1684 PDF

Setting up
and running
a small-scale
cooking oil business
Opportunities in food processing

a series
Opportunities in Food Processing
Setting up and running

a small-scale cooking oil business
Contributing authors :
Barrie Axtell, Peter Fellows, Linus Gedi, Joseph Hounhouigan, Franklin Murphy
and Peggy Oti-Boateng
Edited by :
Peter Fellows and Barrie Axtell
Midway Associates
Published by CTA
(2012)
The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) is
a joint international institution of the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) Group of
States and the European Union (EU). Its mission is to advance food and nutritional
security, increase prosperity and encourage sound natural resource management in ACP
countries. It provides access to information and knowledge, facilitates policy dialogue
and strengthens the capacity of agricultural and rural development institutions and
communities.
CTA operates under the framework of the Cotonou Agreement and is funded by the EU.
For more information on CTA, visit www.cta.int or contact:

CTA
Postbus 380
6700 AJ Wageningen
The Netherlands
E-mail: cta@cta.int
Citation:
Fellows, P.J. and Axtell, B. (Eds), 2012. Setting up and running a small-scale
cooking oil business, Opportunities in food processing series, ACP-EU Technical
Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA). ISBN 978-92-9081-478-8
Copyright © 2012 CTA, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in retrieval
systems or transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior written
permission of CTA. CTA encourages the non-commercial use of the material in this
publication. Proper citation is requested.
ISBN 978-92-9081-478-8
Cover photo © L. Gedi
Design and production: FAB s.a., www.fab.be

Preface
This handbook is the result of a collaborative effort by small business owners
and advisers of small-scale food processors in ACP countries. The effort was
supported by the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation ACP-
EU (CTA). The information contained in the handbook was gathered by the
researchers below, who surveyed local oil processing enterprises and prepared
reports that were then edited by Midway Associates. The oil processing
specialists John Wegrzyn, Dave Harcourt and Tony Swetman reviewed the
draft publication and made valuable contributions to the text from their own
perspectives.
We hope this handbook will meet the needs of small-scale enterprises and the
agencies that support them by providing technical and business information
that was previously difficult to find, and by helping entrepreneurs to update
and improve their businesses for the benefit of their consumers and, of course,
their own profitability.
If you find this handbook useful, please take a few minutes to complete the
feedback form at the end of the book. Your comments and suggestions will be
used to improve the later books in this series.
Preface
-5-
About the authors
Barrie Axtell is a British food technologist with over 30 years’ experience
working in Africa, Caribbean, Asia and Latin America. His particular interest
centres on small-enterprise-based drying of fruits and vegetables and
processing high value crops such as medicinal plants, spices and essential
oils, and small enterprise development. He has co-authored 15 books and
numerous articles on the role of appropriate technology in food processing.
Dr Peter Fellows is a consultant food technologist and a director of Midway

Associates. He is Visiting Fellow in Food Technology at Oxford Brookes
University in UK and has held the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Chair in Post-Harvest Technology at Makerere
University, Uganda. He is an experienced author and has published 28 books
and more than 35 articles on small-scale food processing. He has practical
experience of assistance to food processors in 20 developing countries and
specialises in support to institutions that assist them.
Dr. Joseph D. Hounhouigan is a Professor of Food Science and Technology

at the Faculty of Agricultural Science of the University of Abomey-Calavi,
Benin. He has been the Head of the Department of Nutrition and Food
Science for more than 10 years. Scientific Adviser and member of the Food
Science Advisory Committee of the International Foundation for Science (IFS),
he has about 25 years experience in research, development and transfer of
food technologies for micro- and small-scale enterprises. He has co-authored
6 books, more than 50 articles in international journals and more than 40
scientific communications on traditional and improved African food processing
and quality assurance. Since 2007, he has been National Director of Scientific
and Technological Research at the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific
Research.

Linus Gedi has experience in agro-industry and particularly in post-harvest
technology. Before becoming a consultant he was first a tutor and then
Principal at Ilonga Agriculture Training Institute in Tanzania. For the past
25 years he has worked on various consultancy assignments, ranging from
planning primary crop production, handling, storage and marketing of food
Setting up and running a small-scale cooking oil business

-6-
products, project appraisal and evaluations. His commodity expertise includes
cotton, cashew, sisal, oilseeds, grains, fruits and vegetables, beverages,
fishery and meat products. From 1996-2003 he worked as the United
Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) National Expert in
food technology, training entrepreneurs and trainers and helping them
set up small enterprises that achieve high quality production and a cleaner
environment. Since 2004 he has been a consulting food technologist with the
Small Industries Development Organisation, involved in training, promoting/
supporting SMEs to invest in agro-food processing and ensuring the produce
quality and safe food products. He sits in various national and private advisory
bodies on food and agro-industry. He is Director and Chairman of Traceability
(T) Ltd, a private company that is involved in traceability and quality issues for
the food industry.
Franklin Murphy is an internationally experienced food technologist, from St

Vincent, with over 20 years experience in the fisheries and food sectors. He
has studied and worked in Canada, Japan, Taiwan, UK and the Caribbean.
He has an M.Sc. in fisheries from the University of Hull, has worked in the UK
on product development and modified atmosphere packaging and was also
involved in fish storage trials for the EU/Qualpois project. He has represented
St Vincent and the Grenadines at numerous fisheries fora and is an FAO/
DANIDA/USFDA certified trainer of trainers in HACCP. As well as conducting
numerous workshops on food related topics and HACCP he has co-authored
a publication on Caribbean pelagic fisheries. He currently works as the
Operations Manager for an Agro-processing company in St Vincent.
Dr (Mrs) Peggy Oti-Boateng is the Director of the Technology Consultancy

Centre (TCC), of the College of Engineering, Kwame Nkrumah University
of Science and Technology and provides leadership in achieving the vision
and mission of TCC as a centre of excellence for research and innovation,
technology transfer, consultancy and entrepreneurship. She has over 26 years’
professional experience in teaching, R&D and consultancy in Nutrition and
Food Technology with a passion for development, monitoring and evaluation
of innovative systems for the promotion of sustainable healthcare and
industrial and socio-economic growth and mentoring young scientists and
engineers. She has expertise in design and transfer of:
About the authors

-7-
•  Technologies for the establishment of small scale enterprises for economic
empowerment and job creation for rural communities;
•  Development of initiatives for the commercialisation of farmer-based
organisations and community-based nutrition promotion for children and
women and;
• Graduate entrepreneurship development.
She is the author of several articles, manuals and books on food technology,
health and nutrition, microfinance, technology policy and HIV/AIDS. She has
presented her work at several national and international organisations such as
UNESCO, World Bank, EU, WHO, Millennium Development Agency, UNIFEM,
ILO, Association of African Universities, African Development Bank, South
African Institute of Civil Engineers, Ministries of Food and Agriculture, Health,
Trade and Industry, and African Knowledge Transfer Partnership just to name
a few. She represents the University in a number of national and international
organisations and universities and is currently the Liaison for Zain African
Challenge, University Contest and an International Juror for UNESCO-Daimler
Mondialogo Engineering Award.

-8-
Acknowledgements
This handbook is the result of a collaborative effort by the authors, researchers
and small-scale industrialists. A large number of additional people gave
freely of their time to assist in its preparation and publication. We would
particularly like to record our thanks to Jenessi Matturi at CTA for her
support, encouragement and constructive ideas, to Mathew Whitton for
the illustrations, to John Wegrzyn, Dave Harcourt and Tony Swetman for
reviewing the draft publication. We also wish to thank the following small-
scale industrialists in Africa, and the Caribbean for sharing their experiences of
the problems and successes of operating their oil processing enterprises and, in
doing so, contributing to the success of others:
• Eugenia Akuete, CEO, Naasakle Ltd, PO Box 841, GP, Accra, Ghana.
• Mr Akwasi Baah Aful, Sekyere East Oil Mills, c/o PO Box 5, Asokore, Ashanti
Region, Ghana.
• Mr and Mrs Christopher Mutayoba, CRM Investment, Bahari Beach, PO Box
5522, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Tel: +255 713414047.
• Mr Benoît Kpodjinou, Tchégbonvo Enterprise, Djomon, Avrankou, Benin.
• Mr Mambea Bakari Kachema, TFDK Traders, PO Box 66, Itigi Singida,
Tanzania. Tel: +255 26 254300 Cel: +255 754 820989.
• Mr Robert Akwasi Kwakye Nketia, Raktia Holding Ltd, Adakogyakye, PO Box
5999, Kumasi, Ghana.
• Mr Robert Tovizounkou, Kpodjava Enterprise, BP 58 Pobè, Ikpinlè, Adja
Ouèrè, Benin.
• Mr Simon Nasuilah Yuda, Jembe Oil, PO Box 7383, Tegeta Kibaoni, Dar es
Salaam Tanzania. Tel: +255 756 147739.
• Mr Thomas W. Bello, Golden Web Company Ltd, GIHOC Factory Complex,
Lake Road, Chirapatre, PO Box AH8520, Ahensa, Kumasi, Ghana.
• Mr Tovizounkou Aimé, Titi l’Ope Enterprise, BP 58 Pobè, Ikpinlè, Adja Ouèré,
Benin.
• Mrs Antoinette Sounadja, Chairman Elavagnon Group, S/C Gendehou C.
Albert, BP 10 Zandjanando, Agonli Cove, Zou, Benin.
• Mrs Martha Nero, c/o the Post Office, The Point, Owia, St Vincent.
Acknowledgements
-9-
Finally, we gratefully acknowledge the following companies, organisations
and publications for giving permission to use the following information:
Fig. 2.2 from Sadiat Babalola, National Horticultural Research Institute, Ibadan,

Nigeria.
Fig. 3.4 from Abrinsky at Flickr Images, available at

http://creativecommons.org/ns#, www.flickr.com/photos/abrinsky/464235236/
Fig 3.9. Dispenser and Fig. 4.6. Oil expeller, courtesy of Alan Brewis, Oil
Production Equipment, Selby House Farm Northumberland NE65 8PR, UK.,
Tel: +44 (0) 7932 847175, email: rapeseed@btinternet.com
Web: www.oilseedpress.co.uk
Figs. 4.2 and 4.3 from Tiny Tech Plants (pvt) Ltd., Tagore Road, Rajkot 360 002,
India, Tel: 91 281 2480166, 2468485, 2431086, Fax: 91 281 2467552, Mobile:
91 9227606264/ 9227606570, E-mail: tinytech@tinytechindia.com, Website:
www.tinytechindia.com and follow the links to products.
Figs. 4.4a. Screw press and 4.12. Small hand coconut grater, from Practical
Action Publishing, The Schumacher Centre for Technology and Development,
Bourton on Dunsmore, Rugby, CV23 9QZ, UK., Tel: +44 (0)1926 634501, Fax:
+44 - 01926 634502, Website: www.practicalactionpublishing.org
Fig. 4.18 adapted from Pieralisi España S. at

http://www.sabor-artesano.com/gb/mill-roller.htm
Fig 4.24 courtesy of Marco Schmidt at

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vitellaria_paradoxa_MS4195.JPG
Fig. 5.1 from All QA Products, P.O. Box 369, Mount Holly, NC 28120, USA.,  
Tel: +1 704 829 6600, Fax: +1 704 829 6602, E-mail: sales@allqa.com, Website:
www.allqa.com/Oil_Testers.htm

- 10 -
Fig. A2. from Sunora Foods, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, Tel: +1 403 247 8300,
Fax: +1 403 247 8340 E-mail: steve.bank@sunora.com or emilia@sunora.com,
Website: www.sunora.com/About.page
Table 4.2 from Oil Processing Technical Brief, Practical Action, The Schumacher
Centre for Technology and Development, Bourton on Dunsmore, Rugby,
Warwickshire CV23 9QZ, UK, Tel: +44 - (0)1926 634501,
Fax: +44 - 01926 634502, Website: http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers
and follow the link to oil processing.
Table 5.2 from Global Complex Co., Ltd., 712 Happy Land Sai 1 Rd., Klongchan,
Bangkapi, Bkk 10240, Thailand, Tel: 662-3752455-58,
Fax: 662-3752499, foodsafetykit@gmail.com, Website: www.gccthai.com/pdf/
Peroxide Value of Cooking Oil.pdf
Tables 2.4 and 7.2 -7.6 from Practical Action Publishing, The Schumacher
Centre for Technology and Development, Bourton on Dunsmore, Rugby,
CV23 9QZ, UK., Tel: +44 (0)1926 634501, Fax: +44 - 01926 634502,
Website: www.practicalactionpublishing.org
Barrie Axtell
Peter Fellows
Acknowledgements
- 11 -
- 12 -
Contents
Page
Preface 5
About the authors 6
Acknowledgements 9
Contents 13
How to use this book 16
1 Introduction 17
2 Marketing and selling cooking oil and by-products 27
Tips for success 27
2.1 Introduction to marketing and selling 28
2.2 Market segments 29
2.3 Market research 33
2.4 Marketing mix 40
2.5 Packaging and brand image 44
2.6 Customer care: how to find and keep customers 47
2.7 Dealing with competitors 49
Summary of the chapter 53
Entrepreneur’s checklist 54
Reader’s notes 55
3 Setting up production 57
Tips for success 57
3.1 Selecting the location 60
3.2 Design and construction of the building 62
3.3 Layout of equipment and facilities 66
3.4 Selecting equipment 66
3.5 Selection of packaging materials, filling and sealing equipment 69
Reader’s notes 79
Contents
- 13 -
4 Processing technologies 81
Tips for success 81
4.1 Types of oil crops 82
4.2 Raw material preparation 88
4.3 Methods of extraction 89
4.4 Oil clarification and refining 97
4.5 Methods of extraction of different oils 101
Reader’s notes 129
5 Quality assurance and legislation 131

Tips for success 131
5.1 Introduction 132
5.2 Quality assurance procedures 133
5.3 Safety of products - HACCP 135
5.4 Quality of raw materials 139
5.5 Process control 146
5.6 Operator training, hygiene and sanitation 148
5.7 Methods of analysis 150
5.8 Packaging, storage and distribution 155
5.9 Summary of legislation 158
6 Managing production 169

6.1 Production planning 170
6.2 Expected sales 172
6.3 Inputs of raw materials and packaging 173
6.4 Calculation of production rate 177
6.5 Uses for by-products 182
6.6 Staff recruitment and training 184
6.7 Maintenance of equipment 195
6.8 Record keeping 198

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6.9 Business productivity improvement 201
7 Planning and managing finances 209

7.1 Financial planning 210
7.2 Income and profit 224
7.3 Managing finances 228
Annexes 239
A A summary of the science of cooking oil 239
B References and further reading 251
C Equipment manufacturers 259
D Institutions involved in oil extraction 271
Glossary and acronyms 285

Index 289
Reader’s questionnaire 293
Contents
- 15 -
How to use this book
This book is intended to be a practical guide to help improve the operation of
a small oil processing business - with each different aspect covered in separate
chapters. It is intended to be read alongside the first publication in this series:
Opportunities in Food Processing, Volume 1 - Setting up and running a small
food business, which gives further information on wider aspects of food
processing.
Whether you want to start a new business or simply want to improve your
existing operations, we suggest that you read both books and make notes on
what you need to do in the space provided at the end of each chapter in the
READER’S NOTES.
However, operating a small business is a full-time job and you may not have
the time at the moment to read the whole book. If an area of your operation
is posing a particular problem, we recommend that you first read the relevant
chapters in both books and act on the recommendations. There are a number
of ways in which you can use this book to help you grasp the main points in
each subject area.
First, you can look at the TIPS FOR SUCCESS at the start of each chapter. These
provide ideas for improving a particular aspect of your business.
Next, important points and ideas are highlighted in the text using a bar symbol.
There is a SUMMARY of the most important aspects at the end of each

chapter.
CASE STUDIES can be found throughout the book, providing real-life examples
of how small-scale oil processors have overcome various problems they have
met in their day-to-day operations.
Finally, at the end of each chapter there is an ENTREPRENEUR’S CHECKLIST

that you can use to tick the main actions you need to take to improve that
aspect of your business.

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Introduction 1
In most ACP countries, cooking oil has a high demand and a high added value,
which makes it a suitable product for small-scale processing operations. The high
added value means that a relatively small amount of oil can be produced to earn
a reasonable income. The com
Speciality/
mon types of cooking oil that Cooking
Type of crop non-food
oil
are processed at a small scale are oil
shown in Table 1.1. Almond ✔
Argan ✔ ✔
Scales of business operation Avocado (dried fruit) ✔ ✔
Babassu palm kernel ✔
can be defined using numbers
Cashew nut ✔
of employees and level of
Coconut flesh ✔
investment as shown in Table Copra (dried coconut flesh) ✔
1.2. There are four scales of Cotton seed ✔ ✔
businesses: micro-enterprises, Grape seed ✔
small-scale enterprises, medium- Groundnut ✔
scale enterprises and large- Hazelnut ✔
scale manufacturers. This Macadamia nut ✔
Maize germ ✔
book describes the important
Marula ✔ ✔
aspects of running a micro-,
Melon seed ü
small- or medium-scale cooking Mustard seed ✔ ✔
oil business. These aspects Olive ✔ ✔
include finding and developing Palm fruit ✔
suitable markets, preparing Palm kernel ✔
a feasibility study, selecting Pumpkin seed ✔
equipment, choosing a site Rapeseed ✔
Safflower seed ✔
and setting up the premises.
Sesame seed ✔
Details are also given of the
Shea nut ✔ ✔
different technologies that can Soybean ✔
be used for extracting cooking Sunflower seed ✔
oils; methods of processing and Table 1.1. Types of crops used to produce cooking
quality assurance, and managing oils, speciality oils and oils for non-food uses
Introduction
- 17 -
finance and business operations. The case studies provide practical examples
showing how others have built successful businesses making cooking oil.
Scale of business Employee numbers Capital investment ($US)

Micro-scale Less than 5 employees Less than $1000
Small-scale 5-15 employees $1000-50,000
Medium-scale 16-50 employees $50,000 - 1,000,000
Large-scale More than 50 employees More than $1,000,000
Table 1.2. Definitions of scales of oil processing businesses
Cooking oils are also used to make soap, hair oils and skin creams, both for use
in ACP countries and for export. There are also a number of speciality cooking
oils (such as organic virgin coconut oil, brazil nut oil, organic certified extra
virgin avocado oil and argan oil) that have a limited demand in ACP countries,
but are exported to industrialised countries, often to ‘Fair Trade’ organisations
(see Annex D). These oils, together with starseed, flaxseed and safflower seed
oils, may also be used as health supplements. These products are beyond the
scope of this book, but sources of information are given in Annex B. There are
also products known as ‘essential oils’ or essences (e.g. oils made from aniseed,
bergamot, chamomile, sage, hyssop, juniper, lavender, mandarin, peppermint,
sandalwood, tea tree and thyme), which are used both in aromatherapy and
cosmetic products. These oils are produced by different processes to those
used for cooking oils and they are not included in this book. References to
their production are given in Annex B.
The establishment of a small-scale cooking oil business requires very careful

consideration, as there are several important factors to take into account,
some of which may limit its viability:
Crop supplies
Most oil-bearing crops have a short harvest season. This means that processors
may have to buy crops for the entire year’s production and properly store
them until they are processed. This requires sufficient warehouse space and
more careful production and financial planning than some other types of
processing. It is also necessary to properly store crops, both to prevent spoilage

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1
and financial losses, and to prevent the growth of moulds, some of which
can produce poisons that contaminate the crop. In addition, there can be
unpredictable supplies and large variations in prices for the raw materials.
This is because crop yields vary considerably according to the weather, rainfall
patterns, and plant diseases.
Control over raw material supplies is one of the most important factors
that affects the ability to continue production and the profitability of an oil
processing enterprise.
Other factors that were identified by a researcher in Tanzania are summarised

in Case Study 1.1.
Case Study 1.1: Factors affecting the operation of small oil mills
Sunflower oil production has great potential in Tanzania because of the

availability of the raw material and the growing market for sunflower oil
in the country. SMEs that are involved in sunflower oil production have the
challenge to increase production of good quality, safe oil for consumers
who are becoming more health conscious. The challenges to increased
performance of enterprises include:
• Availability of affordable credit for financing investment and working
capital.
Enterprises need to upgrade their technology, but also to improve the
equipment, layout and plant sanitation.
• Fluctuating production of sunflower seed affects its availability. This is
because production is rain-dependent and hence raw material prices
fluctuate with changes in seed availability, also affected by competition
from buyers that export the sunflower seeds.
• There is a need for training in production management and quality
assurance to ensure the quality and safety of products. There is also a need
for better training of enterprises in business planning and marketing.
• The quality and availability of packaging materials is a challenge. At
present, products are packaged in generic (common) plastic containers that
have many other uses. There is need to customise the packaging to create a
brand identity for each of the producers.
Introduction
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Economic factors
Although cooking oil has been produced using traditional technologies for
millennia in many areas, these processes are often very slow, extract a small
percentage of the available oil, and use a considerable amount of energy for
heating. Improved extraction technologies can increase oil yields, reduce fuel
consumption and enable higher production rates. However, the local economic
situation is very important, and the viability of improved technologies in one
economic context does not ensure that it can be achieved in a neighbouring
country - or even a neighbouring community. The success depends on the
processors’ ability to pay for the improved technology, and having facilities for
local maintenance and repair of equipment. It especially depends on the value
that can be added to crops by processing, the skills of the processor to make
good quality oil, and to manage the enterprise effectively. In some areas,
sales of oil alone are not profitable and it is the contribution to income from
oilcake by-products that makes the overall business profitable.
It is necessary to look closely at each individual situation to decide whether

small enterprise.
Demand for refined oils
In many ACP countries, the majority of people, especially in rural areas, prefer
the taste of traditionally produced unrefined oils, whereas more wealthy urban
consumers and commercial customers such as bakeries and food service outlets
(see Chapter 2, Section 2.2) have a greater demand for refined oils that have a
blander flavour. The refining stage is more difficult at a small scale of operation
and this may limit the ability to supply the refined oil required by these customers.
Competition from large-scale producers and imported oils
In many ACP countries, large-scale factories produce cooking oil more

cheaply than small-scale producers and these companies may also have large
advertising budgets, which make competing against their products more
difficult. Aggressively marketed, low-cost and attractively packaged oil can be
a serious threat to the survival of small-scale producers.

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1
Cooking oil is one of relatively few foods that is traded internationally on a large
scale. Worldwide production of cooking oils has increased dramatically in the last 50
years, but the biggest increases have been from temperate crops, where economies
of scale have favoured the competitors of ACP producers: Brazil and the USA are
the world’s main soya producers, Canada and EU countries produce rapeseed, and
Malaysia for oil palm in vast plantations. In the face of this competition, small-scale
farmers and modestly sized estates in ACP countries find it difficult to compete.
Tropical crops such as coconut, sunflower and groundnut now have about half of
the world market compared to 50 years ago. Several factors have led to the decline
of vegetable oil production in the tropics in general and the ACP countries in
particular. Coconut and oil palm harvesting are labour-intensive, whereas soybean
and rapeseed harvesting are highly mechanised. Soybean and rapeseed oil are
also produced under policies that support farmers in industrialised countries, and
these oils have been sold at prices below
the cost of production of tropical oils. Case Study 1.2: Competition from
The pressure to liberalise trade and open imported oils
home markets to foreign competition
have resulted in subsidised low-cost The edible oil industry in St.
imports at the expense of ACP farmers and Vincent and the Grenadines was
processors (although the low prices may once a thriving concern, with
benefit ACP consumers). As one researcher several estates supplying the raw
for this book noted: “The company material (dried coconut kernels)
was vibrant and did well until 2007, to several factories and was an
when a change in government policy to exporter of coconut oil up to the
open door importation of cheaper oils 1980s. However, the increasing
created unfavourable competition for importation of cheap soybean
local production”. Lack of investment in and other vegetable oils, coupled
plantations and processing plants in ACP with misleading claims about
countries has also resulted in reduced dangers of coconut oil and rising
yields, quality and productivity. In addition, raw material costs, eventually led
the large scale importation of cooking oils to the collapse of the industry in
by relief agencies for feeding programmes the late 1980s. The last factory at
and dumping of cheap oil from Arnos Vale closed its doors around
industrialised countries can undermine the 1982 and was dismantled, making
market for locally produced oils. way for a supermarket car park.
Introduction
- 21 -
Policy environment
The ability of small-scale processors to profitably produce cooking oils depends

in part on the policies adopted by their government. ACP governments can
have different policy agendas that have an impact on the success of small-scale
oil processing. For example, where the policy is to generate foreign exchange
earnings, the government may support the establishment of a large-scale
centralised oil production factory to produce refined cooking oil that is suitable
for export. Producer prices may be kept artificially low in order to compete in
international markets. Under this type of policy environment large scale oil
refiners take advantage of a monopolistic control over oilseed supplies and pay
lower prices to farmers. Inevitably, some of this refined oil is sold locally in urban
shops and supermarkets, where it meets the needs of the urban population
and competes with unrefined oils produced by small-scale producers. In these
situations, rural oil producers can find it difficult to compete because their
traditional techniques are more labour intensive and inefficient.
There may be other reasons, such as wider socio-economic benefits, for

establishing a small oil processing business, in addition to generating incomes
for the owner and employees. For example, in many ACP countries large oil
processors do not address the demand for oil in rural areas, where customers
typically buy it in small amounts. A small-scale rural oil business can meet this
demand, and can also create additional benefits to rural populations, while
operating profitably (see Case Study 1.3).
Case Study 1.3: Benefits of small-scale oil processing
In Zimbabwe, the oil market was dominated by four major producers,

based in urban areas but failing to supply rural communities. Given that
the oilseeds are grown in the rural areas, and that a market exists there, it
made sense to look into decentralised oil production.
Small-scale mills are commercially viable, returning an annual average of
51% on typical investments of between US$ 17,000 - 22,000, with profits of
21% on sales.

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1
The socio-economic benefits of the mills are also significant:
> A typical mill employs ten people on a permanent basis and three
temporary workers with an average monthly income that is two and a
half times the rural average.
> The mills offer a ready cash market for sunflower crop. A typical mill buys
several thousand dollars worth of sunflower per year from six hundred
and fifty farmers.
> Other beneficiaries are schoolchildren who collect bottles for recycling,
fuelwood suppliers, and (local) maintenance workshops that repair the
mills. These amount to a further twenty five beneficiaries, earning several
hundred dollars per year from a mill.
> Benefits accrue to the community through cheaper oil of high quality.
Typically the sunflower oil is cheaper than the refined blended oils
produced by the major four oil companies. It is estimated that several
thousand dollars worth of benefits are shared between an average of 732
households per mill, through lower costs
(From Whitby and Sunga (1995) in Annex B).
• The enterprise is among the largest producers of palm oil because of its
production capacity and the quality of the oil it produces. In addition, it
helps to alleviate the problem of unemployment because it uses a lot of
manpower in the region.
• The Oil Mills Co-operative was originally a collection of eighty women
who processed palm oil using laborious traditional oil extraction
methods. In the District Assembly’s efforts to enhance palm oil
production, increase productivity, and increase income generation for
women, it sought technical and financial assistance for the women
through technology upgrading and credit provision. An NGO came to
their aid.
• The business is recognised as the best producer of palm oil in the town
because of its high production capacity and the quality of oil that is
produced. In addition, it helps alleviate the problem of unemployment
because it uses a considerable proportion of manpower in the region.
Introduction
- 23 -
If government policies are designed to increase oil consumption and improve
the nutritional status of rural populations and low-income households, or
to improve incomes to farmers, they are more likely to support small-scale
processing. For various reasons, large-scale centralised oil producers cannot or
choose not to supply low-cost oil to rural areas. This may be because of higher
transport costs for oil distribution; the costs of refining and packaging the oil
make it too expensive for rural or low-income households; or a high demand
from urban supermarkets and/or export buyers who are willing to pay the
higher prices. In this policy environment, small-scale oil producers can compete
effectively to meet the demand from rural consumers for low-cost unrefined
oil. This is because they have lower transport costs for moving crops to rural
or peri-urban oil mills, reduced packaging and marketing costs by selling oil
directly to local consumers or supplying retailers in re-usable oil drums. Large
numbers of small-scale oil producers also create a more competitive market for
crops, which benefits farmers’ incomes and may encourage them to expand
crop production. The availability of locally produced oilcake by-products also
stimulates animal, milk and egg production, which can help improve the
nutritional status of rural populations and/or increase incomes to farmers.
Improved small-scale oil processing can therefore increase the availability of oil
in the diet and generate income in rural areas.
Some countries have centralised and controlled agricultural marketing policies

and pricing structures, which are designed to protect the incomes of poor
farmers. However, if farmers are obliged to sell their crops to a marketing
parastatal, this can increase the price of raw materials to oil processors
because of the additional transport, storage and administration costs. In some
cases this can make processing unprofitable, especially if the price of cooking
oil is also state controlled.
Other uses for oils
Oil production for biodiesel is increasing in some ACP countries, which may
reduce the availability of crops for cooking oil production, or increase the
prices for raw materials and hence affect the profitability of small-scale
operations.

- 24 -
1
Summary
In summary, there are many political and economic factors that affect the
potential for success or failure of a small-scale oil processing enterprise,
and many of these are very specific to individual ACP countries and even to
regions within a country. It is therefore important for potential oil processing
entrepreneurs to carefully assess their local situation before investing in the
business to ensure that it can be profitable. Details of the factors to take into
account are given in subsequent chapters of this book, which should be read
alongside the companion publication: Opportunities in Food Processing -
Volume 1: Setting up and running a small food business.
A fictional conversation below shows the type of answers that a new

entrepreneur might give to some important questions about small-scale
cooking oil production, and indicates the chapters of this book that contain
the information to answer these questions.
Aspect to See
Small business adviser  Potential entrepreneur
consider chapter
Because I think people
Why do you want to start a
really want cheaper Market 2
cooking oil business?
cooking oil
Who else makes cooking oil? My friend Amos Competition 2
Where will you set up your At home in the back
Premises 3
business? yard
What equipment will The same machines as
Equipment 3
you need? Amos has
Where will you store the raw
I’ll rent a shed Crop storage 4
material?
Have you thought about how
I’ll see what bottles are
much product will be in each Packaging 5
available
pack?
Will the quality of the oil be
Well I hope so Quality assurance 5
OK?
Are the water and electricity
Sometimes Services 6
supplies OK?
Introduction
- 25 -
How much oil will you Maybe as much as I can Production
6
produce? sell planning
It all depends on how
Will you employ others? Staff planning 6
much money I can make
Have you done this before?  No, but I watched Amos Experience 6
I told you, I watched
Have you been trained at all? Expertise 6
Amos
I’m not sure, but less
How much will the oil cost? than the price of oil in Pricing 7
the shops
Where will you get the
What’s that? Finance 7
capital?

- 26 -
Marketing and selling cooking oil
and by-products 2
Tips for success
The following tips were provided by successful oil processors in ACP
countries:
✔ T hink about who your consumers will be and select sales outlets that
they will use. If you want to sell to institutions or other companies, get to
know their buyers.
✔ Get to know the market and your competitors.
✔ Remember it is the final consumer not the shopkeeper who decides
whether to buy your product.
✔ Target different types of market to spread the risk.
✔ Calculate the amount that you can sell per month and only supply
quantities that will sell within the shelf life.
✔ Use promotions to help retailers sell your products. They want to make a
profit too.
✔ Advertise using media that your customers will see and hear.
✔ Build a business image and keep it. Use the label to display the business
logo and pay as much as you can afford for the label.
✔ Aim to please: customer satisfaction is very important for the growth of
the business. Make sure that everyone in your business is focused on your
customers.
✔ Handle complaints promptly to maintain your reputation.
✔ Keep a close watch on sales and be in regular contact with your key
customers.
✔ Don’t compromise on quality.
✔ Protect your brand. Unpredictable quality is a sure way to ruin your
business.
✔ Consider having two brands: premium and budget if raw material quality
is variable. It is better to have consistent second quality than top quality
that is variable.
✔ Attend any local courses in order to improve your business.
✔ Finally: Read Sections 3.1, 3.3, and 9.1-9.4 in Volume 1: Opportunities in

Food Processing - setting up and running a small food business.
Marketing and selling cooking oil and by-products

- 27 -
2.1 Introduction to marketing and selling
Some oil processors confuse marketing with selling, but the two are very
different. Marketing is deciding what to do to meet customers’ needs and
how to make a product more competitive. Selling is the action that results in a
customer buying a product (e.g. taking telephone orders or visiting shops and
taking orders, delivering to customers, selling from a factory shop, or bidding
for a government supply contract).
Good marketing paves the way for successful selling

by making a customer ready to buy a product.
A simple definition of marketing is:
‘Seeing your product as your customers see it

and doing something about it to make more money’
or:
‘The management process that identifies, anticipates and satisfies customer

requirements while making a profit’
The first definition emphasises the importance of getting to know what

customers need, whereas the second definition emphasises that marketing
is an ongoing process, rather than something that is done when a business
first starts (see also Griffith (2002) in Annex B for further information). The
marketing process is summarised in Fig 2.1.
1. Identify customer group(s)
2. Learn what they want and what you can make

5.Keep improving
3. Make the food to meet their needs,
better than competitors
4. Tell customers about it
Fig. 2. 1. The marketing process (From Griffith (2002))

- 28 -
2.2 Market Segments
One of the first activities when planning an oil processing business is to decide 2
who will be the target customers1. A Market segment is a term that describes
an identifiable group of customers. The different types of market segments for
cooking oils can be described in five main groups (Table 2.1):
1. Retail 4. Institutional, and
2. Food service 5. Food businesses.
3. Wholesale
Market sectors/Types of customer

Retail
Supermarkets • Men or women
Shops • Children and young people
Kiosks • Rural, peri-urban or urban households
From own factory shop • Wealthy or less wealthy families
Service (or ‘custom’) oil milling • People interested in ‘healthy’ foods
• People with special dietary needs
• Office or factory workers
Food service businesses
Tourist hotels/lodges
‘Fast food’ outlets or take-aways
Cafes, restaurants
Street food vendors
Wholesalers
Institutional
Schools
Hospitals
Military/police barracks
Other food businesses
Bakeries
Snack food makers
Street food vendors
a) b)
Table 2.1. a) Examples of market sectors for cooking oils, b) Examples of different types of
consumer in retail markets
1 A customer is the person who buys a food and a consumer is the person who eats it - these are not
always the same people. Customers can also be wholesalers or retailers. This is important when
deciding how you want to sell the oil and who you expect the final consumers to be.

- 29 -
Wholesale, retail and food service markets
For most small-scale oil processors, the retail and food service markets are
likely to be the most important in the majority of ACP countries. Within each
segment in Table 2.1a, there are sub-divisions that may have different and
specific needs. For example, in the retail sector, customers for oil may include
owners of shops, managers of supermarkets, or street vendors who sell oil.
For these customers, the marketing factors may include the quality of the oil,
size of the pack, attractiveness of the label and value for money. However, the
final consumers’ perceptions are not just about price and quality, but may also
include convenience, health or nutrition (Case Study 2.1). Producers should
decide which factors are special for their product and emphasise these on the
label or in their product promotion.
Case Study 2.1 Consumer perceptions
• In Tanzania there are indications of rising consumer demand for

sunflower oil due to the growing health consciousness of consumers.
Most of the consumers go for oil that is fresh and free from chemicals
and other contaminants (i.e. pressed and filtered oil).
• Their main selling point is that consumers believe their oil to be high
quality.
• The company has no established marketing plan but takes pride in the
fact that it is well-known in the Ashanti region and people travel from
around Asokore to buy their quality products either on wholesale and
retail basis. They also sell to schools and individual consumers who visit
the factory.
Retail consumers (Table 2.1b) are often women who buy oil to prepare family
meals. However, women from different social or economic groups may have
different requirements for a particular type of cooking oil, they may require
a specific type or size of container, or have a maximum price. Hence they may
buy oil at specific types of outlets: more wealthy urban consumers may use

- 30 -
supermarkets located in large urban centres. These women may prefer to buy
oil in larger bottles and use it over a period of time.
Women who have less disposable income, especially in rural areas, may buy 2
a small bag or sachet of oil when they can afford it from a village shop or at
weekly markets. Here, price is a main factor. In some countries, poorer people
also buy oil from street vendors or hawkers who buy the oil in bulk and sell
it in individual bags or ladled into customers’ own containers. Although only
a small proportion of people may buy oil each week, and the amounts that
they buy are small, their large numbers in many ACP countries mean that the
market size can be large (see also Table 2.4, market size).
Consider having both a premium brand and a budget brand of oil to meet
different consumer needs
In the food service sector, urban and peri-urban cafés, fast-food takeaways,
restaurants and hotels are likely to buy oil in bulk, and price and reliable
deliveries are more important than an attractive label when choosing a
supplier. Other food service customers include producers of fried street foods
(Fig 2.2) who may buy small amounts of oil each day. Their large numbers and
wide geographical spread in towns, along main roads and in villages, means
that this segment could be a large potential market for cooking oil producers.
Fig 2.2. Street food - fried banana chips (Photo: S. Babalola)

- 31 -
Institutional and industrial markets
In institutional markets, the segments may include people who buy oils to prepare
foods in schools, in meals for patients in district hospitals, or for soldiers in military
barracks. These customers are often professional buyers either at the institutions
or at government ministries, and orders may be won by a competitive tendering
process. The main factors of interest to these buyers are that they require oil to
be delivered in bulk, at a low price, and with a proven ability to meet delivery
requirements. Oil processors should therefore take these factors into account
when deciding if this is a market sector that they can successfully target. Similar
considerations apply to food company buyers (e.g. from bakeries) who buy oil
as an ingredient for their products. Again, low price and the ability to meet bulk
delivery requirements on time are their main requirements.
Case Study 2.2: Examples of choosing market segments
The company has been aggressive in marketing a range of its products and now
has 5% of the vegetable oil market in Ghana. It sells to a number of individuals
and large national and multinational companies both in Ghana and exports to
other African countries, the EU and the US, for food processing, pharmaceuticals
and soap making.
Mr R has a wide range of customers such as market women who retail the oil,
local restaurants, paint producers, schools and individual households. He also
sells to other oil refineries that blend the soybean oil with either groundnut or
coconut oil for shallow frying in restaurants.
Mr B runs the only oil refinery in Kumasi and as a result offers services to
other local oil processors that request refining of crude palm oil, coconut oil,
palm kernel oil, sunflower oil, groundnut oil and shea butter. He has a good
strategic marketing plan that is constantly being reviewed to make the company
competitive.
The company produces unrefined soybean and groundnut oils for both the local
and West African markets.
90% of groundnut oil and 80% of palm kernel cake are sold to the European
Union.
The marketing consultant worked with the management and the Board of
Directors to develop a comprehensive marketing plan that has strategies and
targets for short, medium and long term periods.

- 32 -
Markets for by-products
The only by-product that has a large market as human food is the oilcake 2
produced after groundnut oil extraction. This is used by bakers to make
groundnut flavoured biscuits, and as an ingredient in soups and stews in some
ACP countries. All oilcake by-products are used as a component in animal
feeds, including poultry rations and cattle feed. They are usually sold to animal
farmers, either in sacks or in bulk without packaging. Other by-products from
coconut oil production are shown in Chapter 6, Fig. 6.3, and by-products from
palm oil processing are described in Chapter 4, Section 4.5. The sale of by-
products can be very important and in many small businesses these sales make
the difference between profitability and losses.
2.3. Market research

Market research is the process of identifying the most suitable market
segments for a cooking oil business, and these may be within a local
community or further afield. Many small-scale processors can identify local
customers’ needs by talking to them informally, but they find it more difficult
to identify the needs of customers who are outside their community. To do
this, processors need to gather information, both on the needs of the different
types of customers and also on competitors. Getting this information involves
conducting a market survey and also getting information from written
sources, such as newspapers or trade reports (see also Section 2.4).
There are market research companies in many ACP countries that are able to
do this type of work, but it is better for producers to do it themselves. This is
because they will then properly understand their customers’ needs, who are
the competitors, and how the markets for oil actually operate. If necessary,
processors can get assistance from advisers or university marketing staff on
how to conduct a market survey (see Opportunities in Food Processing Volume
1, Section 3.3).
A market survey is used to get information about who will buy the oil, when,
where from, how much and for what price. Surveys can also be used to get

- 33 -
detailed information on the quality that customers expect from the oil they
buy. A convenient way of doing it is to use simple questionnaires (Tables 2.2
and 2.3) to ask a selection of people for their views on:
1) The product and its quality, and
2) Market size and value2.
Product quality: Questions can focus on what are the things that customers like
or dislike about existing products (either those of competitors or a producer’s
own products) or samples of a new product that a producer has made.
Question
1 Which type(s) of Write types of oil(s)
cooking oil do you buy
most often?
1 2 3 4 5
Very good Good Average Bad Very bad
Tick the appropriate box
1 What do you think
about the colour of
the oil you buy?
2 What do you think
about the taste?
3 Is it clear enough for
you?
4 Do you think that the
quality is good for the
price you pay?
8 Is there anything else Write answers
that you think is good
about the oil that you
buy?
9 Is there anything else Write answers
about the oil that
you would like to see
improved?
Table 2.2 Example of a consumer survey questionnaire on the quality of competitors’ cooking oils
2 Market size is the total weight or volume of oil bought per month or per year, and market value is the
amount of money spent on the product each month or year.

- 34 -
Question Results from 60 customers
1 2 3 4 5 Total
Very Good Average Bad Very bad
good 2
What do you 17 22 21 0 0 60
think about the
colour of the oil?
What do you 7 8 19 24 2 60
think about the
taste?
Is it clear enough 7 10 22 21 0 60
for you?
Do you think that 2 8 20 21 9 60
the quality is
good for the price
you pay?
Table 2.3. Analysis of a survey on the quality of competitors’ oil
The results of this type of survey can be analysed by adding together the
numbers of answers such as ‘very good’, ‘bad’ etc. In the example in Table
2.3, the answers show that 65% of people (17 plus 22 out of 60) found the
colour of the oil to be good or very good, 43% (24 plus 2 people out of 60) did
not like the taste of the oil, with some commenting that it tasted rancid (see
Annex A) and 35% (21 out of 60) thought that the oil was too cloudy. Half of
the people interviewed did not think the quality of the oil was good value for
money. Results like these show that a potential market exists for a product
having a better quality, or a similar quality that has a lower price.
Market size and value: A different set of questions is needed when assessing
the size and value of a market for a particular product. Further information
on how to calculate market size and value is given in Opportunities in Food
Processing Volume 1, Section 3.3. Examples of calculating the size of a cooking
oil market are shown in Case Study 2.3, 2.4 and Table 2.4 (see also dealing with
competitors in Section 2.7).

- 35 -
Category of Number in category Purchases Total demand
customer (Litres/month) (Litres/month)
Low paid 20650 0.2 4130
Medium paid 768 2 1536
High paid 60 2.6 156
Total 5822
5% of total market demand = 291 litres/month

Table 2.4. Calculating the size of the cooking oil market (Adapted from Potts and Machell
(1993) in Annex B)
The numbers in each category in Table 2.4 are from official statistics and the
amount of oil that each group of customers would buy is an average of the
information from interviews with 50 households. Low income households
preferred to buy oil twice per month in 100 ml amounts, whereas medium-
and high-income households could afford to buy one-litre bottles of oil every
fortnight. A realistic starting point for a small-scale producer is 5% of the
calculated demand, which would result in sales of nearly 300 litres per month.
Case Study 2.3: Markets for cooking oil
The following are examples of markets that were described by small-scale

oil processors in a number of ACP countries:
• In Tanzania, the enterprise produces sunflower oil in 1-litre and 5-litre
containers, and more rarely in 20-litre containers that are demanded
by groceries to dispense in small units of 50 - 100 ml to customers. The
main sales outlets are groceries, wholesalers and individuals. Many of
the customers collect their supplies at the factory gate. As yet there are
limited threats from sellers of imported brands of oil. The clientele of this
enterprise have the confidence that it produces pure sunflower oil, which
is its main selling point.
• The company produces a variety of different oils and oil blends for both
local and international markets.

- 36 -
• The market for sunflower oil is attractive in Dar es Salaam, especially
among middle class people who associate the oil with health
improvement. Buyers of the product are both retailers and wholesalers. 2
The owners believe they are able to reach 10% of the sunflower oil
market in Dar es Salaam and hope this will increase as they get more
experience in the market.
• The group sells 540 litres of groundnut oil per month. Of this, about
320 litres are sold by the group members at the local market and about
210 litres are shipped to wholesalers in nearby markets at Bohicon,
Abomey, Dassa, Dantokpa and Porto-Novo. Besides oil, the group also sells
groundnut cake in these markets.
• The enterprise sells 1100 barrels of palm oil, each having a capacity of 200
litres, per year. The oil is sold to the wholesalers in Nigeria and in closer
markets at Ikpinlè, Pobè, Sakété, Porto-Novo and Takon. Partly this is for
cooking oil and partly for cosmetic companies in Nigeria.
• For many years the company has been aggressive in marketing its products
and now has about 2% of the soybean oil market and 4% of the soybean
cake market in Ghana. The company has plans to expand its business and
increase its revenue by establishing a refinery.
• Demand is very high and for this reason, there is no competition between
different palm oil producers. The enterprise sells 850 litres of palm oil per
year in nearby markets. Oil is also sold to wholesalers in Nigeria.
• The company has not embarked on any advertisements or promotions, but
relies on the quality of their product for their promotion. The products are
sold in markets in Ejura, Agona and Asokore, with the Ejura market being
used by buyers from Burkina Faso and Togo. The premium quality palm oil
is sold to marketers who package it for supermarkets and for export; the
medium quality is sold for local cooking oil and the low-grade oil is sold
for soap making.
• Part of the production is for the cooking oil market in Benin and Nigeria.
Another part is used by cosmetic companies in Nigeria to make soap.
The enterprise also sells other products like palm nuts to palm kernel oil
producers.
• The company has a large distribution network and sells on a wholesale
basis to the armed forces, hotels, restaurants, shops, schools and hospitals.

- 37 -
Case Study 2.4: Calculating the size of the cooking oil market for hotels and
restaurants
Interviews were held with 16 hotel and restaurant owners in the town and
10 (62.5%) said they would buy the oil at the stated price. Their demand
for oil (per owner per month) was between 11 litres and 25 litres with an
average of 14 litres per month. Using a telephone directory we found that
the total number of hotels and restaurants in the town and surrounding
areas was 148. Then we calculated the total demand for oil by multiplying:
(Total No owners) x (% who said they would buy oil) x (average demand per
month).
This gave us the following demand = 148 x 0.625 (or 62.5%) x 14, which
equalled 1295 litres of oil per month.
When interviewing retail or wholesale customers, market survey questions

may include for example:
• Which types or groups of consumers buy oil from you?

• Which groups buy most oil?
• Which types of consumer pay the best prices?
• What characteristics do these groups of consumers share?
• Are there other similar groups of consumers that you know about?
• Have you considered selling to these other groups? If not, why?
• What do people currently buy? (i.e. what are the competitors doing?)
The more people that are interviewed in a survey, the more accurate is
the information, but a balance is needed between the time and cost of
interviewing large numbers of people and the accuracy of the data obtained.
As a guide, 50-75 interviews should produce good information about the
market for a product in a particular area.
Considering the information from market surveys on both product quality and
market size and value enables an oil processor to make decisions about the
way the business will operate to meet customers’ needs. For example:
1. Who will be your customers (e.g. businesses, institutions, private
individuals)?
This allows decisions to be made on creating a product that has the flavour,

- 38 -
colour etc. required by the customers, developing an attractive package
(packaging type and label design) and suitable oil quality. This also helps
decide the types of advertising and promotion to use to reach the intended 2
customers.
2. What are the average income levels of your intended customers and the
amounts of oil that they buy each month?
An idea of the importance of oil in total family expenditure allows decisions
on setting a suitable price (pricing is described in Chapter 7), and producing
and supplying a uniform quality product in the amounts required (deciding
the size of the packs). It also allows decisions on the amount of production
required per month, leading to decisions on the size of equipment required.
3. Where are your customers located (e.g. urban, rural, which towns, near to
the production site?).
This allows decisions on the geographical locations of sellers you choose
to use or where to locate new sellers, the distribution methods to use and
who will do the distribution. It may involve deciding how to negotiate with
wholesalers, retailers, distributors, hotel and restaurant owners etc. who will
sell the product (e.g. what to offer them that is better than their current
supplier).
It is important to note that the success of an oil processing business is very

site-specific, and other market-related information that may be important
includes:
• Amounts of oilseeds already produced and who produces them (estates or
smallholder farmers), is there an under-supply or over-supply of crops?
• How easily can customers be reached by road or rail or across borders?
• The amount of oil already available, including imported oil, products from
large factories, small expellers in provincial towns and home production. Is
there any under-utilisation of existing processing facilities or are there any
processing constraints?
• How oilseeds are currently used, including the importance of other products
(such as soap, cosmetics and biodiesel) and the amounts of oilseeds that are
used by these producers.
• The effects of government policies, including subsidies, controlled prices,
taxes, import restrictions and exchange rates, and the effect of any proposed
or likely changes in policies.

- 39 -
2.4. Marketing mix
When information about who are the main customers, where they are located
and how they buy their oil is added to information about the quality and
price that consumers expect, the result is known as the marketing mix. This is
often described as the ‘4Ps’ - Product, Place, Price and Promotion. Examples
of components in a marketing mix are described in Fig. 2.3 and further
information is given in Opportunities in Food Processing Volume 1, Section 9.2.
Product Place
Better quality Longer opening hours

Better appearance Better decoration
More attractive packaging Cleaner environment
Clearer labels Popular location
More nutritious Delivery service
More varieties Fast and friendly service
Better flavour Good range of stock
Available in required amounts Ease of supply
Promotion Price
Advertising Lower prices

Free samples Discounts for higher quantities
Competitions and shows Special offers
Articles in newspapers Credit facilities
Special promotions
In-shop displays
Figure 2.3. Examples of factors to take into account in a marketing mix
Marketing involves putting in place systems that will make consumers

believe that they are buying something special that meets their needs.
It also means supplying the right amount of product at an acceptable price
at a place and time when they want to buy it.
The development of a marketing strategy is not a single exercise that is done

when a business starts. It should be continually monitored, to see if planned
sales are taking place and the expected customers are actually buying the
product. The strategy should be constantly reviewed to improve it or even to
change it completely.

- 40 -
Product
Decisions by processors on how to sell their products, and to whom, are part 2
of the marketing strategy. The simplest form of selling is from bulk containers
into customers’ own containers, or sales of packaged oil from a small ‘factory
shop’ at the front of the processing unit. These methods can also result in
the lowest cost for consumers, and may give a high profit for producers.
Alternatively, a processor may make one range of oils that is sold in attractive
bottles to wealthy urban consumers and another that is sold in drums to
bakers or restaurants. Whatever type of sale is envisaged, it is necessary for
processors to understand the market in which they operate and know the way
in which products move through the market and gain value (see also Fig. 2.4).
Place
Each market segment may require different types of distribution: for example,
in urban areas a processor may be able to supply supermarkets and shops
directly from the factory, or use a wholesaler/distributor to supply more
distant retail stores. Similarly in the food service sector, ‘fast food’ takeaways
are mainly found in large urban centres, whereas hotels, restaurants and
lodges are found in urban and peri-urban areas, or in rural areas that have
tourist developments. These are often supplied by specialist wholesalers. In
rural areas, retail distribution is via wholesalers or traders who transport oils
to rural towns (together with all other goods that are sold in village shops).
The owners of village shops and kiosks then visit the rural towns to buy stock,
often using public transport. The method of distribution therefore also affects
the type of packaging that is suitable for the different customers (e.g. bottles
or bulk drums of oil).
Price
Products increase in price each time they are handled by a distributor or

trader, and a price mark-up of between 10% and 25% can be expected at each
stage (see Fig. 2.4). As each seller requires a profit for handling, stocking or
transporting the foods, it is clear from Fig. 2.4 that the less direct routes from
producer to consumer result in substantial increases in the cost of the product.

- 41 -
Other points to note are that a producer’s profit may be lower when supplying
institutional buyers or wholesalers that have control over a large part of
the market. Distributors may add a higher percentage than other groups to
account for the high transport costs in most ACP countries, whereas street
traders and kiosk owners usually have the lowest profit of any group.
Cooking oil producer

Production cost = $1.00
(10%) (25%)
$1.10 $1.25

Wholesalers Direct sales at Retailers (15%)
(10%) production unit
(20%)
$1.265 $1.44
A number of Retailers Kiosks

distributors or (15%) and street
or traders (25%) vendors (10%)

$1.58
Retailers in
urban and rural
areas (15%)

$1.82
Kiosks and
street vendors $1.82 $1.45 $1.20 $1.44 $1.58
(10%)

$2.00 Sales to consumers
Figure 2.4. Examples of sales routes from a cooking oil producer to the final consumers
Percentage figures are profit at each stage; prices are unit sale price to each group

- 42 -
Case Study 2.5: Direct selling
Customers buy the oil with their own containers. The producers store their 2
processed oil in plastic containers while awaiting retailers and wholesalers.
Villagers visit the oil mill and Mrs L measures out the oil into the bottles
that they bring.
Promotion
The types of promotion that are available to oil producers are as follows (in
order of cost, with the cheapest first):
• Personal contacts.
• Feature articles in newspapers, magazines and trade journals.
• Free samples or special promotions in retailers’ shops.
• Posters and leaflets.
• Signboards.
• Participation in trade fairs.
• Adverts in newspapers, magazines and trade journals.
• Adverts on radio and television.
The types of promotion that are selected are different for each market
segment. For example, rural customers are unlikely to have access to television,
radio or to newspapers. Posters or signboards in villages and special leaflet
promotions in village shops are likely to reach more people. In urban retail
markets, personal contacts with shop and supermarket owners, cooking
demonstrations using the oil, free samples or in-store promotions may be
more effective. If a radio, television or printed advertisement is considered, it
is important that it addresses each of the following questions:
• Who do you want to see or hear the advert? (use different adverts for
different target groups).
• How will you attract their attention? (e.g. bold colours or photographs on
printed materials, a catchy tune on radio or television, or using a well-known
musician).
• What do you want them to learn about the product or the company? (e.g.
what is new, different or special? Is there a special low price offered for a

- 43 -
limited time, a prize competition etc.?).
• Where will they see or hear it? (e.g. at home via newspaper or radio, or
reading posters in shops).
• When is the best time for them to receive the message? (e.g. before or after
pay day).
• What do you want them to do next? (e.g. if you want them to buy the
product, tell them where, if you want them to contact the company, tell
them how to).
Case study 2.6 : Promotion and advertising
The following are examples of promotion used by small-scale oil processors

in a number of ACP countries:
• They often participate at trade fairs and this is probably their major effort
to advertise their product. It appears the driving force for participation at
trade fairs is to be able to sell their products and become better known.
• Once, in 2008, the enterprise sponsored a local football tournament
and results were not bad because there was a message to many more
customers that they were producing high quality sunflower oil.
• Currently they depend on door-to-door promotion to retailers.
• The company paid for posters to be printed advertising its products. These
are on display in all the retailers in the town.
2.5. Packaging and brand image

The appearance of a package is the first point of contact between a retail
consumer and the producer, and it is therefore part of the marketing strategy
(this is less important in other market segments (Table 2.1) where bulk
packaging is used). For retail sales, processors should decide on the image
that they wish their products to have, and this is largely due to the type
of packaging selected (see also Chapter 3, Section 3.5). The label is a very
important way of creating an image. It not only gives information, such as
what type of product it is and how it is used, but through the design and
quality of printing it also gives an image of the product to both the retailer

- 44 -
and the final consumer. For example a well-designed label (Fig. 2.5) can convey
an impression of high quality or a reliable company. In contrast, a poorly
produced label can suggest low quality, lack of care in its production or a 2
cheap product that is only eaten by people who cannot afford to buy anything
better. In view of the importance of labels, producers should pay the highest
price that they can afford to obtain the best possible quality of label.
In general a simple, uncluttered image on the label is better than a complex

design. The brand name or the name of the company should stand out clearly.
If pictures are used, they should be an accurate representation of the product or
its main raw material. An example of a simple label design is shown in Fig. 2.5.
SUNSHINE COOKING OIL 500 ml
GROUNDNUT
Ingredients: PO Box 1334

Groundnut oil Anytown,
The World
best before:
Figure 2.5. A simple design for a cooking oil label
Colour can be used to produce either a realistic picture (full colour printing)
or blocks of one or two bold colours to emphasise a particular feature. Care
is needed when choosing colours as they are culturally very significant and
can have a direct effect on peoples’ perceptions of the product. For example
in some areas, browns and greens are associated with ‘nature’ or a natural
product, and can convey an image of health and good quality. In others,
bright oranges and yellows can either mean excitement, or cheap, low quality
products.
A ‘logo’ helps consumers to identify products and make them recognisable

among those of competitors. This logo is used on all products in a producer’s

- 45 -
range and helps to develop a brand image. When products are displayed in
retail stores alongside those of competitors, including imported brands, the
package and particularly the label has to compare favourably with the others
before consumers will choose it.
If first-time buyers are attracted by the package and enjoy the product, they
will continue to buy the same brand and develop a loyalty to it provided that
it has a consistent quality and it is affordable and considered to be value for
money. These repeat buyers are essential to build up sales of a product.
In some ACP countries there are legal requirements on the design of the label
and the information that is included (Chapter 5, Section 5.9). The following
information is the minimum required on oil labels in most countries:
• Name of the product.
• The ingredients (i.e. type of oil). Normally nothing is added to the oil (see
Annex A).
• Name and postal address of the producer (to allow consumers to return the
product to the manufacturer in case of problems).
• Net volume of oil in the pack.
• A ‘best-before’ or ‘sell-by’ date (Note: ‘Best-before’ date means that the oil is
safe to eat after this date but may have changes to its flavour. ‘Sell-by’ date
is an instruction to retailers to take the product off the shelves after this
date).
In addition, the producer may wish to include storage information or

instructions on storage after opening, examples of recipes in which the
product can be used, or a bar code for sales in larger supermarkets. To obtain a
bar code, the producer should register with the local office of the organisation
GSI (further information at www.gs1.org/barcodes/need_a_bar_code).
Professional designers or graphic artists may be located at universities, art

schools or in commercial agencies, and where they are affordable they
should be employed to produce a range of ideas for a label. These can then
be discussed with the Bureau of Standards or other relevant government
department (e.g. Department of Health) to ensure that they comply with
food regulations, and then with a printer to obtain quotations before a

- 46 -
final decision is made. Most printers require a minimum print-run of several
thousand labels and great care should be taken to check the design for errors
before printing, as these would be very costly and time consuming to correct 2
after the labels have been produced.
2.6. Customer care: how to find and keep customers

Many oil processors fail to realise how important it is to develop a good
relationship with customers and to develop a good reputation for looking
after them. There is no point spending money trying to get new customers if
the existing ones are dissatisfied. The main concepts of customer care are:
Every oil processor should recognise that their customers are the most
important people in their business.
And:
A business will only survive if its customers are satisfied with the product and
the service and come back for repeat purchases.
To achieve this, oil processors must develop attitudes, ways of thinking and
actions that reflect the importance of their customers, and they must focus on
satisfying their customers’ needs. For example:
• Talk to customers and find out what they like and dislike about the level of
service you provide.
• Develop customer-orientated attitudes so customers feel valued when you
deal with them.
• Make sure that all actions taken by your staff reinforce the idea that ‘the
customer comes first’ or ‘the customer is king’.
The two most common complaints by customers are that a processor supplied
oil that did not meet the agreed specification, or that the delivery was not on
time. All complaints should be dealt with efficiently, promptly and fairly; if a
complaint is handled properly the customer is likely to respond positively and
feel that their complaint has been taken seriously.

- 47 -
When a complaint is dealt with fairly, it can turn a problem into a benefit,
and help develop customer loyalty.
Satisfied customers may also tell others about the treatment they have
received and so generate new customers (and of course the opposite is true: if
customers are dissatisfied with the way their complaints are handled, they may
tell others not to buy from this processor again).
A dissatisfied customer is many times more likely to tell someone about poor
service than a satisfied customer will talk about good service.
Further details are given in Opportunities in Food Processing Volume 1,

Sections 9.1-9.3. Case study 2.7 gives examples of different approaches to
customer care by oil processors.
Case Study 2.7: Customer care
The following are examples of methods used by small-scale oil processors in

a number of ACP countries to take care of their customers:
• Feedback is mainly from customers, and is mainly to compliment them

on the quality of the oil. Except for a few customers who complain of
the ‘sunflower’ flavour. The enterprise consulted with experts on how to
eliminate this, and now the problem has been reduced substantially.
• They are quite flexible and willing to respond to customers’ needs. At
present, they pack oil in 5 and 20 litre plastic containers, which are the
most popular among retail customers. Occasionally, 1 and 2 litre packs are
needed.
• The company maintains a very strategic close relationship with its
customers. They regularly visit them and discuss how to serve them better.
This close relationship and discussions on what could be done to achieve
a win-win situation has helped a lot in maintaining a low rate of payment
defaulters.
• Because of the high quality of oil, trust has been established between the
enterprise and the wholesalers, and they deposit funds in advance before
getting the product.

- 48 -
• The company has good relationships with customers by keeping in touch
often and keeping customer complaint records. The owner said: “I believe
that the customer is always right and I always try to ensure good customer 2
relations”. He is able to keep customers by producing and supplying high
quality oil, timely deliveries and affordable prices.
2.7. Dealing with competitors

The actions of competitors are critical to the success of an oil processing
business. If a new producer starts up in business, it is unlikely that the
competitors will do nothing: for example, they may react by offering loyalty
bonuses to retailers who continue to promote their products, or introducing
special offers, reduced prices, or increased promotion. An oil producer should
therefore be constantly aware of the changes that competitors make to their
businesses in response to his or her actions and take steps to deal with the
changes as they occur.
Oil processors should recognise that there are different types of competitors:
producers that make different kinds of oil are known as type competitors,
whereas different manufacturers of the same type of oil are brand
competitors. The strategy for dealing with competitors is different in each
case. For example, when competing against different types of oil, a processor
may want to emphasise differences in flavour or provenance (e.g. organic, non
GM etc.), or health benefits (see Annex A) of his or her products compared
to those of competitors. However, take care with health claims; they must be
substantiated. When competing against brand competitors who make the
same type of oil, a more attractive label and/or price may be more effective.
This is known as product differentiation and it involves finding something
different about a product that will make customers buy it in preference to
those of competitors. This can also involve additional benefits or services
to customers, such as free delivery to shops or a special discount for regular
orders. This will help to distinguish an oil processor from competitors and help
to develop customer loyalty (see also ‘Customer Care’, Section 2.6).

- 49 -
Case Study 2.8: Competitors
• The main competitors in the market are local brands. There are also other
imported palm oils that are sold cheaply and hence tend to be a threat to
their products, especially among low-income customers. As a strategy to
compete, the company had to slightly lower the price of their products.
• The demand for palm oil is very high. For this reason, there is little
competition between different producers and they can all sell everything
they produce.
• In 2008 the company cautioned the government to be careful of large
imports of oil from South East Asia that could create unfair competition
for the local market. This, as predicted, has adversely affected local edible
oil processing and marketing in Ghana and more widely in West Africa.
• The main competitors of Mr B’s company include multinational companies
such as Unilever and he is aware that he cannot compete with them when it
comes to packaging, so he sells oil in bulk containers of 20 litres or more for
repacking in stores.
A convenient way for an oil processor to compare his or her business to those
of competitors and decide how to deal with them is to use a SWOT analysis
(Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats). Details of how to do this
are given in Opportunities in Food Processing Volume 1, Section 3.3. A SWOT
analysis needs detailed information about competitors, and producers can get
this information from the following sources:
Discuss sales of different brands with owners of sales outlets. Which products
are getting popular and which are going down? What types of consumers buy
particular products and how often? Does the seller put on any special displays
for some suppliers? What do they think about a new product and do they
think they will sell a lot of it?
Look at advertising and retail displays of competing producers and get a copy
of their price lists.
Ask the local Employer’s Federation or Chamber of Commerce for any
information they have on the market for similar products.
Visit trade fairs and talk to other producers and their customers.
Look in trade journals, manufacturers’ association magazines and newspapers
for information about the market and the activities of competitors.

- 50 -
Case Study 2.9: Strengths and weaknesses
• Their major strengths are their physical location and their ability to 2
produce good quality palm oil and palm kernel oil using high quality
crops. Their weaknesses are due to being managed as a cooperative,
which poses a number of difficulties with production, credit management
and maintenance of equipment. They do not have unified pricing and
marketing strategies and are always at the mercy of wholesalers and
retailers who dictate prices for their products.
• The strengths of the business are the readily available supply of good
quality crops and the new machinery. The weaknesses are the ever-
increasing price of electricity and fuel which makes competition against
imported oils ever more difficult.
• The location of the oil mill is in vicinity of a sunflower growing area and
has a plant with adequate capacity, although they have not managed to
fully utilise it yet. However, two weaknesses are being far from their major
markets and the uncertainty of electricity supplies that affects production.
• The location of the plant in the vicinity of the target market (i.e. middle-
and high-income consumers) is its main strength.
When the SWOT analysis is completed, an oil processor should be able to

answer the following questions:
• Who is producing similar products and where are competitors located?
• What is the quality and price of their products compared to mine?
• What can I do to make a product that is better than those of competitors?
• What are competitors likely to do if I introduce a new product?
• Why would customers want to change in my product?
• What offers or incentives do competitors give to retailers or other buyers?
• Can I offer anything better?
It is important to be honest and realistic when doing these evaluations.

Producers should remember there is no benefit in developing a view that is
too optimistic, even if it convinces the bank, because it could mean that the
business is unable to reach its targets and has to re-plan and re-finance, or
worse still it cannot make the planned sales and income, and is forced out of
business.

- 51 -
Many small-scale processors who were interviewed for this book complained
about the activities of competitors. For example, they considered that some
competitors use underhand practices to win customers, make false allegations,
or make substandard products to increase their profits. It is difficult in a
book of this type to describe in detail the ways in which small businesses can
compete effectively and honestly but, in summary, the following actions can
assist genuine small-scale processors:
• Develop good relationships with customers, treat them with respect and
deal with them honestly. Agree contracts with retailers/wholesalers and crop
suppliers.
• Deliver what is promised and on time.
• Do not make false claims in promotional materials. Prepare a product
guarantee that is written on the label and accept liability for any
substandard products.
• Do not spread rumours about competitors.
• Find out from customers and trade associations what competitors are doing
and saying.
• Identify competitors’ strengths and weaknesses and use this information to
be ‘one step ahead’ of them.
Details of contracts, product guarantees and product liability are described in

Opportunities in Food Processing, Volume 1, Sections 4.1-4.7.
By developing good relationships with customers and ‘staying above’ any

arguments with competitors, a small-scale processor is likely to continue the
business and make it grow. Customers will ignore false information and may
even pass on information about competitors’ dishonest activities that can
benefit the business.

- 52 -
Summary of the chapter
2
✔ Conduct market research to find information about what consumers
want.
✔ Consider all types of markets for cooking oils (retail, food service industry,
institutions and other food businesses).
✔ It is important that your products, methods and places of selling, prices
and types of promotion match your intended customers.
✔ Pay as much as you can afford for an attractive package and label.
✔ Always take account of competitors, but do not let them distract you
from your own business aims.
✔ Decide what makes your product different to those of competitors and

emphasise the benefits in your product promotions.
✔ Prepare a marketing plan to guide the development of your business.
✔ Choose your retailers or distributors carefully and check to make sure

they are doing their jobs properly.
✔ Always put the customer first and focus on meeting their needs.
✔ Keep in regular contact with customers and make sure they are satisfied
with your products and service.

- 53 -
Entrepreneur’s checklist
❑ Do you know precisely what type of customers and consumers you are
targeting?
...............................................................................................................................
❑ Do you know the size of the market, your share of the total, and how
much it is worth?
...............................................................................................................................
❑ Does your product meet their needs? If not, what do you need to change?
...............................................................................................................................
❑ Do you sell your products at places where your intended customers will
find them?
...............................................................................................................................
❑ Do you have an attractive package and label?
...............................................................................................................................
❑ Are your prices competitive?
...............................................................................................................................
❑ Have you got the most effective promotion and distribution to reach your
intended consumers?
...............................................................................................................................
❑ How can you improve your promotion and reach more consumers?
...............................................................................................................................
❑ Do you know who your competitors are and what they are doing with
their businesses?
...............................................................................................................................
❑ Have you done a SWOT analysis?
...............................................................................................................................
❑ What changes can you make to your business to improve customer care?
...............................................................................................................................

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Reader’s notes
2
Please use this space to write your own notes on Chapter 2.
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Setting up production 3
Tips for success
countries:
✔ Choose a location that has good road access. If electrical supplies are not
reliable make sure you have enough money to install a generator.
✔ Select a building that has enough space for workers to move around
easily and not get in each other’s way.
✔ Seal up any cracks in walls and floors and ensure that all windows and
doors are insect-proof.
✔ Seek advice to find the best sources of equipment and packaging.
✔ Do not buy equipment that is too large if your sales are low. It is better
to start small and increase the production capacity later when sales
increase.
✔ Train operators to use equipment safely.
Finally
✔ Read Sections 5.1-5.4, and 6.1 in Volume 1: Opportunities in Food
Processing - setting up and running a small food business.
Details of the location and construction of food processing units, together

with information on the provision of services are given in Opportunities
in Food Processing Volume 1, Sections 5.1-5.3. In this section, the specific
requirements for oil processing facilities are described in more detail.
Setting up production
- 57 -
Case Study 3.1: Getting started
• The enterprise is owned by Mr. K a former civil servant turned entrepreneur, who
is also the sole director. It employs 20 workers and a manager who has 20 years’
experience as a businessman. It started operations in 2002 processing sunflower
seeds, with the seedcake by-product being sold as animal feed. He started
the new business because of the success of other oil millers in the region, the
presence of good varieties of sunflower, and a growing demand both locally and
from other regions in the country. It took him 3 years to realise the investment
from conception of the idea to start-up. At present, they have under-utilised
capacity that they wish to optimise, but raw material supplies are limited.
• The enterprise producing sunflower oil is owned by Mr. Y who is the sole
director of the company. The idea of starting an edible oil plant resulted
from a search for income generating activities. The fact that sunflower oil
prices were ever increasing on the market encouraged him to try this area
of processing. It took about a year to make the idea implementable and the
business started in January 2009. It is located 30 km north of Dar es Salaam
and has three full-time employees. Funds for the investment were raised from
sales of farm produce, another business that he undertakes.
• The enterprise is a private owned family business, with Mr. and Mrs. M as the
shareholders. It is located 8 kilometres from the centre of Dar es Salaam city. It is
a micro-business started in 2003, after the wife had attended a food processing
course conducted by the Small Industries Development Organisation. The idea
lived with her for at least two years, but once she had training she decided to
start at a very small scale. With a ram press she can process a bag of sunflower
seeds per day (in 8-10 hours) that yields about 18 litres of crude sunflower oil.
• Mr R is the owner and production manager of the oil mill. He is a Chartered
Accountant by profession and while offering financial services to small- and
medium-scale food processing businesses, he realised that small-scale oil
processing was lucrative but there were very few practitioners. He studied
the market and established his oil processing business in 1997. He realised
that vegetable oil extraction and soap making are two major income
generating activities for women in rural communities, but using traditional
technologies is labour intensive and economically not viable. He therefore
established a 500 kg/day oil processing business, which was later increased
to two metric tonnes per day.

- 58 -
• S ix years after conceiving the idea, the farm was established by the owner,
who is a management consultant with a non-governmental organisation.
His uncle has been a palm oil producer since 1984, which allowed him to
receive some advice to set up his farm in 2000. He has received training
from the Agricultural Research Centre to establish the palm oil plantation
and develop oil extraction. He started with 1.5 Ha and currently the farm
extends over 40 Ha of oil palm trees.
•H e contacted the Technology Consultancy Centre of the Kwame Nkrumah 3
University for training in oil extraction. He was leased an oil expeller to start
a business producing 25 litres a day which increased to 200 litres a day in
1994. He also went to the USA on a study tour of food processing industries
to investigate the possibility of linking into export markets for his products.
He changed from a limited liability company to a Public Company by shares
in March 2004 and registered it on the Ghana Stock Exchange.
•M r B, the Managing Director, offers advice to those who want to go into
an oil processing business: they must start at a small scale and grow; they
must produce good quality products, competitively priced and delivered
in a courteous and professional manner; they must secure for investors an
optimum return on their invested capital; they must create an environment
where staff are provided with the opportunity to develop their maximum
potential; and the company should contribute to the welfare of the
community in which it operates.
•T he oil processing plant was set up in 1995 by an American NGO in
collaboration with two Ghanaians. The cooperative had eighty members (60
women and 20 men) and has been in operation since then producing palm
oil and palm kernel oil. The founding members received financial support
for the building and equipment from the NGO through the Agricultural
Development Bank and they were trained by the Technology Consultancy
Centre. The Association was registered with the District Assembly as a
farmer-based organisation in 2004 to benefit from micro-finance schemes.
The cooperative was well managed until one of the founder members died
and the other travelled overseas. This created a lot of anxiety since none of
the group members felt competent enough to take up the management of
the organisation. This resulted in a decrease in membership and currently
the cooperative has about 50 workers who work independently using the
common production facilities with their own capital.
- 59 -
3.1 Selecting the location
The best location for an oil mill is determined in part by the following factors:
• Closeness to the source of crops.
• Closeness to customers for both oil and oilcake by-product.
• Cost of transport.
• Local availability of services (especially electricity and equipment
maintenance workshops).
Many processors choose to locate their production facilities in a rural area

close to the source of crops. This has advantages because bulky raw materials
do not need to be transported long distances, which is less expensive. Also,
the level of rent, cost of land and labour are generally lower in rural areas,
and there may be more buyers of oilcake for animal feed compared to urban
centres.
However, these benefits need to be balanced against a number of

disadvantages of a rural location. In particular the often poor quality of rural
roads may create difficulties for:
• Access to markets and the cost of distributing oil (e.g. dry season access only,
especially if urban customers are the main market (Chapter 2, Section 2.2)).
• Ease of access for production staff (poor public transport, long distances
down access roads).
• Damage to products, especially if glass containers are used for oil, due to
potholes.
• Increased costs of supplies of spare parts for equipment and other materials.
In addition, the provision of services in rural areas is often substandard or

intermittent. Electricity is required for some types of oil processing equipment,
and if this is not available or reliable, there are additional costs of a generator
plus the cost of transporting fuel to operate it. These are additional
expenditures that would be less likely in an urban location. There are also
potential marketing disadvantages of processing in a remote area, but these
depend on the degree of customer contact required. For example, supplying
customers through wholesalers can be handled from a remote processing
plant, whereas direct sales to urban customers require a closer and more

- 60 -
frequent contact. For the above reasons, many oil processors choose to set up
their operation in a peri-urban area or rural growth centre in order to obtain
the benefits of ease of access, closeness to buyers of animal feeds that use
oilcake, closeness to urban customers for oil, better provision of services and
maintenance workshops, and lower costs than urban locations.
Case Study 3.2: Choosing a location 3

• The oil mill is established on an acre of land 10 kilometres from Kumasi
which makes it strategic for selling to market women and schools in the
city.
• The choice to locate the plant 35 km from Dar es Salaam was very
strategic. It is easy to transport the product to hotels on the beaches north
of Dar es Salaam and also to cater to the growing number of middle-
to high-income customers who are concentrating in the corridor to
Bagamoyo 64 km north of Dar es Salaam.
• The enterprise is located on a farm and the main activity is production of
palm oil from an oil palm plantation of 152 hectares. The enterprise also
produces ‘cake timber’ by mixing palm kernel shells and palm fibres with
mud to be sold as fuel, and the culture of oil palm trees.
• Initially the oil mill was set up in an old government shoe factory that
was leased out when the government Industrial Holding Companies went
bankrupt. As the company grew bigger, the management bought 4.5
acres of land on the outskirts of Kumasi to set up its refinery in 2007. Now
it operates at two premises: the old factory which has a capacity of 50
metric tonnes of crude oil per day and the refinery which has a capacity of
10 metric tonnes per day.
• The main activity is the production of palm oil from its 20 Ha palm oil
plantation. Mr K. inherited the plantation from his father and expanded it
to include the processing plant in 1996.
• The location for the plant was selected because it is close to a lake, as
palm oil production requires a lot of water.
- 61 -
3.2 Design and construction of the building
Although very small oil processing enterprises exist in some areas, operating
from the family home, for most businesses there are a range of features that
are needed in an oil processing unit, which means that a special building is
required. The features required in all food processing buildings are described
in Opportunities in Food Processing Volume 1, Section 5.1, and this section
outlines the type of facilities that required for oil processing.
In general, a building for oil processing should have enough space for all
production to take place without congestion, and for separate storage
of crops, packaging materials, oil and oilcake byproduct (Fig. 3.1). The
investment should be appropriate to the size and expected profitability of the
enterprise, to reduce start-up capital, the size of any loans and depreciation
and maintenance charges (see Chapter 7). A summary of the design and
construction features of a small oil mil is given below.

- 62 -
Crop store
Covered veranda
Crop preparation Bottle washing

3
Oilcake store Product store Packaging
1 store
7
2
PROCESSING ROOM 6 5
Oil expeller
or press 3
7 4
Processing area
Toilet Office/ Packaging
QA testing area
Fig. 3.1.
Fig.Layout of a building
3.1. Layout of a buildingfor for
oiloil
processing
processing
Key:
Key : 1 Prepared raw materials in after cleaning/conditioning
2 Oilcake
1 Prepared rawbagged and sentin
materials to after
oilcakecleaning/conditioning
store
3 Oil to processing area for temporary storage in oil tank and filtering
2 Oilcake bagged
4 Filtered and sentarea
oil to packaging to oilcake store
5 Bottles and cardboard box from packaging store
3 Oil 6toPackaged
processing
productarea forfor
to store temporary
distribution storage in oil tank and filtering
7 Hand washing
4 Filtered oil to packaging area
= power point
5 Bottles and tap
= water cardboard box from packaging store
6 Packaged product to store for distribution
7 Hand washing
= power point
= water tap
- 63 -
Roofs and ceilings
Fibre-cement roof tiles offer greater insulation against heat from the sun
than galvanised iron sheets do. It is particularly important to make working
conditions more comfortable when processing involves heating, for example
in preparing groundnut flour, or heating oil to remove water. Alternatively,
heating oilseed flour or oil can be carried out on a covered veranda to
minimise problems of heat in the processing room. Panelled ceilings should be
fitted to prevent contamination of products by dust falling from roof rafters,
and there should be no gaps or holes in the ceiling that could allow rodents or
insects to enter the room.
Walls
All internal walls in the processing room should be rendered or plastered so

that there are no cracks that could harbour insects. High-level vents in walls,
screened with mesh to prevent insects, allow heat and steam to escape and
encourage a flow of fresh air through the processing room. The lower area
of walls (to at least one metre above the floor), which is most likely to get
dirty, should be either painted with waterproof white gloss paint or tiled with
glazed tiles. In some ACP countries there is a legal requirement for specified
internal finishes and this should be checked with the Ministry of Health,
Bureau of Standards or other appropriate authority.
Windows and doors
Flying insects can readily contaminate products and windows should therefore
be fitted with mosquito mesh. This allows them to be left open and provide
a flow of air through the room. Normally doors should be kept closed, but if
they are used regularly there is again a tendency for them to be left open with
similar consequences of insects entering the room. Thin metal chains or strips
of material that are hung vertically from the door lintel deter flying insects
while allowing easy access for staff. Alternatively mesh door screens can be
used. Rodents are a particular problem because they feed on stored crops or
oilcake, and all storeroom doors should therefore be close-fitting and kept
closed.

- 64 -
Floors
The floors of processing rooms and storerooms should be constructed using

good quality concrete, smooth finished for easy cleaning, and without cracks
that could harbour insects. The material should ideally be non-slip to prevent
operators slipping in any spilled oil, and should not absorb oil (e.g. industrial
glazed tiles).
3
Electricity
All electric power points should be placed high enough above the floor
so that there is no risk of water entering them when washing the floor or
equipment. Ideally, waterproof sockets should be used. It is important to use
each power point for one application and not plug multiple machines into one
socket, which risks overloading a circuit and causing a fire. Some types of oil
extraction equipment require a three-phase power supply and this should be
installed by a competent electrician, with the load evenly balanced across the
three phases.
Water
Large amounts of water are

required for some types of oil
processing (e.g. palm oil and palm
kernel oil) and a guaranteed supply
is necessary. Where water is not
piped, such as when a processing
unit is located in a rural area, it is
necessary to set up a supply for the
unit (Fig. 3.2).
Fig. 3.2. Example of a water tower

constructed in a palm plantation to supply
a palm oil processing unit (Photo from J.
Hounhouigan)
- 65 -
3.3 Layout of equipment and facilities
The different areas required for oil processing are shown in Fig. 3.1, and
different stages in a process should be physically separated wherever
possible. The layout shows how the raw material moves through the process
and through the room without paths crossing, to reduce the risk of cross-
contamination from crops to the product.
Toilets and hand-washing facilities should either be housed in a separate

building or two doors should separate them from the processing area.
Laboratory facilities are generally not needed in oil processing, although a
separate table for conducting quality assurance checks or check-weighing
bottles of oil (Section 5.7) should be located in the office or in a separate area
of the processing room.
3.4 Selecting equipment

The types of equipment required for oil processing are described in Chapter
4. There are low-cost types of equipment for operation at a micro-scale
(see Table 1.2) that are affordable to many individual entrepreneurs. The
equipment for small-scale operations is more expensive but it is often within
the range of more wealthy entrepreneurs, groups of people, or it can be
purchased with a loan. Many small-scale entrepreneurs in ACP countries
have little choice when selecting oil processing equipment and must buy
what is available at the time they wish to purchase. However, this can result
in overspending if the equipment is too large for the intended purpose, or
it creates ‘bottlenecks’ and inadequate production rates if it is too small.
Equipment should be the correct size for the intended scale of production
(obtained from the feasibility study, Opportunities in Food Processing Volume
1, Section 3.1). Before buying equipment, an oil processor should calculate the
required size (the capacity or throughput in kg or litres per hour) of each piece
of equipment, which should be matched to the others. An example of how to
do this is shown in Case Study 3.3.

- 66 -
It is worthwhile to look at other businesses and to research alternative
suppliers to find out what equipment is available before making
a decision on what to buy.
Case Study 3.3: Calculating the size of processing equipment
The company produces 20 - 40 tonnes of unrefined oil per day and has the 3
capacity to refine 25 tonnes of oil a day. However, due to irregular supplies
of crude oil the refinery produces 10 tonnes of refined oil per day.
Currently the company has a crushing capacity capable of producing one
metric tonne of crude oil per day during the peak soybean season using six
expellers. However, the installed capacity is three metric tonnes per day. It is
operating below capacity due to inadequate raw material supplies and the
high cost of electricity to run all the machines.
They produce 110 kg of crude soybean oil and 850 kg of cake a day from
1000 kg of crop. Due to the irregular supply of soybeans the factory may
produce for only four days a week.
Many ACP countries do not have local manufacturers of oil processing

equipment and it must be imported. In some countries there are import agents
in the capital city who can supply equipment. Information on equipment
can also be obtained from overseas suppliers or manufacturers’ associations,
international development agencies, university food technology departments
or trade sections in embassies of other countries. Development agencies
and trade associations may allow access via their computers to the Internet
to locate equipment suppliers. When ordering imported equipment, it is
important to describe the specific application for which the equipment is to
be used, and to specify the size (capacity or throughput), single or three-phase
power supply, and the number and types of spares required.
- 67 -
Case Study 3.4: Finding suitable equipment
• Membership of trade associations has enabled the owner to share

experiences between producers, and gives the possibility to purchase
equipment together at reduced cost.
• The owner of the enterprise is a member of the cooperative of village
agricultural producers. This association has allowed him to participate
in meetings to exchange experiences among producers. He also benefits
from the group purchasing equipment at reduced cost and from exchange
trips.
All types of oil processing require basic equipment such as buckets, tables
and scales to handle, weigh and prepare raw materials. Wooden tables are
cheaper than metal ones, but they are more difficult to keep clean. If wood is
used it should be covered in a sheet of thick plastic, aluminium or a ‘melamine’
type surface, and wooden legs should be painted with gloss paint for easier
cleaning. Scales are needed to weigh crops, oil and oilcake by-product. Ideally,
two sets of scales should be used: one set of small battery-operated or mains-
powered electronic scales (0-5 kg with an accuracy of +/- 1g) to accurately
weigh bottled oil, and a second set of mechanical scales (0-50 kg with an
accuracy of +/-200g) for larger amounts of crops and oilcake. It is also possible
to calibrate scoops, jugs or other measures, so that they contain the correct
quantity of material when filled level with the top. In production operations,
scoops are faster than weighing, but operators should be carefully trained to
ensure consistent measurements.
Because of the risk of causing rancidity in oils (Annex A), copper, brass or
iron fittings, including nuts, bolts, washers etc., should not be used in any
equipment that is in contact with the oil or crop. Only food-grade plastic,
aluminium or stainless steel should be used. The principles of hygienic design
and methods of construction for food processing equipment are described in
Chapter 4 and in Opportunities in Food Processing Volume 1, Section 5.3.

- 68 -
3.5 Selecting packaging materials, filling and sealing
equipment
There is a limited range of packaging materials that can be used to package
oils in ACP countries. At the smallest scale of operation, oil processors may sell
oil into customers’ own containers or package it into sealed or tied polythene
bags. These packs do not withstand damage if oil is to be transported to
wholesalers or retailers. Glass or plastic bottles and pots are more rigid and 3
fully sealable. Glass bottles are available in countries that have a glass-works,
or an established import system.
Because they are heavy and bulky,
glass containers are expensive
to transport long distances and
because they are fragile, the level
of breakages can be high on rough
roads. Plastic bottles (Fig. 3.3) are
becoming increasingly common
because of their lower costs
compared to glass. The ‘PET’ type
plastic that is used for fizzy drinks
is most suitable. Plastic pots are
used less commonly for packing
oils, usually when bottles are not
available.
Fig. 3.3. Plastic packaging for cooking oil

(Photo from L. Gedi)
Metal oil cans (5 - 20 litres) made from steel that is coated with tin are
purpose-made for distributing oils (Fig. 3.4); the tin coating protects the oil
from rancidity (Annex A). However, new cans are not widely used by small-
scale oil processors because of their high cost, although they may reuse cans
from imported oils. Processors sometimes use 50 - 200 litre steel drums (Fig.
3.5) to supply bulk buyers such as wholesalers or institutions. Where drums are
used, there should be a system in place to return them for re-use. However,
it is essential that all traces of old oil are removed before they are refilled
- 69 -
because old oil will accelerate the development of rancidity in the fresh oil.
Plastic (high density polyethylene) drums are a suitable alternative provided
that the plastic is food-grade material (this is usually white, but processors
should check with the supplier
because some white plastics
are not food-grade). Oils
should not be stored in jerry
cans made from coloured
plastic that are intended for
water. There may be pigments
and softeners in the plastic
that can dissolve in oil and
produce an unpleasant taste
(or taint) or even cause illness.
However, in practice these
Fig.3.4.
Fig. 3.4.
Oil Oil canstoused
cans used to cooking
distribute distribute cooking
oil (Photo oil
from Abrinsky)
(Photo from Abrinsky) are often the only available
containers in some ACP
countries.
Processors should contact local

packaging manufacturers or
their agents to find the types
of packaging materials that
are available in their area.
Additional information that
relates to specific products is
given in Chapter 4, Section
4.5, and marketing aspects of
packaging are described in
Chapter 2, Section 2.5.
Fig. 3.5. Oil drums of this quality should not be used

to store and distribute cooking oil
(Photo from J. Hounhouigan)

- 70 -
Case Study 3.5: Packaging
• There is a system for packaging oils into 5- and 10-litre bottles or 25-litre
drums.
• The enterprise has limited capacity to influence which packaging
material it uses, but so far the containers that are available have been
satisfactorily used to contain and market the product. The choice of
packaging materials is limited because there are only a few manufacturers 3
of containers in the country, who mainly sell generic types that are used
by many processors - not only those making food but also others who
produce chemicals such as disinfectants, detergents and paints. These are
plastic and contain 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 5, 10 or 20 litres. The choice of size depends
on the market requirements for the oil.
• They package refined oils into 1, 2, 5 and 10 litre bottles as well as 25-litre
oil drums.
• Mr S said: “Good quality packaging for oils is a challenge in West Africa.
There is no industry producing printed polythene containers and no glass
bottles. These materials are bought in Nigeria or Ghana. The same thing is
true of packaging equipment. The problem we have is the quality of old
bottles, which can break easily”.
Bottle washing
In many ACP countries small-scale processors have to

use recycled glass bottles to pack their oil. It is very
important that bottles are inspected as they may have
been used to store liquids such as kerosene or even
pesticides. Any suspect bottles must be rejected. The
next step is to wash the bottles with a detergent, either
by hand or using a rotary bottlebrush (Fig. 3.6).
Fig. 3.6. Rotary bottle cleaning brushes (Photo from Sanbri)
- 71 -
A bottle washer (Fig. 3.7) is used to rinse detergent from the bottles. They are
inverted over vertical pipes that are welded or soldered onto a larger base
pipe, which is connected to a water supply.
Fig. 3.7. Bottle washer (Photo from P. Fellows)
Great care is needed to ensure that bottles are thoroughly dried before
re-filling with oil. Any traces of water in the bottles will accelerate the
development of rancidity. Both new and re-used containers should always be
sealed with new caps, lids or corks to create an adequate seal that prevents
moisture or air from contacting the oil during storage.
Filling
Bottles or bags are filled by hand at a small scale, using funnels to increase
the speed of the operation. A higher filling rate can be achieved using a
plastic or stainless steel bucket or tank that is fitted with several taps to allow
simultaneous filling by different
operators. It is important that the
taps have ‘gate’ ‘ball’ or ‘butterfly’
type valves (Fig. 3.8) and not
domestic taps, which are more
difficult to clean properly.
Fig. 3.8. Suitable valve for an oil filler

- 72 -
Filling by hand relies on the judgement of the operators to consistently fill
the correct volume. Dispensers (Fig. 3.9) contain a piston that measures out
the same amount of liquid into each container and so these do not rely on the
operators’ judgement. Small versions may be available at pharmacies in capital
cities, but equipment to dispense larger volumes may need to be imported.
Fig 3.9a).
Fig 3.9a).Dispenser
Dispenserforforfilling
filling
oiloil - range
- range 100100 - 1000
- 1000 ml, ml, typically
typically 600 bottles/hour.
600 bottles/hour. (Photo(Photo
from Alan
from AlanBrewis),
Brewis),b)b)Manual
Manualfiller fillerforforfilling
fillingupupto toseven
seven bottles
bottles - the
- the lever
lever on on
thethe right moves
right
moves the piston,
the piston, centrecentre (Photo
(Photo fromfrom FranklinMurphy)
Franklin Murphy)
Sealing
Plastic bags are either tied into a knot by hand or using a simple applicator for
adhesive tape (Fig 3.10). These methods do not fully seal the bag and there is
a risk of oil leakage. A better seal is obtained using a heat sealer, fitted with a
broad heating bar to produce a wide (3 - 5 mm) seal (Fig 3.11). These machines
heat and press the two edges of a plastic bag to melt and weld the two layers
together, thus fully sealing the bag. It is important that there are no smears of
oil on the inside of the bag where the seal is to be made, as this will prevent
a proper seal from forming. The sealer should have a thermostat to adjust the
sealing temperature, and an adjustable timer to control the time of heating.
- 73 -
Fig. 3.10. Use of a
simple applicator for
sealing plastic bags
with adhesive tape
Glass bottles can be sealed with one of a number of different types of caps.
Metal caps include Crown caps or Roll-On-Pilfer-Proof (ROPP) caps (Fig. 3.12).
Hand-operated Crown cappers (Fig. 3.13) consist of a die that is placed over a
metal cap on a bottle. The cap is sealed in place either by striking the capper
with a hammer or lowering two handles that force the cap onto the bottle.
ROPP sealers (Fig. 3.14) press the sides of the metal cap into the glass thread
to form the seal. Alternatively, bottles can be sealed with corks using a corking
machine (Fig. 3.15). When the lever is lowered it squeezes the cork and pushes
it into the bottle neck, where it expands to form a tight seal.

- 74 -
3
Fig. 3.11. Heat sealer for plastic bags
Fig 3.12. Caps for sealing bottles: a) Crown cap, b) metal roll-on-pilfer-proof (ROPP) cap,
c) plastic ROPP cap (Photos from P. Fellows)
Fig 3.13. Crown cappers (Photos from P. Fellows)
- 75 -
Fig
Fig.3.14.
B.17.ROPP
ROPPsealer
sealer (Photo from P. Fellows) Fig 3.15. Corking machine (Photo from P.
(Photo from P. Fellows) Fellows)
Plastic bottles are capped manually

by screwing the cap onto the bottle
(Fig. 3.12c). ROPP caps are available
and are preferred to simple push-on
caps. A capsule sealer (Fig. 3.16) has a
thermostatically controlled heater that
shrinks plastic capsules to form a tamper-
evident seal on bottles. A good quality
electric hair dryer can also be used to
shrink capsules. Alternatively if they
are available, push-on pull-off tamper
evident polythene caps with tear strips
can be used to seal PET bottles.
Figure 3.16. Capsule sealer (Photo from P. Fellows)

- 76 -
Small plastic pots can be sealed using a foil or plastic lid that is heat sealed
onto the rim of the pot. Push-on lids for small pots are generally not
sufficiently leak-proof and are not used to package oils, but the clip-on lids of
bulk (15 - 20 litre) plastic pots are suitable.
3
✔ Choose a location that is close to the supply of crops and maintenance
engineers. Ideally it should also be close to your customers.
✔ Make sure that the size of the oil mill is appropriate for your intended
scale of production. Leave enough space around equipment for easy
access and cleaning.
✔ Ensure that the walls, floors and insect proofing are up to standard.
✔ Make sure that there is an adequate electricity supply and get a backup
generator if it is not reliable.
✔ Take time to select equipment that is the correct size for your intended
production.
✔ Do not forget to order spare parts to avoid downtime.
✔ Find out what types of packaging are available and select ones that have
a low cost but are attractive to the intended consumers.
- 77 -
❑ Do you know precisely what type of customers and consumers you are
targeting?
...............................................................................................................................
❑ Is the location of the oil mill close to crop suppliers and does it have
adequate access roads and services?
...............................................................................................................................
❑ Is the factory big enough for the planned production? Is it too big?
...............................................................................................................................
❑ Does the factory have walls and floors with no cracks? Is the insect-
proofing adequate?
...............................................................................................................................
❑ Have you visited local engineering companies to find out if they can make
oil extraction equipment for you?
...............................................................................................................................
❑ Have you investigated alternative sources of equipment? Where can you
find information about equipment suppliers?
...............................................................................................................................
❑ Do you have access to a computer to find out the prices of imported
equipment via the Internet?
...............................................................................................................................
❑ Are there alternative types of packaging that are suitable for oils?
...............................................................................................................................
❑ Where can you get information about the types of packaging materials
that are available?
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................

- 78 -
Reader’s notes
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- 79 -
- 80 -
Processing technologies 4
Tips for success
countries:
✔ P repare crops correctly before extracting the oil and ensure that there
are no metal or glass fragments in the raw material.
✔ Make sure all workers are trained and understand exactly what they are
doing when operating oil extraction equipment.
✔ Establish an equipment maintenance system to avoid stoppages.
✔ Visit local engineering companies. They may be able to make or repair
equipment for you.
✔ Check with the people who buy your oil whether they want it to be
refined.
Finally:
read Sections 2.1-2.4 in Volume 1 Opportunities in Food Processing - setting
up and running a small food business.
Processing technologies
- 81 -
4.1 Types of oil crops
Oils can be extracted from a wide range of oil-bearing seeds, nuts and fruits
but many are not suitable for cooking. Some contain poisons or unpleasant
flavours and these are used for fuel or paints. Others such as castor oil need
very careful processing in order to make them safe. Such oils are not suitable
for small-scale processing. Oils from other crops such as maize, cottonseed
and soybean, are extracted using solvents that dissolve the oil. This method
of extraction is also not suitable for small-scale operation, due to the high
costs of sophisticated equipment, the need for solvents that may not be easily
available, and their risk of causing fire or explosions. These technologies are
only economic at a large scale. Details of some oil-bearing crops that are
suitable for small-scale extraction are given below and summarised in Table
4.1, and their range of uses and oil contents are shown in Table 4.2.
Oil type Other names Derived from Suitable for

small-scale
processing
Argan oil The kernel of the argan nut Yes
(Argania spinosa)
Avocado oil - The fruit of the avocado Yes
(Persea Americana).
Babassu oil - The kernel of the fruit of Yes
several varieties of palm
(Orbignya spp.)
Coconut oil - The kernel of the coconut Yes
(Cocos nucifera L.).
Cotton seed oil - The seeds of various No
cultivated species of
Gossypium spp.
Grape seed oil - The seeds of the grape (Vitis No
vinifera L.).
Groundnut oil Peanut oil, Arachis Seeds of groundnuts (Arachis Yes
oil hypogaea L.)
Maize oil Corn oil Maize germ (the embryos of No
Zea mays L.).
Marula oil - Kernels of the Marula tree Yes
(Sclerocarya birrea).

- 82 -
small-scale
processing
Mustard seed oil - The seeds of white mustard Yes
(Sinapis alba L. or Brassica
hirta Moench), Chinese or
brown Indian and yellow
mustard (Brassica juncea L.)
and black mustard (Brassica
nigra L.).
Olive oil - Fruit of the olive tree (Olea Yes
europaea)
Palm kernel oil - The kernel of the fruit of the Yes
oil palm (Elaeis guineensis).
Palm oil - The fleshy mesocarp of the Yes
4
fruit of the oil palm (Elaeis
guineensis).
Palm olein - The liquid fraction derived No
from the fractionation of
palm oil.
Palm stearin - The high-melting No
fraction derived from the
fractionation of palm oil.
Palm superolein - A liquid fraction derived from No
palm oil produced through
controlled crystallisation.
Rapeseed oil Turnip rape oil, Seeds of Brassica napus No
colza oil, ravison L., Brassica campestris
oil, sarson oil, toria L., Brassica juncea L. and
oil Brassica tournefortii.
Rapeseed oil - low Low erucic acid Low erucic acid oil-bearing No
erucic acid turnip rape oil, low seeds of varieties derived
erucic acid colza oil, from the Brassica napus L.,
canola oil Brassica campestris L. and
Brassica juncea L.
Safflower seed oil Safflower oil, Safflower seeds (Carthamus Yes
carthamus oil, tinctorious L.).
kurdee oil
Safflower seed oil - High oleic acid High oleic acid oil-bearing Yes
high oleic acid safflower oil, seeds of varieties derived
high oleic acid from Carthamus tinctorious L.
carthamus oil, high
oleic acid kurdee oil
- 83 -
small-scale
processing
Sesame seed oil Gingelly oil, Sesame seeds (Sesamum Yes
benne oil, ben oil, indicum L.).
benniseed oil, till
oil, sim-sim oil, tillie
oil
Shea butter Karité butter Fruit of the shea nut tree Yes
(Vitellaria paradoxa (formerly
Butyrospermum paradoxum))
Soya bean oil Soybean oil Soya beans (Glycine max L.). Yes
Sunflower seed oil Sunflower oil Sunflower seeds (Helianthus Yes
annuus L.).
Sunflower seed oil - High oleic acid High oleic acid oil-bearing Yes
high oleic acid sunflower oil seeds of varieties derived
from sunflower seeds
(Helianthus annuus L.).
Sunflower seed oil - Mid-oleic acid Mid-oleic acid oil-bearing Yes
mid oleic acid sunflower oil sunflower seeds (Helianthus
annuus L.).
Table 4.1. Sources of oils and suitability for small-scale processing (Adapted from Codex
Alimentarius Commission in Annex B)

- 84 -
Raw material Oil content (%) Uses
Oilseeds
Castor 35–55 Paints, lubricants
Cotton 15–25 Cooking oil, soap making
Linseed 35–44 Paints, varnishes
Neem 40-45 Soap making, medicinal
Niger 38–50 Cooking oil, soap making,
paint
Rape/mustard 40–45 Cooking oil
Safflower 36-48 Cooking, paint
Sesame 35–50 Cooking oil, Tahini
Sunflower 25–40 Cooking oil, soap making
Legumes
4
Groundnut 38–50
Nuts
Argan 46 Cooking oil, soap making
Coconut 64 (dried copra) Cooking oil, hair cream,
medicinal
35 (fresh nut) Cooking oil, body/hair cream,
soap making
Marula 33-40 Traditionally used in
cosmetics, as cooking oil and
as a meat preservative and to
treat leather.
Palm kernel nut 46–57 Cooking oil, body/hair cream,
soap making
Shea nut 34–44 Cosmetics, cooking oil, soap
making
Fruit
Avocado 8-30 Cooking, cosmetics, lubricant
Oil palm 56 Cooking oil, soap making
Olive 60-70 Cooking, cosmetics
Table 4.2. Oil content and uses of different oil-bearing crops (Adapted from Practical Action in
Annex B)
- 85 -
The crops that are suitable for small-scale oil extraction described in this
chapter include avocado, coconut, groundnut (peanut), mustard, olive, palm,
palm kernel, safflower, sesame, shea nut, soybean and sunflower. The methods
used to extract oil from these crops are described below.
There is considerable variation in the oil content of crops. The yield of oil
depends to some extent on the variety and climate, but is mainly related
to the extraction efficiency of the process (% oil extracted compared to the
theoretical content). One of the main factors governing extraction efficiency
is the pressure applied during extraction - the higher the pressure the greater
the yield of oil. An extraction efficiency of 100% can never be obtained, but
many traditional methods have a low efficiency because they do not generate
sufficient pressures. Typical operating pressures in different types of presses
are shown in Table 4.3
Method of oil extraction Pressure

psi kg/cm2
Hand screw press 500 35
Small hydraulic press 1810 125
Ram press 2800 190
Small expeller 250 170
Medium-scale expeller 5000 540
Large commercial expeller 20,000 1380
Table 4.3. Operating pressures in oil extraction equipment (Adapted from Head et al (1995)
in Annex B).
For oilseeds and nuts, the moisture content of the raw material can also have
a considerable influence on extraction efficiency, and the addition of a small
quantity of water to the ground oilseed (known as conditioning) increases oil
yields. The extraction of cooking oils involves some or all of the stages and
equipment shown in the flow diagram (Fig. 4.1)

- 86 -
Stage in processing Equipment required
Crop storage -
Cleaning Winnower, sieve, washer
Decortication or shelling Mechanical decorticator or sheller
Winnowing
Grinding Pestles and mortar, hammer mill, roller mill or

pin mill
4
Grating Manual or mechanical grater
Heating Seed scorcher, heating pan
Extraction Presscake Oil flotation equipment, press or expeller
Drying Heater and pan
Filtering Filter bag or filter press
De-odourising or decolouring (optional) Steam vessel and vacuum pump
Neutralising (optional) Treatment tank with stirrer
Storage of oil Storage tank or bottles
Fig. 4.1. Stages in oil extraction
- 87 -
This chapter describes pre-extraction treatments to prepare raw materials
(Section 4.2), the broad principles of extraction technologies used by small-
and medium-scale enterprises (Section 4.3) and post-extraction treatments,
including clarification and refining of oils (Section 4.4). The extraction
methods for particular crops are described in greater detail in Section 4.5.
4.2 Raw material preparation

All oilseeds, nuts and fruits require some form of pre-treatment. Oilseeds and
nuts should be dried, most commonly by sun drying. Proper drying is very
important and the moisture content must be lowered to a level that prevents
the growth of moulds, generally in the range of 5 - 15 % moisture. Adequate
drying is particularly important in the case of groundnuts and coconuts as they
are susceptible to the growth of moulds that produce poisons (see aflatoxins in
Annex A,) that are linked to the development of cancer. Aflatoxin, if present,
contaminates both the oil and more importantly the oil-cake remaining after
extraction. There have been several high profile instances of deaths occurring
in poultry fed with aflatoxin contaminated feed.
Proper drying to the correct moisture content is essential for safe storage of crops
Oil-bearing fruits such as oil palm and olives should be harvested when
mature, washed and handled carefully to minimise damage. All raw
materials should be cleaned to remove foreign matter either by hand or with
winnowing machines or sieves. If expellers are used it is vital to make sure
that any hard material such as stones and metal fragments are removed as
these would cause expensive damage to the machine. All oilseeds should be
inspected and any showing signs of mould should be rejected (se also Chapter
5, Section 5.4, quality assurance of raw materials).
The storeroom for cleaned crops should be weatherproof, well ventilated and
provide protection against rodents and insects (see Chapter 3, Section 3.2).
Oilseeds should be bagged and stored on pallets. During long term storage
routine store inspections should be carried out, checking for insects, rodents
and the pick up of moisture by crops (see Chapter 5, Section 5.4).

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Some raw materials (e.g. groundnuts, sunflower seed) require decorticating
and winnowing (Fig. 4.2). The husk is removed because if left on it has no
value as animal feed, it absorbs oil and it increases the weight of raw material
to be transported and processed. However in groundnut processing, some
fibrous material is needed
to enable the oil to escape
from the press or expeller
(and to prevent the nuts
turning into peanut butter
without releasing the oil).
About 10% husk is added
back to the nuts. If it is 4
much more than this it
reduces the value of the
oilcake as human food.
Fig. 4.2. Groundnut

decorticating machine
(Photo from Tiny Tech Plants
(pvt) Ltd.)
4.3 Methods of oil extraction

All raw materials contain oil in oil-bearing cells that have to be ruptured to
release it. The different extraction technologies are:
• Hot water flotation.
• Ghanis.
• Pressing.
• Expelling.
These are described in detail below.
Extraction by hot water flotation
This is a simple traditional technology that is used to extract oil from fresh oil
palm fruits, coconuts, olives, marula nuts and shea nuts. The equipment that
is used for different crops is described in Section 4.5. The grated or pulped
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material is squeezed through cloth to produce a ‘cream’, and the residue is
rinsed with water and squeezed again. The cream is then placed in a large
pan with water and allowed to simmer over a low fire or heater. The oil slowly
separates and floats to the surface where it is skimmed off. After filtering
through fine cloth to remove traces of plant material, the oil is dried by
heating it in a pan, which boils off all traces of water.
Shelled groundnuts, sunflower seeds, safflower seeds, palm kernels and shea
nuts are roasted and then ground to a flour by pounding. The mass is then
mixed with water and simmered, allowing the oil to float. It is skimmed off,
filtered and dried as above.
These traditional methods are time consuming and inefficient in fuel use.
Extraction efficiencies are low, mainly due to inefficient pounding and
grinding, which leaves oil trapped in cells that are not broken down. However,
despite the limitations these simple traditional processing methods continue
to be used because the cost of equipment is low.
Ghanis
The ghani is normally associated with

the Indian sub-continent but it has
also been used in Africa as described
in a case study from Mozambique
(Case Study 4.2) and also in Malawi.
The extent of the use of ghanis in
ACP countries is thus not clear. Ghanis
consist of a large wooden or metal
pestle revolving in a heavy mortar as
shown in Fig. 4.3. They are used for
oil crops that have small seeds, such as
mustard seeds and groundnuts.
Fig. 4.3. Ghani used for oil extraction

(Photo from Tiny Tech Plants (pvt) Ltd.)

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Power is provided by a large animal or by a motor. The seeds are ground by
the action of the pestle, and the oil drains out from a hole in the base of the
mortar. It is claimed that the oil from a cow-operated ghani retains more of
the natural flavour than from a motor-powered machine because the action is
slower and less frictional heat is generated.
Case study 4.1: Oil extraction using a ghani
At the end of the war in 1983 Mozambique was suffering from shortages of
basic foods, including cooking oil. Although some traditional oil processing
by the hot water flotation method took place, outputs were very low. We
were thus surprised to see an adaptation of the Indian ghani producing 4
peanut oil in a village. It subsequently became clear that this system had
been copied and was operating in a number of other communities. The
ghani consisted of a hollowed out tree trunk about 1.5m high. A large
20 cm diameter pole acted as the pestle that was attached by beams that
allowed it to be rotated in the wooden mortar. Oil yields were checked and
3 to 4 kg of peanuts yielded one litre of oil in 15 minutes. It was interesting
to note that little oil was produced in the first 10 minutes, after which
time oil simply gushed out. The cake remaining after extraction was used
in cooking traditional dishes. This is unlike the cake from large industrial
plants, which is only suitable for animal feed due to the high frictional
temperatures involved. We subsequently learnt that this was a traditional
technology, largely forgotten in times of plentiful cheap cooking oil, and
that it had been re-born out of need.
Screw (cage or bridge) presses
A wide range of simple batch oil presses with typical capacities of 5 - 30 kg is

used in ACP countries. In general the raw material is pounded or milled prior
to pressing, and it is heated to 50oC or above, which helps release oil from the
cells. Presses can be purchased or made locally, and several organisations in
Annex D can supply drawings that allow local manufacture. A typical press is
shown in the cut-away drawing in Fig 4.4. It consists of a perforated or slotted
cylindrical steel cage and a press plate that is raised and lowered inside the
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cage using a screw and bearing.
The screw should be made from
a harder grade of steel than the
bearing to prevent the more
expensive screw from wearing
down (i.e. the softer metal of the
bearing wears and is replaced
more cheaply than a new screw,
which is the most expensive
part of the press). Screws can
be turned manually or by an
electric motor that has a gearbox
or pulley system to reduce the
speed. A muslin or cotton bag is
placed in the cage and ground
oilseeds or nuts are added. The
bag is closed and the press plate
is lowered to press out the oil. It
is important that pressing is done
in short steps with the pressure
increased gradually to allow time
for internal pressures to equalise
and for the oil to escape. The
screw is then raised and the bag
is removed. If the depth of the
raw material is too great, oil
can be trapped in the centre. In
larger presses, the material is
added in small quantities that are
separated by press (or layer) plates
made from stainless steel, plastic
or painted mild steel. These plates
are placed between bags of flour
to reduce the thickness of layers
and help to equalise pressures, Fig. 4.4. Screw press (a) from Practical Action
increase oil yields and make it Publishing,(b) (Photo from P. Fellows)

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much easier to empty the cage. An alternative to using a screw is to pump a
hydraulic jack (e.g. a lorry jack) to move the pressure plate. Higher pressures
can be obtained using the hydraulic system, but it is important to design the
press so that the hydraulic jack is below the press (i.e. acting upwards) to
minimise the risk of poisonous hydraulic fluid leaking and contaminating the
oilseed or the oil. Ideally, all lubricating oils should be food grade.
The production rate of presses depends on the size of the cage and the time
needed to fill, press and empty each batch. Hydraulic presses are faster than
screw types and powered presses are faster the manual types. After extraction
the oil requires filtering and possibly other secondary treatment such as de-
gumming or neutralising (see Section 4.4). 4
Case Study 4.2: Oil extraction using a press
In Mr and Mrs M’s operation, the crude oil is either filtered and packed
without further treatment, or it is heated with salt, followed by washing
and drying to produce semi-refined oil, and then packed. It is sold mainly to
local consumers. After acquiring a 5-tonne capacity oil press complete with
a filter press, they are able to produce up to 25 tonnes of oil in a month,
working 10 hours per day.
The enterprise has basic plant for oil extraction; that is a seed crusher, an
oil press, a filter press, cleaning screens and oil tanks (metal drums). The
expeller and filter were bought locally from agents who imported them
from China and India respectively.
- 93 -
Ram press
The ram press consists of a long lever

that moves a horizontal piston inside
a cage as shown in Fig. 4.5. Semi-
continuous feed of raw material is
via a feed hopper. The perforated
cage is fitted with an adjustable
choke at the outlet, which allows
the pressure inside the cage to be
adjusted. Ram presses have been
shown to be more efficient than
simple screw presses as higher
pressures are applied and more
shearing forces are involved. Fig. 4.5. Ram press
The technology has been widely tested in several African countries by a

number of organisations, including Enterprise Works Worldwide (Annex
D). The press is simple to construct and it is reported that 100 kg of softer-
shelled, high oil content (40 - 45% oil) seeds from sunflower varieties can be
processed per day with an extraction efficiency of up to 25%. The ram press
can also be used for sesame, mustard, safflower seeds, and groundnuts. One
often reported disadvantage of the ram press is the amount of physical energy
involved to operate it. It is simply very hard work.
Expellers
Oil expellers may be described as an extension of the screw press and ram
press technology, which are designed to operate on a continuous basis. A
rotating screw (or ‘worm’), can be hand-driven at a very small scale, but most
commonly it is motor driven. The screw pulls the raw material from a hopper
into the barrel where the seed is broken down and pressure is gradually
increased as it moves through the barrel. Oil passes through narrow slots in
the barrel and press cake is discharged from the end. The barrel is slightly
tapered and the pitch of the rotating screw gradually decreases towards the
exit end of the cage. This design increases the pressure and shear forces on

- 94 -
the material as it passes through the machine. An adjustable ‘choke’ ring at
the exit controls the pressure in the expeller. A medium-scale expeller is shown
in Fig 4.6. Typically, the screw rotates at about 100 rpm and heat is generated
due to friction between the seeds and the screw/barrel. Some designs have
additional electric heaters around the barrel. The screw, choke ring and barrel
all wear down and must be repaired or replaced at intervals. There must
therefore be mechanical skills available locally to carry out the maintenance
and repair work. Sand or grit in the raw material reduces the time between
repairs from several months to as little as two weeks and proper cleaning of
the raw material is therefore essential.
Fig 4.6. Small/medium scale oil expeller with capacities up to 150 kg seed/hr (Photo from Alan
Brewis)
Fig 4.6. Small/medium scale oil expeller with capacities up to 150 kg seed/hr (Photo from
Alan Brewis)
Expellers are commercially available with capacities from a few kg/hour to

several tonnes/hour. This type of equipment is more difficult to construct
locally in ACP workshops, unless they have skilled workers who are able to
make stainless steel screws that fit closely into the barrels.
- 95 -
Case Study 4.3: Oil extraction using expellers
• The business operates from the owner’s homestead. It is small and does
not have much machinery. It has a small expeller that was imported from
China. The machine was set up with a trial run by a local technician.
Through experience, there have been quite a few modifications to the
machine and other facilities to ensure that productivity is good. Current
plans are to buy a complete oil mill that would expand production and
improve operational efficiency, and possibly improve product quality.
• The Company has two seed cleaners, six oil expellers each with the
capacity to produce 1000 kg of cake per hour, five 500-litre oil tanks and
a 500 kg per hour feed mill for poultry and animal feed production. They
have not had the need to install more storage tanks because most of the
oil is produced to order.
Expellers may be operated in either a cold pressing or hot pressing mode.

When used for cold pressing, the incoming seed is not pre-heated and the
oil can command a premium price in specialised markets due to its superior
flavour. The cake remaining after oil extraction may also be more valuable as
a high quality animal feed or, depending on the type of crop, for human use
(see Table 4.2). However, the amount of oil produced by cold pressing is lower
than from hot pressing. Careful consideration is required of the economics
of reduced yield versus the higher value of the oil and oilcake. When hot
expelling, the raw material is heated to 60 - 100oC, which ruptures cells and
so increases oil yields. However, hot expelling results in the presence of more
gums in the oil, making it unsuitable for culinary use without further refining.
The cake remaining after hot expelling may also have a lower value. One
option is to link two expellers: the first produces high quality, high-value
culinary oil by cold expelling. The cake is then fed to a second expeller for hot
expelling to extract more oil.

- 96 -
4.4 Oil clarification and refining
The crude oil extracted by flotation, pressing or expelling contains a
suspension of fine pulp and fibre from the plant material with small quantities
of water, gums, resins, colours and bacteria which make it darker and cloudy.
Prior to sale, crude oil must be treated to remove these contaminants by
clarifying the oil, either by allowing it to stand undisturbed for a few days
and removing the upper layer, or by using a clarifier to produce a crystal clear
product. It is also very important that all moisture is removed, as this will
hasten the action of micro-organisms or naturally occurring enzymes that
cause the development of rancidity and off-flavours (see Annex A - rancidity).
4
At the simplest level, the oil is left to stand for several days in a tank fitted
with a drain valve in the base. Water and cellular material (often known as
foots) settle out. The foots are drained off and the oil is filtered through
muslin or fine cotton bags. The bags should be sterilised after use by boiling
for 10 - 15 minutes and fully dried by hanging them in the air (not on the
ground or on bushes). This simple gravity filtration is slow and is only suitable
for micro-scale production.
In small-scale oil production, a steel (or less desirably aluminium) pan is placed
directly over a heater to remove water from the oil. The most appropriate type
of heater depends on the cost and availability of different fuels in a particular
area. In urban centres, gas or electricity are the preferred options because
there is no risk of contamination of products by smoke or fumes. They also
provide more controllable heating than pans over open fires. In rural areas,
these may not be available or the electricity supply is not sufficiently reliable,
and other types of fuel (e.g. charcoal or kerosene) may have to be considered.
In palm oil processing, the waste material is often made into fuel (see Case
Study 6.10). Generally, wood is not favoured because of the contribution to
increased deforestation and the risk of product contamination by the ash. At
a larger scale of operation, the oil may be treated in a clarifier that consists of
a drum or tank heated by a heater or a fire. The oil is boiled, which drives off
any water, and destroys enzymes and bacteria. The treated oil is then allowed
to stand and the foots are removed, followed by filtration as described above.
The use of a clarifier involves a considerable fire risk and it is very important
- 97 -
that the drum has a lid to prevent the oil catching fire, but with a hole in the
lid to allow steam to escape. A typical system is shown in Fig. 4.7.
Oil treated by the simple

methods described above
has a moderate shelf life, but
for a longer shelf life more
sophisticated methods should
be used. At larger scales of
operation, a plate and frame
filter press is used. This consists
of a number of vertical grooved
metal plates that are separated
by cloth or paper filters. A small
filter press that can house up
to 20 plates is shown in Fig.
4.8. In operation, the crude
oil is pumped through the
filter press under pressure.
Having passed through the
filter sheets, the oil flows down
the grooves in the plates for
collection. The residue, or filter
cake, builds up on the filter
sheets. When the cake has
built up sufficiently to fill the
Fig. 4.7a and b. Oil clarifiers (Photo from J. gaps between the plates, the
Hounhouigan)
machine has to be dismantled
and the cake removed. A new
cycle can then start. The filter cake is normally mixed with fresh raw material
and re-passed through the expeller or press. Plate and frame filter presses
have moderate cost, are reliable and simple to use and maintain, but they are
somewhat labour-intensive. More complex, less labour-intensive filters and
centrifuges are available but they are expensive and only suitable for use in
large-scale oil mills.

- 98 -
4
Fig 4.8. Plate and frame filter press for clarifying oil (Photo from L. Gedi)
The oil is heated to boil off traces of water and destroy bacteria. When these
impurities are removed the shelf life of oils can be extended from a few weeks
to several months, provided proper storage conditions are used.
Fig. 4.9. Oil storage tanks (Photo from L. Gedi)
- 99 -
Refining
Small- and medium-scale producers rarely fully refine their oils. The
characteristic flavour and odour of traditionally made oils is preferred by local
consumers in many cases. Large-scale producers carry out several stages of
treatment to produce a standard oil that has a bland flavour, and is crystal
clear with a long shelf life. Some or all of the following treatments are used:
• Neutralising.
• Bleaching.
Other treatments, such as winterising, de-odourising and de-gumming are not

used at a small scale because the technology is too complex and expensive.
In larger operations, degumming is normally done using phosphoric acid or
citric acid. Gums, proteins and trace metals precipitate out from the oil and are
removed.
Crude oils may contain free fatty acids (FFAs) that develop due to oxidation
and result in off-flavours. The chemistry involved is described in more
detail in Annex A. They are neutralised by adding a carefully controlled
amount of caustic soda (or ‘lye’). The amount added is critical: too little
does not neutralise all FFAs and too much causes a loss of oil yield. Efficient
neutralisation depends on accurately determining the amount of FFAs in the
oil. This requires setting up a small laboratory or sending samples for analysis.
The measurement of FFAs is described in Chapter 5, Section 5.7. After mixing
the caustic soda thoroughly in the neutralisation tank, the mixture is allowed
to stand and settle out. The water phase is drawn off from a valve in the base
of the tank.
Some oils that are too dark in colour can be bleached by the addition of small
amounts of commercial bleaching earths or activated carbon powder. After
bleaching the oil should be filtered.

- 100 -
4.5 Methods for extraction of different oils
This chapter concludes by examining in greater detail oil extraction from
the eleven crops that are most commonly processed by small- and medium-
scale enterprises in ACP countries, namely: avocados, coconuts, groundnuts
(peanuts), mustard seeds, olives, palm fruits, palm kernels, safflower seeds,
sesame seeds, shea nuts and sunflower seeds.
Avocado is also known as butter pear or alligator pear, or palta or aguacate

in Spanish. This is a valuable crop that is cultivated in tropical and subtropical
climates throughout the world. The green or sometimes purple-skinned, pear
shaped fruit is around 7 cm in diameter and 20 cm long and weighs 100 - 4
1000g, depending on the variety (Fig. 4.10). It contains a large egg-shaped or
spherical seed (or stone) surrounded by a yellow/green oil-bearing pulp. The
stones contain very little oil.
Trees start to bear fruit when 3 - 6 years

old and have a productive life of 25 - 35
years. They produce an average of 120
fruits annually, and commercial plantations
produce 7 - 20 tonnes per ha per year. The
fruit is a ‘climacteric’ fruit that matures on
the tree but ripens after picking. The fruit
is harvested for the fresh market while it is
still firm, but at this stage of maturity, the oil
content is about 8% and it is not suitable for
oil extraction. Oil is normally extracted from
fruit that is allowed to fully ripen because
Fig 4.10. Avocado fruit these have a higher oil content (up to 30%).
As a cooking oil, it compares well with
olive oil and is used as an ingredient in many dishes. The oil has an unusually
high smoke point (255°C), making it suitable for frying. It is also used as a
lubricating oil and in cosmetics where it is valued for its regenerative and
moisturising properties. At a small-scale of operation, the oil is separated by
drying the fruit and pressing or expelling the pulp or by hot water extraction.
- 101 -
Fully mature fruits are cut in half and after removing the stone, the halves are
either used straight away or sun dried. For extraction by hot water flotation,
the fresh or dried fruit is pulped and boiled in water, and the oil is removed by
skimming. Screw or hydraulic presses can also be used, whereas expellers are
used at a larger scale.
Another proposed method involves rendering, in which the pulp is heated in

avocado oil to drive off the moisture. The resulting mix of oil and plant tissue
is then pressed. It is claimed that this technique could result in getting up to
97% of the theoretical oil recovery (Human (1987) in Annex B). The crude
oil has a green colour due to its chlorophyll content, but it can be refined by
bleaching, and by alkali treatment to remove FFAs. This is essential if over-ripe
or rotting fruits are used.
Coconut palm needs an average annual

temperature of about 26°C, with only
small differences in the length of
daylight and good sunshine conditions
throughout the year. It is thus found in
the tropics in a zone 15 - 20 degrees from
the equator, below altitudes of 750 m
with optimal rainfall of 1250 - 2500 mm
per year. A full-grown coconut palm (Fig.
4.11) yields 30 - 50 nuts per year, whereas
low-growing hybrids usually have smaller
nuts but can yield between 200 - 600
fruits per year. In a plantation, 8000 nuts
per ha per year is a good harvest. On a Fig. 4.11. Coconut - ripe fruit
global basis coconut is a major oil crop. (Adapted from Rehm and Espig (1984))
To produce coconut oil, the fibrous husk is removed, the nut is then split and
the white ‘meat’ is removed. It is either used fresh, or it is dried to make copra
by sun-drying or using a simple copra kiln that is fired using coconut shells
or husks. Fresh coconut meat has an oil content of 32 - 35% with a moisture
content of approximately 50%. After drying to copra the moisture content
falls to 6 - 9% with a consequent rise in oil content to 65 - 70%. It is very

- 102 -
important that copra is dried rapidly to a low moisture content to avoid mould
growth and the risk of aflatoxin contamination. In addition slow drying would
allow the development of free fatty acids, which means that the oil requires
refining and neutralisation with caustic soda.
Maximum yields are 9 tonnes of copra per ha, from which 6 tonnes of oil can
be extracted. Coconut oil has a high percentage of saturated fatty acids, a
high melting point (22 - 26°C) and does not easily become rancid (see Annex A,
rancidity for further details). It is used for cooking, for cakes and pastries and
also to make high quality soap.
Coconut oil can be made from finely-ground fresh coconut meat using a 4
traditional hot water flotation method (Section 4.3). The oil is produced in this
traditional way in the Pacific islands and in West Africa. Small hand graters are
widely used to shred coconut (Fig. 4.12). It has been found that the size and
shape of the serrated edge of the grater can have a considerable influence
on oil yields, with finer particles producing higher oil yields. Small powered
graters are used in many
coconut-growing countries,
often in local markets where
the grated coconut is sold to
customers for domestic use. The
oil has a taste that is particularly
preferred, but its shelf life may
be less than oil produced using
improved methods.
Fig 4.12. Small hand coconut grater

(From Practical Action Publishing)
However, commercially the vast majority of oil is extracted from copra

using expellers. It is very important that copra is cleaned to remove any
stones or metal fragments because these can cause serious and costly
damage to expellers. The use of magnets to remove any stray metal is highly
recommended. The copra is then milled, most commonly in hammer mills or
using copra breakers. Copra breakers consist of a revolving shaft fitted with
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blunt knives, teeth or beaters. The ground copra is then heated (commonly
called ‘cooking’ or ‘scorching’) before passing to the expeller. Cookers consist
of a shallow pan fitted with a slowly rotating paddle and heated by an open
fire, gas or steam. After expelling, the coconut oil is filtered and if necessary
neutralised to remove FFAs as described in Section 4.4.
Case Study 4.4: Coconut oil production
• While in the past the small island of St Vincent was a major producer and
exporter of coconut oil, small scale traditional extraction still takes place.
A dozen or so small family-based cottage enterprises still produce oil. Mrs
N explained the process that she had learned from her mother, who in
turn was taught by her mother. Dry coconuts are split and the white meat
is removed. This is grated on a locally made grater; a sheet of metal that
has been punched with a pointed tool to provide a large number of sharp
perforations. The grated coconut is then mixed with an equal volume of
water and strained by squeezing it through the same grater to sieve out
coarse particles. The liquid is left to stand overnight often with the addition
of lime juice, which helps the oil to separate. The upper creamy, oil-rich layer
is skimmed off and then boiled for an hour or more to remove all traces of
water. When cool the oil is packaged into clean re-cycled 750ml rum bottles.
Mrs N processes 100 coconuts per month to produce about 5 gallons (23 litres)
of oil. The oil has a ready market with housewives who use it for cooking and
salad dressings. Some of the oil is re-packaged into smaller bottles by traders
for sale to tourists who recognise its beneficial effects as a skin lotion.
• Tobago and Dominica show how efficient management and marketing can
find a place for local production of coconut oil. In Dominica, the Coconut
Products factory produces soap which is found throughout the Caribbean,
and the Coconut Growers Association of Trinidad and Tobago successfully
manufactures and sells coconut-based margarine, cooking oil, shortening,
and different soaps. Its Nariel brand of edible oil is promoted as organically
grown and the company is confident of substantially increasing exports in the
next two years.
• In Africa, Benin is expanding coconut production to meet its own needs and
to export to Togo, and Cameroon has been considering coconut production
on land infected by an oil palm disease.

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Groundnut has other common names, including peanut, goober pea, pistache
de terre or earthnut. It is not a nut but a legume (a type of pea). It is both a
food crop and an oilseed crop, and it produces a high protein meal after oil
extraction. They are widely grown in the tropics and subtropics to produce yields
that range from 600 - 3000 kg/ha of seeds in the shells. There are two main
types: the Spanish-Valencia type that has an upright plant with pods clustered
around the base of the plant, and the Virginia type in which plants have
spreading runners, and have pods dispersed along root branches (Fig. 4.13). The
upright type is usually used for mechanised production and the runner type in
smallholder farming. Groundnuts need moderate rainfall (500 mm per annum)
or irrigation, a temperature of 27
- 30oC during the growing season, 4
and hot dry weather during seed
ripening to prevent mould growth.
Soil type and condition is important
for groundnut production and well-
drained, sandy loams are best for
rapid maturation of pods and for
minimising mould damage. The pods
may have l - 3 or more seeds each,
depending on the variety and the
growing conditions. The seeds have a
thin papery seed coat, which is easily
removed after roasting. Seed size
varies with variety, from 2000 to 3000
seeds per kg. Well-dried seed, stored
in the pod under conditions of low
humidity, retains its viability for 3 or Fig. 4.13. Groundnut plant showing parts of
more years. the plant
Groundnuts and groundnut oilcake are rich in protein, minerals and vitamins.
Whole groundnuts (without shells) average 25 - 30% protein, 40 - 45% oil and
are rich in calcium, phosphorus, iron and the B-vitamins. The vine residues,
after the pods are removed, are a good protein feed for horses and for
ruminant livestock.
- 105 -
Correct harvesting and post-harvest drying are essential to produce high
quality groundnuts. The crop rarely suffers any significant mould growth
on well drained soils until it is lifted out of the ground. The entire vine with
attached pods should be dried in a windrow or in small stacks around poles
to minimize contact with the soil. It is very important that groundnuts are
properly dried, to below 10% and preferably to 5%, to avoid the possibility
of growth of aflatoxin-producing moulds (see Annex A) that make the crop
unsafe for use as food or feed. Although aflatoxin is insoluble in vegetable
oil and is concentrated in the oilcake, impurities in the oil may contain it, and
groundnut processors should therefore be especially aware of the danger of
mould growth.
Dry pods are easily removed from vines by hand or by machinery and the
seeds are removed by shelling the pods (Fig. 4.14). If there is any doubt that
the seeds are not sufficiently dry for safe storage, they should be placed in
shallow layers on drying floors, and turned frequently until thoroughly dried.
Groundnuts can be stored safely when the relative humidity of the storage
room is 60% or lower. One metric ton of unshelled nuts can produce around
265 kg of oil and 410 kg of oilcake.
Fig. 4.14. Hand-operated wooden groundnut shellers, adapted from (a) Makoko and Balaka
(1991) and (b) IDRC
Fig. 4.14. Hand-operated wooden groundnut shellers (a From Makoko and Balaka (1991))

- 106 -
Groundnut oil is extracted either by pressing or at larger scale using expellers.
When using screw presses, the nuts are first shelled, roasted (Fig. 4.15) and
the seed coat is removed. The nuts are then crushed to a flour (or meal) either
by manual pounding or in a disc mill or hammer mill (Fig. 4.16). Water is then
added to the pounded meal; as a guide one litre of water/10 kg flour. The
flour is next heated in a large pan, with constant stirring, until its temperature
is about 70oC, by which time it will feel quite dry. The groundnut flour is then
pressed to extract the oil.
Fig 4.15. Roasting groundnuts for small-scale production (Photo from J. Hounhouigan)
- 107 -
Fig 4.16. Diesel powered mill for grinding groundnuts for small-scale production (Photo from
J. Hounhouigan)
The oil can be left standing for 3 or 4 days to allow small particles to settle
or it can be filtered in a filter press (Section 4.4). Finally, the oil is heated to
remove traces of water and contaminating micro-organisms.
At larger scale, an expeller is used. Some groundnut shell needs to be added

to the coarsely milled nuts in order to provide more frictional ‘bite’ to the
revolving screw. This assists the passage of flour through the expeller and
generates the required pressure.
It should be noted that the cake remaining after pressing can have a high
value as a food, whereas oilcake remaining after expelling is only suitable for
animal feeds, due to the higher temperatures involved, which damage the
quality of the cake.

- 108 -
Mustard seed has long been used as a spice. Mustard plants (Fig. 4.17) are
temperate crops that prefer temperatures below 25°C during growth, but
breeding and selection have increased their ability to withstand higher
temperatures. Optimal rainfall is around 700 mm per year. These characteristics
are advantageous in tropical regions of high altitude with significant
temperature variations and low rainfall. Yields range from 1 - 3 tonnes of seed
per ha. The oil content of the seeds is 30 - 50 %, but can reach up to 60%.
Mustard seed oil has a strong smell, a
hot nutty taste, and is often used for
cooking in India and Bangladesh, but
less so in ACP countries. The oil is also
used for massages as it is thought to
improve blood circulation and skin 4
texture, and it also has antibacterial
properties. Oil is usually extracted from
mustard seed using a ghani (Section
4.2).
Fig. 4.17. Mustard plant
Olive fruit is an evergreen tree crop of the Mediterranean basin including

parts of North Africa. Olive trees grow in any light soil, but rich soils may
cause disease and produce lower quality oil. The trees are drought resistant,
grow very slowly and can live for centuries, remaining productive for this
time if they are pruned regularly. The trees are short and squat, with the
trunk reaching 10 m in girth and rarely exceeding 8 - 15 m high. There are
thousands of cultivars, and hybrid cultivars have been produced with qualities
such as resistance to disease, quick growth and larger or more consistent crops.
Fruits range from 1 - 2.5 cm in length depending upon the cultivar. They are
either harvested green or left to ripen to a purple or black colour. Olive pulp
contains 60 - 70% oil depending on the cultivar. Typical yields are 1.5 - 2 kg
of oil per tree per year. Olive oil is commonly used in cooking, cosmetics,
pharmaceuticals, soaps and as a fuel for traditional oil lamps. The oil has high
levels of monounsaturated fatty acids and antioxidants such as vitamin E
and carotenoids (Annex A). These properties are thought to contribute to its
claimed health benefits.
- 109 -
There are a number of recognised grades of olive oil which command different
prices:
• Extra-virgin olive oil is obtained from the fruit by pressing without the use
of heat or chemical treatment. It should have a maximum FFA content of 1%
and a high organoleptic score (colour and flavour measured using a taste
panel).
• Virgin olive oil is produced by pressing without the use of heat or chemical
treatment. The organoleptic score is slightly lower and levels of 2% FFAs are
allowed.
• Refined olive oil - the oil has been chemically treated to remove strong
flavours and neutralise FFAs. Refined oil is commonly regarded as lower
quality than virgin oil.
• Extra-virgin olive oil and virgin olive oil cannot contain any refined oil.
• Olive oil - a blend of olive oil (85%) and virgin olive oil (15%). The olive oil
component is refined and should have a maximum FFA content of 1.5%.
• Light oil - not legally defined but contains a low % of virgin oil.
• Olive pomace oil - oil extracted from the residual pomace by solvent
extraction and blended with virgin olive oil.
Olives must be treated with care when harvesting and not subjected to
pressure, heat or bruising, and the use of shallow containers is recommended.
Damaged fruit quickly starts to ferment, which results in defective oils. Fallen
fruit, picked from the ground, should be regarded as second grade and
processed separately. The fruit should be moved as quickly as possible to the
mill to avoid fermentation. The fruit should also be kept as cool as possible.
After sorting to remove defective fruits, stems, twigs and stones the olives are
washed to remove sand or soil.
Traditionally the fruits are ground in large stone roller mills. These consist of
two or three heavy stone wheels which roll slowly around a granite bowl as
shown in Fig. 4.18. Such mills are simple to use and maintain, release the oil in
larger droplets and due to their slow action, which generates little frictional
heat and produces oils with less bitterness. Stone mills are however costly to
buy, difficult to clean, only work on a batch basis and have high labour costs.

- 110 -
Stone mills are now being
replaced by lower cost disc or
hammer mills. There are many
designs of disc mill, for example:
in single-disc mills, the fruit
passes through an adjustable gap
between a stationary casing and
an electrically driven, grooved
disc that rotates at high speed.
Double-disc mills have two discs
that rotate in opposite directions
to produce greater shearing 4
forces, and pin-and-disc mills have
intermeshing pins fixed either
to a single disc and casing or to
double discs. These improve the
effectiveness of grinding by Fig. 4.18. Roller mill for pulping olives (Adapted
from Pieralisi España S.)
creating higher shearing forces.
A hammer mill contains a series
of swinging metal arms that pulverise the fruits. Disc and hammer mills have
the advantage of greater throughput and lower labour requirements than
stone mills. Both however generate more frictional heat that may affect the
final oil quality, and both may produce an oil and water emulsion which makes
the separation of oil more difficult. The next stage is slow mixing, often called
‘malaxation’. The ground pulp is slowly mixed for 20 - 40 minutes by a spiral
blade that rotates in a horizontal trough. This allows minute droplets of oil
to coalesce into larger drops. This is a vital step in the process and the time of
mixing is very important: longer mixing times result in improved oil yield and
flavour due to the pick up of minor flavour components by the oil. However,
over-long mixing results in more oxidation that reduces the shelf life of the oil.
The time used thus depends on the skill and experience of the mill owner.
The ground olive paste is then pressed either in a screw press or more
commonly in a hydraulic press. It is very important that good housekeeping
rules are enforced to ensure that the press and all press mats are well cleaned
to avoid the risk of rancidity in the pressed oil.
- 111 -
The crude oil leaving the press contains water that must be removed. At a
small scale this is done by simply allowing the mixture to stand in a tank. The
water and vegetable matter settles out and can be removed. Increasingly,
continuous centrifugal separators are now used. These are similar to cream
separators used in small-scale dairies and the spinning action separates the
lighter oil from the water. Finally, the olive oil is filtered using a filter press
that removes any fine suspended matter. At large scale the pomace remaining
after pressing is treated by solvent extraction to remove the final traces of oil,
but this technology is not suitable for small producers.
Oil palm
Oil palms have two main varieties: the African palm (E. guineensis) and the
South American palm (E. oleifera). Both have been crossed to give a large
number of hybrids. The plants need a temperature of 24 - 28°C to grow and
are therefore confined to the zone between rainforests and savannahs, or
moist grasslands having annual rainfall of 1500 - 3000 mm and a dry season
not exceeding three months. These conditions are found between 13° north
and 12° south of the equator and below altitudes of 50 metres above sea
level. Wild oil palms begin to fruit after 10 years and do not give a full crop for
about 20 years. Cultivated palms begin fruiting after four years, reaching their
peak after 12 - 15 years, and continue bearing fruit for 40 - 50 years.
The oil palm produces large, tightly-clustered bunches of fruits that may
weigh up to 40 kg on mature palms. Each bunch can have up to 4000 egg-
shaped fruits, each 3 - 5 cm long and 2.5 cm in diameter. The fruit consists
of a thin skin, an orange/red pulp and a hard nut containing a single kernel.
Three types of fruits are distinguished depending on the thickness of the shell
around the kernel: aura has a shell thickness of 2 - 8 mm, tenera 0.5 - 3mm and
pisifera, which has no shell. These are shown in Fig. 4.19. Wild and semi-wild
trees are mainly of the aura type; high-yielding varieties are a cross between
aura and pisifera and produce fruits of the tenera type.

- 112 -
Fig 4.19. Oil palm. a) bunch, b) fruit of tenera (t), aura (d) and pisifera (p), (Adapted from
Rehm and Espig (1984))
4
Oil palm fruits contain two distinct types of oil: red palm oil which is extracted
from the fleshy fruit layer, (or mesocarp), and white palm kernel oil which is
extracted from the kernel. Palm oil and palm kernel oil have very different
chemical and physical properties and they are described separately in this
section. The fruit pulp contains 40 - 62% oil, and palm kernels contain 46
- 48% oil, which is chemically similar to coconut oil. Yields are more than 6
tonnes/ha, which make the oil palm the highest-yielding oil plant. Typically,
for tenera fruit, 100 kg of fresh fruit yields 21 kg of red palm oil and 6 kg of
palm kernel oil. In West African oil palm growing countries, red palm oil is
an important food ingredient, and the colour and taste of the oil from the
traditional aura variety are preferred to those of the hybrid tenera variety. The
taste of oil produced by traditional methods is also better preferred. In Benin,
Cameroon and Nigeria about half the palm oil is produced in the traditional
way, and in Ghana and Sierra Leone the amount is even higher at 70 - 90%.
Palm kernel oil is semi-solid in temperate climates due to its high level of
saturated fatty acids (Annex A). The fatty acid composition means that it has
a good resistance to oxidation and heat at prolonged high temperatures.
This makes it an ideal oil for shallow or deep frying on its own, but it is
not recommended for inclusion in deep frying oil blends because it causes
foaming. The presence of natural anti-oxidants in the oil gives a longer
shelf life to fried products. It is also used in shortenings (bakery fats) and for
margarine and ice cream production. Palm oil and palm kernel oil can both be
- 113 -
separated into a liquid ‘olein’ fraction and a more solid ‘stearin’ fraction by
crystallisation at controlled temperatures, but this is a technology that is only
suitable for large scale plants and is not small-scale operation.
Palm oil is extracted from the fleshy fruit pulp around the kernel. It is
generally recommended that the fruits should be processed within 24 hours
of harvesting because fruit enzymes start to produce FFAs that reduce the
commercial value of the oil. It is interesting to note, however, that small-
scale producers in Ghana leave the fruits to ferment for several days before
processing. The reasons for this are not clear; it may be the flavour imparted
by FFAs is preferred or that separation of the flesh, using a pestle and mortar
is easier.
Crude, un-refined, palm oil is orange or red in colour due to its high
ß-carotene content, which is a source of Vitamin A. This makes palm oil of
considerable nutritional importance in those ACP countries where Vitamin A
deficiency is prevalent.
The processing of palm fruit involves:
• Cutting palm bunch

• Removing the grape-stalk within 72 hours after cutting
• Weighing the fruit using scales (Fig. 4.20a)
• Sifting and sorting palm fruit
• Cooking the fruit for 1-2 hours using cookers (Fig. 4.20b)
• Kneading and pressing the cooked fruits (Fig. 4.20c)
• Clarifying the raw juice using clarifiers (Fig. 4.20d)
• Drying the oil with sterilisers (Fig. 4.20e).
Sterilisation for up to one hour in hot water or steam inactivates natural fruit
enzymes that lead to the development of FFAs. At small and medium scales
of operation, the bunches of fruit are held on a mesh above a tank of boiling
water as shown in Fig. 4.20b.

- 114 -
(a)
(a)Balance
Balance (b)
(b)Steam
Steamcookers
cookers (c)
(c)motorized
motorizedPress
Press
(a) Scales
Balance (b) Steam cookers (c) motorized Press
(d)
(d) Clarifiers
Clarifiers (e)
(e)Sterilizers
Sterilizers
4.20a-e.
4.20a-e.
Fig. Palm
4.20a-e. Palm
Palmfruit processing:
fruit processing:
fruit processing:a)a)scales
(d) Clarifiers for
a)scales
scalesforweighing
forweighing fruit,
weighing
(e) b)b)steam
fruit,
fruit, b)steam
Sterilizers cooker,
steamcooker,c)c)motorised
cooker, c)motorised
motorised
press,
press, d)d)
press, d)clarifiers,
clarifiers, e) e)
clarifiers, e)sterilisers
sterilisers
sterilisers (Photos
(Photos
(Photos from
from J. JHounhouigan)
from JHounhouigan)
Hounhouigan)
4.20a-e. Palm fruit processing: a) scales for weighing fruit, b) steam cooker, c) motorised
press, d) clarifiers, e) sterilisers (Photos from J Hounhouigan)
After sterilisation, the fruits are stripped from the bunches. At a small scale,
this is done by beating bunches with poles or by tumbling them in a revolving
drum fitted with baffle plates. The next step in the process is to pound the
fruit to break up oil bearing cells and help release the oil. At this stage the
kernels are released and collected separately. At a small scale, pounding is
carried out using heavy wooden pestles and mortars. This is extremely hard
work, and motorised systems are now more commonly used (Fig. 4.21). These
consist of a revolving cylinder with a shaft fitted with arms or hammers. An
auger moves the fruit through the machine.
- 115 -
A mechanical pounder developed in Ghana is belt-driven by a 8 hp engine.
It consists of a horizontal cylinder with a central revolving shaft. The shaft is
fitted with metal beater arms and an auger that moves the fruit to the exit. A
feed hopper is fitted to the top of the drum to which the boiled fruit is added.
The machine has a capacity of 50 litres and can pound 100 kg of fruit per
minute.
Fig. 4.21. Mechanical palm fruit pounder (Photo from J. Hounhouigan)
In small-scale operations, the pounded mixture of fibre and oil slurry is pressed
in a screw press or hydraulic press. Sometimes the nuts are retained and only
removed after pressing. Then the remaining material is re-pressed to increase
the oil yield. At a larger scale, continuous expellers are used to remove oil
from the fibre after the nuts have been removed. The crude oil contains water
and plant cell material that has to be removed by clarification. At a small scale,
this is carried out by adding water and heating to about 95oC. Oil rises to the
surface and collects in a collecting tank from which it is drawn off. A typical
clarification tank is shown in Fig. 4.20d.

- 116 -
Case Study 4.5: Palm fruit processing
With the exception of the diesel engine, all equipment in the factory was
locally built by the Technology Consultancy Centre of the Kwame Nkrumah
University. The main equipment is a manual press and a combined palm
fruit digester and hydraulic press driven by a diesel engine. The process
involves removing fruits from the bunch, sorting and boiling them, and
feeding them to the combined digester and press to extract the oil. The oil
is boiled with spices to enhance its taste and remove water. The fibre still
contains some oil after digesting and pressing. It is covered with thick cloth
for some days and then pressed using the manual press. This oil is of lower 4
quality and it is sold to soap manufacturers.
Palm kernels are processed using a kernel cracker to break the kernel. This
is winnowed manually or separated with clay solution and the kernel is
roasted and milled using a corn mill. The oil is extracted using a manual
press.
Finally the crude oil is filtered. It may also be refined by caustic soda treatment
to remove FFAs and bleached with Fuller’s earth or activated carbon.
Palm kernel oil is normally produced separately from palm oil. The kernels may
be a saleable by-product for palm oil producers, or the palm kernel oil may be
extracted by a different processor, such as manufacturers of frying oil blends
or bakery fats. In general, palm kernel oil is not regarded as a cooking oil,
but as an ingredient sold to commercial bakeries or food service outlets (see
Chapter 2, Section 2.2).
Traditionally, extraction starts with shelling the nuts, which used to be done
using stones or a pestle and mortar to crack the kernels. This has now largely
been replaced by mechanical shelling using a palm kernel cracker (Fig. 4.22).
- 117 -
Fig. 4.22. Palm kernel cracker (Photo from J. Hounhouigan)
At a micro-scale, the mix of kernels and shells is separated in a ‘clay bath’,

which is a slurry of clay and water. The density of the clay bath is adjusted so
that the more dense shells sink while the lighter kernels float. The kernels can
then be scooped off, washed and dried. The next step is to fry the kernels and
then pound them to a paste, either manually or in a mechanical mill. The paste
is mixed with water and heated which releases the oil from the cells. The oil
rising to the surface is finally skimmed off.
At small- and medium-scale, palm kernel oil is now more commonly obtained
by pressing in a screw press or with an expeller after reducing the size of the
kernels using a hammer mill. At a larger scale, roller mills are used to flake the
kernels. Roller mills have a series of heavy rotating metal rollers mounted one
above the other. The thickness of the flakes is gradually reduced as it passes
from the top to the bottom roller. The ground or flaked kernels are next
cooked in a steam-heated cooking tank which adjusts the moisture content,
breaks down cell walls and coagulates proteins, each of which makes final oil
separation more efficient. In most systems, the meal emerges at a temperature
of almost 100oC and 3% moisture. The ground meal is then passed through
an expeller and the crude oil is collected. The crude oil contains fibre etc. that

- 118 -
needs to be removed by a centrifuge followed by a filter press to produce
clear oil.
Safflower is a temperate herbaceous thistle-like annual plant, varying in
height from 30 - 150 cm. Each branch has 1 - 5 flower heads, containing
15 - 20 seeds per head. Seeds resemble small, slightly rectangular sunflower
seeds, but with thicker, more fibrous hulls. The seed contains 36 - 48% oil. The
plant gives yields of 1 tonne per ha in semi-arid climates and has moderately
good drought- and salt-resistance, making it suitable for areas where other
oilseeds are difficult to grow. Safflower oil is flavourless and colourless,
and nutritionally similar to sunflower oil. It is used mainly as cooking oil,
in the production of margarine, and it may also be taken as a nutritional
supplement. There are two types of safflower that produce different kinds 4
of oil: one is high in monounsaturated fatty acids and the other is high in
polyunsaturated fatty acids (Annex A). The oil is extracted using the same
methods described for sunflower below.
Sesame (Fig. 4.23) is known as gingelly and til or tillie in India, sim-sim in Arab
countries and East Africa and ben or benniseed in Nigeria. It is probably the
most ancient oilseed used by man and originates from the Ethiopian area.
Fig. 4.23. Sesame plant (a) ripe capsules (b) shoot top with flowers (Adapted from Rehm and
Espig (1984).
- 119 -
It is an annual tropical and subtropical crop and requires hot conditions (around
26°C) for rapid germination, growth and flower formation. At altitudes below
1250m, the main distribution is between 25o north and south of the equator,
but it can also be found further north and south. Optimal rainfall is 500 - 650
mm per year, but the crop is reasonably drought resistant and it can grow in
areas with annual rainfall as low as 300 mm. Varieties may be classified either
as ‘shattering’ or ‘non-shattering’, according to whether the seed capsules open
during drying. Under optimum growth conditions, some varieties take only 3-4
months to reach maturity. Although yields can be as high as 2 tonnes per ha,
average yields are 350 kg per ha because it is mostly cultivated in arid regions
with poor soils. The average seed composition is 35 - 50% oil and 19 - 25%
protein. The seed is sensitive to mechanical damage, and even minor damage
during threshing can reduce the viability of an oil extraction process. Unrefined
sesame oil has a pleasant flavour and can be used without further purification.
The oil is also very stable due to the presence of natural antioxidants (Annex A).
Oil is extracted from cleaned sesame seed either by hot water extraction at a
micro-scale, by pressing or at a large scale using an expeller.
Shea nut trees are also known as Karité, Nku, Bambuk, or butter trees. The
wild-growing tree is found in countries south of the Sahel in Africa. The tree
grows to a height of 12 m and produces its first fruit when it is about 15 - 20
years old. It reaches full production when the tree is about 45 years old and
produces nuts for up to 200 years.
Fig4.25.
Fig 4.24. Shea
Shea fruits,
fruits (Photo
(Photo courtesy
courtesy of Marco
of Marco Schmidt)
Schmidt)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vitellaria_paradoxa_MS4195.JPG

- 120 -
The fruits (Fig. 4.24) are spherical and 3 - 5 cm long and have a thin shell
enclosing a dark brown nut embedded in a sweet yellowish-green pulp. The
nuts contain a butter-like yellow to ivory coloured edible fat known as shea
butter. The average yield per tree is 15 - 20 kg of fresh fruit. 100 kg of fresh
fruits produce approximately 40kg of dry kernels containing 40 - 54% fat.
As well as being used as cooking oil, shea butter is widely used in traditional
medicine as a decongestant, an anti-inflammatory and a healing salve. It
is used as an alternative to cocoa butter in chocolate, and in cosmetics as a
moisturising lotion for hair and skin and the main ingredient in traditional
black soaps. In recent years there has been much interest in shea butter for
cosmetics marketed under the Fair Trade banner.
4
Typically, shea nuts are first washed several times in clean hot water to remove
any mould growth. They are then sun dried and after drying any blackened
nuts are removed as these may contain aflatoxins. The nuts are cracked and
coarsely pulverised in a hammer mill. The crushed nuts are roasted in a pan for
about 30 minutes, and after cooling for 10 - 30 minutes they are milled, either
by pounding in a pestle and mortar or more commonly using a mill.
The resulting paste is mixed with cold water to give a smooth, uniform dough.
More water is added and slowly the oil and water emulsion begins to break
down and the fat rises to the surface. At this stage hot water is added which
melts the fat and allows the oil to separate. Finally cold water is added, mixing
is continued and the solid fat gathers on the surface and is removed. The
crude shea butter is heated to boil off the remaining water and solid residues
settle to the bottom of the pan. Finally the oil is filtered through a cloth filter.
The butter is then placed in moulds where, after cooling, it solidifies into
blocks. Shea butter is an important fat in Burkina Faso, Mali and some other
West African countries, where its special taste is highly regarded.
The application of expellers to shea butter production is being examined in

Ghana for larger scale production. A quantity of shell has to be added to the
powdered kernels to provide a ’frictional bite’ to the expeller screw (see also
groundnut processing).
- 121 -
Case study 4.6: Improved shea nut processing
In traditional shea nut processing in northern Ghana, a company that

comprises a group of 15 to 20 women produced shea butter by the
wet kneading method in the open in the shade under trees. The only
mechanisation was a community grinding mill. Both productivity and oil
yields were low and typically 15 women could process 6.5 tonnes of shea
nut, yielding 2 tonnes of shea butter per month (an extraction rate of
28-30%). The work is hard and heavy and the workers need to work full
time, five days a week to achieve the output. The process has now been
semi-mechanised using equipment made by a local company. The project,
supported by international and local development agencies is a good
example of a private industry/local community partnership helping to
alleviate poverty. The improved system uses:
• A mill, dedicated only to shea processing.
• A mechanical nut cracker.
• A motorised kneader.
• A mechanical roaster.
The same group of women, working the same hours, are now able to
process 18 tonnes of nuts, yielding 6 tonnes of butter a month (an increase
in butter yield to 33%). Their company now markets its shea butter mainly
to the US and the project plans over the next year to disseminate the
improved technology to many more groups of women eventually assisting
up to 700 people in 35 communities.
Soyabean (Glycine max) is a legume nitrogen fixing plant, which is usually

classed as an oilseed rather than a bean. It is grown extensively in the United
States, Brazil, Argentina and China. The generally held view is that the
extraction of oil from soya beans can only be profitably carried out at a large
scale using solvent extraction. However, research for the preparation of this
book has found that in Ghana small scale soya oil extraction takes place using
expeller technology. Soya beans contain between 15 - 22% oil and importantly
40% high quality protein. Soya also contains several anti-nutritional
components; in particular indigestible sugars that cause flatulence, and trypsin
inhibitors that interfere with the absorption of certain amino acids in the
protein. These factors can be eliminated by heating soybeans with wet steam.

- 122 -
Case study 4.7: Soybean processing
Mr N set up an oil processing enterprise in Ghana in 1997 with the aim to

produce coconut, groundnut and soya oil. The initial soya oil plant had
an initial raw material capacity of 500 kg/day and this was expanded to
2000 kg/day. The plant has two seed cleaners and six oil expellers with a
combined capacity to produce 100 kg of cake per hour. The plant also has
five 500 litre oil tanks and a feed mill for animal feed production. The oil is
packed into 5 and 10 litre bottles and 25 gallon drums.
The company produces 110 litres of oil a day from 1000 kg of soya beans.
The extraction efficiency is thus low compared to an efficient solvent 4
extraction plant that would make 180 litres of oil. However it is clear that
Mr N is able to produce oil at a competitive price in the local market. One
reason could be his low transport costs compared to imported oil.
Sunflower is a very important oilseed

crop, ranking fifth in world production. It
is a temperate-zone plant and the main
commercial production is between latitudes
20o - 50o north and 20o - 40o south, usually
below altitudes of 1500m. It requires short,
hot summers with not too much rain during
flowering and seed formation.
Fig. 4.25. Sunflower plant
Cultivated sunflowers have distinctive large golden heads, commonly 10 - 30

cm in diameter (Fig. 4.25). Seeds from hybrid varieties have a thin, soft shell
and a high oil content. Most indigenous varieties have thick, hard shells and
relatively low oil contents, but they may be preferred by smallholders, who
can save seed for the next season, whereas hybrid seeds have to be purchased
- 123 -
every year. Local Tanzanian varieties, including ‘Record’ and ‘Peredovik’ have
a thin shell and a high oil content and these are ideal for processing at a small
scale.
Case Study 4.8: Quality of crops
Most of the raw material is from Singida and Dodoma (in Tanzania).
Sunflower seed from these areas is soft and with a good oil content.
However, over the few years of operation there has been a serious problem
with the quality of the seeds.
Sunflower seed is flattish and oblong, with a wide range of colours. Average
seed yields are 1 - 4 tonnes per ha. The oil content is 25 - 48%, but high
temperatures during seed development can reduce the oil content to below
25%, which could make small-scale processing unprofitable. Traditional
hot water extraction is still used but the extraction efficiency is low at
around 38%. At small- and medium-scale production, oil is usually extracted
using either screw presses, hydraulic presses, or expellers. The processing
of sunflower seed involves cleaning and drying, followed by decortication
because sunflower seed shells contain silica, which can cause wear and
damage to expellers. This is then followed by filtering and drying the oil.
Other oil-yielding plants
Argan oil is produced from nuts of the Argan tree (Argania spinosa) that
grow wild in semi-desert soil and once covered much of North Africa. They are
now endangered and protected, and only grow in south-western Morocco.
Because of this small and specific growing area, Argan oil is one of the rarest
oils in the world. It has been used traditionally as culinary oil with a nutty
taste and also in cosmetics, particularly as a treatment for skin diseases. The
oil has 80% unsaturated fatty acids and is rich in Vitamin E and essential
fatty acids, including omega-6 fatty acids (Annex A). It has attracted recent
attention in industrialised countries because of its nutritive, cosmetic and
medicinal properties and the oil is very valuable. Each tree produces green
fruits, similar to large olives, which contain a hard nut that has up to three

- 124 -
kernels. Approximately 30 kg of nuts are sufficient to produce one litre of
oil. Traditionally, the nuts are processed in a similar way to shea nuts, and at
a small scale the kernels are roasted, ground and cold-pressed in mechanical
presses. The roasting contributes to the distinctive nutty flavour of the oil.
The residual thick brown paste has a flavour similar to peanut butter, and is
sweetened and used as a dip with bread. Fruit residues are used as cattle feed
and nut shells for heating.
Castor (Ricinus communis) is indigenous to East Africa but has a worldwide

distribution in warmer regions. Most cultivated varieties are short-lived dwarf
annuals 60 - 120 cm high, but a large proportion of castor seeds (also known
as beans) on local markets in ACP countries is obtained from wild or semi- 4
cultivated plants. Yields of castor beans are 0.5 - 1 tonne per ha, but they have
a high oil content (35 - 55%) and are suitable for small-scale processing. The
oil is used for a variety of technical purposes but not as a cooking oil because
the seeds contain a highly toxic substance, ricin, which is lethal in amounts as
small as half a grain of sand.
Cotton seed (Gossypium sp) is a textile plant that is mainly cultivated for its
lint. However, the seed contains 15 - 25% oil and produces a protein-rich
oilcake, which is used as a protein supplement for cattle. The relatively low oil
content of the seeds requires solvent extraction and the costs of both solvent
extraction and refining make this crop unsuitable for small-scale operation.
Maize (Zeamays L or corn in USA) is a starch plant, but the high oil content
of the germ allows maize oil to be a byproduct of the starch manufacturing
industry, and it is extracted on an industrial scale using solvent extraction.
Marula nuts are processed in a similar way to shea nuts or in screw presses,
and produce Marula oil that has a light yellow colour and a nutty aroma. It is
traditionally used in cosmetics, as cooking oil and as a meat preservative and is
becoming more important commercially as a cooking oil in Southern Africa.
Other less common oil yielding plants that are suitable for small-scale
processing include a large number of wild plants that may have local
importance in ACP countries, including:
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• Babassu (Orbignya oliefera) originating from Brazil, and Cohune (Orbignya
cohune) from Central America, are palms that have kernels that contain 60%
oil, which is similar to coconut oil.
• Linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) is cultivated for its fibre, but is also used as a
spice and to produce oil for paints.
• Neem (Melia azadirachta L.) has seeds that contain 45% oil, which is mainly
used for soap and medicinal uses.
• Niger seed (Guizotia abyssinica) is produced in India and Ethiopia and
produces an edible oil.
• Physic nut (Jatropha curcas or Purgier) has an oil that is mostly used for soap
making.

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✔ Select the correct method of processing for your crop that produces oils
that meet the consumers’ requirements. The chapter describes methods
for Argan, avocado, coconut, groundnut, mustard seed, olive, palm, palm
kernel, safflower, sesame, shea butter, soybean, sunflower.
✔ Decide whether to buy equipment from local engineering companies that

can then repair or maintain it, or whether to buy imported equipment.
✔ If buying second-hand equipment, check if spares are available. 4

✔ Check suppliers and manufacturers websites for equipment manuals.
✔ Train workers to operate oil extraction equipment safely and using the
optimum conditions to extract the most oil.
✔ Have a maintenance plan for equipment and make sure there are enough
spares.
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❑ Do you know the correct method for producing a particular type of
cooking oil?
.............................................................................................................................
❑ Does your equipment meet your needs? If not, what steps will you take to
improve it or replace it?
.............................................................................................................................
❑ Is the equipment to be made locally or imported?
.............................................................................................................................
❑ If buying second-hand equipment, have you checked if spares are
available?
.............................................................................................................................
❑ Have you checked suppliers and manufacturers websites for equipment
manuals?
.............................................................................................................................
❑ Are all guards in place on your equipment and are all safety features
operational?
.............................................................................................................................
❑ Are staff trained to use the equipment correctly and safely?
.............................................................................................................................
❑ Is there a maintenance plan in place and a supply of necessary spare
parts?
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Reader’s notes
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Quality assurance and legislation 5
Tips for success
countries:
✔ C onsistency is the key to good product quality. Understand how to

control the process to make consistent products. Know the control points
in your process.
✔ Quality can only be achieved and maintained through hard work and
commitment.
✔ Ask yourself, is this product good enough for my customers?
✔ Do not compromise on the quality of raw materials.
✔ Maintain your quality standards because once customers are lost, you
cannot get them back.
✔ Know the potential risks to your product and make sure you have
systems to reduce the risks as much as possible.
✔ Do not forget quality assurance in the storerooms and during
distribution.
✔ Know the food laws and take advice to make sure you comply with them.
✔ Teach staff to do simple checks on the quality of crops and products.
✔ Properly clean the equipment and the processing room each day.
✔ Personal hygiene should not be compromised. Provide clean uniforms,
toilets and washing facilities.
Finally
✔ Read Sections 4.1-4.3, 6.1-6.6 and 10.2 in Volume 1: Opportunities in
Food Processing - Setting up and running a small food business
Quality assurance and legislation

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5.1 Introduction
The quality of cooking oil is important for several reasons: the oil must of
course be safe to eat; it must meet legal standards; and it must also meet
consumers’ ideas of good quality and value for money. Quality is therefore
one component of the marketing mix (Chapter 2, Section 2.4). Laws that
relate to the quality of foods in general are described in Opportunities in
Food Processing Volume I (Section 6.3). There are also specific laws for cooking
oils that are described in Section 5.9. Producers who wish to export their
products must have in place quality assurance systems that meet international
standards. The quality standards for bottled oils for export are also higher
than those for crude oil. The standards are described in detail by the Codex
Alimentarius Commission (Annex B) and details may be available from the
government’s export promotion or export development ministry or the Bureau
of Standards.
Both the consumers’ view of quality and legal quality requirements mean
that oils must be safe and made to the same standard time after time.
To achieve this it is necessary to have a Quality Assurance (QA) system.

Research for this book has shown that many small-scale oil processors do not
have such a system in place; instead problems with quality are simply solved as
they arise. This approach does not ensure consistent product quality, and any
failures in processing may pass un-noticed and lead to faults in the product.
It is much better to identify where problems might occur and have a QA

system in place to prevent them before they arise, rather than trying to correct
them afterwards.
Not only will this ensure uniform quality products, but the producer also
saves money and the image and reputation of the business are protected.
This chapter describes the steps needed to set up a QA programme in an oil
processing unit.

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5.2 Quality assurance procedures
The main quality factors for cooking oil are colour, clarity, taste/flavour and
odour. Correct colour and clarity are mainly due to proper clarification after
the oil has been extracted. The flavour and odour of oil depend on the type
of raw material used and the extent of rancidity (see Annex A). Oil is also
notorious for picking up foreign odours and flavours from materials stored
nearby. The crude oil produced at a small scale is not usually refined to remove
flavours and colours. It is therefore important to produce high quality oil that
has no hint of rancidity or off-flavours and odours. This can be done by:
1. Control over raw material quality (buying good quality crops and storing
them in a clean dry storeroom away from materials that could cause off-
flavours or odours).
2. Control over processing (use crops on ‘first-in-first-out’ basis, only prepare
enough crop for the day’s production and do not store partly prepared
crops, use correct processing conditions) and 5
3. Control over packaging and storage (clarify the oil as soon as possible and
store it in clean containers, pack oil in containers that are clean and dry, fill
containers as much as possible to limit the contact of oil with the air, store
the oil in a cool dark storeroom).
Many producers think of quality assurance as simply testing their products

(which is quality control), but a QA programme is much wider than this and
should include the following components:
• Raw material inspection.

• Process control and the correct operation of equipment.
• Operator training and hygiene.
• The condition of the building and routine cleaning programmes.
• Product quality.
• Correct fill weights and sealing of packs.
• Control over storage and distribution.
These are described in the following sections.

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Case Study 5.1: Importance of QA
• The following experiences of quality assurance were provided by oil

processors in different countries:
• The enterprise produces 500 litres of sunflower oil daily. The unit does not
have a big laboratory, but is able to conduct simple tests and standardise
the product quality to ensure that there is minimal variation in oil quality.
• To ensure the quality of its oil, the enterprise receives assistance from the
government supported programme for assistance to agriculture and its
suppliers.
• There is a small quality control lab at the factory. The oil they produce has
an acceptable quality apart from a slight beany odour. Issues of quality
control are not quite strong, but they are making efforts to improve the
situation.
• The mill has good prospects to enter a larger market if they continue to
institute strict measures to ensure the quality and safety of products.
• Quality assurance of raw material is based on elementary knowledge
gained through experience and the training they got from technicians
who installed the press.
• The oil mill owners are eager to improve the quality of their product and
have it certified by the national Bureau of Standards, a process they have
initiated.
• Quality assurance is their key word because the company produces for
particular local and niche international markets that will not compromise
on quality. Products for export into European countries are subjected to
very strict European quality assurance.
• “We do not compromise on quality because that is our trademark”. Not
only are they particular about the quality of the final product, but also
about the quality of crops, water, packaging materials and the whole
manufacturing process. “We have our own laboratory where the quality
of the crops and products are analysed and samples are also sent to
independent laboratories”. Since the Standards Board also certifies them,
they conduct random quality checks on products.
• In the Pacific region, a consultant who provides training and support
to small food processing enterprises said “I make every effort to work
towards Codex standards in each enterprise. I give a form to all processors

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to use as an aide memoir to set up formal cleaning procedures. We have
also found that countries such as Australia, New Zealand and the west
coast of the USA are tolerant to new processors even though they do not
yet meet the Codex/HACCP codes”.
There are many different types of QA systems, to ensure safety and quality,
but the main one for small-scale oil processors is the HACCP system, which is
outlined below. Others that are used by larger companies include Total Quality
Management and ISO 22 000 systems and these are mentioned briefly below.
5.3 Safety of products - HACCP

In most ACP countries, the law requires that food processors produce safe foods
in a hygienic way, and there are serious penalties for those who contravene
hygiene and food safety legislation (see Opportunities in Food Processing
Volume 1, Sections 6.3-6.5). Heating the oil and the low water content of 5
oil reduces the risk of bacterial food poisoning almost completely. The most
important risk is from moulds that can grow on nuts or seeds that are not fully
dried, which produce a poison called ‘aflatoxin’ (Annex A). The safety of cooking
oils can be assured by using a management method known as the Hazard
Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) system. Many small-scale oil processors
think that HACCP systems are not necessary, or not possible because they are
too difficult or too expensive for them. However, in many ACP countries HACCP
is demanded by the local Bureau of Standards or by institutional or commercial
buyers of cooking oils. It is also required by most oil importers.
Hazard analysis is used to identify anything in the oil production process that
is potentially harmful. This includes ingredients, storage conditions, processing
conditions packaging, and actions by staff that may affect product safety or
quality. A HACCP plan allows potential hazards in a process to be identified,
assessed, and controlled or eliminated. In oil processing, potential hazards
include poisons such as aflatoxins in the oilseeds, pesticide residues or physical
contaminants (such as dead or living insects, excreta, hair from rodents, metal
fragments or glass) that if eaten could harm consumers. A HACCP plan sets the
tolerances that are allowed for each hazard. It also defines the criteria that are

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needed for an acceptable product and the controls that are needed to achieve the
required quality.
The system is based on monitoring ‘critical control points’ (CCPs). These are
points or stages in the process where a loss of control would result in an
unacceptable risk to food safety or quality. The system also defines the actions
that need to be taken when the results of checks on CCPs are outside pre-set
limits (see Table 5.1).
Stage in Potential hazard CCPs Target and Control

process limits Measures
1.Raw Contaminants, Level of Max. 2% of Visual checks of
material excessive moisture, contaminants. crop weight. crop.
harvest and causing mould Moisture content 12% +/- 1% Check moisture
storage growth and/or of crop. content of crop.
aflatoxin production. Mouldy grains or No mouldy Scan crop for
nuts. pieces mould growth,
Aflatoxins. Max. 4 μg/kg sieve, and check
magnets
2. Raw Excess moisture Moisture content 12% +/- 1% Moisture content
material content. of crop. of crop after pre-
preparation conditioning.
3. Oil Excessive heat, Time & 80oC +/- 2 oC Monitor process
extraction contamination by temperature of for 15 min +/- conditions.
grease, copper or heating. 2 min. Filter oil.
other metals from Fatty acid content. Below 1.5% Check moisture
machinery, free fatty Moisture content Below 0.1% and free fatty
acids, failure to of oil. acids against
remove moisture. targets & limits
4. Packaging Excessive heat, Free fatty acids. Below 1.5% Keep a reference
and storage light or air causing sample and
excess fatty acids analyse for free
and rancidity. Faults in glass. None fatty acids.
Contamination from - Check containers
glass containers. Incorrect type of are clean and
Migration of plastic. sound and that
chemicals from caps fit correctly.
plastic containers.
Table 5.1. Examples of CCPs for cooking oil production.
Note: the figures in the table are examples only. Producers should devise suitable CCPs for their
own product and process.

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HACCP is used at each stage of an oil extraction process, and includes raw
materials, processing, storage and distribution. Implementing a HACCP scheme
involves the following stages:
1. Identify the potential hazards that could threaten a consumer and assess the
level of risk for each hazard (this assessment should be made by people who
have a high degree of expertise and experience in oil processing).
2. Identify the CCPs that are needed to control the hazards to assure safety. A
‘Decision Tree’ (Opportunities in Food Processing, Volume 1, Section 10.2)
can be used to help decide on the CCPs.
3. Devise target levels and limits for each CCP (Table 5.1).
4. Establish procedures to monitor the CCPs, either using chemical tests or
visual observations.
5. Decide the corrective actions that are needed when a result for a CCP is
outside the limits.
6. Finally the system should have procedures to verify that HACCP is working
correctly and record-keeping procedures to document the system and 5
review it.
It should be clear who has the authority to make decisions in the HACCP
scheme and who is responsible for checking that correct actions are taken
and properly recorded. This is not just the responsibility of the owner or
manager, and a QA system should be developed with the process workers so
that everyone is clear about each other’s role in the system (for example, in
the absence of the owner, one staff member should have the authority to stop
production in the case of a serious quality problem). Records should include
for example, the frequency of testing and the criteria that show whether a
product is satisfactory; cleaning procedures (what is cleaned, how and when
it is cleaned, who cleans it and what with) and records of workers’ illness or
infections. Further details are given in references in Annex B.
To develop a HACCP system, most small-scale oil processors need assistance

and advice from professionals, including staff at a Bureau of Standards or
a university food science department who have experience of the product
and the process. This type of assistance can also be provided by some
manufacturers’ associations.

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Other QA systems
To ensure that safe, high quality oils are consistently produced, the concept
of Total Quality Management (TQM) is used by larger companies in some ACP
countries. The aim is to understand all aspects of the process, to put controls in
place, monitor performance and measure the improvements. In outline, a TQM
system covers the following areas:
• Purchasing and control of raw materials (including crop specifications,

auditing3 suppliers, crop inspection, storage and stock control).
• Process control (including critical control points in a HACCP scheme, hygienic
design of the building and equipment to minimise contamination, cleaning
schedules, recording production data, sampling and testing methods).
• Premises (including methods of construction to minimise contamination,
maintenance, waste disposal).
• Personnel (including training in correct processing, personal hygiene,
clothing and medical screening).
• Product quality standards for non-safety quality issues, monitoring of quality
before distribution (including types of inspection to check quality against
specifications, packaging checks, what to do with sub-standard products or
customer complaints).
• Distribution (including methods to reduce damage to oils throughout the
distribution chain, traceability to the day of production and product recall
procedures).
The benefits of a TQM system are more cost effective production (by ‘getting it
right first time’); reduction in wasted materials; consistently meeting customer
needs, which results in increased customer confidence and sales and fewer
customer complaints; improved machine efficiency and increased production
capacity. The system also results in better trained staff and their heightened
awareness and commitment to quality. It shows regulatory authorities that the
producer has a commitment to high quality products.
3 Audits are the regular systematic collection of information to monitor the ability of suppliers to meet
agreed standards or delivery requirements.

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Larger-scale oil producers and those wishing to export their products should
meet the international standard for food safety management systems (known
as ISO 22 000), which was developed from an earlier standard (ISO 9001) in
2005. ISO 22 000 specifies the requirements for a food safety management
system that include: 1) communication with customers and suppliers to ensure
that all safety hazards are identified and controlled at each step in the supply
chain; 2) management procedures that ensure effective safety systems are
operated and incorporated into the overall management activities of the
company; 3) the use of HACCP principles and prerequisite programmes (PRPs)
that include good manufacturing practice, good hygiene practice and good
distribution practice; and 4) proper environmental and waste management
systems and health and safety in the working environment. Further details of
TQM and ISO 22 000 are given in the references in Annex B.
5.4 Quality of raw materials

5
This section describes the quality checks that should be made on crops, and
methods to prevent contamination. Crops should be harvested when fully
mature, as they then contain most oil and it is more easily extracted. Under-
ripe materials give a lower yield of oil and are more difficult to process.
Over-ripe fruits are easily bruised and this allows enzyme action and bacterial
growth, which reduces the oil yield and causes rancidity. Maturity is judged
with experience, by the colour and size of the raw materials. Raw materials
must also be in good condition because any deterioration leads to a rancid,
unpleasant flavour in the oil. The processor should check that the crops are of
the correct quality for processing and reject those that are not suitable. Case
Study 5.4 shows an example of a quality specification for a crop.
It is not possible to improve the quality of raw materials by processing them.

Poor quality raw materials reduce the yield and quality of oils.

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The main contaminants found in oil-bearing crops are:
• Foreign material (soil, weed seeds, stalks, stones, string, leaves, metal or glass
etc.).
• Infestation by dead or living insects, excreta, hair from rodents or feathers
from birds.
• Mould growth/aflatoxin production.
• Chemical residues (e.g. insecticides, fertilisers).
• Oil or grease from vehicles or machinery.
Seeds and nuts in particular should be cleaned using a sieve to remove soil,
sand and grit, which would not only contaminate the oil but also rapidly
wear out the equipment. Leaves, stalks, seeds from other plants and stones
should be picked out using an inspection table and small and/or lightweight
contaminants are removed by winnowing. A well-designed QA programme
prevents these contaminants from entering the crop or discovers and removes
them before it is processed.
Careful inspection by properly trained staff to sort out substandard materials

before money is spent processing them is one of the most cost effective
methods of ensuring a uniformly high quality in the final product.
The more people that examine the raw materials the greater the level of
control.
Most small-scale processors buy their crops from farmers or local market
traders, and therefore have little control over the way in which the crop is
grown, harvested, stored or transported. Poor quality crops are one of the
most common problems facing processors, especially immature crops or those
that are contaminated. A great deal can be done to improve quality standards
if processors discuss with farmers the quality they require in their crops and
why this is important (see contracts with farmers in Chapter 6, Section 6.3).
Contract arrangements with farmers allow greater control by processors over

the quality of their raw materials.

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Transport operators are paid by the weight or volume of goods carried, and
they do not suffer financially if the quality or safety of the crop is compromised.
Crops are often transported with other non-food goods that may cause
contamination by oil, grease, metal fragments or wood splinters. Crops can also
easily absorb odours from kerosene or diesel fuel and fumes, and care should
be taken to ensure that these materials do not come into contact with crops.
However, the power of traders and middlemen sometimes makes it difficult for
processors to introduce control measures, and a better option is for processors
to collect crops directly from the farmers using their own vehicles. Alternatively,
they should use contracted hauliers’ vehicles that have been inspected to make
sure that they are clean and well maintained (Case study 5.2). Most crops are
loaded into sacks for ease of handling during transport, but the quality of re-
used sacks is often not checked and may be a source of contamination.
Control over the quality of crop containers is part of a QA scheme, and it

is preferable for processors to supply good quality sacks or field boxes for
collecting crops, and possibly to employ a member of staff to check, fill and 5
weigh containers on the farm at the time of collection.
Case Study 5.2: Quality of raw materials
• The palm fruit bunches are harvested from their own plantation or they
are purchased from neighbouring plantations. In the case of purchased
bunches, the enterprise organises harvesting in collaboration with the
owners to ensure that only fully ripened bunches are harvested. This
ensures the quality of raw materials and hence the quality of the oil.
• Their policy is to produce high quality oil and oilcake for human and
animal consumption, and this requires good quality raw materials. The
quality and variety of the crops are also important in determining the
efficiency of oil extraction.
• Quality assurance is performed in collaboration with the National Office
of Applied Food and Nutrition. The enterprise also benefits from technical
assistance by the National Agro-Food Programme. The quality of oil palm
trees is ensured by the suppliers, the national institution that produces
and supplies oil palm plants for the enterprise’s farm.
• To maintain quality the company uses good quality crops and has invested

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in an ultra-modern analytical laboratory that is randomly checked by the
Food and Drugs Board to retain its certificate. The company occasionally
sends refined and crude oil and cake products to the Food Research
Institute for analysis and the Ghana Standards Board for certification.
Products that do not meet the desired quality for edible oils are sold to
soap makers and paint producers at reduced prices.
The first checks on crops should ensure that they are not damaged, infected
with moulds, or seriously contaminated by rats, insects, birds or foreign
bodies. The percentage of rejected crops should be monitored, as this is also
an important factor in calculating the true cost of useable raw materials (see
Section 7.1).
The crops should be spread onto an inspection table and any foreign
materials, mouldy, damaged or discoloured pieces removed. A periodic QA
check is to collect and weigh the contaminants that are separated from the
crop. The weight can be expressed as a percentage of the batch weight using
the calculation:
% contamination = weight of contaminants x 100

weight of batch
The weight and type of contaminants in crops supplied by different traders or

farmers can be recorded over a period of time to see whether some suppliers
have consistently lower quality than others. The evidence from these checks
can be used to negotiate with each supplier, either to reduce the price or to
improve the quality of future deliveries. Where there is a choice of suppliers,
the processor may want to use this evidence as a reason for changing to a
new supplier. If farmers or traders know that such checks are being made,
it may encourage them to improve their handling and storage procedures,
particularly if the processor is willing to offer a premium price for higher
quality crops.
In contract growing of crops, QA checks (in addition to the ones described

above) can be used to ensure correct application of chemicals during

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cultivation, harvest at the correct stage of maturity and proper post-harvest
storage. Of these, the use of correct post-harvest storage is the most important
to prevent mould growth and contamination by aflatoxins. Although
pesticides use is less common in ACP countries, improper use of pesticides or
chemical fertilisers can lead to potential safety hazards. This is most likely
where farmers have inadequate knowledge of, or training in, the correct
quantities and timing of chemical applications. If processors provide support
to farmers as part of contract agreements, they can prevent such problems
by supervising chemical use and conducting checks and training to ensure
that chemical applications are in line with manufacturers’ recommendations.
The laws in some ACP countries control the use of agricultural chemicals and
the presence of residual chemicals in crops. Processors should check with the
Ministry of Agriculture and the Bureau of Standards for details of the specific
laws in their country.
Most crops must be harvested when they are fully mature to give the best
yield of oil. Some farmers harvest their crops too early because they need to 5
generate an income as soon as possible, or they fear theft from the fields.
However, immature crops increase processing costs because of lower oil
yields. The moisture content may also be too high because the crops are not
properly dried, which again allows moulds to grow and risks contamination
by aflatoxins. Additionally, mould growth on a few seeds or nuts can quickly
lead to infection and loss of a whole batch. If possible, the processor should
work with farmers as part of a contract arrangement to specify and/or
supervise harvesting at the correct stage of maturity, and also control on-
farm post-harvest processing to properly dry crops and to reduce the risk
of contamination. During initial inspection of crops, it is important that the
processing staff are trained to remove any discoloured or mouldy pieces as
these are likely to contain aflatoxins and would also lead to off-flavours in the
oil. They should also remove all leaves, insects and other materials that could
contaminate the oilcake after oil has been removed. Processors may wish to
draw up standards for the quality of their raw materials and an example using
shea nuts is given in Case Study 5.3. This is likely to be more detailed than
standards used by a small-scale processor, but it gives an indication of what
can be included.

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Case Study 5.3: Quality specifications
An importer of shea nut kernels specifies the following quality standards.
General Requirements:
Shea kernels should come from ripe fruits collected at maturity (fallen from
the tree). For a given batch, the kernels should all come from the same
harvest. The fruits should be de-pulped to obtain nuts, which are boiled
and dried in a way that does not compromise the quality of the kernels.
The kernels should be obtained by shelling the nuts. They should have the
shape, appearance and taste characteristic of the variety. They should be
safe and suitable for processing for human consumption and should be
free from foreign and rancid odours and mustiness. The kernels should be
free from insect infestation, mites, insect fragments, excrement and rodent
contamination.

Sensory characteristics:
Colour: deep tan/chestnut colour, characteristic of having undergone heat
treatment.
Odour: characteristic of the product.
Physical characteristics:
The kernels should be free of living insects and fungus, noticeable dead
insects, mites, insect pieces, contamination by rodents and insect damage
visible to the naked eye.
Impurities: (shell debris, pieces of leaves and branches, stones): 1%
maximum.
Broken kernels: 1% maximum.
Damaged kernels (mildewed, germinated and hardened/blackened): 0.5%
maximum.
Shrivelled kernels: 3% maximum.
Mouldy/decayed kernels: 2% maximum.
Contamination with other nut varieties: 1% maximum.
Chemical characteristics:
The moisture content of kernels should be less than or equal to 8%.

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The fat content should be 45% minimum.
Total unsaponifiable matter should range between 1% - 19%.
Free fatty acid content should all not be more than 3%.
Peroxide Value should not be more than 15 meq/kg fat.
Aflatoxin content: 4µg/kg maximum.
Kernels should not contain heavy metals in amounts that may present
a hazard to human health and should not exceed the limits specified as
follows:
Lead: 0.1 mg/kg
Arsenic: 0.1 mg/kg
Iron: 5.0 mg/kg
Copper: 0.4 mg/kg
Pesticide residues and micro-organisms:

Kernels should conform to the maximum limits for pesticide residues as
determined by the Commission of the Codex Alimentarius.
The kernels must be free from micro-organisms likely to develop under 5
normal conditions of storage and free from substances produced by micro-
organisms in quantities sufficient to present health risks. Kernels shall not
contain any substances originating from micro-organisms in amounts that
may represent a health hazard. They should contain not more than 1 x 103
colonies for total viable count and not more than 1 x 102 colonies for yeast
and mould count.
Hygiene:
The product should be picked, handled and packed in accordance with
Good Agricultural Practices, CODEX CAC/RCP 6 (1972), recommended
international code of hygienic practice for tree nuts; and CODEX CAC/RCP
59 (2005), code of practice for the prevention and reduction of aflatoxin
contamination in tree nuts. It should be handled in accordance with suitable
sections of the Recommended International Code of Practice – General
Principles of Food Hygiene (CAC/RCP 1-1969, Rev. 4 (2003)).
Packaging:
Kernels must be packed in containers that preserve the hygienic, nutritional,
technological and organoleptic qualities of the product. Containers must

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be made from materials that do not transmit to the product any toxic
substance, nor any odour or undesirable flavour.
When kernels are packed in bags of jute or polypropylene, these must be
clean, sound, free of insects and sufficiently strong and properly sewn or
firmly sealed so as to ensure sufficient protection of the kernels during
storage, handling and transport. The materials must be devoid of chemicals
not acceptable in bags used for packaging food nuts.
Bags should be labelled in conformity with the General Standard for the
Labelling of Pre-packaged Foods (CODEX STAN 1-1985 (Rev. 1-1991)) in
addition to the following specific provisions:
Each bag of shea kernels shall be written or printed clearly and indelibly
with a non toxic ink with the following information:
• Product name: the product name should be ‘shea kernel’.
• Name and address of the producer and registered trade mark of producer
or packer.
• Net weight (kg).
• Batch code.
• Country of production.
• Year and month of harvest.
• Required storage conditions.
5.5 Process control

The different types of processing for oilseeds, nuts and oil-bearing fruits are
described in Chapter 4. The stages of grinding seeds or nuts to a flour or
pulping fruits require quality checks to ensure that uniform flour, pulp or
pieces are prepared. For flours, the main QA control point is conditioning
the flour by heating it with a small amount of water. The temperature and
amount of water should be carefully controlled: if the temperature is too high,
the material dries out and the oil can be damaged; if the material is too moist
the oil yield is reduced. In practice, the checks are made by feeling the flour - it
should not be too sticky (i.e. too wet) and it should not easily fall apart (i.e.
too dry). This requires experience of the material by operators, and although

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this type of testing is subjective, experienced workers can be very accurate in
their assessment. The material can also be checked by analysing the moisture
content (Section 5.7).
When processing using an expeller, the operating conditions (mainly

temperature and time) used in the expeller should be checked. The main
control is the choke ring which is adjusted to control the pressure in the
extruder. If the pressure is too high, it causes over-heating of oilseed flours
that lowers the quality by developing off-flavours. If the pressure is too low,
under-heating reduces the yield of oil that can be extracted. It is therefore
essential that operators be trained to correctly use the expeller and to record
the operating conditions for each batch.
Case Study 5.4: Process control
• The oil is filtered and quality is assured through maintenance of cleanliness

and regular checks to ensure that the filter press is in good condition. 5
• Production of high quality oil is the hallmark of Mr K. He does this by
ensuring the use of high quality crops and attention to detail during
processing. For example, he makes sure that the expeller setting is correct
and that the oil temperature is not too high during boiling to drive off the
water.
• There is no formal system in place to check the quality of the products,
but workers ensure that raw materials are always in their best condition
before processing.
A record should routinely be kept of the yield of oil from the process, and
this should be compared to the yield that could be expected from a particular
crop. Yield is calculated as follows:
Yield of oil = Weight of oil extracted x 100

Weight of crop processed
Calculation of oil yield for production control is described in Chapter 6, Section

6.4 and Table 6.1, and examples of typical yields of oil from different crops are
given in Table 6.2.

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Once the oil is extracted and processed, it should be packaged in suitable
containers. In view of the factors that cause rancidity described in Annex
A, and the need to contain the oil without leakage, suitable containers for
oil include: 1) fully-sealed glass or plastic bottles, preferably made from
coloured glass or plastic, or clear bottles that are kept in the dark using a
cardboard box; 2) metal oil cans, where the metal is tin-coated to prevent oil
from reaching the iron of the can; or 3) glazed ceramic pots that are sealed
with a cork and wax stopper. Plastic bags should only be used for temporary
packaging (e.g. to allow consumers to carry oil to their homes).
Care should be taken to properly clean oil containers if they are reused. A film
of old, rancid oil on the inside of an empty container quickly makes fresh oil
go rancid. The containers should be properly dried after cleaning to remove
all traces of moisture. If correct packaging and storage conditions are not used
the shelf life of the oil is reduced from many months to as little as a few days
or weeks.
Oilcake should be dried to prevent mould growth and stored in a cool dark
place to prevent rancidity of the oil remaining in the cake. It should be
protected from insect and rodent attack using the same methods as those used
for the raw material.
5.6 Operator training, hygiene and sanitation

It is essential that the building is correctly constructed (see Chapter 3, Section
3.2 and Opportunities in Food Processing, Volume 1, Section 5.1). Routine
monthly inspections should be made to ensure that floors and walls have not
developed cracks, and that windows and ceiling panels are intact and in place.
This should be part of the job description for a member of staff, who should
tick off each check against a written checklist. A supervisor or owner/manager
should ensure that the checks are done properly.
Good sanitation in an oil processing unit and good hygiene by operators are
essential to produce high quality oils. QA procedures include proper cleaning
of equipment and processing rooms, washing hands, and removal of wastes as

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they are produced. Together, a manager and processing staff should develop a
cleaning plan and personal hygiene rules that ensure safe production. The law
in some ACP countries requires processors to monitor the health of workers. If
staff report a stomach illness or skin infection, it is important not to penalise
them, otherwise they will hide a problem in order to be paid. They should
be transferred to other jobs that do not allow direct contact with the raw
material or the product (see also Opportunities in Food Processing, Volume 1,
Section 10.3).
The manager should make sure that all staff are trained and know their own
hygiene and cleaning responsibilities. There should be sufficient cleaning
materials and equipment, and sufficient time for staff to properly clean
machinery and processing areas after production has finished. Cleaning
schedules should be drawn up and workers should know their cleaning
responsibilities within a cleaning plan and the manager should take overall
responsibility to ensure that cleaning is done to the correct standard. If animal
or insect infestation is found it should be treated immediately using traps 5
or approved poisons, but the best approach is to prevent infestation from
occurring by proper cleaning. Care should be taken to ensure that recesses
behind machines, ledges and window sills are also properly cleaned. Using
brightly coloured brooms, brushes and cleaning cloths ensures that bristles
or cloth fragments can be seen and removed easily, thereby preventing
contamination of the product or oilcake.
Cleaning should not be regarded as something done as quickly as possible at

the end of the day. It should be a planned and costed activity.
Where by-products are to be sold, they should be collected and stored in a

separate storeroom (Fig. 3.1). If they are not sold, by-products and any wastes
should be placed in bins with lids and not piled on the floor. Processors should
have a management system in place to remove them from the building as
they are produced, rather than letting them accumulate during the day. These
materials should never be left in a processing room overnight.

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Storeroom management
QA systems should be developed to monitor the types and amounts of crops,

product, and packaging materials that are in storage and the time that they remain
in storage. Records kept by storekeepers are described in Chapter 6, Section 6.8.
Stores should be cool, dry, regularly cleaned and protected against insects and
rodents. Mobile racks or steel shelving are easy to inspect and assist stock rotation.
Correct stock rotation is needed to maintain the quality of materials and prevent
unnecessary wastage due to deterioration of crops and to maximise profits. Weekly
checks should be made on both products and raw materials. Stock rotation of
products is easier to operate using date coding, and in most ACP countries oils
legally require a ‘best before’ date (see Section 5.8). Producers can also use a date
stamp on packages to identify the date of production. Control of product quality
does not end when the product leaves the processing unit and manufacturers
should monitor and control the distribution methods to retailers and discuss with
them the best ways of storing and displaying the products.
5.7 Methods of analysis

The quality of crops and oils can be assessed by sensory methods (observation
or tasting), or by chemical tests. For crops the sensory methods include
assessing the hardness of oilseeds to see how dry they are and visually
checking for mould growth. For oils the sensory quality can be assessed by
examining the oil for clarity, checking the colour against colour charts to
make sure it is within the correct range, and tasting the oil to detect any
off-flavours, rancid taste, or to ensure that it has the required characteristic
flavour. Details of methods that are used to do controlled sensory analyses are
given in references in Annex B.
The following chemical tests are suitable for small-scale processors because:
• They are relatively simple to use.
• They are sufficiently accurate for QA purposes.
• They do not require sophisticated or expensive equipment.
• They do not require a high level of skill.
• They are relatively inexpensive.

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Moisture content of crops
Measurement of the moisture content of oilseeds or nuts is useful to ensure

that they are within the correct range for extracting the maximum yield of
oil. It is measured by drying a known weight of finely ground or chopped crop
until it does not lose any more weight. The test requires accurate scales, a
thermostatically controlled oven and a laboratory desiccator. The method is as
follows:
1. Accurately weigh (to +/- 0.001 g) three 2 g samples into small dishes and
place them in an oven at 104-105oC for one hour
2. Remove, put into a desiccator to cool and re-weigh
3. Replace the dishes in the oven for 30 minutes and repeat the process until
their weight does not change
4. Calculate the moisture content using the following formula:
% moisture = initial weight - final weight x 100

initial weight 5
It is important that measuring equipment is handled carefully and checked
regularly for accuracy to ensure consistent test results. Operators should be
given training to conduct the tests properly, and should be supervised to
ensure that accurate information is recorded. The results of tests should be
recorded on logsheets and reported to the manager.
Aflatoxin content of crops
Although there are test kits for aflatoxins that are available commercially, they
are expensive and require some scientific knowledge to use them properly.
Small-scale processors should therefore periodically send samples of crops to
a laboratory for aflatoxin analysis. For routine QA to screen for the presence
of aflatoxins in crops, a hand-held ultraviolet light with a wavelength of 365
nm can be used to scan nuts and seeds. Any that contain aflatoxins glow
with a greenish-gold fluorescence under the light. The lights are available
at a reasonable cost. However, this is not an analytical method for detecting
aflatoxins because the compound that produces the light is actually kojic
acid rather than aflatoxin. So while the method is useful for screening crops

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because it will show if aflatoxin is present, it should be noted that fluorescence
can also occur if there is no aflatoxin present (a ‘false positive’ result).
Free fatty acid content of oils
This test is a measure of the development of rancidity in oils, and can be

used to assess whether the oil is fresh or too old. There is a chemical method
to measure free fatty acids (FFAs) that is relatively simple once a person has
been trained to use it. It requires basic laboratory equipment and access to
some specialist chemical reagents. If the skills, equipment or reagents are not
available, the processor should send a sample of the oil to a commercial or
government laboratory and request to have an Acid Value test done.
The laboratory equipment required is as follows: a 25 ml pipette, a 1 - 2 ml

pipette, a pH meter or pH test-strips, an accurate measuring scale (+/- 0.01g), a
50 - 100 ml burette and two or three 100 - 200 ml glass beakers and flasks.
Procedure
1. Mix 25 ml of diethyl ether with 25 ml of ethanol and 1 ml of 1%
phenolphthalein solution.
2. Neutralise the solution with 0.1 M sodium hydroxide.
3. Dissolve between 1g and 10 g of oil, measured accurately, into the mixed
neutral solution.
4. Titrate with 0.1 M sodium hydroxide solution, shaking the sample constantly
until a pale pink colour does not disappear for 15 seconds.
The Acid Value is calculated as follows:
Acid Value = Titration (ml) x 5.61

Weight of sample used (g)

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FFAs are calculated using a conversion factor. For
most oils the factor is 0.0282, but for palm oil it
is 0.0256 and for palm kernel oil or coconut oil it
is 0.0200. Rancidity can often be detected when
FFAs are above 0.5% by tasting the oil.
More recent developments are simple test strips

that change colour when dipped in the oil. The
colour change depends on the amount of free
fatty acids in the oil (Fig. 5.1). A reading above
2.5% FFAs indicates that the oil is unacceptable,
whereas readings below 1.0% FFAs indicate a
satisfactory quality. Between 1% and 2.0% FFAs
would indicate that the oil may be unsuitable
for retail sales, but it may be acceptable to
commercial frying businesses.
5
Fig. 5.1. Test-strip for measuring
free fatty acids (From All QA
Peroxide Value Products)
Peroxides are chemicals that form in the oil

during storage and therefore give an indication of how well the oil has been
stored (low levels indicate good storage conditions). The Peroxide Value
is therefore a measure of the extent of rancidity in oils after storage. The
maximum level for peroxide value for edible oils is set at 10 milli-equivalents
of peroxide oxygen per kilogram of oil in some countries. This standard should
be checked with the local Bureau of Standards. A chemical test is possible to
measure Peroxide Value of cooking oil, but this may be too complicated for
small-scale processors. Samples should be sent to a local analytical laboratory,
requesting a Peroxide Value analysis. An alternative is a rapid test kit that can
perform 15 tests and can be used in routine quality assurance. The test has a
detection limit of 0.5 milli-equivalents oxygen per kg of oil. The kit is supplied
with bottles of reagents, a syringe and other equipment and instructions for
use. Further details are given by the manufacturer of the test kit in Annex C.

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The method is as follows:
Precaution: the test solution is dilute acid, which causes skin irritation.
Gloves must be worn to do the test.
1. Add a small amount of solid reagent to a test bottle using a plastic spoon
and add 2 drops of reagent solution using a plastic dropper. Swirl to dissolve
completely.
2. Add 1 ml of cooking oil using a plastic dropper and add 4 ml of test reagent
solution using a third plastic dropper. Close the bottle and shake for 1
minute.
3. Add 4 ml of the next test solution using a dropper and then add 2 drops of
solution to develop a colour change (mixed liquid is dark blue). Close and
shake the bottle up and down 10 times.
4. Add 0.5 ml of the final test solution using a syringe, close and shake the
bottle up and down 10 times, and observe the colour. If it changes to a
turbid, white colour, stop the test and read the result (No1 in Table 5.2). If
the colour remains unchanged (dark blue), add 0.5 ml more test solution
and shake the bottle. Read the result (No 2 in the table).
No. Amount of Colour shown Peroxide value Result

solution added
(ml)
1 0.5 White turbid Lower than 5 Pass
Dark blue Higher than 5 Fail (rancid)
2 1.0 (0.5 +0.5) White turbid Lower than 10 Pass
Dark blue Higher than 10 Fail (rancid)
Table 5.2. Analysis of results for cooking oil test kit for peroxide value (rancidity).
(From Global Complex Co., Ltd)
Other analyses that require a laboratory
Moisture content of oils

The method needed to measure moisture content of oils is not suitable for
use by small-scale processors and samples should be sent to a laboratory with
a request for their moisture content determination using the Karl Fischer

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method. A simple check for moisture is to splash some oil onto a hot-plate. If it
spits, there is moisture present.
There are a number of other types of analysis that can be done on cooking
oils, and overseas oil importers might request these. They include the density
and refractive index of the oil, its melting point, colour, Iodine Value,
Saponification Value, Hydroxyl Value and a measurement of unsaponifiable
matter (Table 5.5). None of these tests are suitable for small-scale processors to
do themselves and if they are required, samples should be sent to a reputable
analytical laboratory for them to be done.
5.8 Packaging, storage and distribution

Long-term preservation of cooking oils depends on preventing rancidity by
controlling the amount of air, heat and light that can come into contact with
the oil during storage. The type of package that is used and the conditions of 5
storage and distribution/display are the main factors that are used to give the
required shelf life. It is important that packaging, storage and distribution are
each included in a QA system.
Types of packaging
Glass bottles, preferably coloured glass that is sealed with an airtight cap, are
the preferred containers for cooking oils. Glass bottles may contain splinters,
cracks, or bubbles in the glass, or strings of glass across the interior. They
therefore need checking more carefully than other types of packaging to
prevent these defects causing serious harm to consumers. Staff who check
bottles should be fully trained to look for faults and they should only work
at inspection for 30-60 minutes at a time to maintain their concentration.
The dimensions of glass bottles are also more variable than other types
of packaging and it is important to check that containers have the correct
capacity and that the neck is properly formed to allow the cap to fit. It is also
necessary to find the heaviest empty container to use in check-weighing. If
bottles are re-used, they should be thoroughly washed and completely dried,
and inspected by visually inspecting them and smelling them to ensure that

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they do not contain any residues, before filling with oil. Glass is a foreign body
hazard. A glass breakages procedure should be devised as part of a QA plan to
manage breakages effectively and provide assurance that no glass fragments
can enter the product.
Fill weights and sealing
The check-weight is the weight of the heaviest container

plus the weight of oil when the bottle is filled. In most ACP
countries it is an offence to sell an under-weight or under-
volume product, and over-filling the bottles means that a
producer is giving product away. The capacity of a bottle
can be found by weighing a dried container, filling it with
distilled water and re-weighing it. The difference in weight
is equivalent to the capacity in millilitres of water. However,
because oil is sold by volume, the check-weight needs to
be converted to volume using the density of the oil. The
density of oil can be measured using a hydrometer (Fig. 5.2).
Note: the density of oil varies with each type of oil and the
temperature at which the density is measured. The range is
from 0.91 to 0.93 g/ml at temperatures of 15 - 25°C, compared
to water, which has a density of 1.00 g/ml. It is therefore
important that the readings taken using a hydrometer are all
at the same constant temperature. Ideally, the temperature
of the oil should be controlled by immersing the sample
container in a thermostatically controlled water bath.
Fig. 5.2. Hydrometer for measuring the density of oil

Fig. 5.2. Hydrometer for measuring the density of oil
Oil has a lower density than water and the volume of oil should be calculated
as shown in Table 5.3.

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Type of oil Density Temperature at Volume (ml) of
(g/cm3 or g/ml) which density 100g of oil
measured (oC)
Coconut 0.919 20 108.81
0.925 15 108.11
Cotton seed 0.915 25 109.29
0.926 15.5 107.99
Groundnut/peanut 0.912 25 109.65
0.913 20 109.53
0.917-0.921 15.5 109.05 - 109.64
Maize 0.921 - 0.925 15.5 109.64 - 108.11
Olive 0.910 - 0.915 25 109.89 - 109.29
0.918 15 108.93
Palm 0.9210 - 0.9240 15.5 108.58 -108.22
Palm kernel 0.912 15.5 109.65
Rapeseed 0.913 - 0.917 15.5 109.53 - 109.05
Safflower 0.924 - 0.928 15.5 108.23 - 107.76 5
Sesame 0.920 - 0.924 15.5 108.70 - 108.22
Soya bean 0.924 - 0.928 15.5 108.22 - 107.76
Sunflower 0.919 20 108.81
0.924 - 0.926 15.5 108.23 - 107.99
Table 5.3. Conversion of weight of oil from check-weighing to volume of oil

(Adapted from Elert in Annex B) Density of cooking oils, The Physics Factbook, Edited by
Glenn Elert, at http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2000/IngaDorfman.shtml)
During production a random sample of bottles should be checked for fill-

weight using a check-weighing scale (see also Opportunities in Food Processing
Volume I, Section 6.6). At the same time the label should be checked to ensure
that it matches the product inside, and that the use-by date and batch code
numbers are correct.
Lower cost alternatives to glass are plastic bottles but these should not be
re-used. There are fewer potential quality problems with plastic bottles,
and routine QA checks are mainly to make sure that they contain no
foreign bodies, such as insects or dirt. Some micro-scale producers sell oil in

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polyethylene bags, but these do not offer protection to the oil against light,
heat or air and can only provide a short shelf life. They are acceptable for
small quantities of oil that will be used by the consumer within a few days,
but they are not suitable for distribution and retail display. Apart from visual
examination, the procedures and equipment for testing plastic films are likely
to be too expensive for most small processors and for the majority of faults the
only remedy is to return the film to the supplier. Further information can be
found in packaging textbooks described in the bibliography (Annex B).
Value is added to the oil at each stage of processing and a product has gained
most of its final value by the time it is packaged. Any losses of packaged
product cause the greatest financial loss to the processor. Great care should
therefore be taken in handling packaged oils.
Storage and distribution
Oil may be stored in bulk containers away from light and sources of odours,
but it is advisable to pack it in retail containers as soon as possible so that it
does not deteriorate before it goes on sale. Bottles of oil should be stored in
lightproof cardboard boxes on pallets in a storeroom. The storeroom should
be cool and dark with a good ventilation to maintain a flow of air and with
protection against insects and rodents. The cardboard boxes also protect
bottles of oil from damage during transport, when they are distributed
to sales outlets. Checks should be made to ensure that retailers and other
customers sell the oil before its ‘best-before’ date.
5.9 Summary of legislation

Establishing an oil processing enterprise and factory
In most ACP countries there are laws governing the setting up, registration
and operation of food processing businesses, including oil mills. Failure to
follow the law may lead to punishment by the authorities or forced closure of
the business. However, legal requirements vary in different countries, and the
information below is given for guidance only. Processors should check their

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local laws with the relevant authorities, such as the Bureau of Standards or
Ministry of Trade. Processors should also contact either the Health Ministry or
Food Commission for details of laws relating to public health, food safety, and
hygiene and sanitation on their premises. A summary of the requirements for
registration of a food processing businesses is given in Opportunities in Food
Processing Volume 1 (Section 6.1). Volume 1 (Sections 6.3-6.5) also contains
details of the general food regulations concerning labelling, presentation
and advertisements, weights and measures and hygiene practices during
food processing and handling. Legislation covering exports and international
trade can be obtained from the United Nations Committee on Trade and
Development (UNCTAD), and The Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) sets
the standards for many raw materials and processed foods (see Annex B). Each
member country has a local ‘focal point’ where information on UNCTAD or
Codex standards can be obtained.
Product definitions and specifications

5
Cooking oils are defined by the Codex Alimentarius Commission as follows:
Edible vegetable oils are foods that are obtained only from vegetable sources.
Virgin oils are obtained, without altering the nature of the oil, by mechanical
procedures, (e.g. expelling or pressing), and the application of heat only. They
may have been purified by washing with water, settling, filtering and centrifuging
only.
Cold pressed oils are obtained, without altering the oil, by mechanical procedures
only, (e.g. expelling or pressing), without the application of heat. They may have
been purified by washing with water, settling, filtering and centrifuging only.
Oils have voluntary compositional standards defined by the CAC, which

may be used by commercial buyers to specify the quality required (Table
5.4). Alternatively the chemical and physical characteristics of oils may be
used by larger buyers to specify quality (Table 5.5). In both cases, the tests
required to make these measurements are not suitable for small-scale oil
processors to perform in the factory and the tests should be done at a
university or commercial laboratory. The ISO (International Organization for
Standardization) reference number for each test is shown in Tables 5.4 and 5.5
so that this can be specified when ordering tests to be done by the laboratory.

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The colour, odour and taste of each product should be characteristic of the oil, and be free
from foreign or rancid odours and tastes.
Test Maximum level ISO reference
number
Matter volatile at 105°C 0.2 % m/m ISO 662:1998
Insoluble impurities 0.05 % m/m ISO 663:2000
Soap content 0.005 % m/m -
Iron: Refined oils 1.5 mg/kg ISO 8294:1994
Virgin oils 5.0 mg/kg
Copper: Refined oils 0.1 mg/kg ISO 8294:1994
Virgin oils 0.4 mg/kg
Acid value:
Refined oils 0.6 mg KOH/g oil ISO 660: 1996
Cold pressed and virgin oils 4.0 mg KOH/g oil amended 2003
Virgin palm oils 10.0 mg KOH/g oil
Peroxide value:
Refined oils up to 10 milli-equivalents of ISO 3960: 2001
active oxygen/kg oil
Cold pressed and virgin oils up to 15 milli-equivalents of
active oxygen/kg oil
Table 5.4. Standards for quality and composition of cooking oils (Adapted from Codex
Alimentarius Commission Standard STAN 210-1999 in Annex B) - This standard is intended
for voluntary application by commercial partners and not for application by governments).
Groundnut Coconut oil Maize oil Mustard oil Palm oil Palm Sesame oil Sunflower
oil kernel oil oil
Relative density 0.912-0.920 0.908-0.921 0.917-0.925 0.910-0.921 0.891-0.899 0.899-0.914 0.915- 0.924 0.918-0.923
(xºC/water at 20ºC) x=20ºC x=40ºC x=20ºC x=20ºC x=50ºC x=40ºC x=20ºC x=20ºC
Refractive index 1.460-1.465 1.448-1.450 1.465-1.468 1.461-1.469 1.454- 1.456 1.448-1.452 1.465-1.469 1.461- 1.468
(40ºC) ISO at 50ºC
6320:2000
Saponification 187-196 248-265 187-195 168-184 190-209 230-254 186-195 188-194
value
(mg KOH/g oil)
ISO 3657:2002
Iodine value 86-107 6.3-10.6 103-135 92-125 50.0-55.0 14.1-21.0 104-120 118-141
ISO 3961:1996
Unsaponifiable ≤ 10 ≤ 15 ≤ 28 ≤ 15 ≤ 12 ≤ 10 ≤ 20 ≤ 15
matter (g/kg)
ISO 3596:2000
Table 5.5. Chemical and physical characteristics of some vegetable oils

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Additives and contaminants
In most ACP countries, the Bureau of Standards or the equivalent organisation

produces lists of permitted colours, stabilisers, preservatives and other
additives that can be added to foods. Any chemical that is not on these lists
cannot be used. There are also maximum levels set for each additive in specific
foods and lists of foods that are able to contain specified preservatives. The
only additives that can be added to cooking oils are permitted colours and
antioxidants to reduce rancidity and extend the shelf life. The permitted levels
of different types of antioxidant are shown in Table 5.6. However:
There is no reason for small-scale oil processors to include colours or

antioxidants in their products if they are produced correctly.
Antioxidants
e-number Name Limit (Maximum Level)
304 Ascorbyl palmitate 500 mg/kg individually or in
5
305 Ascorbyl stearate combination
306 Mixed tocopherols concentrate GMP
307 Alpha-tocopherol GMP
308 Synthetic gamma-tocopherol GMP
309 Synthetic delta-tocopherol GMP
310 Propyl gallate 100 mg/kg
319 Tertiary butyl hydroquinone (TBHQ) 120 mg/kg
320 Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) 175 mg/kg
321 Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) 75 mg/kg
Any combination of gallates, BHA and BHT and/or TBHQ 200 mg/kg but limits above not
to be exceeded
389 Dilauryl thiodipropionate 200 mg/kg
Table 5.6. Additives in cooking oils (From Codex Alimentarius Commission Standard
210:1999 in Annex B)
Notes:
No food additives are permitted in virgin or cold pressed oils.
Natural flavours and their identical synthetic equivalents, and other synthetic flavours, except
those which are known to represent a toxic hazard are permitted.
(GMP = Good Manufacturing Practice)

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Contaminants, including herbicides, pesticides, other agri-chemicals and
poisonous metals such as arsenic and lead, have maximum permitted levels in
specified foods. Copper and iron promote rancidity and have maximum levels
in oils that are intended for export (Table 5.4) and some ACP countries may
also apply these to locally sold products.
Food labelling
When prosecutions of food companies are analysed, a large percentage

often relate to ‘technical’ breaches of the law because a label is incorrectly
designed. It is therefore in the processor’s interest to involve the local Bureau
of Standards or other appropriate body at an early stage of label design.
This avoids problems with prosecution and expensive re-design after labels
have been printed. There are general labelling requirements that describe
the information that must be included on a label (Opportunities in Food
Processing Volume 1, Section 6.4), but in many countries there are also very
detailed laws concerning some or all of the following aspects:
• The use of words such as best before and sell by

• Positioning of the name of the food, the best-before or sell-by date and the
net weight (they must all be in the same field of vision when a customer
looks at the label)
• Visibility of information and the ability of customers to understand it
(including the relative print sizes of different information)
• Claims and misleading descriptions, especially about health-giving or tonic
properties, nutritional advantages, diabetic or other medicinal claims
• Specifications of the way in which certain words, such as flavour, fresh,
vitamin etc., can be used.
This is a complex area and professional advice should be sought from graphic
designers who are experienced in label design, or from a Bureau of Standards
or other appropriate organisations.

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Weights and measures
This legislation aims to protect customers from being cheated by unscrupulous

manufacturers (e.g. being sold underweight packs of food). The laws require
the amount of food that is declared on the label as the net weight (the weight
or volume of product in a pack) to be the same as that which is actually in the
pack. However, it is recognised that not every pack can be filled with exactly
the specified weight or volume because both machine-filling and hand-filling
of containers creates some variability. There is therefore ‘Average Weight’
legislation that allows some variability in weights or volumes within specified
limits, and processors should check with the Bureau of Standards to see
whether this is in force in their country. If it is not, all bottles should be slightly
over-filled (e.g. by 1%) to ensure that there is no risk of prosecution.
Other information required on labels
A label can be used to make claims about the health benefits of a food, but 5
such claims are illegal if there is a risk that they could give false or misleading
information. Nutrition information on a label may also include a list of
vitamins, but claims that are not allowed include those that say a food is
‘wholesome’, ‘healthy’, or can ‘cure disease’. Packaged oils should show the
name and address of the producer, and the type of product on the label. A
date mark (use-by date) is required if products are expected to have a shelf life
of less than 12 months.
Hygiene and sanitation
Laws relating to food production premises and the staff who handle foods
are among the most widely enforced in most ACP countries. Guidelines on
the design and construction of premises and hygiene of operators should
be consulted before submitting a new processing facility for inspection and
certification. These guidelines should be rigorously enforced to ensure that
safe, high quality products are produced. In summary the laws are concerned
with the following aspects of health, hygiene and sanitation:

- 163 -
• Processing that is carried out in unsanitary conditions or where food is
exposed to the risk of contamination
• Equipment (which must be able to be cleaned and kept clean)
• Persons handling food and their responsibilities to protect it from
contamination should be defined
• Building design and construction including water supplies, drainage, toilet
facilities, wash-hand basins, provision of first aid facilities, places to store
clothing, facilities for washing food and equipment, lighting, ventilation,
protection against infestation by rodents and insects and removal of wastes.
Processors should contact the Bureau of Standards, Ministry of Health or other

organisation responsible for hygiene and sanitation to find out the specific
local requirements.
Storage and distribution of oils
The Codex standards for storage and distribution of oils (Table 5.7) are
advisory, but they are a sensible standard for oil processors to aim for. There is
no legislation in most countries on the conditions for storing and transporting
oils, but it is in the oil processors’ interest to maintain temperatures as low as
possible, without using refrigeration, and to store the oil away from sources of
odours.

- 164 -
Oil or fat Storage and bulk shipments Loading and Discharge
Min °C Max °C Min °C Max °C
Coconut oil 27 32 401 451
Groundnut oil Ambient Ambient 20 252
Maize oil Ambient Ambient 10 202
Olive oil Ambient Ambient 10 202
Palm oil 32 40 50 55
Palm kernel oil 27 32 401 451
Safflower oil Ambient Ambient 10 202
Sesame oil Ambient Ambient 10 202
Shea nut butter 38 41 50 55
Soya bean oil Ambient Ambient 20 252
Sunflower oil Ambient Ambient 10 202
Table 5.7. Temperatures during storage, transport, loading and discharge (Adapted from Codex
Alimentarius Commission in Annex B) Standard CAC/RCP 36)
5
Notes
1 For warmer climates, the loading and discharge temperatures for coconut oil and palm kernel
oil are Min 30°C, Max 39°C or ambient temperature.
2 It is recognised that in some cases the ambient temperatures may exceed the recommended
maximum figures shown in the Table.

- 165 -
✔ To obtain high quality raw materials, consider contracting farmers or
making formal agreements with suppliers.
✔ Check all raw materials to ensure they have the required quality.
✔ dentify control points in your process to assure product quality. Do not

forget storage and distribution.
✔ Develop routine cleaning programmes and ensure they are properly

done.
✔ Develop routine methods to assess product quality. Decide which ones can
be done at the oil mill and which ones need to be done at a laboratory.
✔ Know the laws that affect your products.
✔ Ensure that production methods are suitable for making products that
are legal.
✔ Make sure your labelling meets legal requirements.
✔ Seek advice from the Bureau of Standards or similar organisation if you

are not sure on any aspect of quality assurance.

- 166 -
❑ Do you routinely check the quality of your raw materials?
.............................................................................................................................
❑ Do you use this information to improve supplies?
.............................................................................................................................
❑D o you have contracts with farmers or suppliers? If not, have you assessed
the benefits of agreeing contracts?
.............................................................................................................................
❑D o you know what the control points are for your product?
.............................................................................................................................
❑ Do you know what to do if the product is outside the control limits?
.............................................................................................................................
❑ Do you have routine cleaning schedules? Are they satisfactory to meet the 5
regulations?
.............................................................................................................................
❑ Do you routinely check the quality and the fill weights of your products?
.............................................................................................................................
❑D oes your labelling comply with the law?
.............................................................................................................................
❑D o your operators understand hygiene and sanitation rules?
.............................................................................................................................
❑D o you know which tests are needed for your products?
.............................................................................................................................
❑ Can you analyse your products yourself or do you need to send samples to
a laboratory?
.............................................................................................................................
❑ Do you know where to get advice on the law relating to your products?
.............................................................................................................................
❑ Do you have the necessary approval and certificates?
.............................................................................................................................

- 167 -
Reader’s notes
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- 168 -
Managing production 6
Tips for success

countries:
✔ Start small, get the experience and capital and then expand.
✔ Use only good quality raw materials.
✔ Be ready to delegate duties to others and play a supervisory role.
✔ Build good relationships with your staff.
✔ Employ skilled workers or train your staff to bring them up to standard.
✔ Make workers feel part of a team, they will be more responsible, and pay
them well.
✔ Give your staff allowances or training - it helps to motivate them.
✔ Proper record keeping is vital. Keep records of everything and take time
to analyse them.
✔ Be honest and dependable - give people what they ask for.
✔ Have timely maintenance done by qualified people.
Finally
Read Sections 4.1-4.7, 6.1-6.6, 8.1-8.2 and 10.1-10.4 in Volume 1:
Opportunities in Food Processing - Setting up and running a small food
business
Managing production
- 169 -
6.1 Production planning
Oil processing can be a highly competitive business, and good production
planning and management are needed to control product costs, maintain
output and increase profitability (see also Chapter 7, Section 7.2). The main
considerations in production planning are:
1. Calculating the required production rate to meet the anticipated demand

for oil.
2. Finding sufficient amounts of raw materials that have an acceptable quality
and price to meet production requirements.
3. Ensuring sufficient supplies of packaging.
4. Proper staff recruitment and training.
5. Maintenance of equipment to prevent breakdowns and ensure
uninterrupted production.
6. Record keeping.
7. Business productivity improvement.
Planning is essential, not only when a business is being set up, but also for
daily operation.
Good production planning makes the best use of people, materials and
equipment.
It also helps the entrepreneur to:
• Think ahead about the business to prevent problems arising during its
operation.
• Avoid ‘bottlenecks’ in the process, or running out of raw materials or
packaging.
• Predict the growth of the business and decide what actions are needed to
increase production to achieve it.
• Know if the production plan will allow a business to make profits in the
future.

- 170 -
Some small-scale oil processors fail to adequately plan their production. As
a result, production may have to stop because of a lack of spare parts to
fix a broken machine, or running out of labels or bottles. In the authors’
experience, these failures in production planning are the most important
reason for a business to operate below its expected capacity, which can have
serious consequences for profitability. For example, the following sequence of
events can take place:
• Production stoppages cause low production rates, which mean that the fixed
costs (see Chapter 7, Section 7.1) become a relatively large proportion of
total costs.
• The business simply does not make enough products, and hence does not
receive sufficient income, to cover fixed costs and make a profit, or even to
pay the bills (i.e. production falls below the break-even point (Chapter 7,
Section 7.3).
• The producer may react by increasing the price for products to generate
more income - but the product then becomes over-priced and uncompetitive.
• In extreme circumstances the producer reaches credit limits with suppliers,
who refuse to supply inputs, and the business fails.
The questions below illustrate some of the planning decisions that need to
6
be taken in an oil processing business to prevent these types of problems and
maintain production above the break-even point.
1. What are the expected sales for next week or month?
2. What production will be needed to meet the expected orders?
3. Are enough stocks of raw materials and packaging available for next week’s
or next month’s production and are they of the correct quality?
4. Are the equipment and utilities ready for the expected production levels?
5. Are enough trained workers going to be available, or should extra workers
be hired for the week?
Each of these aspects is described in more detail below.
Managing production
- 171 -
6.2 Expected sales
Sales people gather orders from customers, and the manager should ensure
that they discuss with production staff the amounts of oil required each week
to meet the orders. Then production staff draw up a production plan showing
how much product should be made during the next few days or weeks. The
production manager can then arrange for the necessary amounts of crops,
packaging and labour to be available to meet the orders (Fig. 6.1). Clearly, the
more notice that can be given of anticipated sales, the easier it is to plan the
production.
Prediction of sales volumes
Questions to ask Are there Are there Are sufficient Is the machinery
for each product enough raw enough staff available? working?
materials to packaging
meet production materials?
targets?
Actions to take Place orders with suppliers Recruit Service the

if the answer to temporary staff equipment or get
the question is or offer overtime an engineer to
‘no’ repair it. Order
spare parts from
suppliers
Actions to take Develop good relationships with Have a register Have a contract
in the longer- suppliers so that they will supply of trained and with an engineer
term orders on time or at short notice reliable staff to or equipment
call on at short supplier and
notice develop a good
relationship so
that they
respond quickly
Figure 6.1 Planning production based on sales predictions
This process not only allows managers to plan the production levels for the
near future, but also to monitor long-term trends. Sales staff should discuss

- 172 -
the popularity of products with retailers and customers (see market surveys
(Chapter 2, Section 2.3)), to find out whether demand for a product is
increasing or decreasing. By doing this, they can get an idea of future sales
trends. This type of information allows the owner or manager to draw up
long-term production plans to cope with expected changes in demand - e.g. by
investing in larger equipment to allow higher production rates.
6.3 Inputs of raw materials and packaging

The need to secure a supply of raw materials, often for a full year’s
production, can be a significant problem, and is always a large investment by
an oil processor. It may require careful negotiations with farmers or other crop
suppliers, such as cooperative marketing agencies, parastatal organisations or
seed merchants. Ideally, there should be strong, trusting relationships between
suppliers and oil processors, which bring a number of benefits to each:
• There is reduced uncertainty in both the costs to the processor and income
for the farmers.
• Reduced buying costs, compared to buying from wholesale markets (or for
micro-scale producers, from retail markets).
• Better production planning and cash flow management because of
6
guaranteed raw material supplies, which may sometimes be paid for in
instalments as they are used throughout the year.
• Better understanding by farmers of processors’ quality requirements to give
an assured supply of high quality raw materials.
• Increased incomes to farmers from guaranteed sales of crops.
The most important component of any agreement with farmers is the price
offered by the processor for the crops. A number of arrangements are possible:
for example, in contract growing schemes, the processor sets a fixed price and
the farmers have a guaranteed income. However, under this type of contract
farmers do not benefit if the market price rises. If prices rise, farmers may renege
on an agreement and sell their crop to the highest bidder. In contract processing
schemes, the processor buys a proportion of the crop at a fixed price and the
remainder belongs to the farmer. This places the risk with the farmers (they may
not be able to sell their crop), but it also gives them the opportunity to get the
Managing production
- 173 -
full market price for part of their crop. It may be necessary for a processor to have
this type of agreement with several farmers to be able to obtain enough crops for
the required production level.
For any type of agreement to be effective, both parties must keep their side
of the arrangement, and this requires a high level of trust and understanding
(See also Case Study 6.1 and Fellows (2001) in Annex B). Where these types of
arrangements are not possible or have failed, an alternative is for processors to
invest in growing their own crops. Clearly this increases the start-up and operating
costs of the business, although it does give the processor greater control over
the amount and quality of crops supplied to the oil mill. For example, Potts
and Machell (1993) (Annex B) calculated that approximately 40 - 50 hectares of
groundnuts that yield 400 - 500 kg/hectare are needed to supply one oil press for
one year.
Case Study 6.1: Raw material supplies
•T o ensure that varieties with high oil content are used, the company has
suppliers whom they trust. The quality of crops is fairly constant because
they are obtained directly from farmers who grow a particular or a
preferred variety in the northern regions of the country. The company also
pre-finances outgrower farmers to produce for the factory.
•M r and Mrs M grow at least 20% of their own sunflower seeds that are
needed and with other purchases there is adequate supply of sunflower for
the enterprise.
•D ue to financial constraints, it is quite burdensome to keep a stock of seeds.
Therefore the effect of fluctuating prices during the year could sometimes
increase production costs substantially. Future arrangements may involve
farmer contracts to ensure that the crops have a more average price that
will not be painful to the enterprises, but will also give the assurance of
sustainable supply.
• ( In Malawi) operating at a level of 10 batches per day, 106 kg/day of
groundnuts are needed, and assuming a 5-day week and year-round
processing, the annual requirement will be 25,440 kg of crop. The supply
of raw material and the market for the product are the two key factors
involving external players that are critical to the success of the enterprise.

- 174 -
All efforts should be made to have some degree of control over the supply
of raw materials, by agreeing a supply contract so that groundnuts can be
purchased monthly. Groundnuts are harvested once a year and if a whole
year’s supply has to be purchased at one time, then a larger loan will be
needed which may make the business unprofitable. An accessible supply
throughout the year, either from smallholder farmers or a centralised
marketing agency, is preferable. But it is essential to obtain an agreement
to secure regular supplies before starting the enterprise. (From Potts and
Machell (1993) in Annex B)
•T
he main raw material is sunflower seeds that are purchased locally. They
prefer the soft black varieties, which are rich in oil and easy to extract. Seeds
are procured packed in jute or sisal bags.
•T
he company has the capacity to produce a number of oils from seeds and
nuts and has a big export market, with possibility of expansion on its 4.5
acres if land. Its main weakness is the low asset base, which makes it difficult
to stock up on raw materials for many months’ production.
•P
rocurement of both raw materials and packaging materials is done on a
need basis. There are no contractual arrangements as yet.
•T
he enterprise uses sunflower seed of high quality from Dodoma, Singida
and Iringa. This is the reason for producing high quality oil. Nonetheless,
availability of sunflower seeds is limited and this contributes to the low
6
capacity utilisation of the facility.
•A
ccording to the owner, the ability to identify quality raw materials is his
main strength and the sunflower variety Serene is the most sought after as
it is rich in oil.
•T
he seeds are supplied in 60-70 kg bags and on average each bag yields 18
litres of filtered oil.
•T
he enterprise produces 25 barrels (5000 litres) of palm oil per day during
periods of high production. During this harvest season the fruits ripen
quickly, hence the high levels of oil production. After this period production
falls gradually and in this period of downtime in the rainy season the
enterprise produces food crops (maize, cowpea, groundnuts, cassava).
•T
here are no contract agreements with suppliers of raw materials.
Processors visit nearby villages to purchase palm fruit bunches. The company
processes all varieties of oil palm but prefers palm fruits that have small
kernels that give the highest yield of oil.
Managing production
- 175 -
Packaging
The main packaging options for cooking oil are glass or plastic bottles (PET
with polythene caps) for retail sales, metal cans or drums for wholesale or
institutional customers, or plastic bags at a micro-scale of production (see also
Chapter 2, Section 2.5). This is reflected in the costs of packaging that were
reported by processors who were interviewed for this book: some reported
packaging costs to be as low as 5% of total production costs, whereas others
reported the cost to be 20-30%. In many ACP countries there are difficulties
in securing reliable supplies of packaging materials. To overcome this some
processors keep large amounts of stock to protect themselves against failure
in supplies that would lead to production stoppages. These large expenditures
may cause cash flow difficulties because cash is tied up while stock that has
already been paid for is waiting to be used. Smaller enterprises may buy
packaging materials in small quantities more regularly to overcome cash flow
problems. However, this is a more expensive way of buying than bulk buying.
There is also a constant risk of production stoppages if a supplier runs out of
materials and stocks cannot be quickly replaced. The problem of how much
stock to hold can be partly addressed by adequate financing that is available
in phases to meet planned shortfalls in cash flow, and by periodically buying
materials in bulk.
Case Study 6.2: Packaging supplies
• Packaging materials are purchased from wholesale dealers in Dar es

Salaam. They have no designs that are specific to their company, but use
what is supplied or available in the market. Plastic containers of different
sizes are used. Common ones are 5 and 20 litres. Forward planning of
purchases helps them to avoid shortages of packaging materials that
could disrupt production.
• The filtered oil is packed in plastic ‘gallons’ and the press cake is packed in
sisal or polysacks. The latter are normally reused bags.
• Packaging is a big headache and they have tried to get special plastic oil
bottles but there are no local suppliers. They have also tried to import
directly but the minimum order is too large. Instead they now use plastic
drinks bottles, which are attractive with the new label they have designed.

- 176 -
6.4 Calculation of production rate
There are two factors that control the amount of oil that can be produced
each day to meet the sales demand: the production rate (or throughput) of
the equipment or process, and the yield of oil.
Throughput is the amount of crop processed per hour.

Yield is the amount of oil extracted per kg of crop.
The throughput determines the time required to process a given weight of

crop, and it depends mainly on the size of the equipment (Chapter 3, Section
3.4) and the efficiency of work organisation. When planning the process,
it is necessary to calculate the capacity of each piece of equipment needed
to achieve the planned production rate. Decisions include whether to buy a
single large machine or several smaller ones to achieve the planned capacity.
Using shea nut as an example, the yield of shea butter (kg of fat extracted
per kg crop x 100) is either 15-45% using traditional methods of extraction
or around 60% using improved methods (Table 6.2).
If 75 kg of crop are processed and the losses during sorting and preparation
are 6%, the yield of fat is calculated as follows:
6
Weight of useable crop = 75 kg - 6%
= 75 - 4.5 kg
= 70.5 kg
Expected yield of fat using traditional methods = 30%
Therefore, weight of fat = 70.5 x (30/100)
= 21.15 kg
Expected yield of fat using improved methods = 60%
Therefore, weight of fat = 70.5 x (60/100)
= 42.3 kg
Table 6.1. Calculation of yield of oil or fat from raw materials
The production rate also depends on the yield of oil from the crop. The
method for calculating the yield is shown in Table 6.1. Typical yields of oil from
different crops are shown in Table 6.2, but processors should conduct trials
Managing production
- 177 -
with their own equipment and procedures to find the range of oil yields that
they can expect to get. Knowing the yield, the data from production trials
then allows processors to calculate the amount of crop that should be used
each day to meet target sales of oil. The method is shown in Table 6.3.
Moisture content Oil/fat content Yield of oil

(%) (%) (%)
Avocado 69 11-28 40-44
Coconut (fresh) 40-50 35-40 55-62
Copra 3 – 4.5 64-70 50-60
Groundnut (shelled) 4 28-55 30-40*
Mustard 7 30-50 45-50
Oil palm - 56 11-20*
Olive 70 20 80-90
Palm kernel nuts 6.5 46-57 45-49
(shelled) 5 (47-51)
Safflower 5 30 40
Sesame 40 (fresh) 25-50 45
Shea nut 7-9 (dried) 34-45 15-45*
60
Sunflower 5 25-50 20-30*
Table 6.2. Oil contents and oil yields from different crops (Adapted from Practical Action,
Kailis and Harris, (2007), Poku, (2002) and Sekaf Ghana Ltd in Annex B).
*Traditional methods. All % figures are based on crop weight.
3622
3422
Sales Volume (litres)
3222
: 22 I tqwpf pwv"qkn
822 Uj gc"dwvvgt
622
422
2 Fig. 6.2.
Month
Example of a
sales chart
Figure 6.2 Example of a sales chart

- 178 -
Using shea nut as an example, the target sales for each month during a
year (Fig. 6.2) are shown below. The required weight of crop is found using
the extraction rate of fat in Table 6.2 (assuming traditional method of
extraction) as follows:
The total weight of crop required per month = target sales x (100/
extraction rate) + % losses
Weight of Extraction Weight Losses (%) Total weight
shea butter rate (%) of crop of crop
required required required per
(kg) (kg) month (kg)
January 440 30 1467 6 1555
February 440 30 1467 6 1555
March 430 30 1433 6 1519
April 430 30 1433 6 1519
May 430 30 1433 6 1519
June 430 30 1433 6 1519
July 425 30 1417 6 1502
August 425 30 1417 6 1502
September 425 30 1417 6 1502
October 425 30 1417 6 1502 6
November 420 30 1400 6 1484
December 420 30 1400 6 1484
Total weight of crop required for one year’s production (kg) 18161 kg or 18.2 tonnes
Table 6.3. Calculation of the weight of crop required per year
In the example in Fig. 6.2, assuming average sales of shea butter of 430 kg per
month, and assuming that production takes place for 8 hours each day for 20
days per month, this requires a minimum production rate of 21.5 kg per day
(430/20) or around 2.7 kg per hour (430/(20 x 8)). If two people produce shea
butter in 5 kg batches, taking 90 minutes per batch, this gives a production
rate of just over 3 kg per hour and 24 kg could therefore be produced per day
(3 kg/hour x 8 hours), which exceeds the target demand. The corresponding
figures for groundnut oil in Fig. 6.2 are average sales of 1240 litres per month,
daily production of 62 litres and a production rate of 7.75 litres per hour.
Managing production
- 179 -
The figure for the production rate is important in all subsequent planning.
Every effort should be made to ensure that it is as accurate as possible by
checking all assumptions carefully. In particular, the number of assumed
working days may fall if there are regular power failures or other production
stoppages.
The production rate is also used to decide the number of packages that are
required each day, the number of workers and their different jobs. Using
shea butter packed into 100g packages as an example, the number of packs
required per day is found as follows:
Amount produced (kg) 21.5

= = 215 packs
Net weight in pack (kg) 0.1
These calculations are used to see whether it is possible to extract and package
sufficient oil with the available staff in the time required, whether it is possible
to build up stocks of products (e.g. by the operation of more shifts to meet
any increase in demand), or whether it is necessary to employ more staff to
meet the anticipated demand.
Case Study 6.3: Production, storage and packaging
The mill is able to process 40 bags of sunflower seed per day. This yields
about 800 litres of oil.
The plant is able to produce 360 litres a day through a single shift.
The enterprise produces 100 litres of palm oil per day during periods of
high production when the fruits ripen quickly. After this the production falls
gradually. During the period of downtime which is the rainy season, the
enterprise devotes its time to other food crops and the production of palm
wine.
They have very large storage facilities for both seeds/nuts and spent cake.
The store can hold over 3,000 hundred kilo bags of groundnuts and other
oilseeds as well as thousands of bags of spent cake. The company also has
eight 500-litre oil tanks.

- 180 -
A note on losses
Nearly all oil processing results in losses of material. Different types of oil-
bearing fruits, seeds and nuts have different levels of wastage and it is
necessary for an entrepreneur to do trials to calculate the actual amount of
wastage experienced with the particular crop varieties and with the particular
processes that are being used. Since losses have a significant effect on the
total cost of production, they should be monitored and the process should be
managed to ensure that they are as low as possible.
The main ways in which losses can be reduced include contracts with reliable
suppliers to ensure low levels of poor quality raw materials, and well-managed
production using trained staff and quality assurance procedures to reduce
wastage. This is especially important during later stages of processing when
the extracted oil has a high added value. Feedback from small-scale oil
processors shows that raw material costs represent a significant proportion
of total production costs (mostly between 50-80% although some producers
reported 10-30%). Raw material costs therefore have a significant effect on
the profitability of the business. It is important to ensure that materials are
checked for the correct quality and quantity upon delivery. Details of quality
assurance checks are given in Chapter 5, Section 5.4.
6
Most crops are purchased from suppliers either fresh (e.g. palm fruits, olives
or coconuts) or already dried (oilseeds and nuts). Therefore the processor
knows the weight of crop (minus any losses) that is available for processing.
An exception is where a processor buys fresh crops and dries them for storage.
For example, coconuts are often bought fresh and dried to make copra for
later processing. The amount of dried crop can be calculated using the method
shown in Table 6.4.
Managing production
- 181 -
Weight (kg) Moisture Solids content Weight of
content (100 – moisture solids (kg)
(%) content)
(%)
Coconut before 50 45 55 27.5
drying (55% of 50 kg)
After drying there is no loss of solids (only water is removed) and the moisture content has
been reduced to 4%. Therefore the solids content has increased to (100 – 4) = 96% and this
still equals 27.5 kg of solids
Copra after ? 4 96 27.5
drying
Therefore:
The weight of product after drying (the yield) = (100/96) x 27.5 = 28.6 kg
Table 6.4. Calculating the yield of copra after drying coconuts
6.5 Uses for by-products

The main by-product from oil processing is oilcake, and most types of oilcake
are used as animal feeds (either poultry rations or a component of ruminant
feeds) or as fuel. Groundnut oilcake can also be used as a food ingredient
provided that it is not scorched by overheating during processing (Chapter
4, Section 4.3). It is used for example as an ingredient in biscuits, snackfoods
and traditional soups. The nuts from shea, palm fruit and olives can be used as
fuel, and the hulls from sunflower seeds can be used as chicken litter. In Benin,
fibres and palm kernel shells are mixed with mud to get a ‘cake timber’, which
is used as combustible
fuel for cooking the palm
fruit (Fig. 6.3). There are
many uses for coconut by-
products as shown in Fig.
6.4.
Fig. 6.3. ‘Cake timber’ - a waste

product from palm kernel oil
processing that is used as a fuel
(Photo from J Hounhouigan)

- 182 -
Coconut
Husk (coir) Nut

(Used for carpets, matting,
brushes, rope, mattresses,
roofing sheets and wallboards)
Copra Meat Shell
Oil Press cake (Used for briquettes,

(In addition to cooking oil, used (Used for animal feed from furniture, glue, cups,
in margarine, biscuits, soap, copra, or food and animal feed ladles, sugar moulds,
shampoo, cosmetics, hair oil, from fresh material) handicrafts, charcoal, tar,
explosives, plastics, resins, fuel, activated carbon
rubber substitutes, safety glass filters. The coconut water
manufacture, lubricants and is used for beverages and
fuel) vinegar production
Fig. 6.4. Uses for coconut by-products

Fig. 6.4 Uses for coconut by-products
The amounts of by-products vary according to the type of crop being

processed and the yield of oil, but they can amount to large quantities of
material that must be disposed of. An example in Table 6.5 shows the weight
6
of by-products produced from a unit that processes 120 kg of groundnuts per
day for 20 days per month. The income from sales of by-products can be very
important to the profitability of an oil mill (Chapter 7, Section 7.2), especially
groundnut oilcake, which has a higher value as a food ingredient than other
types of press cake.
Weight of crop Oil extraction Weight of by-products Weight of by-products

processed per day rate (%) per month (kg) produced per year
(kg) (120 x (100-30)/100 x
20) kg tonnes
120.0 30 1680 20,160 20.1
Table 6.5. Weight of oilcake by-product from a small mill that processes 120 kg groundnuts
per day
Managing production
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6.6 Staff recruitment and training
Roles and responsibilities within the business
The characteristics of an oil processing business vary greatly according to

whether the venture is undertaken by individual households, farmers/farmer
groups, rural communities or urban dwellers, traders, women, or formal
established co-operative societies. Each group has different access to funds,
transport, information, skills and communications. All of these considerations
influence the cost, size and complexity of the business.
Case Study 6.4: Management of business operations
The following experiences of managing a small oil mill were provided by

processors in different countries:
• Day to day operation and management of the enterprise rested with
the directors, who also direct and carry out marketing. The enterprise is
a member of the Tanzania Food Processors Association, although they
have yet to reap many benefits through their membership because the
Association needs strengthening to attract more members who can
contribute to it sustainably.
• Provided a technology is viable and sustainable…the particular technology
is often a neutral factor in the subsequent success or failure of the
enterprise. From our experience, it would appear that other factors, such
as the form of ownership, business management, marketing expertise
and the location of the enterprise, are often more critical areas than the
technology itself. (From Reeve (1995) in Annex B)
• Day to day management of the mill is vested in a manager, but major
decisions are made by the owner/director.
• The owner is an experienced farmer and has opted to diversify and
add value to his farm produce, which he used to sell to the market as
unprocessed seeds. His vision is to combine farm oilseed production and
processing, and in this way he has high spirits, wanting the oil mill to
grow into a major business in the future.

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• The group is located in the centre of Benin and has 22 members, with a
majority being women producing groundnut oil, groundnut cake and
local soap.
• The owner of the palm oil company was previously a quality control
officer in a public palm oil enterprise. He started his own business five
years after the inception of the idea, and has been operating for six years.
• The company employs forty workers (29 male and 11 females) with a
seven-member board of directors. It also engages qualified auditors,
solicitors, registrars and bankers. The board of directors makes long-term
decisions about the company while the management team makes routine
daily management and production decisions.
• The operation of the production facility is by collective responsibility
and the cooperative’s 50 workers operate independently with their own
capital and pay less than 0.5% for the use of the facility. This is a major
weakness because access to credit is difficult and this affects the volume
of products obtained. Also, the lack a unified marketing body affects their
pricing and prices are determined by the wholesalers and retailers.
• With business development and financial training and strategic thinking,
cooperatives can work as an entity to manage their business as individuals
with collective liability, access credit, upgrade technology and engage in
group marketing.
6
Managing an oil processing enterprise means having full control over what is
happening in the business and the capacity to view the enterprise as a whole.
The manager’s responsibilities include different aspects of the overall running
of the business; for example:
• Staff recruitment and training.

• Purchasing raw materials and equipment.
• Planning finances, financial management.
• Managing the production and sales staff.
• Preparing production and marketing plans.
•Planning for future developments.
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At the smallest scale of operation, where the business owner works on site
and supervises a few workers, there is often little differentiation in the roles
that each person has in the business, and each worker can do all the different
jobs. Owners or managers decide which production tasks workers will do
throughout the day, and do all the other work themselves (e.g. accounts,
sales etc.). However, once the size of the business increases, it is better to give
specific roles and responsibilities to different people. This not only increases
the efficiency of the operation, but also enables people to specialise and
develop their skills in a particular area. As the business grows, there may
be further differentiation of jobs (e.g. specialised training to operate and
maintain an oil expeller).
Manpower (or ‘human resource’) planning means making decisions on the

present and future staffing needs of the enterprise. Larger companies have
a systematic approach to recruiting and training employees, which has
substantial benefits in creating a skilled and committed workforce. Such an
approach is also likely to benefit small companies, but requires the owner or
manager to develop company policies and terms of employment, as described
in Opportunities in Food Processing Volume 1, Section 4.6. Opinion is divided
among small-scale processors as to whether it is a good idea to employ friends
and relatives (Case Study 6.5). Although friends and relatives can usually be
trusted, they may not have the best skills for the job.
Case Study 6.5: Staff recruitment
• When considering whether the enterprise will work, the form of

ownership and organisation must be considered from the start. A group
should include people with appropriate skills to negotiate a loan,
purchase equipment and raw materials, organise production, marketing
and record keeping. An overall manager to co-ordinate all the activities
may be chosen from the group or be employed by the group. An incentive
related to profits can work well as part of the salary. (From Potts and
Machell (1993) in Annex B).

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• The enterprise employs only three persons and the directors; hence there
is not any elaborate workers’ plan. Recruitment was based on the level of
education and the ability to take instructions and perform the required
tasks.
• Previously the enterprise had no formal recruitment procedures. The
owners employed family members and friends who may or may not have
had the right expertise. This has now changed and recruitment is done
by advertising the positions, conducting interviews and offering the
job to the most suitable applicant. As a result, the company now has a
qualified technician, an experienced manager and a trained workforce.
The company employs only literate staff that have secondary school
certificates. Both men and women are given equal opportunity. All
employees are entitled to annual, sick and maternity leave.
• Over 60% of the workers have a minimum of secondary school leavers’
certificate, 20% are either polytechnic or university graduates and the
remaining staff are unskilled. Many of the workers were recruited from
the community with family members in the managerial positions.
• The company recruits people irrespective of age or educational
background, provided they are ready to work.
• Most of the labour force is recruited locally and given in-house training.
This way the firm is able to have an employment package that reduces
6
labour migration. Occasionally the labour force is given vocational
training and other benefits are medical care and a food allowance.
• Workers are recruited based on their level of knowledge of oil production.
The enterprise has 15 permanent workers and 10 occasional workers.
• The enterprise is run as a family business; hence the operators are family
members who are trained on the job. The business does not have a
business plan except for a daily operations plan, which are just guidelines
given to the operators.
• The company has a seven-member Board of Directors and employs fifty-
five workers (20 male and 35 female). The factory manager, accountant
and production manager are family members.
• Currently, in Mr and Mrs M’s business the enterprise employs three
workers on a full-time basis. Occasionally casual labour is hired for tackling
specific assignments.
Managing production
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There is a widespread and serious problem in many ACP countries to identify
and retain skilled and reliable staff for oil processing businesses at all
scales of operation. Although many universities and other institutions now
offer training in food science, and hygiene courses are available in many
government and privately-run institutions, qualified people tend to seek
employment in larger companies where the benefits and salaries are better.
Small-scale processors therefore continue to find it more difficult to find
suitable staff and to retain their employment (Case Study 6.6).
In oil processing, each day’s work initially involves preparation of the raw
materials and then move through processing to packaging in a sequence of
stages:
Sorting > Crushing > Pressing (or expelling) > Heating > Filtering > Bottling.
It is therefore important to organise production to ensure that the necessary

inputs are available at each stage when they are required. It is possible to have
all workers doing the same type of activity throughout the day, but it is often
more efficient to allocate different jobs to each worker as the day progresses.
A convenient way of planning this is to draw an Activity Chart (Opportunities
in Food Processing Volume 1, Section 10.1). This shows the type of work that
is done each hour during the day, the number of people involved with each
activity and the sequence of work that individuals do during the day. For
example, this can be done using three teams of people; at a typical small scale
of operation, this would involve two people per team, although the number
of people in each team can be changed depending on the scale of production.
Staff in one team are engaged in preparing raw materials for processing (e.g.
sorting, crushing and heating oilseeds) for 2-3 hours to produce sufficient
material for a day’s production. Once they have finished this work they can
assist with heating the oil and filling it into containers. There are two teams
involved in pressing: team No 1 presses batch No 1 while team No 2 prepares
batch No 2 and so on throughout the day, alternating the work so that the
press is in constant use. This level of staffing is reduced if an oil expeller is used
instead of batch pressing (see Chapter 4) because only one person is required
to load crop into the expeller and monitor its operation. An activity chart is
useful for assessing the time required to complete each stage of the process

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and for thinking through the problems that are likely to occur. It can also be
used as a basis for training in each job and it should be constantly reviewed to
optimise production efficiency.
The role of the supervisor is to organise the work for all the staff, including
cleaning and maintenance duties. This person should also keep records of
daily production schedules, staff attendance, amounts of oil and oilcake
produced, amounts of stock, and amounts removed from stock (see Section
6.8). In very small operations the supervisor may also be responsible for sales
of oil and oilcake if they are sold from the production unit. In other situations,
a salesperson has responsibility for promotion of products, keeping records
of sales, collecting cash from sales and giving it to the manager on a regular
basis.
Staff training
Depending on the particular ACP country, labour costs can be a relatively

low proportion of total production costs. Oil processors interviewed for this
book reported labour costs to be between 12% and 30% of total production
costs, although one producer reported it to be as low as 2%. Many owners
of small oil processing businesses refuse to train their staff because they are
6
worried that experienced or skilled staff will ask for higher pay or will move
to a competitor. These attitudes are short-sighted and could eventually cause
the business to fail. As in other aspects of running a business, the owner or
manager should have a wider view of where the business is heading and what
is needed to get it there. To be successful, a business needs well-trained staff
that are motivated to work for the company.
Staff development is an important aspect of business planning, and the

owner should be willing to invest in employees.
There are different types of training, but all should build up in a systematic
way, developing skills, knowledge and attitudes that are relevant to the job.
‘On the job’ training can take two forms: it either involves the new employee
working immediately in his or her normal job under the supervision of more
experienced workers, or secondly the employee can do different jobs to gain
Managing production
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experience of the whole operation. If staff are trained to do different jobs,
the business has greater flexibility to deal with absenteeism, holidays etc.
Case Study 6.6 illustrates some experiences with staff training and motivation.
Further information is given in Fellows, Battcock, Azam-Ali and Axtell (1998) in
Annex B.
A successful business of any size has workers who feel rewarded and are
willing to work for the company because they have a future in it.
Staff gain satisfaction from their jobs if they receive reasonable pay and have
good working conditions. Management methods should motivate them so
that they enjoy their work. Well-motivated staff have limitless potential in
their individual jobs, and improve the overall productivity of the enterprise.
Managers should therefore devise ways of motivating staff and improving job
performance. Examples of staff benefits identified during interviews with oil
processors include:
• Competitive salaries and regular review of salaries, prompt pay and extra
rewards when the business does well.
• Paid overtime.
• Paid leave and holidays.
• Interest-free and flexible loan facilities for school fees, funerals, rent and
other family needs.
• Free meals, lunch allowance or food allowance.
• Staff discounts for products.
• Sick pay and sick leave, hospital and health care benefits, paying medical
bills, medical examinations4, or a proportion of salary held for medical
support costs.
• Uniforms, aprons, head scarves and work clothes provided.
• Toilets and washing facilities with hot water.
• Transportation to work or transport allowance.
• Representation or attendance at staff meetings.
•Gestures such as a small birthday present to improve staff morale.
4 In many ACP countries, staff are required to undergo a medical examination to obtain a health
certificate for working with foods.

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Motivation is an important part of staff development and encourages
employees to achieve their highest level of performance.
Even the lowest paid worker needs a sense of security, recognition and
belonging. The terms and conditions of employment vary widely in ACP
countries but, as a minimum, managers should give permanent workers
contracts of employment. They should encourage a sense of status and pride
at all levels to help employees identify themselves with the business. Further
details of employment contracts are given in Opportunities in Food Processing
Volume 1, Section 4.6.
Case Study 6.6: Staff motivation and rewards
• Staff benefits are built up with the basic pay, and include food and
transport allowance.
• The director manages the enterprise and decides the remunerations.
Workers are provided with a glass of milk and midday meal, and other
benefits are determined from time to time, based on performance.
• Although members of the cooperative group are not paid for their labour,
they benefit from the mutual aid provided by the group and financial
contributions in the event of a death or other family problems.
6
• The workers have individual/personal health insurance and social security.
• Workers are recruited based on their level of knowledge in oil production.
The enterprise has 30 permanent workers and 180 occasional workers.
They benefit from help and support from the enterprise when they need
assistance (e.g. for illness, family ceremonies or deaths).
• The workers have health insurance, social security, prescribed annual
and sick leave and consolidated salaries that include food, clothing and
transport allowances.
• The workers automatically receive assistance with food during the
production season and sometimes get payday advances when they are
in trouble (illness, death in the family etc.). As the owner is a traditional
healer, the worker receives almost free treatment for illnesses.
• The workers enjoy benefits including sick and annual leave, paid holidays,
health care benefits when needed, food allowances and a good welfare
scheme.
Managing production
- 191 -
Health and safety
Every entrepreneur has a responsibility to provide a safe and healthy working

environment. Many, but not all, ACP countries have laws concerning the
health and safety of workers and the safety of equipment. But even if
legislation does not exist, the consequences of accidents and illness arising
from poor working conditions are far greater than any difficulty in ensuring
safety.
All staff should be properly trained to carry out potentially dangerous

operations.
It is important to have a regular maintenance programme for oil processing
equipment that would be dangerous if a failure occurred.
Unsafe working conditions can also arise due to poorly designed workplaces
(e.g. lack of adequate lighting, poor ventilation, slippery floors or steps due
to oil spillages) and unsafe actions (such as interfering with safety guards or
working double shifts without rest periods). These are all the responsibility of
the manager or owner.
Case Study 6.7: Safety
• The management insists on safety measures to ensure the safety of both

workers and machinery and equipment.
• We emphasise that boiling the oil is dangerous and the workers should
take special care and wear protective gloves.
Simple safety precautions reduce the chance of accidents, and enhance the
good name of the company. This increases the confidence of customers in
its products, and improves the working conditions and productivity of the
staff. Fewer accidents also reduce production losses, repair costs, extra costs
of training new staff and medical bills. Simple precautions are listed in Table
6.6. A major cause of accidents is improper adjustment and maintenance of
equipment, such as poorly aligned drive belts on machinery, removal of guards
over drive belts, use of incorrect spare parts, or failing to use the correct

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tools for the machine. Temporary electrical installations are one of the most
frequent causes of injury and include:
• Use of electric cables without proper insulation.

• Lack of protective covers on switches, fuse-boxes etc.
• Use of un-earthed equipment.
• Unauthorised additions to circuits resulting in overloading and fire risk.
• Bridging over fuses.
All electrical fittings should be installed and maintained by a competent and

qualified electrician.
In the event of an electrical fire, the electricity should be turned off at the
main switch and the fire either smothered with a damp cloth or put out using
sand or a fire extinguisher.
Water should never be used to extinguish an electrical fire.
There is also a potential risk of fire and/or burns when conditioning some
types of oilseeds and groundnuts, and when heating oil to remove moisture
before packaging (Chapter 4). The heater and the containers are both hot
6
and should be handled carefully using heat-resistant gloves. Oil should not be
heated to a temperature that is significantly above 130oC during processing,
and it should never be allowed to reach its smoke point (see Annex A), above
which it could catch fire and cause damage to facilities or injure operators.
Safety tips for oil processing

1. Do not allow customers, children, visitors or animals into the building.
Ensure that only trained staff enter the premises and operate the
machines.
2. Prevent staff wearing any loose clothing (e.g. ties, un-buttoned or long-
sleeved shirts) that could become caught in running machines. Provide
them with overalls.
3. Do not allow staff to start a machine unless they know how to stop it.
4. Only one person should operate a machine at any one time.
Managing production
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5. Make the layout of machinery logical, and leave sufficient space around
it so that there are few chances for operators to get in each other’s way.
6. Do not try to attract operators’ attention by touching or calling them
from behind if they are using a machine. Always speak to them from the
front, or wait until they have finished what they are doing.
7. Train staff to be familiar with potential hazards (e.g. potentially
dangerous machines or hot surfaces) and make sure they know what to
do in the event of an accident.
8. Use charts hung on the wall near each machine to show safety
precautions.
9. Ensure that guards are fitted and in place over all moving parts of a
machine and alert staff to machines that appear to be standing still
when running at high speed.
10. Never allow staff to clean, adjust or lean over moving machinery.
11. Do not allow them to leave a running machine unattended.
12. Encourage operators to report any loose parts on a machine.
13. Do not allow staff to work with equipment that is defective. Put a note
on any machine that is under repair saying ‘DO NOT TOUCH’.
14. Do not allow anyone to touch inside electric equipment while it is
connected.
15. Regularly check the cables of electrical appliances to ensure that outside
covers are not broken and wires are not exposed.
16. Prevent staff from running inside a building.
17. Immediately clean up any oil on the floor using sawdust, sand, husks etc.
18. Clean the building each day.
19. Have a first aid box containing sterilised dressings, cotton wool, adhesive
plasters and bandages. In many ACP countries, the law requires every
factory to have one.
20. Make sure that there is at least one working fire extinguisher and a fire
blanket. Ensure that everyone knows what to do in the event of a fire.
Table 6.6. Safety tips for oil processing

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6.7 Maintenance of equipment
Machine breakdowns reduce the output from an oil mill and increase
production costs. Lack of maintenance is one of the most common reasons
why small-scale oil processors have machinery breakdowns. Poorly maintained
machines are also a potential hazard to operators, reduce the yield of oil, and
can contaminate products with metal fragments. Proper maintenance ensures
that machinery operates correctly and safely, and prolongs its life; so reducing
capital and operating expenditure. Most small-scale processors do not have a
programme of planned maintenance, preferring instead to rely on the maxim
‘if it is not broken, don’t fix it’. Some engineers agree with this and regard
planned maintenance as unnecessary. They believe that it is cheaper to allow
equipment to break down and then repair it. Others consider that it is cheaper
to stop production on a regular basis and replace parts before they wear out.
On balance, it is probable that the costs and benefits of planned maintenance
depend on the availability of spare parts and the speed at which repairs can be
done by a competent local mechanic or workshop, as well as the value of the
spares that have to be held in stock.
As a minimum, managers should monitor the state of equipment that is

likely to wear out. As experience of the rate of failure accumulates over the
6
years, they should buy spare parts or have the machine serviced when the
failure of a part is anticipated.
A summary of the spares and maintenance requirements of oil processing

equipment and the cleaning required is shown in Table 6.7.
Managing production
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Type of equipment Spares/maintenance Cleaning
required
Boiling pans - After use with detergent and
clean hot water
Bottle washers - Weekly with detergent and
clean water
Bottle cappers - Weekly with detergent and
clean water
Expellers Bearings. After use with detergent
Oil the bearings and check and clean hot water with
the screw for wear. particular attention to
cleaning the barrel and screw
Fillers - After use with detergent and
clean water
Fruit pulpers Motor drive belt. After use with detergent
Monthly check belt tension, and clean hot water with
condition of bearings particular attention to
cleaning the screen
Oil filters Filter cloths. After use with detergent
and clean water, followed
by sterilisation using dilute
bleach or boiled for 10-15
mins and dried.
Oil presses Periodic check for wear on After use with detergent and
screw and bearing. clean hot water
Heat sealers Heating element. Remove any burned-on plastic
immediately
Scales Monthly standardisation with After use wipe with damp
known weights. cloth
Table 6.7. Summary of spares and maintenance/cleaning requirements for oil processing
equipment
The following actions are needed to put preventative maintenance into

practice:
• Identify priority machinery where components wear out more frequently
(e.g. bearings in oil expellers or screw presses).
• Write a clear description of the procedures and standards of work expected
of machine operators and maintenance workers (such as lubricating,
tightening bolts, making adjustments etc.) on a daily, weekly and monthly
routine maintenance plan.

- 196 -
• Organise a schedule and train staff to implement maintenance plans.
• Prepare a maintenance budget.
• Record inspection results, analyse the records and evaluate the frequency of
• maintenance required.
• Update procedures and standards on a continuous basis.
Maintenance and spares records (Figures 6.5 and 6.6) should be used to
provide information on the performance of equipment. Records help to
ensure that maintenance costs are included in the cost of running the business,
and to plan purchases of spare parts, making sure they are available when
required.
Date Work carried out Parts used Cost
Figure 6.5. Maintenance record
Type of spare:
Quantity
purchased
Cost Quantity in
stock
Quantity used Date fitted 6
Figure 6.6. Spares record
Managing production
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Case Study 6.8: Installation and maintenance of equipment
• The plant layout design, equipment installation and trial runs were
performed by local engineers, though the equipment suppliers also
provide repair and backup services.
• Repairs on locally purchased equipment are usually done within days but
repairs on imported equipment take a long time. For example, within a
few months after the installation of the one million Euro oil refinery, the
filtration system developed a fault that has taken a long time to fix.
• This has caused the company a huge loss because of stopped production.
The loans have to be repaid, workers salaries have to be paid and taxes
must be settled. This has put a lot of strain on the company and they are
hoping production will pick up again.
• Facilities available for production include a screw press and cloth filter
press that were bought from China and installed by local technicians, who
also provide an on-call repair and maintenance service. In addition the oil
tanks were fabricated locally.
• The new refinery was installed by Italian consultants. Although
manufacturing engineers abound in Ghana, the foreign consultants
were engaged because the loan criteria require that equipment must be
purchased from an EU country and installed by the supplier.
• The frequent breakdown of processing equipment is a major challenge for
the company.
6.8 Record keeping

There are three sets of basic records that should be kept by the owner of an
oil processing unit: 1) financial records, 2) those that relate to the production
of the products and 3) sales records. Financial and sales records are described
in Opportunities in Food Processing Volume 1, Section 7.4 and in Chapter 7.
The section below describes production records that are commonly kept. The
uses of these records are inter-related and are described in more detail in
Opportunities in Food Processing Volume 1, Sections 8.1 - 8.2. As with all other

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inputs to a business, keeping records is an investment of time and money and
the benefits must outweigh the costs.
There is no point in recording information for its own sake and records must
be used if they are to have any value.
This means that the owner or manager must understand why the information
is collected and what it can be used for. Similarly, the time and effort spent in
keeping records must be related to the scale and profitability of the business.
While it is true that some successful entrepreneurs keep all the information
in their head and do not keep written records, no-one else can help run the
business during times of illness or absence. Some examples of the value and
costs of keeping records are shown in Table 6.8.
Case Study 6.9: Record keeping
• Management of stock is supported using stock control ledgers.

• They ensure that they do not keep stock for a long time in storage, and
they follow the principle of first-in-first-out stock control.
• They have very good accounting and financial control. They have a
computerised accounting system with debtors’ and creditors’ records, and
6
debt collection is rigorous.
• With their training in book keeping they are now able to keep records
and make projections. They also keep good records of raw materials,
production costs and stocks of oil and have engaged an accountant who
prepares their quarterly and annual financial reports.
• She normally keeps records of production costs and sales to work out her
profit. She also keeps records of debtors to recover outstanding debts. This
might need several visits but most of the time she is able to collect the
money without a problem.
Managing production
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Value of record keeping Costs of record keeping
Accurate records allow: • Time spent learning how to keep records
• Detailed knowledge about the operation or training staff.
of the business. • Time spent writing them.
• Identification of trends. • Cost of materials such as ledgers and pens.
• Accurate control over finances. • Information is written down and therefore
• Control over product quality. potentially available for competitors or
• Identification of individual costs to allow authorities to see.
changes to a process to optimise profits. • Cost of keeping records private and secure.
• Keeping track of money owed to the
business.
• Evidence for tax authorities (this may be a
legal requirement).
• A factual basis for product pricing or salary
levels.
• Knowledge of, and avoidance of, theft.
Table 6.8. Value and costs of record keeping
Accurate information is essential and this means that staff who are required
to collect information should know its value and why it is being collected. This
should be part of the induction and training when new staff learn their job.
The oil mill owner should employ people who have the skills and aptitude
to do the work, but should also put in place a system of checks against theft
to ensure that one person does not have responsibility for a whole area of
business activity. For example the person who is responsible for keeping
records of purchases should be different from the person who records use of
materials or levels of stocks. The owner or manager should also ensure that all
records are kept up to date and the arithmetic is checked for accuracy. There
is no single correct way to keep records and individual owners should devise
systems that suit their way of working. Examples are given in Opportunities in
Food Processing Volume 1, Sections 8.1-8.2.

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6.9 Business productivity improvement
The companies that assisted in the preparation of this book ranged in
size from 3 to 30 permanent employees, with some employing up to 180
temporary seasonal workers. The businesses varied greatly in their productivity
and there was no straightforward relationship between the number of
employees and the amount of oil produced each day. The efficiency of the
processes in the different businesses therefore varied considerably.
Improving efficiency in a process involves reducing wastage of time,

materials and space, or unnecessary movement of foods, staff or equipment.
The companies provided details of the types of activities that they have
employed to improve their productivity as follows:
• Improved efficiency (e.g. lowering operating costs, reducing idle machine

time and reducing waste).
• Better procedures for buying materials.
• Reducing losses of raw materials.
• Improved decision-making and communication.
• Increased output by minimising equipment breakdowns and reducing other
6
causes of lost time.
• Improved organisation, better staff morale and co-operation.
The layout of a production unit is another factor that can affect efficiency. When
deciding where to fix permanent machinery, care should be taken to plan the
layout to allow for a flow of product through the process, sufficient space to avoid
congestion and to ensure safe operations (see Fig. 3.1 in Chapter 3, Section 3.2).
In order to assess whether improvements to productivity are taking place, it is

necessary to measure and record amount of materials, labour used etc. These
figures can then be used to calculate for example:
• Actual usage of raw materials per kg of product.
• Cost of packaging per kg of product.
• Labour costs per kg of product.
• Energy used per kg of product etc.
Managing production
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Any changes that are introduced to a process can then be assessed in terms
of these costs to make sure that they have improved the productivity of
the process. Productivity can also be improved by increasing the amount of
production for the same costs or by reducing production costs - for example by
changing the design of the product, changing raw materials suppliers or work
organisation.
Reducing the cost of services
The cost of electricity, fuel and water was reported by processors to be 9-30%
of total production costs and transport was between 19 and 27%. The main
reported problem is interruption to the supply of electricity, which can stop
processing altogether. If services are likely to be inadequate or unreliable,
steps should be taken to find alternatives (e.g. a borehole for water, diesel
powered machines or a backup generator). Ideas that can reduce energy
consumption and save processors money include:
• Switching off lights and electrical equipment when they are not being used.
• Solar water heating (e.g. to pre-heat water to wash equipment).
• Building in the flexibility to use alternative energy sources when installing
new equipment so that it can use the most environmentally suitable and
cost-effective fuels.
• Use energy-efficient stoves and roasters. Using oil processing wastes or fuel
from local briquette makers rather than fuel-wood (Table 6.9).
• Use local suppliers of raw materials that can be delivered by animal cart,
bicycle or head loads, rather than using a vehicle to collect them. Similarly,
make as few journeys as possible to deliver products to wholesalers or
retailers.

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Crop By-products Uses
Coconuts for coconut oil Husks, shells, coconut fibre, Coir for matting, fuel/
coconut cake charcoal, animal feed
Groundnuts for groundnut oil Shells, groundnut cake Mulch/litter, particle board,
human consumption or
animal feed
Mustard seed for mustard oil Cake Animal feed
Oil palm fruit bunch for palm Bunch, fibrous residue and Fuel, fertilizer, fibre
oil sludge (traditionally for human
consumption and animal
feed)
Palm nuts for palm kernel oil Shells, palm kernel cake Fuel/charcoal, animal feed
Rapeseed for rapeseed oil Cake Animal feed
Sesame seed for sesame oil Sesame cake Human food or animal feed
Shea nut for shea butter Cake Fuel
Soybeans for soybean oil Soybean cake Human consumption or
animal feed (when free of
trypsin inhibitor)
Sunflower kernels for Husks, sunflower cake Fuel, filling material, polishing
sunflower oil material, fibre for animal feed
Table 6.9. Uses for by-products from oil crops
NB: oilcakes that contain high levels of protein are too rich to be fed directly to animals. They
should be mixed with starchy and fibrous materials in feedstuffs to be properly digested by
animals. Handbooks on animal husbandry provide detailed information on how to prepare
6
animal feeds using oilcakes as ingredients.
Companies reported different methods of increasing efficiency by reducing

wastage (Case Study 6.10).
Case Study 6.10: Improving productivity, reducing wastage and using by-
products
• Packaging materials are purchased from wholesales in advance to avoid

shortages that would disrupt production. Bulk purchasing has helped to
reduce production costs.
• The company runs two shifts as a means of increasing production,
maximising input of skilled labour and reducing the downtime of
machinery.
Managing production
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• There are developed links with feed manufacturers and cattle keepers
who collect the husks for making animal feed compounds, and the
soap stock from cleaned oil is used for soap-making. As such there is no
pollution from the unit and all wastes are properly disposed of.
• The main by-products of the mill are seed cake that is readily sold as
animal fed and husks that are used as mulch by gardeners. As regards
plant sanitation, the company abides by the national food laws and
municipal regulations for waste disposal.
• The company generates 30% of its energy through the use of bio-fuel
generated from waste produced during processing.
• Poultry farmers and feed mill owners buy the oilcake for animal feeds.
• The oil palm stalks and waste from winnowing are used for composting
and the compost is used as organic fertiliser in the oil palm plantation.
• Factory waste is disposed off just as domestic waste. The main waste is
the oilcake from groundnut, copra and palm kernel but all these are sold
to poultry farmers and animal feed producers all over the country. Waste
water is directed into the main drain. Disposal is not a major problem yet,
but it could be in future because the Environmental Protection Agency is
implementing strict disposal legislation.
• Waste palm materials are used to make compost, which is used as organic
fertiliser for the oil palm plantation. Palm nuts are crushed, sorted and
then sold to producers of palm kernel oil. The fibres that remain after oil
extraction are mixed with a portion of the mud to make fuel that is sold
in the local market.
• In order to improve the productivity of his plantation, the enterprise
owner fertilises the trees after weeding. The types of fertilisers are
compost made from a mixture of palm grape stalks, wastes from
winnowing and animal waste.
• There is a good use of palm kernel shell, which is used for firing the
boiler.
• There is hardly any waste from the oil processing unit. Poultry and
piggery owners buy the oilcake. Waste water is disposed off in the main
drain without treatment. The company is aware of the environmental
regulations and they do their best to adhere to them.

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✔ Use sales information to plan daily and weekly production.
✔ Have long-term plans for changes to production levels.
✔ Predict the growth of the business and decide what actions are needed to
achieve it.
✔ Think ahead about the business to prevent problems arising during

operation.
✔ Carefully plan production to ensure: 1) adequate supplies of raw materials

and packaging are available, 2) sufficient numbers of trained staff are
available and 3) all machinery is serviced and in working order.
✔ Avoid ‘bottlenecks’ in the process, or running out of packaging.
✔ Consider making agreements with both suppliers and buyers to assist

production planning.
✔ Think carefully before employing friends and relatives. Select the best
people for the job that you can afford.
✔ Carefully plan work for all staff to maximise their productivity.

6
✔ Train staff so that they can work to a high standard without supervision.
✔ Motivate and reward staff to gain their loyalty and deter them from
leaving.
✔ Ensure that the oil mill is safe for workers and that all machinery has
guards that are in place.
✔ Have a regular maintenance programme for all machinery and

equipment.
✔ Keep production records and use them to improve the process.
✔ Invest in ways to save energy and reduce water consumption.
✔ Develop ways of improving the productivity of both staff and machines.
Managing production
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❑ Are you regularly on site to manage the factory? If not, do you have a
trusted manager?
..............................................................................................................................
❑ Do you know how to plan your production to meet demand for your
product by:
❑ Securing raw materials and packaging material supplies?

...................................................................................................................
❑ Having sufficient numbers of trained staff?
...................................................................................................................
❑ Ensuring that all equipment works properly?
...................................................................................................................
❑ Do you have a formal recruitment policy for staff?
..............................................................................................................................
❑ Have you recently reviewed the rewards and benefits that you offer your
staff?
..............................................................................................................................
❑ Have you made sure that all operations in the factory are safe?
..............................................................................................................................
❑ Are all guards in place on your equipment and are all safety features
operational?
..............................................................................................................................
❑ Have you taken steps to improve the productivity of:
❑ Your staff?
...................................................................................................................
❑ Your equipment?
...................................................................................................................
❑ Have you investigated ways to save energy or water
..............................................................................................................................

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Reader’s notes
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Managing production
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Planning and managing finances 7
Tips for success
countries:
✔ Have sufficient money available to buy crops during harvest to process

throughout the year.
✔ If you don’t have much capital, start small.
✔ Do not rely solely on loans; have your own money too.
✔ Do not take money for personal use out of the daily takings, have an
allowance instead.
✔ Check the cost of producing your product whenever there are changes
in the price of raw materials, electricity or other costs. This will help you
decide when you need to raise your prices.
✔ Keep records of all expenditure to reduce your tax bill.
✔ Book-keeping should be carried out every day.
✔ Motivated workers contribute to profits.
✔ All activities, including quality assurance and cleaning, are a cost, so keep
a record of everything.
✔ Get advice from an accountant who is familiar with tax laws.
Finally
✔ Read Sections 7.1-7.5 and 8.1-8.2 in Volume 1: Opportunities in Food
Processing - Setting up and running a small food business.
Planning and managing finances

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Financial calculations are important both when starting an oil processing
business, to find out whether it is likely to be profitable before making
an investment, and also during the operation of the business to monitor
performance. This chapter examines the aspects of financial management
that are relevant to oil processing businesses. Further details are given in
Opportunities in Food Processing, Volume 1, Sections 7.1 - 7.5 and 8.1 - 8.2.
7.1 Financial Planning

The first step towards operating a successful oil processing business is to
find out whether the idea is feasible, and if necessary to convince financial
backers (friends, family members, banks or shareholders) to support the idea.
A feasibility study is used to find out about the different components of the
proposed business (see Opportunities in Food Processing, Volume 1, Section
3.1). When this information is written down, it is known as a business plan
(Table 7.1). To make sure that funding is sufficient, the initial financing should
be based on a detailed feasibility study that takes all costs into account. Case
Study 7.1 illustrates the value of conducting a thorough feasibility study
before getting started.
Component Examples of aspects to include

Background to the business Name, address and contact numbers of business owner,
type of product proposed. Any relevant experience of the
owner.
Market Analysis Overview of the type(s) of market for the cooking oil and
oilcake, estimated present and potential demand, market
segments that will be targeted, competitors, proposed
market share. The main assumptions that have been
made.
Site, factory layout and facilities Location of proposed unit and conditions at the
site. Building plans and construction work required,
construction timetable. Description of plant layout
and service requirements (power, water, fuel etc). Any
environmental impacts (by-product use, disposal of any
wastes produced, air/water pollution etc).

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Component Examples of aspects to include
Plant and equipment Proposed production capacity, sources and costs of
equipment, production inputs (raw materials, packaging),
other equipment (e.g. vehicles, office equipment etc).
Plan and timetable for commissioning machinery.
Staff Production and administration staff (number of people
and skills required) and training to be given. Staff
recruitment plan/timetable.
Production plan, marketing plan Production rates to meet identified demand, advertising
and promotion to be done, distribution methods, sales
outlets, projected increase in demand.
Financial plan Cost of site, equipment and buildings, working capital,
(total investment cost), total production costs, sources of
finance, cash-flow analysis, balance sheet, profitability
calculations (rates of return, break-even analysis, risk
analysis).
Table 7.1 Main components of a business plan
Case Study 7.1: The need for a feasibility study and business plan
• Their business plan is very patchy, and it has not been done professionally.
Nor is it based on in-depth market research. Nonetheless, they have
attempted to improve it over time and the current one is their third
attempt.
• Although the enterprise has a business plan, it is not a detailed one that
could be used for the various production and marketing activities. They
sometimes consult with experts to assist them to shape and develop the 7
plan.
• To remain competitive, the company developed strategies such as pursuing
rigorous quality standards, preparing for production in advance, and
identifying new export markets for one of their main product lines which
has great potential in the West African sub-region, Europe and America.
• As an accountant, the owner has developed a business plan for
forecasting, a marketing plan and production plan. He has also prepared
a financial plan to analyse the likely income and costs that the oil business
would generate when he increases production. With these he is able
to predict the viability of his business and expands only when he is sure

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about the market, the availability of raw materials and likely increase in
profit.
• The processors have obtained training that has helped the group to
prepare a business plan, which is yet to be followed. The management
seeks to establish contacts with oil palm producers and markets to ensure
a profitable business.
• It is a registered limited liability company established in 2000. The
company has a business plan that is due for revision in 2010.
Discussions should be held with as many people as possible to enable a

thorough understanding of the current market situation and how the
proposed venture may alter it. These discussions should involve agricultural
extension agents who advise oil-crop farmers, farmers who could supply
raw materials, existing traders, local engineering workshop owners who can
manufacture equipment and spares or carry out maintenance, and those who
can assist in marketing the oil and by-products. All of these people influence
decision making, and their support is important to the long-term success of
the business. For example engineering workshops should be involved as early
as possible to provide realistic cost estimates for processing equipment as
this will draw attention to any manufacturing constraints and the need for
imported equipment. Where machinery is locally made, the manufacturer
should be able to meet maintenance requirements. Details of the discussions
that are required with potential customers are described in Chapter 2, Section
2.3.
Before production is established, it is necessary to work out whether the
business is a good investment and what is the level of risk. This depends in
part on how much money is required as a loan to get started and the terms of
the loan repayment (Case Study 7.2)

- 212 -
Case Study 7.2: Investment and return
• At Mkhota, the risk was high because the oil press had to be operated at
near maximum capacity (nine batches per day), and the oil had to be sold
quickly to repay the loan. This allowed very little time for maintenance
and little margin to cope with breakdowns or other external problems
such as competitor activity. For this business in Malawi, it was three years
before the startup capital investment of US$ 4573 was covered. This
business is only marginally viable and more favourable profit is needed
before starting a similar enterprise with confidence. (From Potts and
• Using its income from sales, the enterprise has bought modern equipment
and land for planting oil palm trees.
Rate of return
The rate of return (ROR), also known as return on investment (ROI) or

sometimes the yield, is the ratio of money gained or lost on an investment
compared to the amount of money invested, usually expressed as a
percentage. One method to calculate the ROR (known as the arithmetic
method) is:
ROR = Final value of investment - Initial value of investment x 100

Initial value of investment
7
So for an initial investment of $200 that is worth $255 after a year (because
the business has expanded and is worth more), the rate of return = [(255-
200)/200] x 100 = 55/200 x 100 = 27.5%.
Clearly, the higher the rate of return the better the investment.
Technical data on equipment (throughput and yield of oil and by-products)

should be combined with costs and prices to find the net income stream. This
can highlight any obvious financial problems and it can be used to calculate
the pay-back period (i.e. how long it takes to recover the initial investment).
The payback time for a loan needed to cover the initial capital investment is

- 213 -
a good indicator of the level of risk in a business (Case Study 7.3). The margin
of safety (Section 7.3) can also be used to assess the level of risk in a proposed
business.
Case Study 7.3: Level of risk
Weaknesses of the business include inadequate capital to procure sufficient

raw materials to last the season, and limited availability of supplies of good
quality sunflower seed due to competition from other big buyers who also
export seeds.
Whether it is a good investment depends on local conditions. While a profit
and loss statement and margin of safety are useful indicators, they cannot
guarantee success. In the end, a decision has to be made based on the
available information, and only when the enterprise is up and running will
the actual situation be known. (From Potts and Machell (1993) in Annex B)
This information can also be used to calculate the financial rate of return,
which an investor can use to compare other investment options. Another
measure of whether the business is worth investing in is the net present value,
which allows a comparison of the income from different projects to be made.
These different measures can be used either in combination, or separately,
depending on the size and nature of the investment. A sensitivity analysis is
also important. This means that the cost and income should be recalculated,
using different values for anything that is not precisely known (e.g. the
number of days per year that processing can take place), or for others that are
highly variable (e.g. raw material costs that may be affected by pests or the
weather). The purpose of a sensitivity analysis is to anticipate as accurately as
possible the costs and income before the investment decision is actually made
and later to monitor the impact of changes (e.g. a sudden increase in the cost
of fuel or electricity).

- 214 -
Start-up costs
Start-up costs (Table 7.2) are those costs that are incurred when starting a
business before there is an income from the sale of products. There are two
types of start-up costs: 1) fixed capital, which is needed to buy equipment
and spares and build or rent a suitable building, and 2) working capital,
which is needed to buy sufficient crops and a stock of packaging materials, to
hire and train the staff, product promotion etc. Further details are given in
Opportunities in Food Processing, Volume 1 Section 7.2.
Fixed capital Amount $ Notes

Equipment
Roller mill 2500 Including cost of transport and
Heating pans x 2 200 installation
Heater 400
Oil press 1500
Ancillary equipment 750
Spares 250
Sub-total 5600
Building 4000
Total fixed capital 9600
Working capital
Husked groundnuts
Batch quantity (kg) 10
Losses (%) 6 From grading and milling
No batches/day 10
Days worked /month 23
No months’ supply of nuts 1 Assuming that income after one 7
Cost of shelled nuts ($/kg) 1.05 month will pay for nuts
Monthly supply of nuts 2438 Delivered to site
Cost of nuts/month 2560 Batch quantity x (100 +
losses)/100 x batches/day x days/
month (i.e. 10 x (6 + 100)/100
x 10 x 23). Monthly quantity x
cost/kg x No months supply (i.e.
2438 x 1.05 x 1)

- 215 -
Fixed capital Amount $ Notes
Labour
Daily wage 1.74
No labourers 5
Days/month 23
No months’ labour costs 1
Cost of labour/month 200 Daily wage x No labourers x
Management days/month (i.e. 1.74 x 5 x 23)
Supervisor’s salary/month 90
Salesperson’s salary/month 60 Assuming income will pay
Manager’s salary/month 130 salaries after one month
No months’ management 1 Sum of salaries x No months’
costs 280 cost (i.e. (90 + 60 + 130) x 1)
Total management costs
Fuel Assuming income will pay for
Cost/month 50 fuel after one month. Cost of
No month’s supply 1 fuel/month x No months (i.e. 50
Total fuel cost 50 x1)
Debtors This covers the cost of giving
Monthly revenue 3714 credit to customers and should
No months 0.04 be kept to a minimum. Assuming
Total debtors 149 payments are made within one
day. Monthly revenue x No
months (i.e. 3714 x 0.04)
Total working capital 3239 Cost of nuts + labour +
management + fuel + debtors
(i.e. 2560 + 200 + 280 + 50 +
149)
Table 7.2. Indicative start up costs for groundnut oil production (Adapted from Potts and
At a micro-scale of production, an oil processor can begin production at home

using domestic equipment, although it is preferable to start work in a separate
room that is set aside for processing. At this scale of operation, oil extraction
by hand or using simple manual machines (Chapter 4, Section 4.3) does not
involve a large capital expenditure. Oil can be sold from bulk containers or
packed into plastic bags or reused bottles, so packaging costs are also lower.
The fixed and working capital (i.e. the investment needed to get started)
are therefore relatively low. However, this type of operation is very time-
consuming, inefficient, and produces low yields of oil compared to mechanised
extraction. Processors are therefore likely to aim for mechanical extraction

- 216 -
when funds are sufficient to buy equipment and upgrade production.
The cost of equipment for oil processing is higher than many other types
of food processing. The move to small-scale production using manual or
motorised oil presses, or to an expeller for higher rates of production, involves
significant expenditure. Additionally, working capital is needed to cover the
cost of new packaging and several months’ supply of crops. There are also
other start-up costs such as conducting a feasibility study and preparing a
business plan, obtaining licences and health certificates. This usually requires
additional finance in the form of a loan.
Getting finance
The fixed and working capital should be calculated to find out whether the
entrepreneur’s savings (known as the owner’s equity) are sufficient to start the
business without a loan. Where a loan is needed, it is likely that the funds will
be required at intervals as the business develops, and these should be planned
for when arranging a loan or discussing the business proposal with potential
investors. Many small-scale processors in ACP countries do not wish to deal
with banks because of the generally high interest rates, but some positive
experiences were reported by businesses during research for this book (Case
Study 7.4).
Case Study 7.4: Getting finance

7
The following examples were provided by oil processors in different
countries:
• The enterprise is profitable, although often there are constraints in
obtaining operating finance (loan). Banks are the only probable source,
but the high interest rates limit the owners’ desire to take on loans. First
you have to work out the capital cost to set up the enterprise, then the
running costs and monthly income. This will enable you to establish if
you need a loan, and if so how much and when. A secure building that
is rodent-proof and completely screened is required. A cost of US$ 1360
was estimated for a new building in Malawi and, for smallholder farmers

- 217 -
or women’s groups, a loan may be needed for this level of investment.
It is essential to make these estimates before deciding whether to set up
an enterprise, whatever the size. While it is only a theoretical calculation
at the beginning, it can give a useful indication of whether it will be
profitable and to what extent the enterprise can cope with unfavourable
changes in conditions, such as increased raw material costs. (From Potts
and Machell (1993) in Annex B)
• Due to the good financial history of the company they were able to
obtain a half a million dollar loan from the African Development Bank
guaranteed by the Ghana Government at 30% interest. This loan was used
to recapitalise the factory and buy more stock.
• The operational funds are provided by the owner. He has not sought bank
credits.
• The owner has financed the business mainly through his own funds.
However, he has also obtained credit from a savings and credit co-
operative, which he has managed well. He has not accessed bank loans,
but does not see any obstacle if they were needed; only the high interest
rates are scaring him.
• The company’s aggressive expansion policy to increase production capacity
as well as add value to its products resulted in the establishment of a 10
metric tonne per day capacity oil refinery plant in 2007 with loan facility
from Ghana/Italian Government Assistance for Small and Medium Scale
Enterprises.
• The enterprise was equipped with its own processing unit funded from
the sale of its products.
• In 2004 they acquired a loan of US $400,000 from the African
Development Bank guaranteed by the Ministry of Agriculture for
expansion and technology upgrading.
• In order to increase production, the entrepreneur has received loans
from financial institutions. These funds allowed him to acquire processing
equipment and land to set up palm plantations. He will ensure gradual
payment of these loans with interest.
• Members of the board are all professionals - accountants, solicitor,
business administrator, financial consultant, etc. The company keeps
all the necessary financial records and receives financial advice from its
financial consultant on a regular basis. Due to their good financial record

- 218 -
they were able to access a large loan in 2007 at 15% interest with a two-
year grace period. This loan was used to establish the new production
facility to increase production and to improve the packaging to compete
favourably with imported products.
• Individual entrepreneurs have taken loans ranging from US$20 - 2,000 to
increase production and buy raw materials.
• When the cooperative company has a debt, the individual workers who
have money lend to the company, after which the company compensates
them by not charging a processing fee until the amount lent is repaid.
Operating costs
Once an oil processing business has been set up and is in production, there are
two types of operating (or running) costs: those that have to be paid even if
no production takes place, known as fixed costs, and those that vary with the
amount of oil produced, known as variable costs. These costs are described in
more detail in Opportunities in Food Processing, Volume 1, Section 7.1 and
examples of each are shown in Table 7.3. It is advisable to keep fixed costs as
low as possible to increase profitability. In the example in Table 7.3, the fixed
costs are 15% of total costs.
Fixed costs $ Notes

Management
Supervisor’s salary/month 90 7
Salesperson’s salary/month 60
Manager’s salary/month 130
Total management costs 280
Depreciation
Equipment cost 5600
Years until replacement 5
Annual rate of depreciation 20 100/years until replacement
(%)
Monthly cost of depreciation 93 Equipment cost x annual rate of
depreciation/(100 x 12)
(i.e. (5600 x 20)/(100 x 12))

- 219 -
Fixed costs $ Notes
Maintenance
Equipment & building costs
Maintenance per annum (%)
Monthly cost of maintenance
Interest 80 9600
Total fixed capital 3239 Total fixed and working capital x (%
Total working capital borrowed/100) (i.e. 9600 + 3239 x
% borrowed 18 10270 (80/100)
Amount borrowed 3
Interest rate (%) Depending on how credit agency

Period of loan (years) 370 calculates interest payments
Monthly repayment Monthly payments x 36 - amount
3054 borrowed (i.e. 370 x 36 - 10270)
Total interest repayable Total interest / period of loan (i.e.
85 3054/36)
Monthly interest repayments
Total fixed costs 498 Management + depreciation +

maintenance + interest (i.e. 280 + 93 +
40 + 85)
Table 7.3 a) Indicative fixed costs
Variable costs
Groundnuts
Losses (%) 6 From grading and milling
No batches/day 10
Days worked /month 23 Assuming that income after one month
No months’ supply of nuts 1 will pay for nuts
Cost of nuts ($/kg) 1.05 Delivered to site
Cost of nuts/month 2560 Batch quantity x (100 + losses)/100 x
batches/day x days/month x cost/kg (i.e.
10 x (6 + 100)/100 x 10 x 23 x 1.05)
Labour
Daily wage 1.74 Assuming daily labour, not on contract
No labourers 5
Days/month 23
Cost of labour/month 200 Daily wage x No labourers x days/month
(i.e. 1.74 x 5 x 23)

- 220 -
Variable costs
Fuel
Cost/month 50
Selling costs
Selling cost/litre oil 0.05 Cost of promotion
Litre oil/batch 3
Batches/day 10
Days/month 23
Losses (%) 10 During filtering, boiling and filling
Litres sold/month 621 Litre/batch x batches/day x days/month x
(100 - losses)/100 (i.e. 3 x 10 x 23 x (100
Selling costs 31 - 10)/100)
Litres sold/month x selling cost (i.e. 621
x 0.05)
Total variable costs 2841 Cost of nuts + labour + fuel + selling
costs (i.e. 2560 + 200 + 50 + 31)
Table 7.3b) Variable costs
Loan repayment $ Notes

Owners’ equity 2568 20% of total required
% borrowed 80
Amount borrowed 10271 Total fixed capital + total working
capital x % borrowed (i.e. 9600 + 3239
Interest rate (%) 18 x 80/100)
Period of loan (years) 3
Monthly loan repayments 370
Annual loan repayments 4442
Table 7.3c) Loan repayments
7
Annual costs $ Notes
Annual variable costs 34093 2841 x 12
Annual fixed costs 5978 498 x 12
Annual fixed costs including interest in year 1-3 5978
Annual fixed costs including
total loan repayments in year 1-3 9402
Annual fixed costs in year 4 onwards 4960
Annual costs year 1-3 including interest only 40,071 34093 + 5978
Annual costs year 1-3 including 43,494 34093 + 9402
total loan repayments
Annual costs year 4 onwards 39,053 34093 + 4960
Table 7.3d) Summary of annual costs
Table 7.3a-d: Running costs for a small-scale oil mill (Adapted from Potts and Machell (1993)
in Annex B)

- 221 -
Case Study 7.5: Production costs
The following production costs were reported by oil processors in different

ACP countries:
• Due to low throughput, the costs of production are high and the business
is therefore challenged by competition from cheap imported oils.
• The major cost was raw materials (over 50% of total costs). Energy cost is
also substantial.
• They also grow their own sunflower seed to reduce the costs of raw
materials, but need to investigate whether this production is more cost-
effective than buying seed to arrive at a decision on which alternative is
best.
• Raw materials and packaging materials constitute the major production
costs; with seeds being 70% of the total cost of inputs and both would
account for about 80-90% of costs. Reducing costs is a challenge as limited
capital makes it impossible to buy bulk raw materials when in season and
prices are low.
• Groundnuts are bought from wholesalers and represent 79% of the total
cost of processing. The price varies throughout the year depending on the
availability of the nuts. Other costs for transport and processing materials
are 21% of total costs because members of the group donate their time
for processing.
• Overall, the cost of soybean raw materials in relation to production is
about 10-15% depending on availability.
• Raw material costs for palm fruit are 69% of total production costs,
transport is 19% and labour is 12%.
• To overcome the problems of high crop costs during the lean season, the
company stocks up during the bumper season in October to December,
but the amount of money needed to purchase large volumes limits the
amount that can be stocked.
• Palm fruit bunches triple in price outside the period of abundance in the
harvest season from December to March.
• Palm fruit is 54.5% of total production costs, although it varies over time
depending on the availability of the bunches.

- 222 -
• The packing materials for refined oil are more expensive and depending
on the size of bottle, up to 10% of the production cost is in packaging.
Overall, the cost of raw materials is about 15-30% of production costs
depending on their availability. The months of April to July are particularly
difficult because of increased prices.
• Transport of crops represents 27% of total production costs and labour is
19%.
• The most commonly used packaging for the crude oil is tanks or drums
that are transported to the refinery for further processing, and the oilcake
is stored in 50 kg bags that are sold to poultry farmers. So little is spent on
packaging at this stage and it is estimated to be 5% of total production
costs.
• Most of the family members are skilled/professionals. The salary budget is
over 30% of the cost of production.
• Remuneration for workers constitutes 20% of the total cost of production.
• Labour contributes to about 2% of total production cost.
• Utilities and transport together account for less than 10% of total costs,
with transport accounting for over half of this. To reduce transport costs,
plans are underway to acquire their own vehicle.
• The cost of electricity went up by over 100% in the last year, and coupled
with continuous power-outages, this has increased the cost of production
by more than 30%.
• The company has access to utilities such as safe drinking water, liquid
petroleum gas and electricity, but recently these are sometimes not very
reliable and have become very expensive. They take a sizeable amount of
the production cost (approximately 15%). 7
• Fuel is about 9% of production cost and the group believes that by
replacing the diesel engine with an electric motor to drive the combined
digester and hydraulic press, the fuel cost would be reduced. To save
on the cost of fuel, biomass in the form of fibre and kernel by-product,
are used for fuel. A long-term strategy is to invest further in the use of
biomass fuel.

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7.2 Income and profit
Income from the sales of oil and by-products should exceed the total costs
of production in order for a business to make a profit. Details of income are
shown in Table 7.4. Details of methods for calculating income and profit are
given in Opportunities in Food Processing, Volume 1, Section 7.3.
Product costing for a small oil processing enterprise with a single main product
and a by-product is relatively straightforward. There are a limited number
of raw materials and only one production method is used. Also there are
relatively few items of equipment compared to other types of food processing,
which makes equipment depreciation costs easy to calculate. The cost of
making a litre of oil and a kilogram of by-product can be found by adding
together the total annual costs (Table 7.3d) and dividing this figure by the
amount of oil and by-product produced per year. This method of calculating
the cost of a product (i.e. based on production costs) is straightforward and
suitable for most small-scale oil processors.
Monthly income $ Notes

Oil
Oil/batch |(litres) 3
Batches/day 10
Days/month 23
Losses (%) 10
Selling price/litre 4.47
Total income 2776 Litre/batch x batches/day x days/month x (100 - %
losses)/100 x selling price (i.e. 3 x 10 x 23 x (100 -
10)/100 x 4.47
Oilcake
Oilcake/batch (%) 68
Batches/day 10
Days/month 23
Selling price/kg 0.6 For human consumption (lower price for animal
Total income 938 feed)
Oilcake/batch x batch quantity x batches/day x
days/month x selling price/100 (i.e. 68 x 10 x10 x
23 x 0.6/100)
Total income 3714 Oil + oilcake (i.e. 2776 + 938)
Table 7.4a) Indicative monthly income

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Annual income $ Notes
Annual income from oil 33310 2776 x 12
Annual income from oilcake
Total annual income 11261 938 x 12
44571 33310 + 11261
Table 7.4 b) Annual income
Table 7.4a-b, Income from a small-scale oil mill (Adapted from Potts and Machell (1993) in
Annex B)
Case Study 7.6: Profitability
• They view the business as being very profitable, and it would be even
more lucrative if they were able obtain raw materials more cheaply and if
power supplies were stable. They are able to sell all their production on a
cash basis at the moment.
• Initially, profits from the sale of products were shared between group
members. In 2006, the group president suggested that profits should be
reinvested to ensure the maintenance of facilities, payment of debts and
strengthening the purchasing power to buy raw materials. This led to
misunderstandings within the group and it ceased activity.
• The entrepreneur makes periodic financial analyses of his production to
ensure the profitability of his business.
• Using profits from the sale of its products, the enterprise grew from using
a manual press to a motorised press and the owner could increase its
working capital, which permits him to store the oil for periods of scarcity
before selling, so increasing his profit. 7
• This company like many local industries has had their profit margins
reduced considerably in the last two years. In spite of these financial
obligations, creditors do not pay on time while others do not pay at all.
These do not help but they hope conditions will change for the better in
2010.
• The cost of production rises when palm fruit is out of season in December
and January. This affects their profit margins since they have no control
over the price of the products. Processing is profitable in March when fruit
is in season.

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Pricing products
The simplest way to set a price for oil and by-products is to add on a
percentage for the owner’s profit (the profit margin) to the total production
costs. However, the size of the profit margin (and hence the price of a
product) can be a difficult decision. The price should allow the producer,
the distributors and the retailers to each make an adequate profit. It is also
essential to take account of the prices of competing products. Setting a price
is therefore influenced by the amount of competition, the type of market,
and the demand for the product. It is particularly important to know whether
an enterprise is critically dependent on one buyer and whether it is able to
influence the price for the oil. Examples of pricing decisions in different types
of markets (Chapter 2, Section 2.2) are as follows:
Enterprises that sell to less wealthy retail markets or supply ingredients to

commercial or institutional buyers may have little flexibility in setting the
price for products. This is because these customers look for a low price as the
main factor in their decision to buy from a supplier. Selling oils to consumers
in more wealthy retail markets allows greater pricing flexibility because sales
are influenced by factors other than price (e.g. presentation and packaging).
If there are few competitors and a strong demand, a processor has more
flexibility in setting the price, and can decide the price that the market will
bear. More commonly, there is strong competition either from other producers
or imported oils, and competing products determine the price that can be set.
In countries where the price of cooking oil is controlled or where there are
significant imports of cheap oil, the processor has little control over the price
of oil. In this situation, it is likely that the sales of oilcake will be the deciding
factor in determining the overall profitability of an oil processing business.
Accurate costing of the products is therefore a key factor to make sure that
the income is sufficient. This should not be regarded as an academic paper
exercise, but should be done carefully to find out:
• Whether the income will be sufficient to cover all business costs and produce
a profit.
• If the product can match the prices of the competitors.
• If, where, and how, savings can be made to reduce costs.

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Details of different methods for costing a product to determine its price are
described in Opportunities in Food Processing, Volume 1, Section 7.3.
When the price of the oil has been set, the income is calculated as follows:
Income = Selling price per unit x number of units sold.
The gross profit is the difference between the income and operating costs,
and net profit is the amount remaining after tax. A profit and loss statement
(Table 7.5) summarises the income, expenditure and gross profits or losses. It is
used to plan the finances of a business over several years. This is useful to find
out whether a loan should be taken out in stages as a business develops.
Yr 1 Yr 2 Yr 3 Yr 4 Yr 5
Annual Costs
Fixed costs 5978 5978 5978 4960 4960
Variable costs 34093 34093 34093 34093 34093
Total costs 40071 40071 40071 39053 39053
Annual income
From oil 33310 33310 33310 33310 33310
From oilcake 11261 11261 11261 11261 11261
Total income 44571 44571 44571 44571 44571
Profit/loss
(before tax) 4501 4501 4501 4501 4501
Profit/loss as
% of income 10 10 10 12 12
Profit/loss as
% of costs 11 11 11 14 14 7
Table 7.5. Indicative profit and loss statement (From Potts and Machell (1993) in Annex B)
Note: In the first 3 years the profit = 10% of income and 11% of costs, which is low for
a viable production unit, and an increase in production is advisable. This level of profit is
vulnerable to problems in raw material supply, decreased sales, or equipment breakdowns. The
situation improves once the loan has been repaid after year 3.
Processors should not consider the net profit as their own income
- it belongs to the business.

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Profits belong to the business and owners should take a salary that is recorded
as a business expense. A common cause of business failure is when an owner
takes large amounts of cash from the business (e.g. to pay for a wedding
or other family occasion) because this disrupts the cashflow of the business.
Profits should be used to develop the business by, for example, funding
advertising or promotion, developing new products or improving the skills
of workers. While it is reasonable for owners to increase their salaries if the
business is doing well, this should be a carefully considered decision that does
not affect the performance of the business.
7.3 Managing finances

The three essentials to managing profitability involve:
1. Maintaining, or preferably increasing, income from sales by setting correct
prices for products.
2. Controlling, or preferably reducing, costs.
3. Maintaining a positive cashflow so that the business can always meet its
costs and obligations. This requires accurate bookkeeping.
Profitability also depends on having other aspects of the business operating

successfully, such as marketing and sales (Chapter 2, Section 2.3) and
production planning (Chapter 6, Section 6.1).
Controlling costs
The main costs for oil processors are raw materials, labour and power charges
(Case Study 7.7). Of these, the raw material costs are the most important and
these can be controlled in a number of ways:
• Bulk purchase of crops during the harvest season when prices are lowest.
• Buying directly from farmers rather than from traders, preferably using a
company-owned vehicle for transport.
• Fixing prices for crops through contracts with farmers.
• Price incentives to encourage farmers to supply high quality crops.
• Owning own farm or plantation.

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Other methods of cost control include:
• Minimising debts and maximising credit.

• Planning the work of production staff to ensure that they are fully occupied
throughout the day, and training them to maximise their output and
productivity.
• Keeping records of each type of expenditure and relating these to the
amounts of products that are sold. This allows processors to identify cost
reductions that result from any changes in the efficiency of material usage
that are introduced.
• Monitoring oil yields (Chapter 6, Section 6.4) by direct measurements to
identify actual losses and opportunities for improvement.
Case Study 7.7: Managing costs
• In Tanzania, packaging contributes 30% to costs of production; the rest

(70%) is contributed by raw materials. A reason for growing their own
sunflower was to reduce the cost of raw materials, which varied from
season to season depending on the level of production in the country.
• The company has generally been efficient in managing its debtors and
suppliers. There have not been any delayed payments so far and they have
paid income tax regularly.
• To reduce costs of raw materials and transportation, the enterprise owner
has a palm plantation of 20 Ha of improved and local varieties of Tenera
palms. 7
The profitability of an enterprise also depends on the productivity of the
workers and equipment. Motivated workers with a loyalty to the business
have the potential to greatly increase productivity (see Chapter 6, Section 6.6).
Good stock control that maintains minimum stocks but ensures continued
production is important. It is also important to keep records on process yields
(Chapter 6, Section 6.4) because reductions in yield due to careless workers
negatively affect profitability. Finally, some types of oil processing use a lot
of energy for heating. This energy must be used efficiently to minimise costs.

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Power consumption can be controlled by ensuring that equipment is correctly
set up and regularly maintained (Chapter 6, Section 6.7).
Breakeven point and margin of safety
The operation of the business should be above the breakeven point

(Opportunities in Food Processing, Volume 1, Section 7.4), which is the
minimum level of production that can enable the enterprise to make a profit.
Breakeven point can be expressed as either the volume of production or the
value of products.
Breakeven point expressed as the volume of production can be calculated as
follows:
1. Calculate the variable costs per pack.
2. Subtract this from the sale price to obtain the unit contribution.
3. Calculate the total fixed costs per year.
4. Divide the fixed costs by the unit contribution to obtain the annual
production rate that will allow the business to break even (see Case Study
7.8).
Case Study 7.8: Calculation of breakeven point by volume of production
The annual production of groundnut oil is 7200 litres and it sells in litre
bottles at $4.2 per litre. The total variable costs are $3800 per annum and
the total annual fixed costs are $1280. The breakeven volume of production
is calculated as follows:
Variable costs per pack = Total variable costs = 3800 = 0.53

Number of packs 7200
Unit contribution = 4.2 - 0.53 = 3.67
Total fixed costs = $1280
Breakeven volume = Fixed costs = 1280/3.67 = 348 litres/year

Unit contribution

- 230 -
A formula to calculate breakeven point by value of products is:
Annual fixed costs

Breakeven =
1 - (Annual variable costs/Annual net sales)
Margin of safety
The margin of safety is an indicator of how much the income to the enterprise
exceeds the breakeven income. The smaller the figure, the more the business is
at risk.
Margin of safety = Budgeted income - Breakeven income x 100

Budgeted income
Using the data from Table 7.3:
Margin of safety = 44571 - 39990 x 100

44571
= 10%
This value is acceptable, but quite low. A figure of 12 - 15% would be better.

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Case Study 7.9: Product pricing, income and profitability
• The quantity and quality of the crop will vary each year depending on the
climate and pricing of the oil and oilcake should be regularly reviewed
to ensure that changing circumstances and costs are taken into account.
(From Potts and Machell (1993) in Annex B)
• Information was given that the enterprise is lucrative and is making a
profit. This was attributed to the recent increased consumer demand for
sunflower oil, which is regarded as good for health.
• Income from the sale of palm oil is 65% of total income and sales of palm
kernels are 25%. The balance is from sales of wastes as fuel.
• The owner installed oil storage tanks that allowed him to keep the oil for
periods of scarcity in order to increase his profits from a higher sale price.
• Oil processing is a lucrative business in Ghana but to be competitive the
company has to carve a niche in the market by producing good quality
products and constantly being innovative.
• The way the money is managed - the loan, the income and profit (or loss)
- needs to be agreed, and also how this will be checked. (From Potts and
Cashflow forecast
A cashflow forecast shows whether there is sufficient cash available to operate

the business and an example is given in Table 7.6. Further details are given in
Opportunities in Food Processing, Volume 1, Section 7.4)

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Year Year 1 (months) Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5
0 total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
BBF 3339 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 134 139 144 149 3339 154 1231 2308 7827
Income
Oil 2776 2776 2776 2776 2776 2776 2776 2776 2776 2776 2776 30535 33310 33310 33310 33310
Oilcake 938 938 938 938 938 938 938 938 938 938 938 10322 11261 11261 11261 11261
Equity 2668 0
Loan 10271 0
Total income 12939 3339 3814 3819 3824 3829 3834 3839 3844 3849 3854 3859 3864 44196 44725 45803 46880 52398
Expenditure
Fixed capital 9600 0
Working 3239 3239
capital
Fixed costs 498 498 498 498 498 498 498 498 498 498 498 5480 4960 4960 4960 4960
(excluding
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interest)
Variable 2841 2841 2841 2841 2841 2841 2841 2841 2841 2841 2841 31252 34093 34093 34093 34093
costs

Loan 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 370 4071 4442 4442
repayments
Total 9600 3239 3709 3709 3709 3709 3709 3709 3709 3709 3709 3709 3709 44041 43494 43494 39053 39053
expenditure
Balance 3339 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 134 139 144 149 154 154 1231 2308 7827 13346
Table 7.6. Example of cashflow forecast for oil manufacture (From Potts and Machell (1993) in Annex B)
BBF = Balance Brought Forward
7
The data in Table 7.6 shows that production costs are just below the income
received, thus allowing a small increase in the balance carried forward month
on month. This assumes that costs do not rise, and that all products and by-
products are sold at the anticipated prices each month. The financial situation
improves considerably once the loan has been repaid in Year 3.
Common financial mistakes
In summary, some of the areas where oil processors tend to go wrong are:
• Treating profits as their income, instead of paying themselves a salary.
• Failing to calculate the cost of products or price products correctly, so they
do not make a profit.
• Poor record keeping, so they do not know if they are operating profitably.
• Over-spending or having a loan that is not repayable.
• Having too many debtors or not enough creditors. Debtors are people
or other businesses who owe money to a processor. This usually happens
where the processor sells oil with a period of credit before the customer
pays. During this time the purchaser owes the processor the money and
is therefore a debtor. Creditors are the businesses or people who provide
goods on credit. That is, they allow the processor time to pay rather than
paying immediately the goods are received.
Case Study 7.10: Financial records
Analysis of accounts is done regularly, but the major interest is in the profit
and loss statements.
The enterprise makes a periodic financial analysis of its production to
ensure the profitability of its business.
This is a public company limited by shares and it has a comprehensive
business action plan which was used to source a €1.0M loan/grant facility
from the European Union through the Italy/Ghana partnership. The
company also has a clear strategic plan, which is described in annual reports,
and the accounts are prepared to inform shareholders. These reports clearly
state the company’s vision for the subsequent years, the business scene in
the country, the operating results and share value and dividend.

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Bookkeeping
Bookkeeping should be regarded as an integral part of each working day and

not as an ‘extra chore’. All enterprises should keep financial records that allow
easy analysis either by the owner or an accountant. Accurate record keeping is
needed to successfully price a product, keep control over production costs and
cashflow, and meet the requirements of local tax authorities. To calculate the
profitability of the business, a processor also needs to know the level of assets
in the business (e.g. cash, machinery, stocks of materials etc.) and any liabilities
(loans, creditors, taxes owed, etc.). These figures should be recorded using a
balance sheet (see Opportunities in Food Processing, Volume 1, Section 8.2).
Remember: the better the records, the easier the accountant’s job is
and the lower their bill.

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✔ Calculate the start-up costs and ensure that adequate finance is available
before you start the business.
✔ Know what the risks are and calculate the rate of return on an investment
before approaching investors.
✔ Find out where the cheapest finance is - bank loans, investors, suppliers’
credit etc.
✔ Records of start-up costs should be kept, as it may be possible to offset

them against tax.
✔ Assess all production costs (fixed and variable costs) to calculate prices for
your products.
✔ Manage your finances to make sure you always have a positive cash flow
and that you are making a profit.
✔ Keep records so that you know the financial position of your business at
any time.
✔ Examine all costs and find ways to reduce them.
✔ Do not treat profits as your income, they belong to the business.
✔ Get prompt payment from customers and negotiate delayed payments to

suppliers.

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❑ If you are starting a business, do you know what all the start-up costs will
be?
.................................................................................................................................
❑ Do you have enough money or agreed loans or investment from backers?
.................................................................................................................................
❑ If your business is operating, do you know all your production costs?
.................................................................................................................................
❑ Do you know the profitability of the business?
.................................................................................................................................
❑ Do you record and use financial information to plan the next steps in
developing your business and check on profitability?
.................................................................................................................................
❑ Have you examined different ways to reduce costs?
.................................................................................................................................
❑ Are the prices for your products competitive and high enough to make a
profit?
.................................................................................................................................
❑ Do you know what your income is going to be this week and whether you
will make a profit? If not, why not?
.................................................................................................................................
❑ Have the business projections of expected income and expenditure over 7
the longer term (quarterly and annually) been achieved?
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................

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Reader’s notes
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Annex A
A summary of the science of cooking oils
What are cooking oils?

‘Fats’ and ‘oils’ are chemically the same and the only difference is whether
they are solid or liquid at room temperature. Important fats in food processing
include animal sources such as lard, and the fats in dairy products (butter,
cheese, ghee, cream). These are not considered in this book and further
information can be found in Opportunities in Food Processing - Setting up and
running a small scale dairy processing business. Similarly, cocoa butter is mainly
used for the manufacture of chocolate and is not considered here because it
is not used as a cooking fat. The main fats from vegetable sources are shea
butter and to a lesser extent argan, and common oils are from coconut, maize,
mustard, olive, palm and palm kernel, groundnut (peanut), sesame, sunflower
and soybean (Chapter 4, Table 4.1).
Some properties of selected oils and fats are shown in Table A1. It can be seen
that the fats have a higher melting point, which makes them solid at the usual
range of room temperatures. Butter and cocoa butter have melting points
that are close to body temperature, so they melt in the mouth. Conversely,
oils melt at a lower temperature, which makes them liquid at normal room
temperatures.
Annex A - A summary of the science of cooking oils

- 239 -
Type of fat or Quality Approx. melting Smoke Density (or
oil point (oC) point (oC) specific gravity)
Animal
Butterfat 32 177 0.911
Lard 30 182 0.919
Tallow 42 - 0.945
Plant
Avocado - 271
Unrefined -10 240
Canola/rapeseed High Oleic 246
Refined 240
Cocoa butter 34 0.964
Unrefined 25 177
Coconut oil 0.924
Refined 232
Unrefined -20 160
Maize(Corn) oil 0.922
Refined 232
Virgin -6 216
Pomace 238
Olive oil 0.918
Extra light 242
Extra virgin 207
Palm oil Fractionated 35 235 0.915
Palm kernel oil Unrefined 24 0.923
Peanut Unrefined 3 160
0.914
(groundnut) oil Refined 232
Unrefined -18 107
Safflower oil Semi-refined 160 0.90
Refined 266
Unrefined -6 177
Sesame oil 0.919
Refined 232
Unrefined -16 160
Soybean oil Semi-refined 177 0.927
Refined 232
Unrefined -17 160
Sunflower oil Semi-refined 232 0.923
Refined 232
Table A1. Properties of fats and oils (Adapted from Chu and Snowdrift Farm in Annex B)
www.snowdriftfarm.com/fatproperties.html and M. Chu, Smoke Points of Various Fats,
available at www.cookingforengineers.com/article/50/Smoke-Points-of-Various-Fats)

- 240 -
Chemically, fats and oils are made up of a glyceride ‘backbone’ that has a
long chain of glycerol units linked together. Each glycerol unit has one, two or
three ‘arms’ made from chemicals known as fatty acids (Fig. A1). Technically,
these are known as ‘monoacylglycerols’ ‘diacylglycerols’ and ‘triacylglycerols’
respectively. The ones that have three fatty acids (the triacylglycerols) are the
main constituents of cooking oils and fats. It is these fatty acids that give oils
their different properties.
Fatty acid ‘arms’
Fig. A1. Chemical

Glycerol ‘backbone’
structure of a unit
of cooking oil (there
are many thousands
of these units joined
together in an oil
molecule)
Fig. A1. Chemical structure of a unit of cooking oil (there are many thousands of these units
joined together in an oil molecule)
The backbone and arms of oils can be split into fatty acids by enzymes named
lipases, which are naturally occurring in the crop that contains the oil, and are
present in digestive juices. Glycerides can also be split by an alkali, and this
reaction is the basis for the production of soap.
The fatty acids in oils can also be ‘saturated’ (known as SFAs or Sats), ‘mono-
unsaturated’ (known as MUFAs or Monos) and ‘poly-unsaturated’ (known as
PUFAs or Polys). The types of fatty acids that are found in an oil or fat depend
on the type of crop (Fig. A2) and whether it has been selectively bred to
achieve a particular ratio of fatty acids. Some crops are bred to contain high
levels of MUFAs or PUFAs (e.g. some types of safflower oil have up to 78%
MUFAs). These oils are therefore commonly called ‘unsaturated’ oils. Others,
such as coconut oil, contain higher levels of saturated fatty acids and these
are commonly called ‘saturated’ oils. It is the difference in the amounts of
these different fatty acids that give cooking oils their different qualities. These
include their suitability for frying, their shelf life and susceptibility to rancidity,
and their nutritional value (Note: In deep fat frying applications, oils such as
coconut and palm kernel oil should not be blended with other oils such as
palm, soya, rapeseed due to foaming).

- 241 -
Type of oil or fat
Butterfat 66% 4%
30%
Coconut 92% 2
% 6%
Cottonseed 27% 54% 19%
Groundnut (peanut) 18% 34% 48%
Lard 41% 12% 47%
Maize 13% 62% 25%
Olive 14% 9% 77%
Palm 51% 10% 39%
Rapeseed 6% 36% 58%
Safflower 9% 78% 13%
Soybean 15% 61% 24%
Sunflower 11% 69% 20%
Tallow (beef) 52% 4%
44%
Fig. A2. Comparison of degree of saturation of fats and oils

(Adapted from Sunora Foods in Annex B)
Key:
= Saturated
= Polyunsaturated
= Monounsaturated
Fig. A2. Comparison of degree of saturation of fats and oils (Adapted from Sunora Foods)
Properties of fats and oils

Crystallisation
When the temperature of oils is lowered below their melting point, they form
crystals as they become solid fats. The size and shape of the crystals depend
on how quickly the temperature is lowered, the purity of the oil, and any
stirring while the oil is cooled. These crystals give the different textures to
solid fats. Fats can also change between different crystal shapes, from one to
another, without melting (known as polymorphism). These changes produce
more stable fat crystals and are important for solid fats, such as shea butter
and cocoa butter, where the crystals contribute to the texture. It is changes
to crystals of cocoa butter that sometimes produce the white ‘bloom’ on the
surface of chocolate.

- 242 -
Smoke point
The smoke point is the temperature at which cooking oil begins to break
down to form glycerol and fatty acids. On further heating, the fatty acids are
driven off and the glycerol is broken down to ‘acrolein’ to form a bluish smoke
above the oil, and is extremely irritating to the eyes and throat. The smoke
point is also the temperature at which the flavour of the oil changes and the
nutritional value begins to be lost. The smoke point is very important because
it is the highest temperature that a particular oil may be used. It therefore
determines what the oil can be used for (e.g. the oil should have a high smoke
point for deep-frying in which a very high temperature (around 180oC) is
needed).
Rancidity
When fats and oils spoil they produce unpleasant tastes and odours, in
chemical reactions known as rancidity. This is very important in all types of
food processing, where very small amounts of rancid fat can make a food
inedible. It is particularly important in cooking oils, because the product
becomes unsaleable. Different types of cooking oils go rancid at different
rates, with the ones that contain more unsaturated fatty acids spoiling faster
than those that contain more saturated fatty acids. For all oils, the factors that
cause rancidity are as follows:
• Air.
• Heat and light.
• Metals (especially copper, brass and iron).
• Moisture in the oil.
There are two types of rancidity: one type is caused by chemical reactions
that are accelerated by air, heat and light and metals (known as oxidative
rancidity) and the other (known as hydrolytic rancidity) is caused by moisture,
plant material or dust in the oil. The plant material contains enzymes that can
break down the oil and both dust and plant material can be contaminated
with bacteria or moulds that produce similar enzymes. Moisture in the oil
allows the enzymes to act and break down the oil to increase the levels of
fatty acids and cause rancidity. Generally, oxidative rancidity is a slower process

- 243 -
that can take place when the crop or the extracted oil is stored under incorrect
conditions. Hydrolytic rancidity can occur much faster if the oil is not filtered
to remove plant material, or heated to destroy micro-organisms and enzymes
and to remove moisture.
To prevent rancidity, processing and storing oils and fats should therefore take
place as follows:
1. Ensure that crops are properly dried and stored in a dark place at a constant
temperature.
2. Process the raw materials quickly to reduce the time available for rancidity
to take place.
3. Ensure that none of the processing machinery that can come into contact
with the oil is made of iron, copper, or any alloys made from these metals
(e.g. bronze, brass). Ensure any repairs or brazing do not contain copper or
brass. Use only steel (preferably stainless steel), aluminium or plastic.
4. Filter the oil after extraction.
5. Heat the oil to remove moisture and destroy enzymes and bacteria before
packaging it.
6. Package the oil in airtight, lightproof and moistureproof containers, and
ensure that the packs are properly dried before filling them. Do not use
packs or containers that have iron or copper in them. Reused oil containers
should be thoroughly cleaned because a film of old oil inside a container
will rapidly cause fresh oil to go rancid.
7. Store the packaged oil in a dark place at a constant temperature, which
should be as low as can be achieved without refrigeration.
By following these guidelines, a processor can make cooking oils in which
rancidity is slowed (but not stopped altogether) to give a shelf life of many
months before the unpleasant rancid tastes develops.
The oilcake should be dry to prevent mould growth and stored in a cool dark
place to prevent the oil remaining in the cake from going rancid. It should be
protected against insects and rodents using the same methods as are used for
the raw material.

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A note on hydrogenation
Hydrogenation is a process used to make liquid oils into solid fats (i.e. to make
unsaturated fats more saturated). The solid fat, known as ‘shortening’, is used
in many processes, especially baking. Also, more saturated fats have, because
of their structure, a greater resistance to development of rancidity and hence
a longer shelf life or fry life. However, the conversion of oils to shortenings
is not a suitable business for small-scale oil processors in ACP countries. Oil
processors should however be aware of these products because they may be
competing products in sales to bakeries and other food manufacturers (see
also nutritional and health importance below).
Antioxidants
Oxidative rancidity can be slowed by the use of chemicals known as
‘antioxidants’. There are several types used by the food industry, including
BHT5, BHA6, Vitamin E, Vitamin C and TBHQ7. However, it is not necessary for
small-scale cooking oil producers to have the additional expense of using
antioxidants because:
Well-made cooking oils have the required shelf life without any additives.
Some herbs and spices, such as cloves, rosemary, oregano, sage and vanilla
also have antioxidant properties. But because these are strongly flavoured,
they are not suitable for use in general-purpose cooking oils, but there may be
small specialist markets for flavoured oils in some ACP countries. These herbs
also protect oils against rancidity in any recipes that use them.
5 Butylated HydroxyToluene
6 Butylated HydroxyAnisole
7 Tertiary-ButylHydroQuinone

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Nutritional and health importance of cooking oils
Oils and fats contain more than twice the calories of carbohydrate or protein
(nine calories per gram compared to four calories per gram). This makes
cooking oil a valuable source of concentrated energy, which is important in
many ACP countries where the diet consists mainly of grains and legumes.
Without oil, infants and the elderly on these diets may not be able to eat
enough food to get all of the calories they need to avoid weight loss or
malnutrition.
Fats and oils also have an important role in the taste and texture of foods,
and without them many foods are more difficult to eat and are less enjoyable.
A small amount of fat in the diet is also necessary for our bodies to properly
absorb fat-soluble vitamins such as Vitamins A, D, E and K. Some types of
fatty acids, known as Omega-3 and Omega-6 fatty acids, cannot be created
by the body and must therefore be eaten in fats and oils in foods. These are
therefore known as essential fatty acids.
However, too much fat in the diet also has important nutritional
consequences: eating too much fat contributes to obesity, which can result in
diabetes and heart disease. The risk from cancers of the colon, prostate and
breast may also be increased by eating too much fat. The degree of saturation
of oils is also a factor and highly saturated oils can cause artery hardening and
heart disease. These health concerns over eating high levels of saturated oils
have encouraged the use of alternative, more unsaturated oils.
Rancid fats contain peroxides and other chemicals that may promote the
formation of cancers but this has not been studied extensively, and they may
also cause hardening of the arteries and heart disease. Hydrogenated oils
contain trans-fatty acids, which have also caused health concerns: specifically,
trans fatty acids raise the level of ‘bad’ cholesterol, reduce the level of ‘good’
cholesterol in the blood, which increases the risk of heart disease.
At high temperatures (e.g. during frying) oils break down to form a chemical
known as acrylamide, which is potentially carcinogenic. Acrylamide has been
shown to produce various types of cancer in mice and rats, but studies with

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humans have so far failed to produce consistent results. Lower temperature
frying at a maximum of 180oC rather than at 190oC has been shown to reduce
the formation of acrylamide. To fry effectively, the oil to food ratio has to be
increased from 6 parts oil to 1 part food to 10 parts oil to 1 part food. If this is
not done, the oil cools too much to ensure good frying results.
Uses for cooking oils

The markets for cooking oils are described in Chapter 2, Section 2.2. In ACP
countries, the main use is as an ingredient in many different types of meals
prepared in the home or in institutions. However, increasingly in some
countries, cooking oils are also used for frying foods either by the growing
number of ‘fast-food’ outlets in urban areas, by roadside snackfood producers
(e.g. fried banana or plantain chips) or in restaurants and hotels. Frying oils
are therefore a potentially large market for small-scale oil processors.
The selection of the types of oils used for frying depends on a number of
factors, but the main one is stability against rancidity, both during storage (to
give the required shelf life) and for frying for long periods (to give a long ‘fry
life’). Good quality frying oil should:
• Have a low melting point and a high smoke point.

• Have a low viscosity.
• Not foam or produce gums in the fryer.
• Have a bland flavour.
• Be low in saturated and trans-fatty acids.
• Have a long frying life.
• Be low cost.
The type of fried product also affects the oil: products that are coated with
batters or breading accelerate the breakdown of the oil. Blended vegetable
oils (e.g. maize, sunflower and groundnut oils, with or without animal fats),
were used previously, but the link between saturated fats and heart disease
has resulted in them being replaced with hydrogenated oils. However, health
concerns about both saturated and trans-fatty acids in partly hydrogenated

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oils have more recently prompted food manufacturers and fast-food operators
to use more unsaturated oils, such as rapeseed and sunflower oil that have the
required frying properties. A blend of refined sesame and rice bran oils is also
used, but large scale frying operations still use palm olein for frying because it
is cheaper and longer lasting.
Refined oils
Competition for ACP oil processors who wish to supply commercial fryers also
comes from imported oils that are made from refined oil. There are three
basic steps that are used for refining cooking oil, but this type of refining is
not suitable for small-scale oil processors: first degumming with phosphoric
or citric acid is a pre-treatment prior to neutralisation for many oils; the oil
is neutralised to remove free fatty acids by mixing it with caustic soda. The
neutralised oil is then bleached to remove the colour using chemicals such
as Fullers earth and activated carbon. Finally, the bleached oil is filtered and
deodourised using steam under a high vacuum. The resulting refined oil is
transparent, odourless and colourless.
A wide range of refined oils is made from palm oil and these are likely to be
the main imported oils that compete with locally produced cooking oils. These
oils are resistant to rancidity and have good flavour stability, which produce a
long frying life and product shelf life. Most of these oils have citric acid added
as a processing aid, which becomes depleted over time as it scavenges trace
metals and reduces the development of rancidity.
Mycotoxins
Some types of moulds produce a variety of toxins (poisons) when they grow
on cereals, groundnuts, nuts and oilseeds. Mould growth usually takes place
because of inadequate drying of the harvested crop and/or humid storage
conditions. Groundnuts are particularly susceptible if they are stored in their
shells because inadequately dried nuts can easily become mouldy, but they
remain unseen. Methods to correctly harvest and store crops are described
in Chapter 4, Section 4.2. In general, the toxins produced by these moulds
cause chronic illnesses that may result in cancer or liver damage. The most

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important types are named aflatoxins, and the optimum temperature for
their production is 30oC; so they are most commonly found in tropical and
sub-tropical regions. The most toxic is aflatoxin B1, which is often fatal. Once
aflatoxins are in the crop, they cannot be destroyed by processing and they
pass into both the oil and the oilseed by-product. It is therefore essential
that processors use proper quality assurance methods to control the risks of
aflatoxins in their raw materials (see Chapter 5, Section 5.4).

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- 250 -
Annex B
References and further reading
References used in the book

• Chu, M., Smoke Points of Various Fats, available at www.
cookingforengineers.com/article/50/Smoke-Points-of-Various-Fats
• Codex Alimentarius Commission Standards at www.codexalimentarius.net/
search/advancedsearch and search for ‘cooking oil’
1. Recommended International Code of Hygienic Practice for Desiccated
Coconut (CAC/RCP 4-1971).
2. Codex Standard for Edible Fats and Oils not covered by Individual Standards
(Codex Stan 19-1981)
3. Codex Standard for Olive Oils and Olive Pomace Oils (Codex Stan 33-1981,
Rev. 2-2003)
4. Recommended International Code of Practice for the Storage and Transport
of Edible Fats and Oils in Bulk (CAC/RCP 36-1987, Rev.1-1999, Rev.2-2001,
Rev.3-2005).
5. Standard for Named Vegetable Oils (STAN 210-1999).
6. Code of Practice for the Prevention and Reduction of Aflatoxin
Contamination in Peanuts (CAC/RCP 55 – 2004).
7. Code of Practice for the Prevention and Reduction of Aflatoxin
Contamination in Tree Nuts (CAC/RCP 59-2005, Rev.1-2006)
• Elert, G. (Ed.), Density of cooking oils, The Physics Factbook, at http://
hypertextbook.com/facts/2000/IngaDorfman.shtml
• Fellows, P.J., Promoting Linkages Between Food Producers and Processors,
FAO Publications, 2001.
• Fellows, P.J., Battcock, M., Azam-Ali S., and Axtell, B., Successful Approaches
to Training in Food Processing, IT Publications, 1998.
• Griffith, A., ‘Starting with the market - the importance of marketing
research’, in Food Chain, 30, June, 8-11, 2002, from Practical Action, Boutron
on Dunsmore, Rugby, CV23 9QZ,
Annex B - References and further reading

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• Head, S. W., Swetman, A. A., Hammonds, T. W., Gordon, A., Southwell,
K. H. and Harris, R. V., Small scale vegetable oil extraction, Natural Resources
Institute, Overseas Development Administration, 1995.
• Human, T.P., ‘Oil as a bi-product of the avocado’, in S. African Avocado
Growers Assoc. Yearbook. Vol 10, 159-162, 1987.
• Kailis, S. and Harris, D., Producing Table Olives, Landlinks Press, 2007.
• IDRC, Groundnut shellers project, Chapter 2 - Groundnut production in the
northeast, prices, and existing groundnut shellers, available at http://archive.
idrc.ca/library/document/060359/chap2_e.html#fig2.5, undated
• Makoko, M.S. and Balaka, H.R., Instruction manual for the construction and
use of a hand operated wooden groundnut sheller, Farm Machinery Unit,
Ministry of Agriculture, Chitedze Agricultural Research Station, PO Box 158,
Lilongwe, Malawi, 1991. Tel: + 265 720968/720906, Fax: +265 784184/741872,
E-mail: ICRISAT-Malawi@cgnet.com, also see IDRC at www.idrc.ca/en/ev-8528-
201-1-DO_TOPIC.html
• Poku, K., Small-Scale Palm Oil Processing in Africa, FAO Agricultural Services
Bulletin 148, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
Rome, (2002), available at www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/Y4355E/Y4355E00.HTM
• Potts, K.H. and Machell, K., The Manual Screw Press for Small Scale Oil
Extraction, from Practical Action Publishing, Bourton on Dunsmore, Rugby,
CV23 9QZ, UK., 1993.
• Practical Action, Oil Extraction Technical Brief available at http://
practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/product_info.php?products_id=187&osCs
id=8rla63meg4ehjgpqflhb35no41??
• Reeve, A., ‘Decentralised oil production in Zimbabwe’, in Food Chain, 16,
2-3, 1995, available from Practical Action at http://practicalaction.org/docs/
agroprocessing/food_chain_16.pdf
• Rehm, S. and Espig, G., Die Kulturpflanzen der Tropen und Subtropen, Verlag
Eugen Ulmer’ Stuttgart, 1984, p. 83 (oil palm), pp 87 (coconut), pp. 102
(sesame)
• Sekaf Ghana, Shea Nuts, available at www.sekafghana.com/sheanuts.html.
• Snowdrift Farm, Properties of Oils, Butters & Waxes, available at
www.snowdriftfarm.com/fatproperties.html
• Sunora Foods, Comparison of dietary fats, available at www.sunora.com/
About.page, Tel: +1 403 247 8300, Fax: +1 403 247 8340
E-mail: steve.bank@sunora.com or emilia@sunora.com.

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• Whitby, G. and Sunga, I., ‘Decentralised oil production - a truly intermediate
technology’, in Food Chain, 16, 8-9, 1995, available from Practical Action at
http://practicalaction.org/docs/agroprocessing/food_chain_16.pdf
Further reading
Aflatoxin testing
• New methods for rapid detection of aflatoxin, Hesseltine, C. W. and Shotwell,

0., Northern Regional Research Laboratory, Peoria, Illinois, 61604, USA,
available at http://media.iupac.org/publications/pac/1973/pdf/3503x0259.pdf
• Aflatoxins and Other Mycotoxins, Duncan, H. E. and Hagler, W. M., North
Carolina State University, Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Fact Sheets (CR-
2105 - 1203) 09/12/2008, available at http://en.engormix.com/MA-mycotoxins/
generalities/articles/aflatoxins-other-mycotoxins_1182.htm
Cosmetics
• Cosmetic oils at a glance, Seatons Ltd., available at www.seatons-uk.co.uk/

home.aspx?s=62&r=110&p=1051
• Uses & Applications of Plant Oils in Cosmetics & Toiletry, Plant Oils, available
at www.plantoils.in/uses/cosmetics/ct.html
• Natural Ingredients for Cosmetics: The EU Market for Essential Oils for
Cosmetics, Centre for the Promotion of Imports from Developing Countries,
available to download free from www.cbi.eu/marketinfo/cbi/docs/natural_
ingredients_for_cosmetics_the_eu_market_for_essential_oils_for_cosmetics
Essential oils
• Essential oil distillation, Food Chain, 24, ITDG, 1999.

• Essential Oil Production - how are essential oils made? Simplers Botanical
Company, available at www.simplers.com/essential-oil/production/index.htm
• Essential Oils - Small-scale Production, Practical Action Technical Brief,
available at http://practicalaction.org/docs/technical_information_service/
essential_oils.pdf

- 253 -
• Extraction Technologies for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, S. S. Handa, S. P.
S. Khanuja, G. Longo, D. D. Rakesh, (Eds.), International Centre for Science
and High Technology/UNIDO, Trieste, 2008, available at www.unido.org/
index.php?id=1000358.
• Essential oils for all, Anon., Spore 131, October 2007.
• Minor Oil Crops – Individual Monographswww.fao.org/docrep/x5043e/
x5043e00.htm
• Minor Oil Crops. FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin 94, Axtell, B., FAO. 1992.
• The complete book of essential oils and aromatherapy, Worwood, V.A., New
World Library, 14 Pamaron Way, Novato, CA, 94949, USA, 1991.
• The domestic production of essential oils from aromatic plants, National
Farm Chemurgic Council, Columbus, Ohio, USA., Willkie, H.F., Kolachov, P.J.,
and Scofield, E. H., 1940.
Health supplements
• Health supplements - oils, Upmarket Nutrition, available from

www.upmarketnutrition.co.uk/acatalog/Oils.html
• Health supplements - oils, National Nutrition, available from
www.nationalnutrition.co.uk/acatalog/Oils.html
• Synergy Health Products, coconut oil, available at www.synergy-health.co.uk/
supplements/coconut_oil_uk.html
Marketing and business management for small-scale enterprises
• Creative Marketing for SMEs, Fillis, I., ICFAI University Press, Hyderabad,
India, at www.icfaipressorg/books, 2005.
• Small business management and entrepreneurship, Stokes, D and Wilson, N.,
Thompson Learning, London WC1R 4LR, UK., 2006.
• The Marketing Book, 6th Edn., Baker, M. and Hart, S., Butterworth-
Heinemann, 2008.
• The Successful Management of Small and Middle-sized Enterprises in a
Specific Sector, Schneider, B., Rainer Hampp Verlag, 2004.

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Oil extraction
• A low-pressure method for the extraction of coconut oil from fresh coconuts.
Hammonds, T. W., Head, S. W., Swetman, A. A. and Harris, R. V., Proceedings
of a workshop on village, small- and medium-scale processing of fresh
coconuts, Philippine Coconut Authority, Manila, June, 1993.
• An inexpensive oilseed conditioner, Head, S. W., Harris, R. V. and Swetman,
A. A., Appropriate Technology, 17(2): 28-30, 1990.
• Bielenberg ram press - details of plans, available at www.jatropha.de/
documents/Plans-06-ERI-Bielenberg-Jatropha-Presse.pdf??
• Catalogue of Small Scale Processing Equipment, Maneepun, S., IFRPD,
Kasetsaart University, Thailand (available from FAO Publications).
• Etude Mini et Micro Huileries de Palme en Afrique de l’Ouest et du Centre.
Rouziere, A., Mission Report for Caisse Française de Dévelopement. CIRAD-CP
793, 1995.
• Extracting oil from avocado, Swetman, A. A., Food Chain, 11 10-11, 1994.
• Extraction and refining of oil obtained from dried avocado using a small
expeller, Southwell, K. H., Swetman, A.A. and Harris, R. V., Tropical Science,
30, 121-131, 1990.
• Extraction of macadamia oil using a small expeller, MacFarlane, N., Tropical
Science, 23(3): 206-215, 1981.
• Extraction of oil from oilseeds using the hot water flotation method,
Southwell, K. H. and Harris, R. V., Tropical Science, 32, 251-262, 1992.
• Extraction, compositional studies and physico-chemical characteristics
of palm kernel oil, Atasie1, V.N. and Akinhanmi, T.F., Pakistan Journal of
Nutrition 8 (6): 800-803, 2009, available at http://www.pjbs.org/pjnonline/
fin1250.pdf
• Ghani: a traditional method of oil processing in India, Achaya, K.T., FAO
Publications, 1993
• Groundnut Sheller, Makoko, M.S. and Balaka, H.R., Farm Machinery Unit,
1991.
• Herbs, spices and essential oils: post-harvest operations in developing
countries, Douglas, M., Heyes, J. and Smallfield, B., NZ Institute for Crop and
Food Research Ltd, New Zealand, FAO, 2005.
• How to Process Oilseeds on a Small Scale, available at www.howtopedia.org/
en/How_to_Process_Oilseed_on_a_Small_Scale

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• How to Use Your Ram Press, Herz, J., Enterprise Works Worldwide.
Washington, DC., 1995.
• Instruction Manual for the Construction and Use of a Hand Operated
Wooden Groundnut Sheller, Makoko, M.S. and Balaka, H.R., Farm Machinery
Unit, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Research, Chitedze
Agricultural Research Station, PO Box 158, Lilongwe, Malawi. 1991.
• Marula oil - details of its production, processing and uses available at
Winners and losers
in forest product commercialisation, UK Department for International
Development and the Natural Environment Research Council Centre for
Ecology and Hydrology, available at www.nerc-wallingford.ac.uk/research/
winners/literature.html
• Now Build This - The sunflower seed huller and oil press. Digitised print of
original article by Cox, J., Organic Gardening. Rodale Press. April, 1979,
available at www.green-trust.org/2000/biofuel/sunfloweroil.htm.
• Oilseed Crops, 2nd Edn., E.A. Weiss, Iowa State University Press, 2121 State
Avenue, Ames, Iowa, 50014-8300, USA, 1999.
• Oilseed processing for small-scale producers, Kurki, A. Bachmann, J. and Hill,
H., NCAT Agriculture Specialists, Biofuels Cooperative, ATTRA Publication,
2008#IP134/140, available at www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/oilseed.html or
www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/PDF/oilseed.pdf IP134 Slot 140 Version 121708
• Palm Oil Processing, available at www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/Y4355E/y4355e04.htm
• Palm oil processing - technologies for rural women in Ghana, ILO, 1985.
• Post-Harvest Operations, Chapter 6: Oilseeds, Schmidt, O.G., (Ed.), 1989.
International Development Research Centre (IDRC), 250 Albert St., Ottawa,
KIG 3H9 Canada (available from FAO Publications, Viale delle Caracalla,
00100, Rome, Italy).
• Principles of Oil Extraction. Practical Action Publishing. at http://
practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/product_info.php?products_id=187&osCs
id=1658nfuj2urb9sgh06cf01ion7
• Quality Assurance for Small Rural Food Industries Fellows, P.J., Axtell, B., and
Dillon, M., Technical Bulletin 117, FAO Publications, 1995.
• Review of the current state of screw expellers and strategies of its upgrading,
Dietz, H.M., Metzler, R. and Zarate, C., FAKT-Association for Appropriate
Technologies in the Third World, Gaensheidestrasse 43, 7000 Stuttgart 1,
Germany. 1990

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• Small-Scale Oil Extraction from Groundnuts and Copra, ILO Technical
Memorandum No. 5, ILO - WEP, 1983.
• Small-Scale Food Processing: A Guide to Appropriate Equipment, Fellows,
P., and Hampton, A., (eds.). Practical Action Publishing, 2002. (formerly the
Intermediate Technology Development Group).
• Small-scale oil extraction from groundnuts and copra. Technology Series,
Technical Memorandum No. 5. Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour
Office, 1983.
• Small Scale Oilseed Processing, Schumacher, J., Briefing Number 88. May
2007. Montana State University Extension Service, available at www.ampc.
montana.edu/briefings/briefing88.pdf
• Small-scale palm oil processing in Africa, Poku, K., Agricultural Services
Bulletin #148, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
Rome, 2002
• Small-scale Processing of Oilfruits and Oilseeds, Wiemer, H. J. and Altes, F. W.
K., GATE/GTZ., Eschborn, Germany, 1989.
• Small-scale sunflower seed processing in rural Zambia, Swetman, A. A. and
Harris, R. V., Tropical Science, 29, 157-169, 1989.
• Specialty Olive Oil Production available at www.sfc.ucdavis.edu/pubs/SFNews/
archive/94111.htm
• UK., or at http://practicalaction.org/?id=food_chain_index#Oils
• Technical solutions in Nepal, Dietz, M., Food Chain, 5, 13-14, 1992.
• Technologies for Rural Women – Ghana, Coconut Oil Processing, ILO, 1987.
• The influence of moisture content on the extraction of oil from fresh, grated
coconut. Hammonds, T. W., Harris, R. V. and Head, S. W., Tropical Science, 31:
73-81, 1991.
• The sunflower seed huller and oil press, available at http://journeytoforever.
org/biofuel_library/oilpress.html
• Using and Maintaining the Ram Press, Herz, J., Enterprise Works Worldwide.
Washington, DC., 1997.
Packaging
• Appropriate Food Packaging, Fellows, P.J., and Axtell, B.L., TOOL/ILO

Publications 1993, 2nd edition, IT Publications, 2003.
• Food packaging: principles and practice, Robertson, G.L., Taylor and Francis, 2006.

- 257 -
Standards for oils and methods of analysis
• Chemical Analysis of Oils, Fats, Waxes, and of the Commercial Products

Derived Therefrom, Benedikt, R., Science Publishers, 2007.
• Code of practice for the prevention and reduction of aflatoxin
contamination in peanuts (CAC/RCP 55 – 2004)
• Code of practice for the prevention and reduction of aflatoxin
contamination in tree nuts (CAC/RCP 59 -2005, REV.1-2006)
• Codex standard for edible fats and oils not covered by individual standards
(CODEX STAN 19-1981)
• Codex standard for named vegetable oils (CODEX-STAN 210-1999)
• Codex standard for olive oils and olive pomace oils (CODEX STAN 33-1981
(Rev. 2-2003))
• Recommended international code of hygienic practice for desiccated coconut
(CAC/RCP 4-1971)
• Recommended international code of practice for the storage and transport
of edible fats and oils in bulk (CAC/RCP 36 - 1987 (Rev.1-1999, Rev.2-2001,
Rev.3-2005))
Total Quality Management and ISO 22 000
• Total Quality Management, The Chartered Quality Institute, 12 Grosvenor

Crescent, London SW1X 7EE, Tel: +44 20 7245 6722, Fax: +44 20 7245 6788,
E-mail: info@thecqi.org, Website:www.thecqi.org/Knowledge-Hub/Resources/
Factsheets/Total-quality-management/
• Total Quality Management, UK Department for Trade and Industry, available
at www.businessballs.com/dtiresources/total_quality_management_TQM.pdf.
• Total Quality Management, Free Management Library, available at
http://managementhelp.org/quality/tqm/tqm.htm
• ISO 22000 2005 Food Safety Standard Translated Into Plain English, Praxiom
Research Group Ltd., Available at www.praxiom.com/iso-22000.htm.
• ISO 22000 2005, International Organization fro Standardization, available for
a fee at www.iso.org/iso/catalogue_detail?csnumber=35466

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Annex C
Equipment manufacturers
The following list of manufacturers of oil extraction equipment is not

exhaustive as there are a very large number of manufacturers of oil processing
machinery, especially in India and China. Oil processors should identify
manufacturers who may supply the type of equipment they are looking for
in trade catalogues, websites of machinery suppliers (e.g. www.tradekey.com/
ks-oil-extraction-machine, http://trade.indiamart.com/offer/plant-machinery/
oil-extraction-machinery/buy.html or http://www.alibaba.com/product-
gs/248454521/1_50T_D_small_scale_edible.html). It is emphasised that inclusion
of the equipment suppliers in this Annex does not imply endorsement by the
authors or CTA and any failure to mention a particular supplier is not a sign of
disapproval.
Africa
• Agrico Agricultural Engineers Limited Kaneshie Industrial Area, P.O.Box
12127 Accra-North, Ghana, Tel: 233 21 228 260/236 240/228 292, Fax: 233
21 230 481, e-mail: agrico@ncs.com.gh. Shea butter equipment, presses and
expellers, mills, grinders.
• Agrimal (Malawi) Ltd., P.O. Box 143, Heavy Industrial Area, Blantyre, Malawi,
Tel: 265 670 933, Fax: 265 670 651. E-mail/website not known. Groundnut
shellers.
• Amdale Sari, BP 2921, Douala, Cameroon, Tel: 237 425354. Palm kernel
processing equipment
• Camemec, BP 8202, Cotonou, Benin, Palm oil processing equipment,
Tel/e-mail/website not known
• CGC Agricultural Service Ltd., No.1 Clarkson Street, SK 2591, Banjul, Gambia,
Tel: 220 222 254 /Fax: 220 222 254, Presses and expellers, mills, grinders
Annex C - Equipment manufacturers

- 259 -
• Coopérative des Ouvriers Metallurgiques de Faranah (COMFAR) Quartier
Aviation en face de l’Aéroport de Faranah, B.P. 11 Faranah / B.P. 2399
Conakry Faranah, Guinea, Tel: 224 41 20 88 /41 20 98, Fax: 224 41 20 88,
Decorticators
• Farm Implements Limited, Ubungo Industrial Area, P.O. Box 20126, Dar Es
Salaam
Tanzania, Tel: 255 51 43075/43259, Fax: 255 51 43259, Decorticators
• FATECO, Agbogba Village, 3 km. off Madina-Kwabenya Road PO Box 9899,
Airport, Accra, Ghana. Tel: 233 21 663114/303029/502547, Palm and palm
kernel processing equipment, presses and expellers, mills, grinders
• Gack Engineering, Tantra Hills, New Achimota, Ant / B / 016 Accra, P.O.
Box 15883 Accra, Ghana , Tel: +233 21 404109/403744/403801, Shea butter
equipment, decorticators
• Hormeku Engineering Works, PO Box 20, Ashaiman, Tema, Ghana
Tel: 233 22 307811 Palm and palm kernel processing equipment
• Intermech Engineering Ltd, P.O. Box 1278, Morogoro, Tanzania, Web:
www.intermech.biz, Oil Expeller for sunflower, sesame, neem, moringa,
groundnuts, coconut
• John F Marshall (A Division of Vera Cruz), 6 Jonas Road, Driehoek, Germiston,
South Africa, Tel: +27 (11) 842 7100, E-mail: jfm@veracruz.co.za,
Web: www.johnfmarshall.co.za
• Kaddai Engineering Enterprise, No. O.I. 89 Ashanti New Town, P.O. Box 2268,
Kumasi, Ghana, Tel: 233 51 20 492, Fax: 233 51 27 528, Presses and expellers,
mills, grinders
• Lutanda Ltd., P O Box 20516, Kitwe, Zambia, Presses and expellers, mills,
grinders, Tel/e-mail/website not known
• Nigerian Oil Mills Ltd, P.O. Box 264, Atta, Owerri, Imo-State, Nigeria, Milling
machine/oil expeller for palm kernels, groundnut and moringa seeds.
• Nova Technologies, Ibadan, Nigeria, Palm and palm kernel machinery,
• Nova-SOTECMA, Sarl Av. 1o Congresso do MPLA 24-26, C.P. 306, (Caixa
postal), Luanda, Angola, Tel: 244 2 330 343, Fax: 244 2 335 378, Presses and
expellers, mills, grinders
• OPC, BP 5946, Douala, Cameroon. Tel: 237 370432, Palm and palm kernel
processing machinery

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• PACESL - Professional Agricultural Consultancy and Expertise Services of
Liberia,
Vai Ioron, Bushwel Island, P.O. Box 148, 1000 Monrovia, Liberia, Presses and
expellers, mills, grinders, Tel/e-mail/website not known
• SERMI, BP 17123, Sis Rue 4, 509 Bonaberi, Douala, Cameroon.
Tel: 237 391422, Palm and palm kernel machinery
• Sismar, BP 3214, 20 Rue Dr. Theze, Dakar, Senegal, Presses and expellers,
mills, grinders. Tel/e-mail/website not known
• Smallholder Agricultural Mechanisation Services (SAMS), Woodlands,
P/Bag W47 Lusaka, Zambia, Tel: 260 1 233 229, Fax: 260 1 233 229, Presses
and expellers, mills, grinders.
• SOPCI, BP 0247, Cotonou, Benin, Palm oil processing equipment.
• TAMSA Trading, 152 Sidwell Avenue, P.O. Box 14305, 6061 Port Elisabeth,
South Africa Tel: 27 41 43 339, Fax: 27 41 411 731, Presses and expellers, mills,
grinders
• Tanroy Engineering (Pvt.) Ltd. 179 Loreley Crescent, off Mutare Road, P.O.
Box AY 382, 4 Amby, Msasa Harare Zimbabwe, Tel: 263 4 487791/3,
Fax: 263 4 487794. Presses and expellers, mills, grinders
• TROPIC BP 706, Douala, Cameroon, Presses and expellers, mills, grinders.
• Ubongo Farm Implements, P.O. Box 2669/20126, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
Tel/e-mail/website not known. Groundnut decorticators, presses and
expellers, mills, grinders
Asia
• ABC Agro & Food Machine (India) Private Limited, 284, Dr. Ambedkar Road,
Velandipalayam, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641 025, India,
Tel: 91 422 2442380/438238 Fax: 91 422 2444429, Mobile: 91 9842244429,
Web: www.abcmachines.net, Oil expellers
• Agro Industrial Agency, Near Malaviya Vadi, Gondal Road, Rajkot 360 002,
India Tel: 91 281 461134/462079/451214, Fax: 91 281 461770, Oilseed press
manufacturers

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• Allied Expeller Industries, 11811, S. A. S. Nagar, Ludhiana, Punjab
141 003, India, Tel: 91 161 2532414/2440085, Fax: 91 161 2532414, Mobile:
91 9779912414, Web: www.indiamart.com/alliedexpeller/oil-expeller-machines.
html. Oil expellers, spare parts, filter presses and industrial conveyors.
• Amrut Engineering Works, Shakti Campus B/h Vihar Theater Pratapnagar,
Vadodara 390004, India, Tel: 91-265-2439348, Fax: 91-265-2438865,
Web:www.eindiabusiness.com/company/133781/amrut-engineering-works.
html small to large scale oil mill machinery
• Anyang City Longtai Cereals and Oil Machinery Co., Ltd., Huaxiang, Anyang,
Henan 455001, China, Tel: 86 372 3932415 Mobile: 86 151 36503906
Fax: 86 372 3919125 Web: http://www.aysat.com.cn/english. Oilseed press
manufacturers
• Ashoka Industries Kirama Walgammulla, Sri Lanka, Tel: 94 71 764725, Oil
Expeller for oilseeds, capacity: 5 litres/hour.
• B.H. Smith & Sons Company, Gandevi Road, Devsar, 396380 India,
Tel: 91 263 4281881, Web: www.eindiabusiness.com/company/140969/b.h.-
smith-sons-company.html oil extraction machinery & equipment,
• Brimco Engineering Works, M - 27/1, Street No. 8, Anand Parbat Industrial
Area, New Delhi 110 005, India, Tel: 91 257 61786/22145040, Fax: 91 257
61786/22145040, Web: www.eindiabusiness.com/company/58748/brimco-
engineering-works.html Manufacturing, erection, commissioning of oil mill
machinery.
• Canflex Engineering Private Limited, PB. 1919, D. No. 7-2-c8/a and C33/a,
Industrial Estate, S. Hyderabad 500 018, India, Tel: 91 237 12233/23716699,
Fax: 91 23813884,
Web: www.eindiabusiness.com/company/59129/canflex-engineering-private-
limited-hyderabad.html Oil filling machines Chetan Agro industries, 108, Atul
Complex, Gondal Road, Opp: Bombay Hotel, Rajkot 360 002, India,
Tel: 91 281 2461781 Fax: 91 281 2461782 Web: www.chetantent.com. Oilseed
press manufacturers.
• Chetan Agro Industries, 108, Atul Complex, Gondal Road, Opposite Bombay
Hotel, Rajkot, Gujarat 360 002, India, Tel: 91 281 2461781,
Fax: 91 281 2461781, Mobile: 91 9825216014, Web: www.indiamart.com/
chetanagro/food-processing-machines.html Small oil expellers, oil extraction
machines, filter press, decorticator.

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• China National Machinery Import and Export Corporation, Shandong Branch,
82 Fan Hsiu Road, Tsingtao, China. or No.1 (W) Fuchengmenwai Avenue,
Beijing 100037, China, Tel: 86 10 68991008, Fax: 86 10 68991000,
e-mail:cmc@cmc.genertec.com.cn, Small-scale oil expellers.
• Chuo Baeki Goshi Kaiska (CECOCO), P 0 Box 8, Ibaraki City, Osaka 567,
Japan, Small-scale oil extraction plants, groundnut decorticators, presses and
expellers, mills, grinders Tel/e-mail/website not known.
• Dandekar Brothers Engineers & Founders, Sangli-Shivaji Nagar, 416416,
Maharashtra, India, Presses and expellers, mills, grinders. Tel/e-mail/website
not known.
• Flower Food Company, 91/38 Ram Indra Road, Soi 10, Km 4, Bangkok,
Thailand. Tel: 66 2 5212203/5523420. Seed Decorticator for oilseeds, Capacity:
500 kg/hour.
• Forsberg Agritech India PVT Ltd 123, GIDC Estate, Makarpura, Baroda 390
010, India. Tel: 91 265 645752, Fax: 91 265 641683. Winnower to remove dust,
and impurities
• Goldin India Equipment PVT Limited, F-29, B.I.D.C. Industrial, Estate, Gorwa,
Vadodara 390 016, Gujarat, India. Tel: 91 265 3801168/380461, Fax: 91 265
3801168/380461. Grain Cleaners capacity: 100 - 2000 kg/hour.
• Goyum Screw Press (Oil Expeller Division), Plot No. 324/2, Industrial Area A,
Ludhiana, Punjab 141003, India, Tel: 91 161 4633180, Fax: 91 161 2230380,
Mobile: 91 9915065000, Web: www.oilmillmachinery.com Oil expellers, spares and
parts, plate filter press, seed cleaners, decorticator and oil extraction machines.
• Haripriya Enterprises, 151/21 Sector-1 Charkop Kandivli West, Mumbai 400
067, India
Tel: 91 39407451, Fax : 91 28690241, Web: www.eindiabusiness.com/
company/66556/haripriya-enterprises.html Oil filling machines
• Hebei Nanpi Machinery Manufacture Co., Ltd. 72 Guang Ming Xi Road,
Nanpi, Hebei 061500, China Tel: 86 317 8864245 Fax: 86 317 8855307, Web:
www.cnnpm.com. Oilseed press manufacturers
• Himalaya Expeller Industries, C- 110, Naraina Industrial Area, Phase 1, New Delhi,
Delhi 110 028, India, Tel: 91 11 25794583/25791161/25797757,
Fax: 91 11 25790021, Mobile: 91 9810036970/9999913737, Web:
www.indiamart.com/himalayaexpeller/oil-expellers-machines-spares.html Oil
expellers for palm kernel, low power and less maintenance palm kernel oil
expellers.

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• Hindsons Pvt Ltd., The Lower Mall, Patiala 147001, Punjab, India, Presses
and expellers, mills, grinders.Tel/e-mail/website not known. Pedal-operated
groundnut shellers.
• Hitech Marketing Concepts, Near Century Hotel, Ghat Road, Nagpur,
Maharashtra 440 018, India, Tel: 91 712 2772570, Fax: 91 712 2773746,
Mobile: 91 9371188264, Web: www.indiamart.com/hitechmarketing/ Manual
and hand operated oil expellers.
• Jagdish Exports, Near Malviya Wadi, Gondal Road, Rajkot 360 002,India, Tel:
91 1134/2462079/2451214, Fax : 91 1770/2450628, Web: www.eindiabusiness.
com/company/69409/jagdish-exports.html Oil extraction machinery.
• Jayesh Engineering Corporation, B/19, Devda Bldg., Rani Sati Marg, Malad-e,
Mumbai 400097 India, Tel: 91 228770338, Fax : 9122 28770338,
Web: www.eindiabusiness.com/company/139959/jayesh-engineering-
corporation.html oil mill machinery
• Jindal Expeller Industries, 58-B, Industrial Estate, Miller Ganj, Ludhiana,
Punjab 141 003, India, Tel: 91 161 2534022 Fax: 91 161 4610468,
Mobile: 91 9815970449/9815199974, Web: www.indiamart.com/
jindalexpellers/oil-expellers-spare-parts.html Oil expellers for coconut oil,
mustard oil, soybean oil and castor oil.
• Kanika Exports, 10 A, Model House, Ludhiana, Punjab 141 003, India,
Mobile: 91 9872100027, Fax: 91 161 5019220, Web: www.kanikaexports.
com/industrial-expeller.html oil expellers, palm kernel expellers, screw press
expellers, hydraulic expellers, geared oil expellers.
• Kirloskar Brothers Ltd., Udyog Bhavan, Tilak Road, Pune 411002, India,
Presses and expellers, mills, grinders
• Kumar Industrial Works, 43-45, Sidco Industrial Estate, Five Roads, Salem,
Tamil Nadu 636 004, India, Tel: 91 427 2448443, Mobile: 91 9443248443,
Web: www.indiamart.com/kumarindustrialworks/mechanical-expellers.html
Mechanical oil expellers, oil extract machines, groundnut decorticators and
cotton seed cleaners.
• Lipid Systems Engineers Pvt. Ltd. A-6/15, Kunal Estate, Keshav Nagar,
Chinchwad, Pune 411033 India, Tel: 91 212 7486606, Fax : 91 212 7450936,
Web: www.eindiabusiness.com/company/139960/lipid-systems-engineers-pvt.-
ltd..html, oil mill machinery
• M/s.Best Engineering Technologies, Plot No.69/A, 5-9-285/13, Rajiv Gandhi
Nagar, Industrial Estate, Kukatpally, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh 500 037,

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India, Tel: 91 40 65908498, Fax: 91 40 23074198, Mobile: 91 9391057812,
Web: www.bestengineeringtechnologies.com/bio-diesel-equipment.html.
Oil expellers, dehullers, decorticators, filter press, settling tanks and seed
cleaners.
• Mitsun Engineering, FF-107, Silver Coin, Shrenikpark Char Rasta, Akota,
Vadodara, Gujarat 390 020, India, Tel: 91 265 2352802, Fax: 91 265 2354371,
Mobile: 91 9824083532/9824097599, Web: www.mitsunengg.com/oil-mill-
machinery.html. Oil expellers, jacketed cooker mounted expellers, baby oil
expellers, filter press, mini filter, hammer mill and screw press.
• Nandys Engineering Works, 139, Benaras Road, Kolkata 711106 India, Tel:
91 33 26656485/4035, Fax: 91 33 26752302, Web: www.eindiabusiness.
com/company/140198/nandys-engineering-works.html Retailers of oil mill
machinery
• Om Sons International, 77-A, Industrial Estate, Ludhiana, Punjab 141 003,
India, Tel: 91 161 4640008, Fax: 91 161 2530507, Mobile:
91 9463009508/9463335027, Web: www.omoilexpeller.com/oil-expeller.html
Oil expellers, filter presses, mini boilers, copra cutters, seed cleaners, seed
crackers, decorticators, elevators and conveyors.
• Rama Expeller Industries Private Limited, 155- B, Industrial Estate, Ludhiana,
Punjab 141 003, India, Tel: 91 161 2532310, Fax: 91 161 2532310, Mobile:
91 9814561310,
Web: www.indiamart.com/ramaexpeller/mill-accessories.html Oil expellers,
screw press oil expeller.
• Shaoxing Liangfeng Machinery Manufacture Co., Ltd., Inside Dayu Silkworm
Egg Area Jiuli Shaoxing, shaoxing, Zhejiang 312000, China,
Tel: 86 575 88361633, Fax: 86 575 88317447 Web: www.sxlfjx.com.cn, Oilseed
press manufacturers
• Sharma Expeller Company, 6772, Street No. 6, Daba Road, New Janta
Nagar, Ludhiana, Punjab 141 003, India, Tel: 91 161 2496237/2500809,
Fax: 91 161 2500809, Mobile: 91 9815234236, Web: www.indiamart.com/
sharmaexpellers/oil-mill-machinery.html Oil expellers for sunflower, cotton
seed, linseed, jatropha and mustard.
• Sichuan Qingjiang Machinery Co., Ltd. 104, Qingjiang Road, Ya’an, Sichuan
625000, China, Tel: 86 835 2823600, Fax: 86 835 2820747, Web:
www.qingjiang.com.cn/yw/first.htm. Oilseed press manufacturers

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• Simplex Expeller Works, Nirankari St.no.3, G.T. Road, Miller Ganj, Ludhiana
141003 India, Tel: 91 161 2532134, Fax: 91 161 2543442,
Web: www.eindiabusiness.com/company/136064/simplex-expeller-works.html
Manufacturers & exporters of oil mill machinery.
• Tiny Tech Plants (pvt) Ltd., Tagore Road, Rajkot 360 002, India,
Tel: 91 281 2480166, 2468485, 2431086, Fax: 91 281 2467552,
Mobile: 91 9227606264/9227606570, E-mail : tinytech@tinytechindia.com,
Web: www.tinytechindia.com, Oil expellers: capacity: 125 kg/hour Filter Press
capacity: 100-200 litres/hour.
• Wuxi Honggang Imp. & Exp. Co., Ltd., 9 Dongliangxi Road, Chong’an, Wuxi,
Jiangsu, 214062, China Website: www.hgsourcing.com, Oil Presses.
• Yuzhou Xingyun Fire Controlling Facility Co., Ltd., 12 Garden Road West
Industrial Zone, Yuzhou, Henan 461670, China, Tel: 86 0374 8276119 Mobile:
86 13937472310, Fax: 86 0374 8276119, Web: www.xyxfqc.cn, Oilseed press
manufacturers.
Europe
• Alvan Blanch Ltd., Chelworth Malmesbury, Wiltshire, SN16 9SG, UK.
Tel: 44 1666 577333, Fax: 44 1666 577339, E-mail: info@alvanblanch.co.uk,
Web: www.alvanblanch.co.uk, Expellers, mills, grinders, oil screw press to suit
village communities or small industries. Capacity: 50 kg/hour input.
• Buhler-Miag Ltd., Uzwil, Switzerland. Tel: 41 71 9551111, Fax: 41 71 9553379,
E-mail: buhler.uzwil@buhlergroup.com. Decorticators, seed cleaners.
• De Smet Rosedowns, Cannon St, Hull East Yorkshire HU2 0AD, UK, Tel:
44 1482 329864, 441482, 325887, E-mail: info@ Rosedowns.co.uk www.
rosedowns.co.uk, mini oilseed press. Capacity: 1 - 10 ton per day.
• Harburg-Freudenberger Maschinenbau GmbH, Kautschuktechnik, Speiseöltechnik
Seevestr. 1 21079, 21045 Hamburg, Germany, Tel: 49 40 771790,
Fax: 49 40 77179325, Web: www.hf-group.com/en/kontakt/index.html, Large
expellers, pre-press expellers, oilseed preparation equipment.
• IBG Monforts Oekotec GmbH & Co, KG Schwalmstr 301, D-41238
Mönchengladbach, Germany, Tel: 49 2161 4015-80, Fax: 49 21614015-79
, E-mail: oekotec@ibg-monforts de, Web: www.oekotec.ibg-monforts.de/
en/11.html, Oilseed press, decorticators, seed cleaners, Komet expellers.

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• Mathias Reinartz, Neuss, Maschinewfabril, P.O. Box 137, Industriestrasse
14 404, Neuss, Germany. Oilseed equipment. Tel/e-mail/website not known
• Skeppsta Maskin ABB engt Jonsson Täby Skeppsta S-705 94 Örebro, Sweden,
Tel: 46 19 228005, e-mail: sales@oilpress.com, Oilseed Press manufacturers
• Ste Les Fils De Louis Samat, 10 Boulevard De Freres-Godchot 13392,
Marseilles Cedex 4, France, Presses and expellers, mills, grinders. Tel/e-mail/
website not known
• VIVAS Co. #2, Nejinskaya str. 69 Odessa 65045, Ukraine, Tel: 380 482355591,
487155331, Fax 380 482267284, e-mail: manager@vivas.com.ua
Web: www.vivas.com.ua, Oilseed press manufacturers
North America
• C S Bell Co, 170 West Davis Street, PO Box 291, Tiffin, Ohio 44883, USA,
Tel: 1 419 4480791, Fax: +1 419 4481203 - mill for cereals/Oilseeds/Herbs/
spices, Capacity: 150 kg/hour
• Cropland Biodiesel, 2003 Pangborn Rd. Lynden, WA, 98264, USA.
Tel: 1 360 8157061, E-mail: hunter@croplandbiodiesel.com, Web:
www.croplandbiodiesel.com. Oil press - capacity: 1 - 3 tons per 24 hours
• Hybren, distributors: Sustainable Village, 1080 Oakdale Place Boulder, CO
80304, Tel: 303 998-1323 or 888 317-1600, 303 449-1348, E-mail:
info@sustainablevillage.com, Web: www.hybren.dk, www.sustainablevillage.
com, Hybren oilseed press capacity: 1/2 ton per day.
• Kern Kraft, 1531A Owl Creek Road, Thermopolis, WY 82443, USA.
Tel: 1 307 8672233, Web: www.circle-energy.com Oilseed press, ¼ ton to 4 ton
per day capacity (see also www.ncat.org/special/oilseed_crushers_list.pdf).
• Seedburo Equipment Company, 1022 W. Jackson Blvd. Chicago, IL 60607,
USA, Tel: 1 312 7383700, 7385329, e-mail: sales@seedburo.com, Web:
www.seedburo.com, Mills, hullers
• The French Oil Mill Machinery Co., 1035 West Greene St., P.O. Box 920, Piqua,
Ohio, USA. 45356-0920, Tel: 1 937 7733420, Fax: 1 937 7733424,
E-mail: sales@frenchoil.com, Web: www.frenchoil.com. Mills, seed
conditioners, presses, expellers, oil filters.

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• Trimline Design Centre Inc., 6772-99 Street, Edmonton, Alberta T6E 5B8,
Canada, Tel: 1 780 4669034, 4669031, e-mail: info@trimlinedesigncentre.com,
Mammoth oilseed press capacity: 2 -10 ton per 24 hours.
• V.D. Anderson Company, Harvar Ave., Cleveland, Ohio 44105-4896, USA,
Tel: 1 216 6411112, Fax: 1 216 6411571, Web: www.feedscrews.com/
supplier/1017, oil extraction equipment and expeller plants.
Pacific/Australia
• Billabong Logistics International, Box 805, Croydon, Victoria 3136, Australia,
Tel: 61 97229440, Web: www.eindiabusiness.com/company/58274/billabong-
logistics-international.html, Wholesale supplier and distributor seller of oil
extraction plant and machinery.
The Food Processing Machinery & Supplies Association is a nonprofit trade

association that provides link between food and beverage processors and
suppliers. It can provide information about sources of equipment and supplies.
Processfood.com is the association’s electronic marketplace and the contact
details are: 1451, Dolley Madison Drive, Suite 200, McLean, VA 2210, USA.,
Tel: 1 703 7612600, 6841080, E-mail: info@fpsa.org.
South America
• Masiero Industrial S.A., P.O. Box 218-219, Jan Sao Paulo, Brazil. Pre-press expellers.
Oil test kits

• All QA Products, P.O. Box 369 • Mount Holly, NC 28120, USA, Tel: +1 800
8458818, Fax: +1 704 829660, E-mail: sales@allqa.com, Website: www.allqa.
com/Oil_Testers.htm
• Global Complex Co., Ltd., 712 HappyLand Sai 1 Rd., Klongchan, Bangkapi,
Bkk 10240, Thailand, Tel: +662 375245558 Fax: +662 3752499, E-mail:
foodsafetykit@gmail.com, Website: www.asianmedic.com www.gccthai.com

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Suppliers of speciality oils:
• Chalice at www.aakuk.com/news-press/news/chalice-launches-fairtrade-
brazil-nut-oil
• Fair Trade Foundation at www.fairtrade.org.uk/products/retail_products/
default.aspx
• Olivado at www.tradekey.com/product_view/id/1073690.htm

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Annex D
Institutions involved in oil extraction
The following institutions in ACP countries are able to provide advice and
assistance to oil processing entrepreneurs. These are in addition to institutions
listed in Volume 1 Opportunities in Food Processing.
Africa
• African Groundnut Council, P.O. Box 3025, Lagos, Nigeria. Member countries:
Nigeria, Senegal, The Gambia, Mali, Niger, and Sudan. The association
advises on marketing policies and ensures remunerative prices for groundnut
and its by-products; organises exchange of technical and scientific
information on production, marketing and uses of groundnuts.
• Angola Minieteno da industria, Rua Chequered Lukoki No. 25, 7 ander C.P.
594 , Luanda-Angola. Tel: 244 2337294, Fax: 244 2392400, Email:inanorq@
metangola.com
• Appropriate Technology Unit (ATU), Dept. of Community Development,
Ministry of Local Government and Lands, 13 Marina Parade, Banjul, Gambia,
Tel: 220 228178, Fax: 220 228178. Has expertise in shea butter and coconut
oil extraction and supplies equipment for both products.
• Botswana Bureau of Standards, Plot no. 14391, Private Bag B 048,
Gaborone, Botswana. Tel: 267 3164044, Fax: 267 31641042, Email.infoc@
hq.bobstandards.bw
• Botswana Technology Centre, PO Box 0082, Gabarone, Botswana. www.
botec.bw
• Centre de Formation Technique Mgr. Steinmetz (CFTS), Quartier Gbena,
Route de Lomé, sur la droite venant de Cotonou, B.P. Quidah, Altantique
Quidah, Benin, Tel: 229 341335. E-mail: cfts@intnet.bj. Has expertise in palm/
palm kernel oil and supplies presses/expellers, palm/palm kernel equipment.
• Centre Pilote de Technologie Industrielle (CPTI), s/c Ministère de la Promotion
du Secteur Privé, de l’Industrie et du Commerce, B.P. 468 Conakry, Guinea,
Annex D - Institutions involved in oil extraction

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Tel: 224 60214069, E-mail: satoure@mirinet.net.qn. Has expertise in shea
butter and palm/palm kernel oil extraction and supplies equipment for both
products.
• Confederation of Tanzania Industries, 10th Floor, NIC Investment House,
Samora Avenue, PO Box 71783, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
Tel: 255 222 114954/123802. Fax: 255 222 115414. E-mail: cti@cats-net.com
• Coopérative des Ouvriers Metallurgiques de Faranah (COMFAR), Quartier
Aviation en face de l’Aeroport de Faranah, B.P. 11 Faranah / B.P. 2399
Conakry Faranah, Guinea, Tel: 224 41 20 88 / 41 20 98, Fax: 224 41 20 88. Has
expertise in palm/palm kernel oil extraction and supplies equipment.
• Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, PO Box M20, Accra, Ghana.
Tel: 233 21 777330/ 761209/ 777647. E-mail: fri@ghana.com
• Council for Scientific and Industrial Research/FOODTEK, PO Box 395, Pretoria
0001, South Africa, Tel: 00 27 12 841 2911, 2663, 3661, Fax: 00 27 12 841
2185, 4790, 3865, E-mail: info@csir.co.za
• D.T.E - C.I. Matériel Agro-Industriel, 37, Rue de l’Industrie, Boulevard de
Marseille, Zone 3, B.P. 18-629 Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire, Tel: 225 242666,
Fax: 225 242688. E-mail: dte@afnet.net, Web: http://www.dtematagri.com.
Has expertise in shea butter extraction and supplies presses/expellers and
shea butter equipment.
• Department of Agricultural Engineering. Egerton University, PO Box 536,
Njoro, Kenya, Tel: 254 3761620, Fax: 254 3761442, Web: www.egerton.ac.ke.
Has expertise in oil extraction.
• Department of Food Science & Technology, Sokoine University of
Agriculture, PO Box 3006, Morogoro, Tanzania. Tel: 255 23 4402.
Fax: 255 23 4562/3259.
• Department of Food Science and Technology, Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana: Email foodtech@knust.edu.gh
• Department of Food Science and Technology, Makerere University, PO Box
7062, Kampala, Uganda. Tel: 256 41 533676, Fax: 256 41 533676, E-mail:
foodtech@infocom.co.ug
• DRC National Programme of Nutrition, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of
Congo. Tel: 24381 5257861, Email: fmekob@yahoo.fr
• Ghana Appropriate Technology Industrial Services (GRATIS), PO Box 151,
Tema, or PO Box M 39, Accra Ghana, Tel: 233 22 204243/207610, Fax: 233 22
204374, E-mail: executivedirector@gratisghana.com, gratis@ighmail.com,

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info@gratisghana.com. Has expertise and information on palm oil, coconut
oil and shea butter processing and supplies equipment.
• Ghana Export Promotion Council, PO Box M146, Accra, Ghana.
Tel: 233 21 228813/228830. E-mail: gepc@ghana.com
• Ghana Standards Board, PO Box MB245, Accra, Ghana.
Tel: 233 21 500065/500066. E-mail: gsbdir@ghana.com
• Government Chemist Laboratory, PO Box 164, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
Tel: 255 222 113383/4. Fax: 255 222 113320.
• International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Regional Office for
Eastern and Southern Africa, PO Box 62084 00200, Liaison House, 2nd and
3rd floors, State House Avenue, Nairobi, Kenya, Tel: 254 20 2713160/61,
Fax: 254 20 2711063, Email: vngugi@idrc.or.ke, Web: www.idrc.ca/esaro, Has
information and project activities in all types of oil processing.
West and Central Africa, BP 11007 PEYTAVIN, Rue de Saint-Louis, angle de
l’avenue Cheikh Anta Diop, Point E, Dakar, Sénégal, Tel: 221 33 8640000,
Fax: 221 33 8253255, Email: jgerard@idrc.org.sn, Web: www.idrc.ca/waro
• International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Post-Harvest
Engineering Unit, Resource and Crop Management Division, PMB 5320, Oyo
Road, Ibadan, Nigeria, Tel: 234 2 2412626, 234 2 2400300/319, Fax:
234 2 241222, 234 2 2874177/2276, Email: iita@cgnet.com, Web: www.iita.
org. Has information and expertise in all types of oil extraction, information
on equipment suppliers and reports on oil extraction projects.
• Kakute, P.O. Box 13954, Arusha, Tanzania, E-mail: kakute@tz2000.com,
Website:www.jatropha.de/tanzania/Kakute/kakute.htm
• Kenya Bureau of Standards, P.O. Box 30016, Nairobi, Kenya.
Tel: 254 20 502211-19/ 722 751666, Fax: 254 20 609660/503293,
Email: tomc@kebs.org
• Lesotho Standards and Quality Assurance Section, P.O. Box 747, Maseru, Lesotho.
Tel: 266 22317454/320659, Fax: 266 22311075/310326, Email:lessqo@leo.co.ls
• Malawi Bureau of Standards, P.O. Box 964, Blantyre, Malawi.
Tel: 265 1 670 488, Fax: 265 1 670 756, Email: mbs@malawi.net
• Malawi National Laboratory, Biochemistry Lab, Lilongwe, Malawi.
Fax: 265 1 789431/ 789536/788232,
• Mauritius Standards Bureau, Villa Road, Moka, Mauritius.
Tel: 230 4335051/4335150 Fax: 230 4333648, Email: msb@intret.mu

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• Ministry of Industry and Trade, PO Box 9503, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
Tel: 255 222 180075.
• Mozambique National Laboratory for food and water hygiene, Av 25 De
Serembno, No 1179, 2 andar. Tel: 258 1 325178, Email: parruque@hotmail.
com
• Namibia Standards In Information And Quality Office, Ministry Of Trade And
Industry,
Goethe Street, Private bag 13340, Windhoek, Namibia. Tel: 264 612837111,
Fax: 264 61220227, Email:ndishishi@mti.gov.na
• National Agricultural Research Organisation (NARO), PO Box 7852,
Plot M217, Nakawa Industrial Area, Kampala, Uganda. Tel: 256 41
222657/285248/222627, Fax: 256 41 222657 E-mail: fosri-@imul.com
• National Food Control Commission, Ministry of Health, PO Box 7601, Dar es
Salaam, Tanzania. Tel: 255 222 114039/114060.
• National Institute for Scientific and Industrial Research (NISIR), Food
Technology Research Unit, Old Airport Road, PO Box 310258, Lusaka, Zambia.
Tel: 260 1 2824888 or 260 1 282081-4. E-mail: nisiris@zamnet.zm
• Nigerian Institute for Palm Oil Research, 206 Benin-Lagos Road, Ugbowo,
Benin City, Nigeria. Tel: 052 602485. E-mail nifor@infoweb.abs.net
• Nova-SOTECMA SARL, Av. 1o Congresso do MPLA 24-26, C.P. 306 (Caixa
postal), Luanda, Angola, Tel: 244 222 330343/5, Fax: 244 222 335378, E-mail:
mjferrao@novasotecma.com. Has expertise in palm/palm kernel oil extraction
• Oil Palm Research Institute, P.O. Box 74, Kusi, Kade, Ghana.
Tel: 233 0803 610257/8,
Fax: 233 0803 610235, E-mail: csir@ghana.com, Web: www.csir.org.gh. The
institute works for improvement of small-scale semi-mechanized methods
of processing palm, kernel and coconut oils and to commercialise research
findings through consultancy and training.
• Practical Action Southern Africa, 4 Ludlow Road (off Enterprise Road),
Newlands, Harare, Zimbabwe, Tel: 263 4 776631-3/776107/2936857-60,
Fax: 263 4 788157, E-mail: practicalaction@practicalactionzw.org, Web:
http://practicalaction.org/pauk/southern-africa/region_southern_africa.
Has information and expertise in establishing small-scale sunflower and
groundnut oil extraction enterprises.
• Seychelles Bureau of Standards, P.O. box 953, Victoria, Mahe, Republic of
Seychelles Tel: 248 380400, Fax: 248 375151, Email: sbsorg@seychelles.net

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• Smallholder Agricultural Mechanization Promotions (SAMeP, umbrella
organization: AFRICARE), 87 Provident Street, P.O. Box 36658 Lusaka, Zambia,
Tel: 260 1 239 794/233 578, Fax: 260 1 235 665/226 406, Email: samep@
zamnet.zm. Has expertise in shea butter extraction.
• South Africa Bureau of Standards, Private bag x 191, Pretoria, 0001. Tel: 27
124286514, Email: rikhotp.ptapo.sabs@sabs.co.za
• Strengthening African Food Processing Project (SAFPP), CSIR Bio/Chemtek-
FFD, Building 22, PO Box 395, Pretoria, South Africa. Tel: 27 12 841 3097,
Fax: 27 12 841 3726. E-mail: dharcourt@csir.co.za. Web: www.safpp.co.za
• Suame Intermediate Technology Transfer Unit (ITTU), a department of the
College of Engineering of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and
Technology (KNUST) Tel 233 51 21177. Email: www.knust.edu.gh/tcc.
• Swaziland Bureau of Standards, P.O.Box 451, Swaziland. Tel: 268 0 43201/6,
Fax: 268 40 44711, Email: bziyane@hotmail.com/ mee@realnet.co.sz
• Tanzania Bureau of Standards, Ubungo Area, Morogoro Road/ Sam Nujoma
Road, PO Box 9524, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Tel: 255 222 450298.
Fax: 255 222 450959. E-mail: standards@twiga.com
• Tanzania Engineering & Manufacturing Design Organisation (TEMDO), P.O.
Box 6111 Arusha, Tanzania, Tel: 255 57 8058/6220, Fax: 255 57 8318, E-mail:
temdo@habari.co.tz. Has information on oil extraction and supplies presses/
expellers.
• Technology Consultancy Centre, College of Engineering, Kwame Nkrumah
University Of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana, Tel: +233 20 815 2824,
+233 51 62072, Fax: 233 51 60137, E-Mail: Email: provost.coe@knust.edu.gh,
Website: http://coe.knust.edu.gh
• Uganda Industrial Research Institute, Plot M 217 Nakawa, P.O. Box 7086,
Kampala, Uganda. Tel: 256 41286245, Email: makhokav@yahoo.com
• Uganda National Bureau of Standards, Plot M 217, Nakawa Industrial Area,
P.O. Box 6329, Kampala, Uganda. Tel: 256 41222367, Fax: 256 1286123, Email:
david.eboku@unbs.org
• Uganda Oilseed Producers and Processors Association (UOSPA), Kampala,
Uganda, P.O. Box 26357, Kampala, Uganda, Tel/Fax: 256 41 342504, E-mail:
oilseed@utlonline.co.ug, offers support to growers and oil processors.
• Zambia Food and Drugs Control Lab, P.O. Box 30138, Lusaka, Zambia.
Tel: 260 1 252855/73/252875, Fax: 260 1 252875, Email: fdcl@zamtel.zm

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• Zimbabwe Department of Health, Government Analyst Laboratory, P.O.
Box CY 23, Causeway, Harare. Tel: 263 4 7920267, Fax: 263 4 708527, Email:
rzindi@yahoo.com
Asia
• Asian and Pacific Coconut Community, 3rd Floor, Lina Building, Jl. H.R.
Rasuna Said Kav. B7, Kuningan, Jakarta 12920, P.O. Box 1343, Jakarta 10013,
Indonesia. Tel: 62 21 5221712 - 13, Fax: 62 21 5221714, E-mail: apcc@indo.net.
id, Web: www.apccsec.org
• Coconut Research Institute of Sri Lanka, Bandirippura Estate, Lunuwila
61150, Sri Lanka, Tel: 94 31 2257419/94 31 2255300/94 011 2253795,
Fax: 94 31 2257391, Email:
director@cri.lk, www.cri.lk. Has qualified technical staff, resources and
analytical facilities for research and development. It promotes collaborative
research with other national institutes and private sector organisations.
• International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Regional Office for South
Asia, 208 Jor Bagh, New Delhi 110 003, India, Tel: 91 11 2461-9411/12/13,
Fax: 91 11 2462-2707, Email: saro@idrc.org.in, Web: www.idrc.ca/saro,
Has information and project activities in all types of oil processing.
Southeast and East Asia, 22 Cross Street #02-55, South Bridge Court,
Singapore 048421, Tel: 65 6438 7877, Fax: 65 6438 4844, Email: asro@idrc.org.
sg, Web: www.idrc.org.sg.
• Oil Technological Research Institute (OTRI), Jawaharlal Nehru Technological
University, Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh, India. The institute conducts research
and development in oils, fats, and related subjects. It has laboratory and
pilot plant scale facilities for research in the chemistry and technology of oils
and fats.
• Philippine Coconut Oil Producers Association, c/o United Coconut
Associations of the Phils. (UCAP), 2nd Flr., PCRDF Bldg., Pearl Drive cor
Lourdes St., Ortigas Center, Pasig City, Pasig, NCR, Tel: 63 02 6338029,
Fax: 63 02 633-8030.

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• Philippine Coconut Research & Development Foundation, Inc., 3/F, PCRDF
Bldg., Pearl Drive cor. Lourdes St., Ortigas Center, Pasig City, 1605 Metro
Manila, Philippines. Tel: 63 2 633-8031/6338488, Fax: 63 2 6338032, E-mail:
info@pcrdf.org.ph / cocolab@cl-pcrdf.org.ph, Web: www.pcrdf.org
Caribbean
• Antigua and Barbuda Bureau of Standards (ABBS), PO Box 110, St. John’s,
Antigua. Tel: 1 (268) 462 1542/2424. Fax: 1 (268) 462 1625. E-mail: abbs@
candw.ag
• Barbados National Bureau of Standards (BNSI). Flodden, Calloden Road, St.
Michael, Barbados. Tel: 1 (246) 426 3870. Fax: 1 (246) 436 1495. E-mail: dbr@
bnsi.com.bb
• Caribbean Export Development Agency, PO Box 34B, Brittons Hill, St.
Michael, Barbados. Tel: 1 (246) 436 0578. Fax: 1 (246) 436 9999. E-mail:
lseon@carib-export.com
• Caribbean Industrial Research Institute (CARIRI), Tunapuna Post Office,
Trinidad. Tel: 1 (868) 662 7161/7163. Fax: 1 (868) 662 7177. E-mail: cariri@tstt.
net.tt
• Chemistry and Food Technology Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries
and Lands, Dunbars, Antigua. Tel: 1 (268) 462 4502/1213.
Fax: 1 (268) 462 6281/6104. E-mail: moa@candw.ag
• Chemistry, Food and Drugs Division, 92 Frederick Street, Port of Spain, Trinidad.
Tel: 1 (868) 623 5242. Fax: 1 (868) 623 2477. E-mail: cfdd@carib-link.net
• Dominica Bureau of Standards, 28 Kennedy Drive, 1st. Floor, Roseau,
Dominica. Tel: 1 (767) 448 1685. Fax: 1 (767) 449 9217.
E-mail: standards@cwdom.du
• Food Technology Institute, Scientific Research Council, Hope Gardens, PO Box
350, Kingston 6, Jamaica. Tel: 1 (876) 977 9316. Fax: 1 (876) 977 2194.
E-mail: ftihead@cwjamaica.com
• Grenada Bureau of Standards (GDBS), Lagoon Road, St Georges, Grenada.
Tel: 1 (473) 440 5886/6783. Fax: 1 (473) 440 5554. E-mail: gdbs@caribsurf.com
• Guyana National Bureau of Standards (GNBS), Flat 15, Sophia Exhibition
Complex, Sophia, Greater Georgetown, Guyana. Tel: + 592 2 59041.
Fax: + 592 2 57455. E-mail: gnbs@sdnp.org.gy

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Latin America and the Caribbean, Avenida Brasil 2655, 11300 Montevideo,
Uruguay, Tel: 598 2 709 0042, Fax: 598 2 708 6776, Email: lacroinf@idrc.org.
uy, Web: www.idrc.ca/lacro
• Jamaica Bureau of Standards (JBS), 86 Winchester Road, PO Box 113,
Kingston 10, Jamaica. Tel: 1 (876) 926 3140-6. Fax: 1 (876) 929 4736. E-mail:
othomas@jbs.org.jm
• OECS/EDADU, PO Box 961, Roseau, Dominica. Tel: 1 (767) 448 2240.
Fax: 1 (767) 448 5554. E-mail: csthilaire_edadu@yahoo.com
• Saint Lucia Bureau of Standards (SLBS), Heraldine Rock Building, Block B, 4th.
Floor, Waterfront, Castries, St Lucia. Tel: 1 (758) 453 0049/456 0546.
Fax: 1 (758) 452 3561. E-mail: slbs@candw.lc
• St. Kitts-Nevis Multipurpose Laboratory, PO Box 39, Department of
Agriculture, St. Kitts. Tel: 1 (869) 465 5279. Fax: 1 (869) 465 3852. E-mail:
mplbos@caribsurf.com
• St. Vincent and the Grenadines Bureau of Standards (SVGBS), Ministry of
Trade and Industry, Kingstown, St Vincent. Tel: 1 (784) 457 8092/ 456 1223.
Fax: 1 (784) 457 8175. E-mail: svgbs@caribsurf.com
• Technological Services, Caribbean Development Bank, PO Box 408, Wildey,
St. Michael, Barbados. Tel: 1 (246) 431 1690. Fax: 1 (246) 426 7269.
E-mail: harvey@caribank.org
Europe
• Agromisa Foundation. PO Box 41, 6700AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Tel/fax 31 317 412217/419178. E-mail agromisa@agromisa.org.
Web: www.agromisa.org
• Association for Appropriate Technologies in the Third World (FAKT),
Gaensheidestrasse 43, 7000 Stuttgart 1, Germany. Tel: 00 49 711 210950,
2109526, Fax: 0049-711-2109555, E-mail: Fakt_ger@compuserve.com. fakt@
fakt-consult.de. Has expertise in oil extraction from a wide variety of
materials, information and assistance in project development.
• Campden and Chorleywood Food Research Association, Chipping Campden,
Gloucestershire, GL55 6LD, UK. Tel: 44 1386 842000, Fax: 44 1386 842100,
E-mail: information@campden.co.uk, Web: www.camden.co.uk

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• Centre for the Development of Enterprise (CDE). Avenue Herrmann Debroux
52, B1160, Brussels, Belgium. Tel 32 2 6791811. E-mail info@cdi.be.
Web: www. cdi.be. (CDE has a network of associated organisations in ACP
countries)
• Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GambH. Dag-
Hammarskjold-Weg 1-5, 65760 Eschborn, Germany. Tel: 49 6196 79 0,
Fax 49 6196 79 1115. E-mail: gtz@gtz.org.ge. Web: www.gtz.de
• Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), Fats and Oils
Section, Commodities and Trade Division, Economic and Social Department,
Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy. Tel: 39 06 5705 1,
Fax: 39 06 5705 3152, E-mail fao@fao.org. Web: www.fao.org. Has
information on equipment and suppliers, publications and research/project
reports of oilseed processing in developing countries. There is a large
website, with many links and free information including equipment suppliers
at www.fao.org/inpho and publications at www.fao.org/catalog/giphome.
htm or www.fao.org/docrep. Secretariat of the Joint FAO/WHO Food
Standards Programme, E-mail codex@ fao.org, Web: www.codexalimentarius.
net.
• GRET, 211-213 rue La Fayette, 75 010 Paris, France. Tel: 33 1 40 056161. Fax:
33 1 40 056110. E-mail: gret@gret.org, Web: www.gret.org.
• International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) c/o Lambourn (UK)
Limited, Carolyn House, 26 Dingwall Road, Croydon CR9 3EE, UK. Tel: (44)
020 8686 9031, Fax: (44) 020 8681 8583
• Natural Resources Institute (NRI), Medway University Campus, Central
Avenue, Chatham Maritime, Kent, ME4 4TB. UK. Tel: 44 (0) 1634 880088, Fax:
44 (0) 1634 880066/77, E-mail: nri@greenwich.ac.uk, Web: www.nri.org
• Oilseeds Development, 13 Upper High St., Thame, Oxon, OX9 3HL, UK. Tel:
44 1844 214153. Oilseeds Processing Program conducts research to add
value to oilseeds and a technical resource to the oilseed processing industry.
It has experience with soybeans, cottonseed, maize germ, canola, peanut,
sunflower seed, safflower seed and flax seed. Specific services include
practical short courses and customized training.
• Practical Action (formally ITDG). The Schumacher Centre for Technology and
Development, Bourton Hall, Bourton on Dunsmore, Rugby, CV23 9QZ, UK. Tel
44 1926 63400. E-mail practicalaction@practicalaction.org.uk,
Web: www.practicalaction.org

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• Royal Tropical Institute (KIT) Publishers, PO Box 95001, 1090 HA Amsterdam,
The Netherlands. Tel: 31 20 5688 272, Fax: 31 20 5688 286.
E-mail: publishers@kit.nl, Web: www.kit.nl
• Secrétariat technique du Réseau (TPA), 211-213 rue La Fayette, 75010 Paris,
France. Tel: 33 (0) 1 40 05 61 69, Fax: 33 (0) 1 40 05 61 10,
E-mail: tpa@gret.org
• Technical Assistance (Int), P 0 Box 1224, Vosskuhlenweg 2, Bargteheide,
Germany. Has information on oil extraction.
• Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation ACP-EU (CTA),
Postbus 380, 6700 AJ Wageningen, The Netherlands. Tel: +31 317 467 100,
Fax: +31 317 460067, E-mail: cta@cta.int, Web: www.cta.int
• United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO), Vienna
International Centre, PO Box 300, A-1400, Vienna, Austria. Tel 43 1 26026,
Fax: 43 1 2692669. E-mail: unido@unido.org. Web: www.unido.org
The following organisation has information on management and health and

safety issues:
• International Labour Office (ILO), Communications and Files Section

(DOSCOM) 4, route des Morillons, CH-1211 Geneva 22, Switzerland. Tel:
41.22.799.6111, Fax: 41.22.798.8685, E-mail: ilo@ilo.org. Publications (PUBL):
Tel: 41.22.799.7866, Fax: 41.22.799.6117, E-mail: publns@ilo.org. Library and
Information Services (BIBL): Tel: 41.22.799.8675, Fax: 41.22.799.6516, E-mail:
bibl@ilo.org. InFocus Programme on Boosting Employment through Small
Enterprise Development (IFP/SEED): Tel: 41.22.799.6862, Fax: 41.22.799.7978,
E-mail: ifp-sed@ilo.org.
N America
• Enterprise Works Worldwide/VITA (Formally ATI (Appropriate Technology
International)), 1100 H Street NW, Suite 1200, Washington, DC 20005, USA,
Tel: 1 202 6398660, Fax: 1 202 6398664, E-mail: info@enterpriseworks.org,
Website:http://www.enterpriseworks.org. Has expertise and information on
small-scale oil extraction in Africa, particularly using manual Bielenberg Ram
Presses.

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• Food Protein R & D Center, A&M University College Station, Cater-Mattil Hall,
373 Olsen Blvd., Texas 77843-2476, USA, Tel: 1 979 845-2741,
Fax: 1 979 845-2744, E-mail: faxmarwaha@tamu.edu, Web: http://
foodprotein.tamu.edu/contactus.php. An engineering process development,
innovation, and training centre, focused on adding value to materials,
including oilseeds, grains, nuts and natural/botanical oils
• International Development Research Centre (IDRC), PO Box 8500, 150 Kent
Street, Ottawa, K1G 3H9, Ontario, Canada, Tel: 1 613 236 6163,
Fax: 1 613 238 7230, Email: info@idrc.ca, Web: www.idrc.ca. Has information
and project activities in all types of oil processing. See also regional offices in
Africa, Asian and Caribbean.
Pacific
• Pacific Economic Development Agency Ltd., PO Box 121462, Henderson,
Auckland, Australia, Tel: +61 9 836 6719, E-mail: mose@pacificeda.org,
Website: www.pacificeda.org.
• New Zealand International Aid and Development Agency (NZAID), 163-175
Featherston Street, Private Bag 18-901, Wellington 5045, New Zealand,
Tel: +64 4 439 8200, Fax: +64 4 439 8515, Email: enquiries@nzaid.govt.nz,
Website: http://www.nzaid.govt.nz/programmes/c-pac-countries.html
• ANZDEC Ltd., Level 1, 2 Manukau Road, P O Box 99-608, Newmarket,
Auckland, New Zealand, Tel: +64 9 523 2830, Website: www.anzdec.co.nz.
Websites
• Oil processors who can obtain assistance from a small business advisory
service or an international development agency can access to the Internet.
The following websites have useful information on oil processing and good
links to other sites:
• www.fao.org/inpho has details of oil processing equipment and
manufacturers around the world.
• www.iita.org has publications and contacts for research and development of
oilseeds in developing countries

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• www.oilseed.org website of the National Institute of Oilseed Products, has
an international membership of companies, including processors, equipment
suppliers, importers and exporters.
• www.idrc.ca has publications and contacts for research and development of
oilseeds in developing countries
• www.undp.org/fi has details of coconut oil production as part of a Small
Enterprise Development programme.
• www.experiencefestival.com/a/Essential_oil/id/472320 has a list of articles on
different types of essential oils
books@pacthg.org PACT Publications 1200 18th Street, NW Washington, DC
20036 202-466-5666 has books on small-scale oil extraction.
• http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/ has ‘Technical Briefs’ on food
processing including cooking oil extraction.
Fair trade organisations that may buy oil from small-

scale producers
Fair Trade organisations seek greater equity in international trade. They contribute
to sustainable development by offering better trading conditions to producers
in developing countries, and securing the rights of marginalized producers and
workers. Fair Trade organisations support producers, raise awareness and campaign
for changes to the rules and practice of conventional international trade.
Austria
EZA Dritte Welt, 8, Plainbachstr. 5101 Bergheim, Tel: +43 662 452 178,
Fax: +43 662 452 586, E-Mail: office@eza3welt.at, Website: www.eza3welt.at
Belgium
Magasins du Monde-OXFAM, Route provinciale, 285, 1301 Wavre,

Tel: +32 10 43 79 50, Fax: +32 10 43 79 69, E-Mail: mdmoxfam@mdmoxfam.be,
Website: www.madeindignity.be

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Oxfam Wereldwinkels VZW, 15, Ververijstraat, 9000 Gent, Tel: +32 9 18 88 99,
Fax: +32 9 18 88 77, E-Mail: oww@oww.be, Website: www.oww.be.
France
Solidar’Monde, 86, Rue Berthie Albrecht, 94400 Vitry s/Seine,

Tel: +33 45 73 65 43, Fax: +33 45 73 65 42, E-Mail: solidarmonde@wanadoo.fr,
Website: www.solidarmonde.fr.
Germany
GEPA, Gewerbepark Wagner, Bruch 4, 42279 Wuppertal, Tel: +49 202 26 68 30,
Fax: +49 202 266 83 10, E-Mail: marketing@gepa.org, Website: www.gepa3.de.
Italy
Ctm Altromercato, Via Macello, 18, 39100 Bolzano, Tel: 0039 0471 975 333,
Fax: 0039 0471 977599, e-mail: ctmbz@altromercato.it, Website: www.
altromercato.it.
Netherlands
Fair Trade Organisatie, 5, Beesdseweg, 4104 AW Culemborg,

Tel: +31 345 54 51 51, Fax: +31 345 52 14 23, E-Mail: info@fairtrade.nl,
Website: www.fairtrade.nl.
Spain
Intermón Oxfam, Calle Louis Pasteur, 6, (Parque Tecnológico), 46980

Paterna, (Valencia), Tel.: + 34 96 136 62 75, Fax.: + 34 96 131 81 77, E-mail:
comerciojusto@intermon.org, Website: www.intermonoxfam.org/es
IDEAS, Avenida Amargacena, Parcela 9, Nave 7, 14013 Cordoba,

Tel: +34 91 407 10 38, Fax +34 957 429845, E-mail: food@comerciosolidario.
com, Website: www.comerciosolidario.com.

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Switzerland
Claro, 19, Byfangstr., CH-2552 Orpund, Tel: +41 032 35 60 700,

Fax: +41 032 35 60 701,
E-Mail: mail@claro.ch, Website: www.claro.ch.
United Kingdom
Oxfam Market Access Team, 274, Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7DZ,
Tel: +44 1865 315 900, Fax: +44 1865 313243, E-Mail: oxfam@oxfam.org.uk,
Website: www.traidcraft.com
Traidcraft Plc, Kingsway, Gateshead NE11 0NE, Tel: +44 191 491 0591,
Fax: +44 191 482 2690, E-mail: comms@traidcraft.co.uk, Website: www.
traidcraft.com.

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Glossary and Acronyms
Glossary
Aflatoxins
A particular type of mycotoxin that causes damage to
the liver
Antinutritional Chemicals in an oil crop that interfere with proper or

factors complete digestion of the oilcake by people or animals
Antioxidants Chemicals that slow down the development of rancidity

in oils
Brand image All the information and expectations associated with a

product created within the minds of people
Breakeven point The level of turnover at which all costs are covered
Cashflow The amount of money coming into and going out of a

business in a given period
Codex Alimentarius An internationally agreed set of food standards
Critical control point (also process control point) A point in a process where
lack of control can affect the quality and/or safety of a
product
Decorticating Removing the outer coat from seeds
Enzymes Natural proteins that cause changes in food colours and

flavour
Essential oils (or essences) oils used to give aromas to foods and
cosmetics
Expeller A machine that continuously extracts oil from a crop
Extraction efficiency The amount of oil removed compared to the amount

present in the crop

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Food service outlets The collective term for restaurants, take-aways etc.
Fixed capital Money needed to buy equipment and build or rent a

building
Fixed costs Costs of production that do not depend on the

quantity of goods produced
Free fatty acids Chemicals formed by the breakdown of oil that cause
rancidity
Gross profit The difference between income and operating cost
Market research/ The process of identifying market segments
market survey
Market segments A group of similar consumers
Market size The weight or volume of food sold per month or year
Market value The amount of money spent on a food per month or

year
Marketing mix The combination of where a product is sold, its price, its
characteristics and its promotion.
Mycotoxins
Poisons produced by some types of moulds
Net profit Profit after taxes have been paid
Niche market A small specialised section of the a market
Oilcake The solid part of the crop remaining after oil extraction
Operating cost Cost of producing a food
Owner’s equity Money put into a business by the owner
Payback period The time taken to recover an investment
pH A scale from 1-14 that is used to measure acidity (below

6), neutrality (7) and alkalinity (8-14).
Polymorphism Changes in shape of fat crystals without them melting
Rancidity Development of off-flavours in oil due to the oxidation

of oils and fats

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Refining The process of removing flavours, colourings free fatty
acids and gums from oil
Smoke point The temperature at which an oil begins to give off

smoke.
Taste panel A group of people, usually trained, who assess

particular quality characteristics under controlled
conditions.
Throughput Production rate
Turnover Annual sales
Variable costs Production costs that depend on the amount of goods

produced.
Working capital Money needed to buy crops, packaging materials, pay

staff and distribute and promote products
Yield
The amount of oil extracted from a crop compared to
the weight of the crop
Acronyms
ACP African, Caribbean and Pacific
CAC Codex Alimentarius Commission
CCP Critical control point
CTA Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation
FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United
Nations
FFA Free fatty acid
HACCP Hazard analysis and critical control point system of
quality assurance
ISO International Organization for Standardization
MUFA Mono-unsaturated fatty acid
PRP Prerequisite programme
PUFA Poly-unsaturated fatty acid
QA Quality assurance

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ROI Return on investment
ROR Rate of return
SFA Saturated fatty acid
SME Small and medium scale enterprise
SWOT Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats
TQM Total quality management
UNCTAD United Nations Committee on Trade and Development
WHO World Health Organisation

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Index
A Bank loans 217, 218, 221
Accidents, causes 192–193 Bar codes 46
Acid Value test 152–153 Ben (benniseed), see Sesame plant/seeds;
Acrylamide 246–247 Sesame seed oil
Activity Chart 188 Best-before dates 46, 150
Additives for oil 161 Bio-fuel 204, 223
Adhesive tape sealers 73, 74 Biodiesel 24
Advertising 43, 44 Biomass 223
Aflatoxin B1 249 Bleaching 100, 248
Aflatoxins 103, 106, 135, 143, 248–249 Blended vegetable oils 23, 247
measurement of crop content Bookkeeping 235
151–152 Bottle(s)
prevention, post-harvest storage 88, caps for 74, 155
143, 248 filling 72–73
toxicity and effects 88, 248–249 glass see Glass bottles
Alligator pear, see Avocado plastic see Plastic bottles
Analysis methods 150–155 washing 71–72, 155–156
aflatoxin content of crops 151–152 Bottle washer 72
free fatty acid content of oil 152–153 Bottlebrush, rotary 71
laboratory methods 154–155 Brand(s), premium versus budget 31
moisture content of crops 151 Brand competitor 49
moisture content of oils 154–155 Brand image 44–47
peroxide value 153–154 Brand loyalty 46, 49
sensory quality of oil 150 Breakeven point 230–231
test kits for oil 268 Bridge press 91–93
Animal feeds 33, 60, 96, 108, 182, 203 Buildings (oil processing)
Antioxidants 113, 161, 245 design and construction 62–65, 148,
Argan nut and oil 82, 85, 124–125 164
Audits 138 facilities 66
Aura 112, 113 floors 65
Average Weight legislation 163 inspections, quality assurance 148
Avocado 85, 101 layout 63, 66, 201
Avocado oil 82, 101–102 roofs and ceilings 64
composition/content 85, 101, 102, unsafe conditions 192
178 walls 64
extraction 101–102 windows and doors 64
properties 178, 240 Bulk containers 158, 223
uses 85, 101 Bureau of Standards 134, 135, 137, 153,
yield 178 161
Business
B failure 228
Babassu oil 82, 126 managing see Management
Bacterial contaminants, see Micro- risk 212, 214
organisms scale of operations 17
Bambuk, see Shea nut site-specific 39
Index
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start-up costs 215–217 Ceramic pots, glazed 148
starting see Setting-up production Check-weight 156, 157
see also Small-scale enterprises Chemical characteristics of oils 159, 160,
Business development, factors affecting 240, 242–245
18–24 Chemical structure of oils 241, 242
competition see Competition Choke ring 95, 147
crop supplies 18–19 Citric acid 248
demand for oils 20 Clarification of oil 97–99
economic factors 20 palm oil 115, 116
government policies 22–24 Clarifiers 97, 98, 115
Business plan 210–212 ‘Clay bath’ 118
Butter pear, see Avocado Cleaning
Butter tree nut, see Shea nut bottles 71–72, 155–156
By-products equipment 149
amounts 183 oil containers 148
market 21, 33, 37 schedules for 149
storage 149 Cocoa butter 239, 240, 242
uses 33, 182–183, 203 Coconut(s) 85, 102
using, efficiency improvement by-products 104, 182, 183, 203
203–204 global market decline 21
see also Oilcake mould contamination 88, 103
shredding 103, 104
C see also Copra
Cage press 91–93 Coconut oil 82, 102–104
‘Cake timber’ 182 check-weight, and density 157
Calculations chemical/physical characteristics 160,
Acid Value test 152–153 240
breakeven point 230–231 extraction/production 103–104
contaminant weight 142 temperature for storage/distribution
crop weights 179 165
dried crop amounts 181, 182 uses 85, 103
equipment size 66, 67, 177 yields 103, 178
income 227 Coconut palm 102–104
margin of safety 231 Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC)
market size 38 132, 159, 160
moisture content of crops 151 Cold pressed oils 96, 159
rate of return (ROR) 213 Cold pressing process 96
yield of oil 147, 177 Colours
Canola oil, see Rapeseed oil for labels/packaging 45
Capital, for business 215–216 oil characteristics 160
Capital investment levels 17, 18 Competition 20–21, 170
Capsule sealer 76 effect on price 49, 226
Cashflow 176, 228 from imported oils 21
Cashflow forecast 232–234 from large-scale producers 20–21, 24,
Castor oil 82, 125 50
Castor seeds 85, 125 market survey questionnaire 34, 35
Caustic soda (‘lye’) 100, 115 for refined oils 248
Centrifuges 98, 112 strategies for being competitive 52, 211

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Competitors Corks 74
activities/actions of 52 Corn oil, see Maize oil
dealing with 49–52 Cost effectiveness 140
strengths and weaknesses 50, 51 Costing, product 224, 226
types (brand and type) 49, 50 Costs
Complaints 47–48 annual, summary 221
Compositional standards 159 controlling 228–230
Conditioning 86, 146 electricity/energy 203, 223, 229–230
Consumers 20, 24, 29, 30–31 equipment 212, 217
perceptions 30 fixed 219–220
see also Customers groundnuts 222
Containers 69–70 management 228–230
cleaning 148 operating 219–223
filling, weighing and sealing 156– packaging materials 203, 222
157, 163 palm fruit/palm oil 222
quality assurance 155–157 production 221, 222–223
volumes 71 raw materials 181, 222, 228
see also Bottle(s); Oil cans; Oil drums; reducing 202, 203, 229–230
Plastic bags staff (workers) 189, 223
Contaminants 88, 97 start-up 215–217
of copra/coconut 103 sunflower oil 23
of crops/raw materials 88, 89, 140, variable 219, 220–221
143 Cotton seed 85, 125
HACCP system and 135 Cotton seed oil 82, 125
legislation 161–162 check-weight, and density 157
removal from crops 88, 89, 140, 143 Creditors 234
removal from oil 97, 99 Critical control points (CCPs) 136, 137
removal of micro-organisms 97, 99, Crops (oil)
108, 135, 244 contaminants see Contaminants
types 135, 140, 162 contract supply 140, 142–143, 173
weighing and percentage 142 dried, calculation 181, 182
Contract processing 173–174 drying 88, 106, 175, 181
Contract supply, of crops 140, 142–143, harvesting at maturity 88, 139, 143
173 immature 139, 140, 143
‘Cooking’, of copra 104 initial inspection 88, 142, 143
Cooking oils 17, 82–84 moisture content 143, 178
chemical structure 241, 242 oil content 85, 86, 178
definition/description 239–242 over-ripe fruit 139
properties 159, 160, 240, 242–245 own, processors growing 174, 222,
types 17, 82–84 229
uses 18, 247–249 price fluctuations 173, 174
Copra 102, 103, 104 quality 124, 133, 134, 139–146
milling, heating 102, 103 quality specifications 144–146
uses 103, 183 rejected 142
yield 103, 178, 182 sacks or field boxes for 141
see also Coconut(s) seasonality 18, 225
Copra breakers 103–104 sourcing/buying 140, 173–175
Corking machine 76 storage 18–19, 88, 143
Index
- 291 -
suitable for small-scale processing Drying 88
82–84 crops 88, 106, 175, 181
suppliers see Suppliers of raw oilcake 148, 244
materials
supplies of see Supplies of raw E
materials (crops) Earthnut, see Groundnut
transporting 24, 60, 141, 202, 223 Economic factors 20
types 17, 82–84 Edible vegetable oils 159
weight, calculation 179 Electrical fires 193
yields 19 Electricity 60, 65, 97
see also Raw materials costs 223
Crown cap 74, 75 injuries due to, prevention 193
Crown cappers 74, 75 interruptions, and reducing costs
Crystallisation of oil 242 202, 229–230
Customers 29, 36 Employee numbers 17, 18, 201
care (finding/keeping) 47–49 Employment terms and conditions 191
company relationship with 49 Energy (dietary), cooking oils as source 246
complaints 47–48 Energy (power) supplies
feedback from 47, 48 costs 223
income and oil purchases 36–37, 39 reducing costs 202, 229–230
institutional/industrial 32 Equipment 66
locations 39 breakdowns and failures 195
in market survey 36, 38–39 cleaning 149
needs, defining 28, 33, 47 costs 212, 217
pricing for 41, 42, 226 for different processing stages 87
retail/wholesale market 30, 31 filling and sealing 69–77
target 29 hygienic design 68
types, choosing 38–39 importing 67
see also Consumers installation 198
maintenance 195–198
D manufacturers 259–268
Debtors 234 selection 66–68
Decorticating 89 size, calculation 66, 67, 177
Degumming 100, 248 spares needed 196
Demand and supply 20 Equity, in business 217
Density of oil 156, 160, 240 Essential fatty acids 124, 246
Direct selling 43 Essential oils (essences) 18
Disc mill 107, 108, 111 Expellers 94–96, 103, 108
double-disc 111 pressures 86
single-disc 111 process control 95, 147
Dispensers 73 for shea butter 121
Distribution Extraction efficiency 86, 90
legislation 164, 165 Extraction of oil 89–96
quality assurance 158 critical control points 136
types/methods 41, 60 expellers 94–96
Distributors 41, 42 ghanis 90–91
Double-disc mills 111 hot water flotation method 89–90,
Drums, oil 69, 70 101–102, 103, 124

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improved technologies, economics G
20 Getting started, see Setting-up
institutions involved 271–284 production
methods and pressures 86 Ghanis 90–91
ram press 86, 94 Gingelly (sesame) 85, 119–120
screw presses 91–93, 107, 118 Glass bottles 69, 71, 148, 155–156
see also specific types of oil capacity, and filling 156
checking and quality assurance
F 155–156
Facilities (laboratory and sanitary) 66 re-use and washing 155–156
Fair Trade organisations 18, 282–284 sealing 74, 156
Fats 239 Glass breakages procedure 156
properties 240, 242–245 Glycerol 241, 243
saturation 241, 242 Goober pea, see Groundnut(s)
Fatty acids 241, 243 Government policies 22–24
omega-3 and omega-6 246 Grape seed oil 82
saturated 241, 242, 247 Graters 103
trans- 246, 247 Groundnut(s) 82, 85, 105–108
unsaturated and polyunsaturated costs 222
241, 242 flour 107
Feasibility study 210, 211–212 harvesting and drying 106, 175
Feedback, from customers 47, 48 hectares and oil yield 174
Filling containers 72–73 mould contamination 88, 248–249
Filter cake 98 oil content 85, 105
Filter press 93, 108, 112 processing 89, 107
plate and frame 98, 99 roasting 90, 107
Filtration shellers 106
gravity 97 storage 106
olive oil 112 types 105
Finance, getting 217–219 uses 105, 108, 203
Financial management 228–235 Groundnut oil 82, 105–108
common mistakes 234 check-weight, and density 157
Financial rate of return 214 chemical/physical properties 160, 240
Financial records 198, 234 extraction 107–108
Fires 193 market for 21, 37
Fixed capital 215, 216 start-up costs 215–216
Fixed costs 219–220 temperature for storage/distribution
Flavour of oil 100, 133, 139 165
Flour, Quality Assurance control point yield 174, 178
146 Groundnut oilcake 33, 89, 105, 108, 182,
Food businesses, market segment 29 183
Food-grade plastic 70, 158
Food service market 29, 30–31, 41 H
Foots 97 HACCP system 134, 135–137
Free fatty acids (FFAs) 100, 114 implementation, stages 137
measurement of oil content 152–153 Hammer mill 107, 108, 111, 121
Fruits, oil from 85, 88 Hand graters 103
Frying oils 247, 248 Hand screw press 86
Readers’ questionnaire
- 293 -
Harvesting of crops K
critical control point 136 Karité, see Shea nut
at maturity 89, 139, 143 Kojic acid 151
Hauliers 141
Hazard(s), potential, by stage 136 L
Hazard analysis 135–136 Labelling, legislation 46, 162–163
Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point Labels 44–45
(HACCP), see HACCP system design 45, 162
Health information on 46, 162, 163
claims 49, 163 legal requirements 46, 162, 163
importance of cooking oils 246–247 shea nut kernel bags 146
of workers 149 storage information 46
Health and safety 149, 192–194 Laboratory facilities 66
Heat sealers 73, 75 Large-scale manufacturers 17, 22
Heating competition from 20–21, 24, 50
copra 102, 103 Laws (legislation) 132, 158–165
water removal from oil 97, 99, 135 additives 161–162
Herbs 245 contaminants and chemicals 143,
Hot expelling/pressing 96 161–162
Hot water flotation method 89–90, establishing a business 158–159
101–102, 103, 124 food labelling 46, 162–163
Hotels and restaurants 31, 41 HACCP system and 135
market size calculation 38 health of workers 149
Hydrogenation 245, 246 hygiene and sanitation 163–164
Hydrometer 156 oil storage and distribution 164, 165
Hygiene 148–149 product definitions/specifications
legislation 163–164 159–160
shea nut kernels 145 weights and measures 163
Legumes, oil from 85
I Linseed/linseed oil 85, 126
Imported equipment, ordering 67 Lipases 241
Imported oil, subsidised low-cost 21 Loans 217, 218
Income, business 224–228 repayments 221
annual 225 Location
calculation 227 for business, selection 60–61
managing 232 ‘place’ in marketing mix 40, 41, 60
monthly 224 rural 41, 60–61
Incomes (customers/suppliers) 24, 36, 39 urban 41, 60
Industrial market 32 Logo 45–46
Insects 64, 148, 150, 158 Low income households 31, 36
Institutional market 29, 32 Loyalty, brand 46, 49
Institutions, oil extraction 271–284 ‘Lye’ (caustic soda) 100, 115
International trade 21
Investment 213 M
Iodine value 160 Magnets 103
ISO (International Organization for Maintenance of equipment 195–197,
Standardization) 159 198
ISO 22 000 system 134, 139

- 294 -
Maintenance record 197 Metal oil cans 69
Maize oil 82, 125 Metals
check-weight, and density 157 contaminant 145, 162
chemical/physical properties 160, 240 rancidity and 68, 162, 243, 244
temperature for storage/distribution Micro-enterprises 17
165 equipment for 66
‘Malaxation’ 111 start-up costs 216
Management Micro-organisms 145, 243
business operations and staff 184– removal 97, 99, 108, 135, 244
185 shea nut kernels 145
business productivity improvement Moisture content 86, 146
201–204 of copra 102
costs 228–230 of crops 86, 143, 178
finances 228–235 measurement 151
packaging 176 oil yield and 146
planning to prevent problems 171 of oils, measurement 154–155
production 169–202 rancidity and 243, 244
raw material supplies 173–175 Moisture removal 97, 99, 112
sales and trends 172–173 Moulds, toxins from, see Aflatoxins
see also Planning; Staff Mustard seed(s) 85, 109
Managers/owners, responsibilities 137, by-product uses 203
184–185, 186, 192 oil content 85, 109
Manufacturers, equipment 259–268 Mustard seed oil 83, 109
Margin of safety 214, 231 chemical/physical characteristics 160
Mark-up 41–42 uses 85, 109
Market(s) yield 178
awareness, in financial planning 212 Myxotoxins 248–249
for by-products 21, 33, 37 see also Aflatoxins
choosing segment 32
for cooking oil 36–37 N
food service 29, 30–31, 41 Neem 85, 126
industrial 32 Net income stream 213
institutional 29, 32 Net present value 214
research 33–39 Neutralising 100, 248
retail/wholesale 29, 30–31, 44–45 Niger seeds 85, 126
segments 29, 32, 41 Nku, see Shea nut
size and value 35–38 Non-food oils 17
survey 33–39 Nutritional information 163, 246–247
Marketing 27–53, 40 Nuts, oil from 85, 86
process 28
strategy development 40 O
Marketing mix (4Ps) 40–44 Obesity 246
Marula nut 85, 125 Odour of oil 100, 133, 160
Marula oil 82, 125 Oil cans 69, 70, 148
Mechanical pounders 115, 116 Oil crops, see Crops (oil)
Medium-scale enterprises 17 Oil drums 69, 70
Melting point 239, 240 Oil extraction, see Extraction of oil
Oil fillers 72

- 295 -
Oil mills Packages, calculation of number 180
design see Buildings Packaging 41, 44–47, 148, 176
location 60–61 critical control point 136
Oil Mills Co-operative 23 crude oil/bulk oil 158, 223
Oil palm 85, 112–113 oil containers see Containers
cultivation/growth requirements 112 quality assurance 19, 133
fruit processing 114–119 rancidity prevention 244
fruit types 112, 113 shea nut kernels 145–146
global producers 21 types 155–156, 176
oil types from 113 see also Bottle(s)
oil yield 113, 178 Packaging materials 19
quality of trees 141 costs 222
varieties 112 improving efficiency/reducing costs
see also Palm fruit; Palm kernel oil; 203
Palm oil selection 69–77
Oilcake 182–183 supply 19, 176
after extraction by expellers 96 see also Containers
after extraction using ghani 91 Palm fruit 83, 112–113, 114, 175
cold/hot pressing 96 by-products 182, 203, 204
drying and storage 148, 244 costs 222
local use 24, 203 oil content 85, 113, 178
market for 33 processing 114–119
preparation for animal feeds 203 quality 141
using, reducing wastage 204 types 112, 113
weights/amount produced 183 see also Oil palm
Oilseeds 85, 86 Palm kernel 85, 112, 113, 117
Olive(s) 85, 109 ground meal 118
by-products 182 Palm kernel cracker 117–118
ground paste 111 Palm kernel oil 83, 113–114
pulping 110, 111 check-weight, and density 157
Olive oil 83, 109–112 chemical/physical properties 160, 240
check-weight, and density 157 composition 85, 113–114
filtration 112 extraction 117–119
grades 110 temperature for storage/distribution
pressing 110 165
properties 240 uses 85, 113, 117, 204
temperature for storage/distribution waste product (cake timber) 182
165 yield 113, 178
uses 85, 109 Palm oil 83, 114–117
yield 109, 178 check-weight, and density 157
Omega-3 fatty acids 246 chemical/physical properties 160, 240
Omega-6 fatty acids 246 composition/content 85, 114
Operating costs 219–223 demand 50
Owner’s equity 217 extraction/processing 97, 114–117
income from 232
P market for 37
4Ps (marketing mix) 40–44 production costs 222
Packaged product, loss 158 refining 248

- 296 -
setting-up production 59 ram 86, 94
temperature for storage/distribution 165 screw (cage or bridge) 91–93, 107,
uses 85, 203 118
yield 113, 175, 178 Pressure, extraction 86, 93
see also Oil palm Price 41, 42, 232
Palm olein 83, 114, 248 competition effect on 49, 226
Palm stearin 83, 114 fluctuations, raw materials 173, 174
Palm superolein 83 in marketing mix 40, 41–42
Pay-back period 213–214 setting 226–228, 232
Peanut, see Groundnut(s) Printing of labels 46–47
Peroxide value 153–154 Process control 146–148
Peroxides 153, 246 Processing 81–128
Pesticide residues 135, 140, 143 contract (crop supply) 173–174
shea nut kernels 145 control over, quality assurance 133
Physic nut 126 efficiency improvement 201
Physical characteristics of oils 159, 160, equipment for different stages 87
240 health and safety issues 192–194
Pisifera 112, 113 oil clarification and refining 97–99,
Pistache de terre, see Groundnut(s) 100, 248
‘Place’, in marketing mix 40, 41, 60 oil extraction see Extraction of oil
Planning raw material preparation 88–89
equipment maintenance 195 safety tips 193–194
failure, problems resulting 171 stages, staffing for 188–189
financial 210–223 Product
manpower 186 costing 224, 226
production 170–171, 172 differentiation from competitors’ 49
Plastic, food-grade 70, 158 in marketing mix 40, 41
Plastic bags 69, 148, 158 pricing of 226–228, 232
filling 72 quality, questionnaire 34
sealing 73–74 Production
Plastic bottles 69, 148, 157 costs 221, 222–223
sealing 76 management see Management
Plastic drums 70 planning 170–171, 172
Plastic pots 69 setting up see Setting-up production
sealing 77 see also Processing
Plate and frame filter press 98, 99 Production rate 177
Poisons 88, 135 calculation 177–182
from moulds see Aflatoxins Productivity improvement 201–204, 229
Policy environment 22–24 measurements/records for 202
Polyethylene bags, see Plastic bags Profit 41, 42, 224–228
Pomace 110, 112 gross and net 227
Pounders, mechanical 115, 116 Profit and loss statement 227
Preservation of oil 155 Profit margin 226
Presses Profitability, management 228, 232
filter 93, 108, 112 Promotion 40, 43–44
hydraulic 86, 93 Properties of cooking oils 159.160, 240,
palm fruit processing 115 242–245
plate and frame filter 98, 99 Purchasing, requirements 30–31

- 297 -
Q inspection 88, 142, 143
Quality losses 181
crop 124, 133, 134, 139–146 preparation 88–89
factors affecting oil 133 quality assurance 133, 134, 141
of oil, importance 132 quality checking 139–146
specifications for crops 144–146 supply see Supplies of raw materials
standards for oil quality/composition (crops)
160 see also Crops (oil)
Quality assurance 131–166 Record(s)
analysis methods see Analysis financial 198, 234
methods HACCP system 137
importance 132, 134–135 production 198
operator training, hygiene, sanitation sales 198
148–150 of yields 147
packaging, weights and sealing 136, Record keeping 198–200, 229
155–158 poor, financial mistake 234
procedures 133–135 reasons for 199, 200
process control 133, 146–148 value of and costs of 200
raw materials (crops) 133, 134, 136, Red palm oil, see Palm oil
139–146, 141, 181 Refined oils 248
storage and distribution 133, 136, Refining 97, 100, 248
150, 158 demand for oils 20
Quality Assurance (QA) system 132 Refractive index 160
HACCP see HACCP system Registration of business 159
ISO 22 000 134, 139 Rendering 102
Total Quality Management 134, 138 Responsibilities 184–189
Quality control 133, 150–155 owner/manager 137, 184–185, 186,
Questionnaires, market survey 34, 35 192
Retail market 29, 30–31
R packaging for 44–45
Ram press 86, 94 Return on investment (ROI) 213
Rancidity in oils 68, 243–244, 246 Risk, business 212, 214
crop quality and 139, 244 Rodents 64, 88, 148, 150, 158
factors causing 68, 148, 162, 243 Roll-On-Pilfer-Proof (ROPP) caps 74, 75,
hydrolytic 243–244 76
measure of development 152–153 Roll-On-Pilfer-Proof (ROPP) sealer 74, 76
oxidative 244, 245 Roller mills 110, 111, 118
prevention 244 Rural location 41, 60–61
Rapeseed 21, 85
by-product uses 203 S
Rapeseed oil 21, 83, 248 Safety of processing 192–194
check-weight, and density 157 Safety of products 135–137
properties 240 see also HACCP system
Rate of return (ROR) 213 Safflower (plant) 119
Raw materials Safflower seed oil 83, 85, 119
costs 181, 222, 228 check-weight, and density 157
critical control point 136 properties 240
harvesting see Harvesting

- 298 -
temperature for storage/distribution Shea nut 85, 120–121
165 by-products 182, 203
yield 178 composition 144–145
Safflower seeds 85, 119 kernels, characteristics 144–145
Salary 228, 234 processing 121, 122
Sales/selling 27–53 quality specifications 144–146
chart 178 sales target and crop weight 178,
expected sales/trends 172–173 179
methods 41 Shea nut trees 120
prices 41, 42, 232 Shelf life 98, 99, 244, 247
record 198 Shellers, groundnut 106
Sanitation 148–149 ‘Shortening’ 245
legislation 163–164 Sieve 140
Saponification value 160 Sim-sim (sesame) 85, 119–120
Saturation of oils 241, 242, 246 Single-disc mills 111
Scales 68, 115 Small-scale enterprises 17, 201
Scoops 68 benefits 22–23, 24
‘Scorching’ of copra 104 competition with see Competition
Screw presses 91–93, 107, 118 equipment for 66
Sealing containers 73–77 reasons for establishing 22
Seasonality, crops (oil) 18, 225 setting up see Business development
Sell-by date 46 start-up costs 217
Sensitivity analysis 214 suitability of oils for 82–84
Sensory quality, assessment 150 Smoke point 240, 243
Services (utilities), reducing costs 202, Socio-economic benefits 23
229–230 Soya bean(s) 23, 122–123
Sesame plant/seeds 85, 119–120 by-product uses 203
Sesame seed oil 84, 85 processing 122, 123
by-product uses 203 Soya bean oil 21, 84, 123
check-weight, and density 157 check-weight, and density 157
chemical/physical properties 160, 240 cost 222
composition/content 85, 120 market for 37
temperature for storage/distribution properties 240
165 temperature for storage/distribution
yield 120, 178 165
Setting-up production 57–77 yield 123
building see Buildings Spares record 197
equipment and facilities 66 Speciality cooking oils 18
location, choosing 60–61 suppliers 269
packaging material/equipment Staff (workers) 184–194
69–77 calculation of number needed 180
see also Business development costs 189, 223
Shea butter 84, 121, 242 education level 187
extraction 121, 122 health and safety 192–194
temperature for storage/distribution manpower planning 186, 229
165 numbers 17, 18, 201
uses 85, 121 recruitment 186–188
yield 178 retention 188

- 299 -
roles and responsibilities 184–189 control over 19, 140, 141, 142,
sales staff 172 173–175
satisfaction/motivation 190, 191 management 173–175
shifts 203 sourcing/buying 140, 173–175
suitable, shortages 188 SWOT analysis 50–51
task allocation 188–189, 229
training see Training T
Start-up costs 215–217 Taste of oil 160
Steam cookers, palm fruit processing Temperature
115 density of oil, check-weights 156
Sterilisation, oil palm fruit 114 melting points 239, 240
Sterilizers 115 for oil storage/distribution 165
Stock rotation 150 processing 146
Stone roller mills 110, 111 smoke point 240, 243
Storage Tenera 112, 113
critical control point 136 Test kits, for oil 268
information on labels 46 Test strips, for free fatty acids 153
oils, legislation 164, 165 Testing oil, see Analysis methods; Quality
post-harvest, of crops 18–19, 88, 143 assurance
quality assurance 133, 136, 150, 158 Theft 200
quality control 153 Throughput, see Production rate
Storage tanks, oil 99 Til (tillie) (sesame) 85, 119–120
Storerooms 88 Total Quality Management (TQM) 134,
management 150 138
Strengths and weaknesses 50, 51, 214 Trade fairs 44
Sunflower (plant) 123 Training 19, 149, 187, 189–191
Sunflower oil 84, 123–124, 248 benefits 190
check-weight, and density 157 for raw material inspection 140
chemical/physical properties 160, 240 refusal 189
extraction/processing 124 types 189–190
factors affecting production 19 Trans-fatty acids 246, 247
global market decline 21 Transport
market for (Tanzania) 19, 36–37 crops 24, 60, 141, 202, 223
setting-up production 58 oils, temperatures for 165
socio-economic benefits of mills 23 raw materials or product 60, 202
temperature for storage/distribution Trends, sales 172–173
165 Trypsin inhibitors 122
yield 178, 180 Type competitors 49
Sunflower seeds 19, 85, 123, 124
by-products 182, 203 U
oil content 85, 124 Ultraviolet light 151
supplies, and quality 19, 175 Unit contribution 230
Supervisors 186, 189 United Nations Committee on Trade and
Suppliers of raw materials (crops) 18, Development (UNCTAD) 159
140, 142, 173, 174, 181 Unsaponifiable matter 160
choice of 142 Urban location 41, 60
Supplies of raw materials (crops) 18–19, Utilities 65
140, 141, 173–175, 181 costs 202, 223
contract supply 140, 142–143, 173

- 300 -
V
Valves, oil filler 72
Variable costs 219, 220–221
Virgin oils 159
Vitamin A 114
Vitamin E 124
Vitamins 246
W
Wastage 181
reduction 203–204
Waste disposal/management 149, 204
Water
removal from oil 97, 99, 112
supplies 65
see also Moisture content
Water tower 65
Weaknesses of business 50, 51, 214
Weights and measures, legislation 163
White palm kernel oil, see Palm kernel
oil
Wholesale market 29, 30–31, 41
Winnowing 89, 140
Wooden tables 68
Workers, see Staff
Working capital 215, 216, 217
Workplaces, see Buildings (oil
processing)
Y
Yields 177
calculation 147, 177
crop 19
oil 86, 177
records 147
typical, by type 177–178
see also specific oils

- 301 -
Reader’s questionnaire
Please help us to improve future books by completing this questionnaire and
sending it by post to CTA, Postbus 380, 6700 AJ, Wageningen,
The Netherlands (Fax + 31 317 460067).
Name .......................................... Position/Profession .............................................

Address .....................................................................................................................
Are you?
An individual entrepreneur q, in an academic institution q, government
organisation q, a local NGO/CBO q, an international NGO q, a commercial
company q, another organisation (please specify) q .............................................
How did you hear about this book?

Word of mouth q, an advertisement q, a publications list q, another way
(please specify) q ......................................................................................................
Why did you buy this book?

To learn about food processing q, to improve my existing business q, to help
in training programmes q, another reason q (please give details)

Has the book given you the information you needed?
Yes q, No q, Some of it q
Which information was most useful to you?

....................................................................................................................................
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What information was missing that you feel should be included?

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Do you like the layout and style of presentation? Yes q, No q, Other

comments:.................................................................................................................
What would you like to see included in future books that is missing from this
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Please continue overleaf with any other comments you would like to make.

- 302 -
For those who wish to start a small business, food processing
offers good opportunities to generate income based on locally
available resources. However, there are many pitfalls on the
road to success. As an entrepreneur, you need not only technical
know-how, but also a variety of business skills and excellent
customer care. These aspects are covered in Volume 1 of this
series, “Setting up and running a small food business”, which
should be read together with this book.
This manual concentrates on running a small-scale cooking

oil business and covers important aspects such as production,
processing, quality control as well as marketing, packaging,
branding and customer care. Advice on how to plan and
manage finances is also provided. Each chapter contains tips for
success and a useful checklist of the important things that every
entrepreneur should address.
This book is the result of a collaborative effort by practitioners

who support small-scale food processing in developing
countries.
Other titles in the series include:

> Setting up and running a small meat or fish processing
enterprise
> Setting up and running a small flour mill or bakery
> Setting up and running a small-scale dairy processing business
> Setting up and running a small fruit or vegetable processing
enterprise.
ISBN 978-92-9081-478-8
9 789290 814788

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Setting up

Opportunities in food processing

Setting up and running

For more information on CTA, visit www.cta.int or contact:

Copyright © 2012 CTA, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Design and production: FAB s.a., www.fab.be

Dr Peter Fellows is a consultant food technologist and a director of Midway

Dr. Joseph D. Hounhouigan is a Professor of Food Science and Technology

Setting up and running a small-scale cooking oil business

Franklin Murphy is an internationally experienced food technologist, from St

Dr (Mrs) Peggy Oti-Boateng is the Director of the Technology Consultancy

About the authors

Setting up and running a small-scale cooking oil business

Fig. 2.2 from Sadiat Babalola, National Horticultural Research Institute, Ibadan,

Fig. 3.4 from Abrinsky at Flickr Images, available at

Fig. 4.18 adapted from Pieralisi España S. at

Fig 4.24 courtesy of Marco Schmidt at

Setting up and running a small-scale cooking oil business

5 Quality assurance and legislation 131

6 Managing production 169

Setting up and running a small-scale cooking oil business

7 Planning and managing finances 209

Glossary and acronyms 285

There is a SUMMARY of the most important aspects at the end of each

Finally, at the end of each chapter there is an ENTREPRENEUR’S CHECKLIST

Setting up and running a small-scale cooking oil business

Scale of business Employee numbers Capital investment ($US)

The establishment of a small-scale cooking oil business requires very careful

Setting up and running a small-scale cooking oil business

Other factors that were identified by a researcher in Tanzania are summarised

Sunflower oil production has great potential in Tanzania because of the

It is necessary to look closely at each individual situation to decide whether

Demand for refined oils

Competition from large-scale producers and imported oils

In many ACP countries, large-scale factories produce cooking oil more

Setting up and running a small-scale cooking oil business

The ability of small-scale processors to profitably produce cooking oils depends

There may be other reasons, such as wider socio-economic benefits, for

Case Study 1.3: Benefits of small-scale oil processing

In Zimbabwe, the oil market was dominated by four major producers,

Setting up and running a small-scale cooking oil business

Some countries have centralised and controlled agricultural marketing policies

Other uses for oils

Setting up and running a small-scale cooking oil business

A fictional conversation below shows the type of answers that a new

Setting up and running a small-scale cooking oil business

✔ Finally: Read Sections 3.1, 3.3, and 9.1-9.4 in Volume 1: Opportunities in

Marketing and selling cooking oil and by-products

Good marketing paves the way for successful selling

A simple definition of marketing is:

‘Seeing your product as your customers see it

‘The management process that identifies, anticipates and satisfies customer

The first definition emphasises the importance of getting to know what

1. Identify customer group(s)

2. Learn what they want and what you can make

4. Tell customers about it

Fig. 2. 1. The marketing process (From Griffith (2002))

Setting up and running a small-scale cooking oil business

Market sectors/Types of customer

Marketing and selling cooking oil and by-products

Case Study 2.1 Consumer perceptions

• In Tanzania there are indications of rising consumer demand for

Setting up and running a small-scale cooking oil business

✔ Finally: Read Sections 3.1, 3.3, and 9.1-9.4 in Volume 1: Opportunities in

• In Tanzania there are indications of rising consumer demand for

• Which types or groups of consumers buy oil from you?

• Feedback is mainly from customers, and is mainly to compliment them

✔ Decide what makes your product different to those of competitors and

✔ Prepare a marketing plan to guide the development of your business.

✔ Choose your retailers or distributors carefully and check to make sure

❑ Do you have an attractive package and label?

❑ Are your prices competitive?

❑ Have you done a SWOT analysis?