have any defined terms.

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5-23 Emergency and Standby Power Systems
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APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY

January 2000. This revision of the document has been reorganized to provide a consistent format.

APPENDIX C GENERAL INFORMATION

C.1 General
Although emergency and standby power systems consist of the same apparatus, they serve different
purposes. Emergency power systems are used for illumination, critical refrigeration and ventilation, fire pumps
and alarms, public address systems, critical processes, and other applications essential for safety to life and
property where legally required by local, state, or federal codes. Standby power systems provide an alternate
source for other processes which, if stopped abruptly, may cause discomfort or damage to the process or
product.
Power interruptions can be the result of natural causes such as storms, floods, earthquakes, man-made
causes such as vehicles striking transformers or utility poles, or equipment failure such as insulation
breakdown.
Loss of power can result in considerable damage to equipment and goods in process as well as lost production
time. Refractory of electric melting furnaces has been damaged when shutdown caused metal to solidify,
entire paper mills have been shut down because power to process water pumps was lost, and expensive parts
in ovens or baths were damaged when loss of power disabled cranes or conveyors. Even excessive
reductions in voltage (brownouts) can cause numerically controlled machines or process control and
supervisory systems to operate improperly. Computers utilizing integrated circuit memories can lose memory
or shut down completely, requiring reprogramming or resulting in permanently lost information. Reduced
voltage causes electrical and electronic equipment to run hotter, shortening life.
Where emergency or standby power has been supplied, losses have occurred because equipment was either
in poor condition or inadequately sized since the load had increased without a corresponding increase in
the capacity of the emergency or standby power system.
Electrical loads can be classified as either critical or noncritical depending upon their importance. Examples
of critical loads might be certain communications systems, process control systems, and computer operations
to which the continuity of power is extremely important.
Critical loads can be further classified into three categories: (1) those which can withstand an interruption
of more than 1⁄4 cycle with no adverse effects, such as motors, lights and heating equipment; (2) those which
can withstand 1⁄4 cycle interruption without much affect such as relays, contactors and combustion controls;
and (3) those which can tolerate no power interruption at all, such as some communications or control
systems and electronic data processing equipment.
Noncritical loads may consist of lights, motors, and heating equipment which would not be adversely affected
by an emergency power startup delay of several seconds, or which require no alternate supply at all.

C.2 Description

C.2.1 Engine-driven Generators

Drivers. The most commonly encountered emergency or standby power sources are those driven by internal
combustion engines, available up to several thousand kVA. Among these are gasoline, natural or liquefied
petroleum gas, and diesel engines (Fig. 1 and 2). They can be on line supplying 100% load in 8 to 15 seconds.
Gasoline-engine-driven generators are available up to approximately 170 kW. Their disadvantages are the
fire and explosion hazards of gasoline and the sludge formation associated with lengthy storage.
Natural gas or LPG-driven generators are available up to 600 kW. The disadvantage of natural gas is that
storage is impractical and long runs of piping from utility mains are often unreliable since they may be subject
to the same impairment which resulted in the initial failure. LPG storage is restricted by local codes in most
areas.

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Emergency and Standby Power Systems 5-23
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Fig. 1. Engine-driven arrangement.

Fig. 2. Engine-driven block diagram.

Diesel-driven generators are available in larger ratings than gas or gasoline driven types, use safer and
cheaper fuel, require comparatively little maintenance, and are the most reliable. They are available from 3
kW to 4000 kW (Fig. 3).
Recent surveys have shown spark-ignited engines such as gas or gasoline-driven types to be less reliable
than diesel engines. This can be partly attributed to the fairly complex fuel and ignition systems involved. For
this reason, consideration should be given to the use of compression ignition engines where reliability is
critical.
The use of steam-turbine-driven generators as standby power sources has been virtually eliminated. Most
industrial locations no longer maintain the excess steam supplies necessary for standby equipment in addi-
tion to processing and heating needs. The use of gas-turbine-driven generators is becoming increasingly
popular since they are much smaller than reciprocating engines of equivalent output and therefore can be eas-
ily transported and installed. They are readily available from manufacturers, run smoothly, require no cool-
ing water connection, and burn natural gas, kerosene, diesel fuel or fuel oil. The disadvantages are that they
are slow starting (full speed in forty seconds at best) and are very inefficient. Inefficiency is usually not a con-
sideration for an emergency or standby power system unless frequent use for long periods of time is
expected.
Generators. Generators (also called alternators) used with engine drives are usually the brushless, rotating
salient pole field type with rotating solid state exciters, although very small units have rotating armatures. Volt-
age outputs range from 120/208 to 347/600 V, four wire, three phase. Diesel-driven and gas-turbine-driven
units are available in output voltages much higher, but these higher potentials are not ordinarily needed for

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5-23 Emergency and Standby Power Systems
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Fig. 3. Diesel-driven generator. (Courtesy of Caterpillar Tractor Co.)

industrial emergency and standby use. Output voltage and frequency must match that of the normal sys-
tem, so relays are provided to keep the outputs synchronized. Generators are usually designed for use with
0.8 power factor loads and are rated for a specific temperature rise. They must be chosen with sufficient
capacity to serve the largest continuous load and maximum in-rush current expected. Many manufacturers
overrate their generators, since they are used only periodically and for short lengths of time, making them
unsuitable for continuous use.
Governors. Governors maintain the speed of engine drivers, and hence the generator output frequency, con-
stant by varying the fuel input to the driver as the load varies. Increasing the load would normally cause
the engine to slow down, but the governor senses the speed reduction and admits more fuel, thus maintain-
ing speed while increasing the power output. If the load decreases, the governor cuts down on the fuel and
prevents an increase in speed.
Governors can be mechanical, electrical, hydraulic, or a combination of these. They are generally classi-
fied as either isochronous, in which there is no variation in speed with load, (±1⁄4% frequency regulation), or
droop speed control, in which the speed at no load would be slightly higher (±3% frequency regulation). The
isochronous governor can be chosen where tight frequency control and fast response to system changes
are needed for critical loads.
Voltage Regulators. Voltage regulators maintain generator output voltage constant, thereby reducing the
effect of load changes, usually by varying the output voltage of the generator’s exciter according to the engine
speed. Most voltage regulators now used on emergency or standby generators are of solid state construc-
tion. Generator manufacturers will recommend the best voltage regulator to use for a particular installation
depending upon the range of regulation required.
Control Panel. Control panels for engine-driven generators are usually mounted adjacent to the unit, but
may be located in a remote, constantly attended location. Panels are equipped with ac voltmeters and amme-
ters, frequency meters, running time indicators, and tachometers. Visual alarms on the panel consist of lamps

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Emergency and Standby Power Systems 5-23
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 9

to indicate low lubricating oil and fuel pressures, high cooling water temperature, and overspeed. An operat-
ing switch, which can be set for manual or automatic starting, and a voltage adjustment device are also
provided.
Starting. Engine starting is usually accomplished by means of a battery-powered electric starter motor. Where
quick starting of gas turbines is necessary, pneumatic or hydraulic starters are also available. These con-
sist of high pressure fluid-driven motors. Batteries used for electric starters are usually lead-acid or nickel-
cadmium storage batteries of 6, 12, or 24 V and are float-charged by means of an automatic charger
connected to the normal ac supply. An additional charger powered by the engine-driven generator can be
used to supply a higher rate-equalizing charge to restore the battery to full capacity after starting.
Engine drives are often difficult to start in cold weather because of cold fuel, air, or lubricating oil. The most
common way to avoid this problem is to provide heat in the generator area. Where this is impractical, the lubri-
cating oil or cooling water may be heated.
An optional feature available on most emergency generators is an exerciser, that is, a timer which automati-
cally starts the unit for a test run at predetermined intervals. Most generators are run for several minutes
under load on at least a weekly basis.
Mobile Equipment. If it is impractical to own emergency or standby generating equipment from an eco-
nomic standpoint and there is no load for which immediate auxiliary power is necessary, it may be possible
to rent mobile equipment. Mobile generators are usually internal combustion engine or gas turbine driven
and are transported by truck. Engine driven units are available in sizes from 1 kW to 450 kW and turbines
10 kW to 2700 kW.
Mobile equipment can usually be rented from major manufacturers or electric utility companies. They can
often be obtained as a complete package including switchgear, relays, controls, and fuel storage in a sound-
proof and weatherproof enclosure.

C.2.2 Batteries
Batteries produce electricity by means of a chemical reaction, and storage (secondary) batteries allow a
reversal of this reaction by applying a charging current. They can be used to operate emergency lights,
switches, solenoids and dc motors directly, to start engine driven generators, and as the basis of an uninter-
ruptible power system. When the ac input fails, the battery source takes over.
The discharge rate of a battery is dependent upon the total surface area of its plates and its internal resis-
tance. For short duration, high discharge rate demands, such as engine starting, a battery containing many
plates is needed. For demands of longer duration but lower discharge rates, a battery constructed of fewer
but larger plates should be used.
Batteries are rated in ampere-hours (Ah), the product of a discharge current and a nominal discharge period,
and cold cranking power. The ampere-hour rating is usually given during a 3 or 8 hour period at 25°C (77°F).
The specification of the battery ampere-hour and cold cranking power ratings should be left to the engine
manufacturer. They depend upon engine size, load, and the temperature in which it will operate.
The actual sizing of battery cells to meet a particular need is best left to the battery manufacturer. Before
the manufacturer can determine the proper size, he must know the total load to be served and the expected
duty cycle of the system.
The most popular storage batteries in use today are lead-acid and nickel-cadmium batteries, but systems sup-
plied by these types of batteries have fairly limited durations. For higher demands or longer durations, an
engine-driven generator alone, or as a backup for the batteries, is usually provided. In any case, a bank of stor-
age batteries is needed for starting.
For batteries to maintain their maximum capacity, they must be kept charged. Rectifiers are used to con-
vert the incoming ac to dc to float-charge the battery bank by applying a constant voltage across the bat-
tery terminals. This charge counteracts the internal reactions of the battery which tend to deplete it when not
in use. After a period of discharge an equalizing charge of higher voltage is applied to the battery restor-
ing it to full capacity quickly. As an example, a typical lead-acid battery cell has a voltage of 2 V; the float
charge is usually 2.15 V per cell and the equalizing charge 2.33 vpc. These values may vary slightly; there-
fore, the battery manufacturer’s recommendations for charging voltages should be followed.

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C.2.3 Uninterruptible Power Systems

An uninterruptible power system (UPS) consists basically of a rectifier, battery bank, inverter, and switching
equipment (Fig. 4). Under normal operation the ac utility supply is converted to dc and fed to the input of
an inverter.
The inverter then converts the dc back to ac of a predetermined frequency. Upon failure of the ac supply,
the battery bank feeds the necessary dc to the inverter input.
An inverter is a solid state device which converts dc voltage from the rectifiers or batteries to ac. It con-
sists of three basic sections which include an oscillator, solid state switching and a regulating filter (Fig. 5).
The oscillator produces a square wave output from the dc input, the frequency of which can be adjusted
by tuning a resonant circuit. The oscillator output is used to trigger the solid state switches (SCR’s) on and
off alternately, producing another square wave, the frequency of which is determined by the oscillator and
the magnitude of which is determined by the voltage of the dc supply. The output of the switching section feeds
into a regulating filter which consists of a ferroresonant transformer. This converts the square wave to a
smooth sine wave and prevents damage from overloading by automatically limiting the maximum output cur-
rent until the overload is removed.
The output of the UPS is completely isolated from the ac line. Because of this isolation, the output is not
affected by momentary voltage dips, switching, or lightning surges, and since the frequency is determined
by the oscillator, it is not affected by slight ac line frequency variations. This close voltage and frequency regu-
lation make the UPS well suited for computer or high speed communications applications which are extremely
sensitive to voltage and frequency changes.
Uninterruptible power systems can be arranged to supply a load continuously, completely eliminating any
transfer time after a failure. The system shown in Figure 6 powers the entire load. Such an arrangement is
sometimes used where the majority of the load is voltage and frequency sensitive, but is impractical for loads
which consist mainly of lighting, heating and motors.
Two other systems can be utilized using the arrangement shown in Figure 7. In one case, the load is nor-
mally powered by the ac line and is switched to the UPS during a failure of that line. In the other case, where
the voltage and frequency filtering and regulation inherent in the UPS are desirable, the load is normally
fed by the UPS and switched to the ac line during a UPS failure only. A signal taken from the ac line is some-
times fed to the uninterruptible power source as a synchronizing pulse to keep the ac supply and the UPS out-
puts in phase. When this is done, a relay is also arranged to disregard this synchronizing signal if the ac
line frequency deviates excessively from normal. The UPS then operates at a predetermined oscillator
frequency.
Redundant uninterruptible power systems consist of two or more units in parallel, the outputs of which are con-
trolled by a transfer switch. Normally only one UPS operates at a time, eliminating the possibility of sev-
eral units feeding a fault simultaneously. However, if it is necessary to have two or more operating at the same
time, provisions are made to isolate each UPS so a faulty unit will be taken off line.

C.2.4 Multiple Utility Ties

There are many possible arrangements in which two or more utility company feeders can be used to improve
the reliability of an industrial distribution system. The most desirable of these arrangements consists of two
separate feeders supplied from different points feeding two transformers at the plant. The feeders should
not be subject to the same exposures. Each transformer would normally supply one half of the demand, but
be capable of supplying the total demand. Both the inputs and outputs of the transformers should be con-
nected by normally open tie breakers used to cross-connect the systems (Fig. 8). With this system, either
feeder can supply either transformer, one of which can supply the entire distribution bus. Unfortunately, this
arrangement may be impractical since the added cost of larger transformers and secondary bus for reliabil-
ity is unjustifiable at small locations.
A less desirable, but more practical approach would be similar to the system described above, but in this
instance each transformer would be capable of supplying one half the system demand only. In the event of
a failure, one transformer could keep the distribution bus energized to supply the critical load, but all non-
essential loads would have to be dropped to prevent overloading. Overloading the transformer would result
in excessive overheating and shortened life, if not an immediate failure.

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Fig. 4. Uninterruptible power supply. (Courtesy of Cyberex Inc.)

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Fig. 5. Inverter.

Fig. 6. Continuous UPS.

Fig. 7. UPS with ac bypass.

Another but still less reliable arrangement would be two separate feeders connected to the primary of the
plant’s one power transformer. One feeder would be normally connected and the other tied in with nor-
mally open circuit breakers (see Fig. 9). With this type of system, the utility company usually specifies which
feeder will be the normal source and which the backup source depending upon the loads on their system.
Switching of multiple utility feeders can be accomplished by transfer switches which will automatically change
from one feeder to the other upon a failure, or by the use of circuit breakers and voltage sensing relays.
When evaluating the reliability of utility services to an industrial distribution system, there are several fea-
tures which must be considered. The feeders, if overhead, should not be exposed to damage by fire, wind,
ice, or snow. Exposure from fires in combustible buildings, yard storage, and trees should be minimal. Dam-
age may result when lines become heavily loaded with ice or snow, and high winds cause collapse. This pos-
sibility can be greatly reduced by adequate pole spacing and line support. Substations supplying feeders
should be protected from fire and lightning. Information on emergency procedures followed by the utility com-
pany and a record of the number and duration of past outages are also helpful in determining reliability. Even
further reliability can be obtained if multiple services are supplied by different utility companies.

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Fig. 8. Multiple utility feeders, connected to two separate transformers.

Fig. 9. Multiple utility feeders, connected to primary of one power transformer.

C.2.5 Motor-Generator Set and Alternator

A motor-generator (M-G) set can be used as a source of emergency or standby power for outages of short
duration. An ac motor normally drives an alternator, mounted on the same shaft, which generates the ac out-
put. The motor also drives a dc generator-motor which normally float-charges a bank of storage batteries.
When the usual source of ac power fails, the battery bank supplies the dc generator-motor which drives the
alternator (Fig. 10).

Fig. 10. Motor-generator set.

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Like the uninterruptible power system, an M-G set and alternator combination is dependent upon the capac-
ity of its battery bank. It is less expensive than an uninterruptible power system but is larger, noisier, and
requires more maintenance. Because its frequency regulation is not as close as that of a UPS, it is not as
desirable for computers or other frequency-sensitive applications.
Occasionally, flywheels are used on the motor-generator shaft to stabilize the output of the alternator and
eliminate the effects of momentary voltage dips by converting the kinetic energy of the rotating mass to elec-
trical energy.

C.2.6 Hydroelectric Generating Plants

In some cases, small hydroelectric generating plants are used for emergency or standby power. See Data
Sheet 5-15/13-14, Electric Generating Stations for details of operation and recommendations.

C.2.7 Switching
A transfer switch is a self-acting device which transfers one or more conductors from one power supply to
another. In the case of emergency or standby systems, the switch removes the required load from the nor-
mal supply, which is usually the incoming utility power, and connects it to an auxiliary supply. The total trans-
fer time is measured from the normal source failure to the switch closing on the alternate supply.
Automatic transfer switches operate on a power failure or excessive reduction in voltage and/or frequency.
The power interruption is sensed by a protective relay which is connected to the power source and which may
be arranged to start the alternate supply as well as actuate the transfer when the alternate source is stabi-
lized. The relay then monitors the preferred source continuously and retransfers the load when normal power
is restored, meanwhile shutting down the emergency or standby source.
Switches used for noncritical loads are usually arranged to transfer when the normal supply drops to 70%
or less of rated voltage and retransfer at 90% or more (90% and 95% respectively for more critical loads).
In areas subject to frequent voltage dips or momentary outages, a time delay is usually added to the trans-
fer switch to avoid unnecessary actuation of the alternate power source. A delay on retransfer will prevent
returning to the normal supply if it is restored only momentarily. Other time delays can be used to require
engine-driven generators to reach normal running temperature before retransfer takes place.
Both electromechanical and static transfer switches are available. Electromechanical switches consist of elec-
tromagnetic coils and movable contacts; they are mechanically latched in the normal position, electrically
tripped and mechanically or electrically held in the auxiliary position. Switching time is approximately 1 to 2
cycles. Static switches consist of solid state components and no moving parts so switching time can be made
as low as 1⁄4 cycle or less. In order to guarantee reliable operation, both types of switches are powered by the
source to which the load will be transferred.
Because of its importance in an emergency or standby power system, a transfer switch must be substan-
tially constructed. Most are designed to withstand an in-rush surge of at least ten times their normal run-
ning current rating, taking into account motor starting and lamp in-rushes. They must also carry their maximum
continuous current ratings without overheating.
Switches must also withstand the voltage drops and thermal and mechanical stresses which result from the
maximum short circuit currents which can be drawn through them. Since transfer switches are designed
to activate when a certain voltage drop is sensed, a time delay must be added to prevent transferring on
the voltage drop which results from short circuit current. The impedance of the switch must be low in order
to limit the heating losses. Electromechanical switches must be latched in either position adequately to pre-
vent opening under the magnetic stresses caused by short circuit currents.
To help limit the maximum available short circuit current, the switch must handle and minimize differences
in voltage levels between the switch and the equipment served.
When determining the correct transfer switch to use in a particular installation, the following factors must
be considered:
1. The maximum in-rush, operating currents, and short circuit currents as previously described.
2. The maximum tolerable transfer time.
3. The time delays necessary.

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Emergency and Standby Power Systems 5-23
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets Page 15

4. The space limitations.

C.2.8 Required Power

Specification. Classification of all loads as to their criticalness is the first step in deciding what kind of
emergency or standby power system is needed. Critical loads may consist of some emergency lighting,
motors and controls for important process equipment. A list can then be made of all loads which are to be
served by the power system. Generally, the types of loads which must be considered are lights, which are usu-
ally not critical, heating loads which are usually regulator controlled, electronics equipment such as comput-
ers and communications which are voltage- and frequency-sensitive, and motors which are not critical but
are most demanding because of high starting currents. It is also important to consider auxiliary equipment
such as motor-driven fans for heating equipment and air conditioning for computers.
The next step is to determine the total demand of the load. To size an emergency power system properly,
both the running power and the starting in-rush current of the load must be known. The total power drawn by
equipment (kVA) can be found by measuring the voltage, current, and wattage used with common meters
and calculating, or in many cases the rating can be taken directly from the apparatus nameplate. From the indi-
vidual ratings, the total kVA and the net power factor of the critical load can be calculated. (See example
later in this section.)
The in-rush current can also be found by either of two ways: measuring with an ac ammeter at the instant
the equipment is turned on, or approximating from the types of loads served. Motors, for example, have a start-
ing current of about five times their running current. Filament lamps, which have a low cold filament resis-
tance, have a maximum in-rush current of 14 times normal and fluorescent lamps 2 times normal. Starting
currents of other equipment usually can be found from equipment specification sheets or technical bulletins.
Other items to consider in specifying an emergency power system are the length of the interruption toler-
able, if any, and the duration of the supply needed.
Expansion. From time to time, it will be necessary to upgrade the capacity of emergency or standby power sys-
tems to meet increasing demands. One way of providing for expansion is to buy oversized systems, but
this is usually economically unjustifiable. It is more practical in most cases to provide an installation that can
be easily expanded.
The capacity of uninterruptible power supplies or generators can be increased by paralleling units as shown
in Figure 11. In this case, provisions must be made to synchronize the outputs automatically before they
are connected to the same load. Care must also be taken not to exceed the ratings of emergency system feed-
ers and switches as the capacity of the system is increased.
A point that is often overlooked is checking transfer switches to determine whether or not they are still capable
of withstanding the available short circuit current when the utility system’s capacity is increased. Inad-
equate switch strength can result in extensive equipment damage if a fault develops downstream of it.
Where Needed, General. In determining when emergency or standby power should be provided and the
extent to which it should be provided, the following should be used as a guide.
1. How critical is the power to the process or equipment? The first decision which must be made is whether
or not it is important to supply a particular piece of apparatus with secondary power at all.
2. What damage could result to equipment or manufactured goods if power were lost? If control of a sensi-
tive chemical reaction is lost, will it result in fire or explosion? If parts remain in heat treating ovens or chemi-
cal baths too long, will they be seriously damaged? The extent of damage should be carefully evaluated
if possibilities such as this exist.
Example: It has been determined that the load to be served by an emergency power source is 10kW of motor
load at a power factor of 0.80 lagging, 2 kW of controls at a power factor of 0.80 leading, and 3 kW of lights,
all at the same voltage. Determine the total system demand and the in-rush current.

1. kVA = √ kW2 + kVAR2

kW
2. kVA =
pf
3. kVAR = √ kVA2 – kW2

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Fig. 11. Paralleled units.

kW
4. pf = cosθ =
kVA

From the above formulas, the kVA and kVAR demands for each load can be determined. (For lagging power
factor, use negative kVAR and for leading power factor, positive kVAR. Lights use no kVAR and hence the
power factor is 1.)

Calculated kVA Calculated kVAR

Load kW (Given) pf (Given) from (2) Above from (3) Above
Motors 10.0 0.80 lag 12.5 –7.5
Controls 2.0 0.80 lead 2.5 +1.5
Lights 3.0 1.00 — 3.0 0.0
Total 15.0 –6.0

15
From (1), total kVA = √ (15)2 + (–6.0)2 = 16.2, pf = = 0.93 lagging
16.2
The in-rush currents can be approximated as previously described using the current ratings obtained from
the nameplates.
3. What is the maximum interruption duration which can be tolerated? If computer control or data process-
ing equipment is used, it is likely that no interruption can be tolerated. Fans, pumps, and compressors can
probably tolerate several seconds of interrupted power with no effect at all.

FM Engr. Comm. Jul. 1978

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