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Department of Electrical Engineering

CHAPTER 6 STATIC SHUNT COMPENSATION

6.1. Introduction

Static shunt compensation is one of power electronic based technology used in Flexible AC
Transmission Systems (FACTS). Its FACTS controller is connected to the power line to realise reactive
power compensation. This chapter introduces different types of shunt FACTS controllers including
variable impedance and variable source static VAR Generators.

6.2. Series Impedance of Power Transmission

Impedance of all transmission systems is non-zero. A series impedance in a power transmission line and
its power phasor diagram are shown in Fig. 6.1 (a) and Fig. 6.1 (b), respectively. The phasor diagram of
the transmission line in terms of its current and voltage is shown in Fig. 6.1 (c).

Z  d
E S V0 E
IX ΔVq
(a) Per-phase equivalent circuit
δ a b c
P ϕ
ϕ V g
Ip IR

Q S = VI Iq I ΔVp

(b) Power phasor diagram (c) Phasor diagram of voltage and current
Fig. 6.1. Power transmission through a series impedance

Let R as the resistance, X as the reactance, P as the real power, Q as the reactive power of the
transmission line, referring to Fig. 6.1.,
E 2  V  V p   V p
2 2
(6.1)
E 2  V  IR cos   IX sin    IX cos   IR sin  
2 2
(6.2)
where ΔVp is the change of the terminal voltage along the real axis. Hence,
2 2
 RP XQ   XP RQ 
E  V 
2
     (6.3)
 V V   V V 
Comparing equations (6.2) and (6.3),
RP XQ XP RQ
V p   and Vq   (6.4)
V V V V
Assuming Vq  V  V p , from equation (6.3), it gives:
2
 RP XQ  RP XQ
E 2  V    so that V p  E  V   (6.5)
 V V  V V
Under normal situation, R is very small and R << X. Assuming R→0, therefore:
XQ
V p  (6.6)
V
Equation (6.6) shows that the change of terminal voltage basically depends on the reactive power
(VAR), Q. It can be reduced if Q is minimized.

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6.3. Variable Impedance Type Static VAR Generators

AC transmission and distribution lines are dominantly reactive networks, characterized by their
inductance and shunt capacitance. Reactive power (VAR) increases the transmission losses, and
influences the stability of the power system and power generation. Since the development of power
electronics, VAR can be regulated by static VAR generators (SVG) or called static VAR compensators
(SVC). The followings introduce different types of variable impedance type SVG for reactive power
compensation. All of them are shunt controllers in the controller family of FACTS.

6.3.1. Thyristor-switched Capacitors (TSC)

Fig. 6.2 and Fig. 6.3 shows a circuit diagram and its idealised waveforms of a thyristor-switched
capacitor (TSC), respectively. TSC is responsible for supplying reactive power (VAR) to compensate
VAR of the power line by controlling the effect from a capacitor. A TSC consists of an AC capacitor
bank, C, a bidirectional switch constructed with two thyristors, T 1 and T2, and an inductor, L, acting as a
small surge current limiting reactor. Using a triac instead of T1 and T2 is possible practically.

Line vC
VS VS iTSC VS
L vL vL

T1 T2 vT vC vC

vT vT
iTSC
C vC

Fig. 6.2. Circuit diagram TSC OFF TSC ON TSC OFF

of a TSC Fig. 6.3. Idealised waveforms of a TSC

C is switched in or out by the bidirectional switch, T1 and T2. The TSC is turned on and off when the
line voltage is at positive or negative peak level as shown in Fig. 6.3. During normal operation, the TSC
is turned on at negative peak line voltage if the TSC is turned off at negative peak line voltage
beforehand. Turning off the TSC at negative peak line voltage, gate signals of the thyristors can be
removed anytime during negative current of the TSC, iTSC. Without the small surge inductor, L, voltage
across C, vC, will remain at positive or negative peak value of line voltage, VS.

Since C will slowly discharged naturally (such as discharged internally and via the environment) when
the TSC is off, vS may be lower than the peak line voltage when the TSC is turned on again. A high
surge current rapidly charging C may occur which may damage the thyristors. Transient disturbance of
the line voltage may occur because of the high surge current as well. Reducing the influence of these
problems, a relatively small surge inductor, L, is connected in series with C and the thyristors to limit the
surge current. With L in the TSC, vC is slightly over VS when the TSC is on and over the peak line
voltage when the TSC is off because the voltage across L, vL, is having 180° phase difference with vC.
The peak voltage of the thyristors is more than twice of the peak line voltage when the TSC is off.

Another function of L is for protecting the thyristors when the thyristors are switched on at a wrong time
during abnormal conditions or malfunction of control of the TSC. However, L and C have become a
resonant circuit. Oscillation will occur on vC, vL and iTSC to result high current or voltage levels than
those in normal operation. The oscillation is damped gradually to disappear within some cycles of the
line voltage.

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6.3.2. Thyristor-controlled Reactors (TCR) and Thyristor-switched Reactors (TSR)

Thyristor-controlled reactors (TCRs), or called thyristor-controlled Line

inductors (TCIs), act as variable inductor supplying VAR to the VS
power line with fast response for VAR compensation. Fig. 6.4 iL
shows a circuit diagram of a TCR. A TCR consists of an inductor,
L, and a bidirectional switch constructed with two back-to-back L
thyristors, T1 and T2.

In a TCR, L is connected to the power line through T1 and T2. T1 T2

Firing angle of the thyristors, α, called delay angle, is in the range
between π/2 to π of the line voltage, VS. The same α is used for both
T1 and T2 where T1 is responsible for the positive half and T2 is
responsible for the negative half of the inductor current, iL. Fig. 6.4. Circuit diagram
of a TCR
Fig. 6.5 shows idealised waveforms of a TCR with different α. α is
defined as 0 when VS is at π/2. The current of L is expressed as:
t α = 0º
i L t    v S (t )dt
1
(6.7) iL=iL1 VS
L
VS ( pk )
i L t   sin t  sin   (6.8)
L
α = 30º
where vS (t ) is voltage of the power line, VS, in the function of time iL
iL1 VS
and VS ( pk ) is the amplitude of VS . The amplitude of the fundamental
of iL is:
VS ( pk )  α = 60º
i L1      2  sin 2  for 0    (6.9)
L 2 iL
VS
iL1
The effective inductance of a TCR is:
VS ( pk )
Leff  (6.10)
I L1( pk ) Fig. 6.5. Idealised waveform of
a TCR with different delay angles
where I L1( pk ) is the amplitude of the fundamental current of L.

Fig. 6.6 shows a graph of normalised amplitude iL1

variation of the fundamental current of a TCR with 1.0
the delay angle, α. If the switching of a TCR is 0.9
restricted to be with fixed delay angle, it has become 0.8
a thyristor-switched reactor (TSR). A TSR provides 0.7
a fixed inductive admittance so that the reactive i L1   2 1
0.6  1    sin 2
current in the TSR is proportional to the line voltage.
0.5 i L1 0   
Although TCR can compensate reactive power, it also 0.4
generates harmonics because the delay angle control 0.3
results non-sinusoidal current if 0° < α < 90°. Fig. 0.2
6.7 shows a graph of the harmonic current versus 0.1
delay angle, α, of a TCR. 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 α (deg)
Fig. 6.6. A graph of normalised TCR
fundamental current varying with α

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Fig. 6.7. Harmonic current (normalised to fundamental) of versus α of a TCR

6.3.3. Fixed Capacitor Thyristor-controlled Reactor (FC-TCR) Type VAR Generators

Circuit diagram of a fixed capacitor thyristor-controlled reactor (FC-TCR) type VAR generator is shown
in Fig. 6.8. A FC-TCR is like a TCR connected in parallel with a capacitor. Same as TCR, the current
of the reactor is varied by the delay angle, α. The constant capacitive VAR generation from the fixed
capacitor is opposed by the variable VAR absorption of the TCR. At the maximum capacitive VAR
output, the TCR is off, i.e., α = 90° or T1 and T2 are off. To decrease the capacitive output, the current of
the TCR increases when decreasing α. At zero VAR output, the capacitive and inductive currents
become equal and thus the capacitive VAR and inductive VAR cancel out. This means the current in the
capacitor circulates through the reactor, L, via the thyristors, T1 and T2. Fig. 6.9 shows the V-I operating
area of a FC-TCR VAR Generator.

Line
VS VS
iQ VLmax
VCmax
VCmax = voltage limit for capacitor
iL
VLmax = voltage limit for TCR
iC L ICmax = capacitive current limit
ILmax = inductive current limit
C BC BLmax BLmax = max. inductive admittance
BC = admittance of capacitor
T1 T2
Capacitive Inductive
IQ
ICmax ILmax
Fig. 6.9. Operating V-I characteristic of a FC-TCR
Fig. 6.8. Circuit diagram
of a FC-TCR

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In an FC-TCR type VAR generator, there are four

types of losses: Losses

- Capacitor loss:
Relatively low
- Reactor resistive loss:
Increasing with the square of the current
- Thyristor conduction and switching losses: Fixed loss due to the
Almost linearly with the current necessary cancellation
of the fixed capacitor
- Controller and filter losses: current
Relatively low and almost constant
IQ = IL(α) – IC
Thus the total losses increase with the increase of [ IC > IL(α) ] IC = IL(α) [ IL(α) > IC ]
TCR current. They decreases with the increase of Capacitive Inductive
capacitive VAR output. A typical losses of a FC-
TCR with VAR output is shown in Fig. 6.10. Fig. 6.10. Typical losses of FC-TCR
with VAR output characteristic

6.3.4. Thyristor-switched Capacitor, Thyristor-controlled Reactor Type VAR Generators (TSC-TCR)

The operation of this type of SVG is more flexible than FC-TCR. Fig. 6.11 shows the circuit diagram of
a thyristor-switched capacitor, thyristor-controlled reactor (TSC-TCR) type VAR generator. A TSC-
TCR usually comprises a TSC bank (3 TSCs in parallel in Fig. 6.11) and a single TCR connected in
parallel. If there are n TSCs in the TSC bank, the current and VAR ratings of each TSC are chosen to be
1/n of the total rating of the total static VAR generator (SVG, or called SVC).

Line
VS
iQ
iL

iC1 iC2 iC3

C1 C2 C3
TSC1 TSC2 TSC3 TCR
Fig. 6.11. Circuit diagram of a TSC-TCR

Fig. 6.12 shows the V-I characteristic of the operation of a TSC-TCR. The capacitors of the TSC can be
switched in discrete steps, whereas continuous control within the reactive power span of each step is
controlled by the TCR. The main motivations in developing TSC-TCR was for enhancing the operation
flexibility of the compensator. TSC-TCR can quickly operate to disconnect all the capacitors from the
compensator, precluding the resonant oscillations. The main function of the TCR is for generating
inductive VAR to increase the flexibility of VAR compensation. To ensure the switching conditions at
the endpoints of the intervals are not indeterminate, the VAR rating of the TCR has to be larger than that
of one TSC to provide enough overlap for TSC switching in and out action. The VAR rating of the TCR
in this type of SVG is lower than that of the TCR in FC-TCR. A typical losses of a TSC-TCR with VAR
output is shown in Fig. 6.13.

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VS
Losses
3 TSC 2 TSC
1 TSC 0 TSC C3
C2
C1

IQ = IL(α) – ∑ICn IQ = IL(α)

Production Limit Absorption Limit
α = 90º α = 0º Capacitive Inductive

Fig. 6.13. Typical losses of a TSC-TCR

IQ with VAR output characteristic
Capacitive Inductive

Fig. 6.12. Operating V-I characteristic of a TSC-TCR

6.4. Variable Source Type Static VAR Generators

Variable impedance type static VAR generators consist of large energy storage inductors and capacitors
to meet VAR demand. Switched mode converters may be used to provide instantaneous VAR control.
AC current of the converter can be controlled quickly in magnitude and in their relationship with the AC
voltage. Leading, lagging or unity power factor can be achieved. The DC source can be provided by a
small capacitor with small amount of energy storage. The average power of the converter is zero. The
only losses are conduction loss and switching loss of the switching devices. Applying high frequency
switching on the converter with fast switching devices, such as IGBT switched at 10kHz, can react to
instantaneous demand within hundreds of microseconds.

6.5. Static Synchronous Compensators (STATCOM)

Static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) is a type of variable source type static VAR generators
for FACTS. STATCOM operates as a voltage source in series with a reactor (inductor). The voltage of
the STATCOM is synchronised with the voltage of the line to which the STATCOM system is
connected. Fig. 6.14 and Fig. 6.15 show a simplified diagram of a STATCOM and the STATCOM
connected to a power transmission network at the midpoint of two power sources, V1 and V2, for reactive
power compensation, respectively. Basically a STATCOM consists of a voltage source inverter, VSI,
with an output voltage Vu, a DC capacitor as the DC link voltage of the inverter, and a buffer reactor
with a reactance Xu. The output of the STATCOM acts as a voltage source at the midpoint, Vmid.

STATCOM X/2 X/2

Vmid
Xu Vu
Iu V1 Vmid V2

VSI

Fig. 6.14. Simplified diagram of a STATCOM Fig. 6.15. Simplified diagram of two power sources with
midpoint reactive power compensation by a STATCOM

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6.5.1. Modes of Operation of STATCOM

Referring to Fig. 6.14 and Fig. 6.15, general expression for the apparent power flowing between the AC
mains (midpoint of transmission line) and the STATCOM is given by:
V V V 
2
sin   
j  mid u cos   u 
VmidVu
S mid  (6.11)
Xu  X u X u 
where Smid is the apparent power flowing between the AC mains and the STATCOM and α is the power
angle between the AC mains and the STATCOM. The resistance of the buffer reactor in the STATCOM
is assumed to be zero. STATCOM absorbs real power flow from Vmid for lagging power angle, α and
injects it to the AC mains for leading power angle. Thus, it can be used to control the DC link voltage of
the inverter. Fig. 6.16 shows phasor diagrams of operation of a STATCOM. There are three modes of
operation of a STATCOM. They are:
- Standby Mode
The STATCOM is not operated temporarily.
- Capacitive Mode
The STATCOM injects leading current when the power angle, α, is zero and Vmid < Vu.
- Inductive Mode
The STATCOM absorbs lagging current when the power angle, α, is zero and Vmid > Vu.

Iu Iu Vmid
Vmid Vmid jXuIu
Vu jXuIu
Vu Vu Iu
(a) Standby mode (b) Capacitive mode (c) Inductive mode
Fig. 6.16. Phasor diagrams of modes of operation of a STATCOM

6.5.2. Basic Control Scheme of STATCOM System Bus

VS
Fig. 6.17 show a STATCOM with a DC/AC switching
Coupling
converter (voltage source inverter, VSI) connected to a power
Transformer
system bus via a coupling transformer. The leakage
inductance of the transformer acts as the buffer reactor of the Iu
STATCOM. A reactive current, Iq, drawn by a STATCOM is Transformer
determined by the magnitude of the system voltage, VS, that of Xu Leakage
the internal voltage, Vu, and the total circuit reactance. V-I Inductance
characteristic of operation and power losses with VAR output Vu
characteristic of a typical STATCOM are shown in Fig. 6.18 DC/AC
and Fig. 6.19, respectively. The corresponding reactive power, Switching
Q, exchanged is expressed as: Converter
VS  Vu
Iq  (6.12)
Xu Cu
2 V  Vdc
VS 1  u 
Q  VS  (6.13) Fig. 6.17. A STATCOM
Xu connected to a power system bus
via coupling transformer

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VS Losses
Vmax Total

Vmax = voltage limit

Imax = current limit Converter
Imax = ILmax = ICmax Transformer
Interface
Magnetics
Iu
Capacitive Inductive
Iu
ICmax Capacitive Inductive ILmax
Fig. 6.19. Typical losses of a STATCOM
Fig. 6.18. Operating V-I characteristic of a STATCOM with VAR output characteristic

Fig. 6.20 shows a simplified block diagram of the internal control for a converter of a STATCOM with
internal voltage control capability, such as a three-level converter. The reactive power output is
controlled by the internal voltage magnitude in the form of PWM and angle. The feedback signals are
the system voltage, VS, the converter output current, Iu, and the DC bus voltage, Vdc. The control input
signals are the reactive current reference, IqRef, and the DC but voltage reference, VdcRef. The DC voltage
reference determines the real power of the converter which must absorb from the AC system in order to
supply its internal losses. As the block diagram illustrates, the converter output current is decomposed
into real and reactive components. These components are compared to the real current reference which
is derived from the DC bus voltage and the reactive current reference. The real and reactive current error
signal is converted into the magnitude and angle of the desired output voltage by appropriate gate signals
of the switching devices.
vS ; VS 0º
iu vS

Real and Phase- Iu

reactive current locked
computer loop
IuQ IuP θ Vu α
IqRef α θ+α
Magnitude Gate DC/AC
Error
and angle Pattern Switching
amplifier
computer logic Converter
Vu
IpRef Cu

Error Vdc
Vdc
amplifier
VdcRef
Fig. 6.20. Block diagram of basic control scheme of a STATCOM

6.5.3. Example of a STATCOM

Performance of a 1.5kVA STATCOM is described in the followings. Its parameters are shown in Table
6.1. A 1.5kVA three-level neutral point clamped inverter has been used to demonstrate the operation of
a STATCOM. Fig. 6.21 shows a simplified power circuit diagram and connection of the STATCOM.
The output of the STATCOM is coupled by a step-up transformer with a series buffer reactor. The
reactive power output of the STATCOM is governed by the voltage difference between the series reactor
and the reactance of the buffer reactor as shown in Equation (6.13). With a small series reactor, the
output voltage of the inverter can be lowered to achieve the same level of reactive power output. The

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use of a small series reactance will increase the magnitude of fault current. In literature search, reactance
of the series buffer reactor is usually limited to 10% to 15% (per unit) for fault current limitation. In
principle, a STATCOM can compensate the reactive power without energy storage. In practice,
minimum energy storage is required due to voltage imbalance of the system. In this STATCOM
prototype, two small DC capacitors with 200µF capacitance are selected. Experimental results of the
STATCOM is shown in Table 6.2 and Fig. 6.22 to Fig. 6.26.

Table 6.1. Parameters of a STATCOM

Item Type / Value
Inverter Topology 3-level Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
Rated Capacity ±1000VAR
Nominal Voltage 190V
DC Line Capacitance 220µF
Series Reactance (XU, XV, XW) 17.2mH (15% per unit)
Modulation Index (M) of VSI 1
Transformer Ration (Tx1) 1:0.5 (wye to wye)

Line

Tx1

Buffer
XU XV XW
Reactor

SW1U SW1V SW1W

VC_U

SW2U SW2V SW2W

N U V W
SW3U SW3V SW3W

VC_L

SW4U SW4V SW4W

Fig. 6.21. Simplified power circuit diagram of a STATCOM

with a buffer reactor and a step-up transformer

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Vmid (Phase Voltage)

IU (Phase Current)

Vmid (Line Voltage)

VUV (Line Voltage)

Fig. 6.22. STATCOM at standby mode:

1. Source phase voltage (low voltage side, 200V/div), 2. STATCOM line current (low voltage side, 5A/div),
3. Source line voltage (low voltage side, 200V/div), 4. Inverter line voltage (low voltage side, 200V/div)

Vmid (Phase Voltage)

IU (Phase Current)

Vmid (Line Voltage)

VUV (Line Voltage)

Fig. 6.23. STATCOM at capacitive mode:

1. Source phase voltage (low voltage side, 200V/div), 2. STATCOM line current (low voltage side, 5A/div),
3. Source line voltage (low voltage side, 200V/div), 4. Inverter line voltage (low voltage side, 200V/div)

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Vmid (Phase Voltage)

IU (Phase Current)

Vmid (Line Voltage)

VUV (Line Voltage)

Fig. 6.24. STATCOM at inducive mode:

1. Source phase voltage (low voltage side, 200V/div), 2. STATCOM line current (low voltage side, 5A/div),
3. Source line voltage (low voltage side, 200V/div), 4. Inverter line voltage (low voltage side, 200V/div)

Vmid (Phase Voltage)

IU (Phase Current)

VDC

Trigging
Reference

Fig. 6.25. Step response of STATCOM from 500VAR (capacitive mode) to -500VAR (inductive mode):
1. Source phase voltage (low voltage side, 200V/div), 2. STATCOM DC bus voltage (200V/div),
3. Trigging reference (power angle α, 0.1V/degree), 4. STATCOM line current (low voltage side, 5A/div)

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Vmid (Phase Voltage)

IU (Phase Current)

VDC

Trigging
Reference

Fig. 6.26. Step response of STATCOM from -500VAR (inductive mode) to 500VAR (capacitive mode):
1. Source phase voltage (low voltage side, 200V/div), 2. STATCOM DC bus voltage (200V/div),
3. Trigging reference (power angle α, 0.1V/degree), 4. STATCOM line current (low voltage side, 5A/div)

Table 6.2. Comparison of transmitted power of

a scaled-down power system with and without STATCOM
Power System without STATCOM
Watts VS Vmid VLoad Load Resistance
1200W 220V 216V 212V 119Ω
1720W 220V 212V 207V 80Ω
2180W 220V 208V 200V 59Ω
2567W 220V 202V 193V 48Ω
Power System with STATCOM
Watts VS Vmid VLoad Load Resistance
1360W 220V 220V 216V 119Ω
2040W 220V 220V 214V 80Ω
2280W 220V 220V 211V 59Ω
3444W 220V 220V 206V 48Ω

Fig. 6.22 shows experimental waveforms of a STATCOM in standby mode. The output current of the
STATCOM is zero. Fig. 6.23 and Fig. 6.24 show waveforms of a STATCOM in capacitive mode and
inductive mode, respectively. In capacitive mode, the STATCOM injected leading sinusoidal phase
current to the line at the point of Vmid. In inductive mode, the output phase current of the STATCOM is
lagging to Vmid (Line Voltage). The phase current of the STATCOM is in sinusoidal manner. Fig. 6.25 and
Fig. 6.26 shows the response of a STATCOM trigged to be from capacitive mode to inductive mode, and
from inductive mode to capacitive mode, respectively. In the change from capactive mode to inductive
mode, VDC, that is the voltage across the capacitors, VC_U + VC_L, decreased from zero to negative. This
implies that the STATCOM produced power to the line. In the change from inductive mode to
capacitive mode, VDC increased from negative to zero. This implies that the STATCOM absorbed
power from the line.

Table 6.2 shows that the voltage of the points of Vmid and the load in the bus line are higher when the
STATCOM is operating because the reactive power is compensated appropriately and hence the power
transmitted in the line is higher.

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INCOMPLETED

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