Sunteți pe pagina 1din 21

Agni College of Technology

Thalambur, Chennai 600 130


Office of Examcell
Question Bank for Unit - 5
Sub Name : Micro Electro Mechanical Systems Department : Mechatronics
Sub Code : EE6007 Year & Sec : IV
PART – A
1. Write the major classes of polymers.
Polymers can be classified into three major classes:
a. Fibers
b. Plastics
c. Elastomers (rubbers)
2. Compare and contrast thermo plastic polymer and thermal setting polymer.
Thermo plastic polymer Thermal setting polymer
 It can be melted and recycled.  It cannot be melted and recycled.
 2 Dimensional with no crosslinks.  3 Dimensional with multiple crosslinks.
 Prepared mostly by additional  Prepared mostly by condensation
polymerisation. polymerisation.
 Mostly processed by conventional  Mostly processed by special methods
methods such as injection molding, such as compression, transfer and
extrusion and blow molding. casting.
 Examples include polyethylene (PE),  Examples include Phenol formaldehyde,
Polyethylene Terphthalate (PET). Melamine Formaldehyde.

3. Give the structure of polyimide.

4. Summarize the properties of elastomers.


a. Optically transparent
b. Electrically insulating
c. Mechanically elastic
d. Gas permeable
e. Biocompatible.
5. Describe SU-8.
The SU – 8 is a negative tone, near UV photo – resist first invented by IBM in the late
198Os, with the main purpose of allowing high aspect ratio features (>15) to be made in thick
photosensitive polymers. The photoresist consists of EPON ® Resin SU – 8 (from Shell
Chemical) as a main component.

[1]
The EPON resin is dissolved in an organic solvent (GBL, gammabutyrolacton), with
the quantity of solvent determining the viscosity and the range of achievable thickness.
Processed layers as thick as 1OO µm can be achieved, offering tremendous new capabilities for
masking, molding, and building high aspect ratio structures at low cost.
6. Summarize the process characteristics of PDMS.
1. The volume of PDMS shrinks during the curing step. Compensation of dimensions at the
design level should be incorporated to yield desired dimensions.
2. Due to volume shrinking and flexibility, deposited metal thin films on cured PDMS tends
to develop cracks, affecting the electrical conductivity.
3. The surface chemical properties (such as adhesion energy) can be varied by altering the
mixing ratio and through surface chemical or electrical treatment.
7. Describe about LCP.
The liquid crystal polymer is a thermoplast with unique structural and physical
properties. LCP are available commercially in sheets of various thicknesses. When flowing in
the liquid crystal state during processing, the rigid segments of the molecules align next to one
another in the direction of shear flow. Once this orientation is formed, their direction and
structure persist, even when LCP is cooled below its melting temperature. These characteristics
differentiate LCP from most thermoplastic polymers, whose molecule chains are randomly
oriented in the solid state. Owning to its unique structure, LCP offers a combination of
electrical, thermal, mechanical and chemical properties unmatched by other engineering
polymers.

8. Explain the terms PDMS and PMMA.


a. Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) belongs to a group of polymeric organosilicon compounds
that are commonly referred to as silicones. PDMS is the most widely used silicon-
based organic polymer, and is particularly known for its unusual rheological (or flow)
properties.
b. Poly(methyl methacrylate), PMMA is a clear plastic acrylic material that can be used as a
replacement for glass. PMMA is commonly used in places where shatter-proof glass or
windows are required, such as the puck barriers found in hockey rinks.
9. Discover the need of parylene.
10. Classify the dimmer variations of parylene.
Three parylene dimer variations are available from commercial vendors, including
Parylene C (widely used), Parylene N (for better dielectric strength and penetration), and
Parylene D (for extended temperature performance).
11. Point out the properties of polycarbonate.
a. High impact strength d. High modulus of elasticity
b. Excellent strength retention at elevated e. Low deformation under load
temperatures f. Excellent creep and cold flow resistance
c. High tensile, shear, and flexural strength g. Low coefficient of thermal expansion
[2]
12. Compare the properties of plastics and fibres.
Plastics Fibres
 Resistance to corrosion and chemicals  Excellent strength-to-weight ratio.
 Low electrical and thermal conductivity  Highest resistance to heat of any fibre.
 High strength-to-weight ratio  Very low creep.
 Colors available in a wide variety and  Very low elongation (2,4%).
transparent  Poor abrasion resistance.
 Resistance to shock, good durability, low
 Susceptible to axial compression fatigue.
cost, are easy to manufacture, resistant to
 Non conductive.
water and have low toxicity.
13. Give the principle behind multimodal polymer based tactile sensor.
The multimodal sensory skin is capable of measuring four variables of an object in
contact: surface roughness, hardness, temperature, and thermal conductivity. The device
consists of two membrane contact pressure sensors, with very different membrane thickness.
Each membrane sensors include a contact mesa, on top of which metal strain gauges are located
for detecting membrane deformation. These two sensors are close enough that, when a contact
with an object is made, they are assumed to be under identical contact pressure. Under a
uniform contact pressure, the thin membrane deforms more than the thick membrane.

14. Define viscoelastic creep.


Many polymers exhibit viscoelastic behavior. When a force is applied to it, an
instantaneous elastic deformation may occur, followed by viscous, time dependent stain
changes. As a result, many polymeric materials as susceptible to time – dependent deformation
under a constantly maintained stress. Such deformation is called viscoelastic creep.

15. Express the maximum tensile strength for polymers.


Tensile strength is calculated by dividing the load at break by the original minimum
cross sectional area. The result is expressed in mega pascals (MPa)
(load at break)
Tensile strength = (original width)(original thickness)

Maximum tensile strengths for polymers are on the order of 1OO MPa, much lower than that
of metal and semiconductor materials.

16. List the families of polymers.


a. Polyimide;
b. SU – 8;
c. Liquid crystal polymer;
d. Polydimethylsiloxane;
e. Polymethyl methacrylate (also known as acrylics, plexiglass, or PMMA);
f. Parylene (polyparaxylylene);
g. Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) and Cytop.

[3]
17. Give the properties of Teflon.
a. Teflon but offers high optical transparency and good solubility in specific fluorinated
solvents.
b. Teflon films have been used for electrical insulation, adhesive bonding, and friction
reduction.
18. List the actuators for optical MEMS.

19. Define optical mirrors.


Optical Mirrors are designed to reflect light for a variety of applications, including
beam steering, interferometry, imaging, or illumination. a 1 mm diameter scanning micromirror
with an angular vertical combdrive actuator, an analog micromirror array with hidden vertical
combdrive actuators, and a nano-electro-mechanical photonic crystal switch. All three devices
employ electrostatic combdrive actuation: vertical combdrives actuate the micromirrors, and for
the on/off photonic crystal switch, a lateral combdrive provides the motion between states.
20. Generalize the properties of polymide materials.
a. Chemical stability
b. Thermal stability up to around 4OOoC
c. Superior dielectric properties
d. Mechanical robustness and durability and
e. Low cost of materials and processing equipment.

PART B
1. i. Summarize the fabrication process of silicon accelerometer with parylene beams.
Here we discuss a microfabricated acceleration sensor using polymer support beams.
The accelerometer incorporates a silicon proof mass and high aspect ratio Parylene beams. The
polymer beam increases the shock resistance, enabling large deformation without failure. Because
Parylene has a small Young’s modulus, the spring constant is low than if they were replaced by
silicon. A low spring constant translates into increased sensitivity but somewhat reduced resonant
frequency.
In this design, Parylene beams are 1O – 4Oµm wide and have aspect ratios (height
over width) of 1O – 3O. However, it is impractical to grow Parylene films with thickness of
hundreds of micrometers. In addition, there is no high aspect ratio reactive ion etching process
that can produce vertical etching.
An alternative process for realizing high aspect ratio Parylene structures is
developed. It involves first creating high aspect ratio trenches as molds in a 5OO - µm – thick
silicon substrate. The wafer is oxidized by reacting with oxygen at a high temperature. The
oxidized wafer (with conformal 2 - µm – thick oxides coating) is then placed inside a Parylene
deposition chamber. Parylene thin films with thickness of 1O to 2O - µm fill the trenches entirely.
A global plasma etch is performed to remove the Parylene on the open front surface.
[4]
Parylene films in the trenches are preserved because the effective thickness is much
greater. The wafer is turned over to pattern a backside mask layer, which is used to define the
wafer with deep reactive ion etching (DRIE). The DRIE process has very high selectivity between
silicon and silicon oxide and stops when it reaches the oxide layer. At the end, the oxide is
removed by HF solutions to free the Parylene beams. Since the Parylene film cannot survive
overtime DRIE etching, the oxide layer effectively buffers the Parylene film.

Since no active sensing layers are incorporated, the displacement of the proof mass in
response to acceleration is detected using optical means. The proof mass has an area of 1.75 mm by
1.75 mm. the resonant frequency was measured to be 37 Hz. The predicted thermal mechanical
noise floor is 25nm/√𝐻𝑧, while the measured noise spectrum density is 45nm/√𝐻𝑧.
1. ii. Explain in detail about schematic diagram of LCP polymer flow sensors.
A flow sensor consisting of a polymer cantilever beam has been made. As shown in
figure, flow imparts imparts momentum on the cantilever and causes it to bend, including strain at
the base of the cantilever. The strain is transduced into an electrical signal using a piezoresistive
sensor made of thin film metal. While the gauge factor of doped silicon can reach 1O - 2O, the
gauge factor of thin film metal is much lower, typically ranging from 1 to 5. However, the
increased thickness and compliance of these polymer film devices has been shown to offset the
reduced gauge factor of metal film strain gauges resulting in sensitivity comparable to silicon –
based devices.

[5]
The flow sensor uses nickel – chrome strain gauges on an LCP cantilever that is
1OOOµm wide and 3OOO µm long. A show a micrograph of the completed device. Wind tunnel
testing with flow rates from O to 2O m/s showed a velocity – squared relationship as expected, as
seen in the quadratic trend line in figure.

2. i. Explain in detail about PDMS with case study.


Elastomers are materials that can sustain large degree of deformation and recover
their shape after a deforming force. Poly (dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS), an elastomer material
belonging to the room temperature vulcanized (RTV) silicone elastomer family, offers many
advantages for general MEMS applications. It is optically transparent, electrically insulating,
mechanically elastic, gas permeable, and biocompatible. The biological and medical compatibility
of the material is reviewed. PDMS is widely used in microfluidics.
The primary processing method is molding, which is straightforward and allows
fast, low cost prototyping. A number of unique process characteristics of PDMS are worth noting:
1. The volume of PDMS shrinks during the curing step. Compensation of dimensions at the
design level should be incorporated to yield desired dimensions.
2. Due to volume shrinking and flexibility, deposited metal thin films on cured PDMS tends to
develop cracks, affecting the electrical conductivity.
3. The surface chemical properties (such as adhesion energy) can be varied by altering the
mixing ratio and through surface chemical or electrical treatment.
PDMS is commercially supplied as a viscous liquid – it can be cast or spin coated on
substrates. Unfortunately, the PDMS material is not photo definable. It therefore cannot be simply
spin – coated and patterned like photosensitive resists. Through UV curable PDMS is being
developed, the technology is not yet mature. It is possible to use plasma etching to pattern PDMS
thin films. However, the etch rate is rather slow. The measured etch rate is approximately
7nm/min at 8OO W power and 1OO V bias. Etching of PDMS with O 2 plasma leaves the surface
and line edges rough. Methods for patterning thin PDMS film on substrate are important for
MEMS applications.
[6]
Precision Patterning of PDMS
The principle of basic PDMS patterning process, modified from the screen printing
method is as in figure.
1. A photoresist layer is first spin-coated on top of a solid substrate (glass or silicon) and
patterned by using conventional lithography processes. Thickness of the photoresist can be
controlled by varying the spin rate.
2. A viscous PDMS prepolymer solution is poured over the wafer’s front surface.
3. A flat and smooth rubber blade is used to traverse the substrate surface while maintaining
contact with the top surface of the photoresist layer.
4. A thin and often noncontinuous residual film of PDMS may be left on top of photoresist
region. This film can be removed later by light mechanical polishing or plasma etching.
5. The wafer is thermally cured, allowing the PDMS to polymerize in the recessed region.
6. The photoresist mold is removed using acetone.

[7]
2.ii. Define fluorocarbon, parylene and PMMA in detail.
PMMA
PMMA is supplied in many different forms; including bulk, sheets, and solutions for
spin coating. PMMA bulk, most commonly known by its trade name acrylics, has been used in
making microfluidic devices. The photodefinable PMMA thin film is a widely used e – beam and
X – ray lithography resist. Spin coated PMMA has been used as a sacrificial layer as well. Deep
reactive ion etching processes of PMMA thin films has been demonstrated.
Parylene
Parylene is a thermalset polymer. It is the only plastic material that is deposited
using chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process. The deposition process is conducted under room
temperature. A Parylene deposition system consists of a source chamber connected to a vacuum
deposition chamber. A dimer (di – para – xylene) is heated inside the source chamber to
approximately 15OoC. it sublimates into a gaseous monomer, which then enters the vacuum
chamber and coats on objects within. Three parylene dimer variations are available from
commercial vendors, including Parylene C (widely used), Parylene N (for better dielectric strength
and penetration), and Parylene D (for extended temperature performance).
The Parylene film offers very useful properties for MEMS applications, including
very low intrinsic stress, room temperature depositon, conformal coating, chemical inertness, and
etch selectivity. Parylene coating is deal for electrical isolation, chemical isolation, preservation,
and sealing.
Parylene has been used for microfluidics channels, valves, retina prosthesis, sensors
(acceleration sensors, pressure sensors, microphones, and shear stress sensors). The thickness of
parylene coating is generally controlled by the amount of dimer leaded. Thickness monitors and
end – of – point detectors for in – situ Parylene thickness monitoring have been developed, for
example based on thermal transfer principles.
Fluorocarbon
Fluoropolymers such as Teflon and Cytop provide excellent chemical inertness,
thermal stability, and nonflammability due to the strong C – F bond. They can be used as a surface
Coating, insulation, antireflection coating, or as adhesion agent. Cytop is a trademarked material
(by Asashi Glass Company of Japan). It exhibits many good properties as Teflon but offers high
optical transparency and good solubility in specific fluorinated solvents. Fluorpolymer films can
be spin coated or deposited by PECVD method. In MEMS, Teflon and Cytop films have been used
for electrical insulation, adhesive bonding, and friction reduction.

3.i. Compare and contrast SU-8 and parylene.


SU – 8
The SU – 8 is a negative tone, near UV photo – resist first invented by IBM in the late
198Os, with the main purpose of allowing high aspect ratio features (>15) to be made in thick
photosensitive polymers. The photoresist consists of EPON ® Resin SU – 8 (from Shell Chemical)
as a main component.

[8]
The EPON resin is dissolved in an organic solvent (GBL, gammabutyrolacton), with
the quantity of solvent determining the viscosity and the range of achievable thickness. Processed
layers as thick as 1OO µm can be achieved, offering tremendous new capabilities for masking,
molding, and building high aspect ratio structures at low cost. The cost of SU – 8 lithography is
considerably lower than that of other techniques for realizing high aspect ratio microstrucures,
notably LIGA process and the deep reactive ion etching. SU – 8 has been integrated in a number of
micro devices, including microfluid devices, SPM probe, and micro needles. It can also serve as a
thick sacrificial layer for surface micromachining.

Parylene
Parylene is a thermalset polymer. It is the only plastic material that is deposited
using chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process. The deposition process is conducted under room
temperature. A Parylene deposition system consists of a source chamber connected to a vacuum
deposition chamber. A dimer (di – para – xylene) is heated inside the source chamber to
approximately 15OoC. it sublimates into a gaseous monomer, which then enters the vacuum
chamber and coats on objects within. Three parylene dimer variations are available from
commercial vendors, including Parylene C (widely used), Parylene N (for better dielectric strength
and penetration), and Parylene D (for extended temperature performance).
The Parylene film offers very useful properties for MEMS applications, including
very low intrinsic stress, room temperature depositon, conformal coating, chemical inertness, and
etch selectivity. Parylene coating is deal for electrical isolation, chemical isolation, preservation,
and sealing.
Parylene has been used for microfluidics channels, valves, retina prosthesis, sensors
(acceleration sensors, pressure sensors, microphones, and shear stress sensors). The thickness of
parylene coating is generally controlled by the amount of dimer leaded. Thickness monitors and
end – of – point detectors for in – situ Parylene thickness monitoring have been developed, for
example based on thermal transfer principles.
3.ii. Examine about pneumatic controlled PDMS valve.
Recently, microfluidic devices such as microvalves have been attracting more and
more attention, especially for (bio)chemical applications including micro total analysis systems
(µTAS). For example, miniaturization of a flow injection analysis (FIA) system requires a set of
microvalves to control a pulsed sample flow. In a typical design, a microvalve has a
microfabricated channel interrupted by a valve seat. The fluidic route is opened/closed at the valve
seat with a membrane, which is actuated via various methods. A key issue in the valve design is
material for the membrane.
[9]
A large deflection comparable to the channel height—several tens of micrometers in
many cases—is required for switching the liquid, which is essential in biochemical applications. It
has recently been recognized that silicone elastomer is one of the most suitable materials for the
microvalve membrane because of its low Young’s modulus and excellent sealing property. On the
other hand, a disadvantage of the silicone elastomer membrane is the limited variety of actuation
methods. Only two methods: pneumatic and thermopneumatic have been reported so far. These
methods are problematic for fabricating a high-density array of microvalves.
In the case of thermopneumatic actuation, insulation of heat between neighboring
valves is difficult in a high-density array system. In the case of pneumatic actuation,
microfabricated pneumatic channels are required to conduct the air pressure to the membranes.
This means an extra layer of microchannels besides those for the fluid to be switched. In general, a
complicated fabrication process is required for such a device containing multilayered
microchannels. Pneumatically driven three-way and four-way microvalves have already been
reported. They are composed of three and four independent one-way valve units, respectively.
However, they are not equipped with pneumatic microchannels. Hence, the intervals between the
valve units seem to be limited by the sizes of non-microfabricated pneumatic connectors. The
intervals in these systems are larger than 2.5 mm. This work describes a three-way microvalve
system composed of three one-way valve units. Each valve unit has a silicone elastomer
membrane, which is actuated by external negative air pressure. Intervals between the valve units
are smaller than 780 µm.
These small intervals have been achieved by providing the system with pneumatic
microchannels. To simplify the fabrication process for this relatively complicated device
containing multilayered microchannels, we adopted polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)—a kind of
silicone elastomer—as material for the device. Recently, the replica molding technique of PDMS
has been widely used to simplify the fabrication process of microfluidic devices. Commonly used
procedures are:
(1) a PDMS chip with grooves on its surface is molded against a microfabricated
negative master, and
(2) the grooves are sealed with a flat substrate to make microchannels. The simple
fabrication process is enabled by two features of PDMS.
One is the submicrometer replica fidelity, which is sufficient for most applications.
The other is the selfadhesion property. To seal the grooves, a PDMS surface can be reversibly
bonded to various surfaces—glass, silicon, PDMS itself, and so on—without the need for an
elaborate bonding technique. If necessary, they can also be bonded irreversibly by treating the
surfaces with an oxygen plasma before they are brought into contact. The device described here is
composed of two PDMS microchannel chips and a PDMS membrane. They have been assembled
using both the bonding techniques, reversible and irreversible.

[10]
The latter has been utilized to transfer the PDMS membrane to one of the PDMS
chips from a silicon wafer, on which the membrane was originally spin-coated. Besides the simple
fabrication process, the use of PDMS has additional advantages, as follows. This material is tough,
inexpensive, transparent (suitable for optical detection), and biocompatible (even implantable into
human bodies). However, it is swelled by many organic solvents and hence unsuited for use with
such solvents.

4. Give Short notes on:


i. Polyimide
ii. LCP
Polyimide
Polyimides represent a family of polymers that exhibit outstanding mechanical,
chemical, and thermal properties as a result of their cyclic chain – bonding structure. Bulk
processed polyimide parts are used widely, from cars (struts and chassis in some cars) to
microwave cookware. It is widely used in microelectronics industry as an insulating material as
well. Polyimides are formed from the dehydrocyclization of polyamic precursors into cyclic
polymers by incorporating aromatic groups R and R’. These aromatic groups are chosen to affect
the properties of the final polyimide. For example, by chemically altering the polyamic acid
precursor to include R” groups sensitive to UV light as shown in figure, photo – patternable
precursors can be made to crosslink where exposed to UV light. The mechanical properties of
polyimide films have been studied. Cured polyimide films exhibit intrinsic stress on the order of 4
x106 Pa to 4 x 107 Pa, as measured using suspended microfabricated polyimide strings.

[11]
Further, mechanical and electrical properties of polyimide may exhibit direction –
dependent behavior. Many properties such as index of refraction, dielectric constant, Young’s
modulus, thermal expansion coefficient, and thermal conductivity vary with processing
conditions. Polyimide is commercially available as cured sheets, semi – cured sheets, or viscosity
solutions for spin – coating. The structure of a typical commercial polyimide – HN – type Kapton,
is shown in figure. In MEMS, polyimide is used as insulating films, substrates, mechanical
elements (membranes and cantilevers), flexible joints and links, adhesive films, sensors, scanning
probes, and stress – relief layers. Polyimide materials offer many favorable characteristics in the
these roles, including
1. Chemical stability
2. Thermal stability up to around 4OOoC
3. Superior dielectric properties
4. Mechanical robustness and durability and
5. Low cost of materials and processing equipment.
Polyimide can be used as structural elements for sensors and actuators.
Unfortunately, polyimide is neither conductive nor strain sensitive. Functional materials such as
conductors or strain gauges need to be integrated externally. Thin film metal strain gauges have
been integrated with polyimide, exhibiting an effective gauge factor on the order of 2 to 6. An
alternative is to modify the polyimide material for sensing purposes. For example, piezoresistive
composite of polyimide and carbon particles with effective gauge factor on the order of 2 to 13 has
been demonstrated.
Liquid Crystal Polymer (LCP)
The liquid crystal polymer is a thermoplast with unique structural and physical
properties. LCP are available commercially in sheets of various thicknesses. When flowing in the
liquid crystal state during processing, the rigid segments of the molecules align next to one
another in the direction of shear flow. Once this orientation is formed, their direction and structure
persist, even when LCP is cooled below its melting temperature. These characteristics differentiate
LCP from most thermoplastic polymers, whose molecule chains are randomly oriented in the solid
state. Owning to its unique structure, LCP offers a combination of electrical, thermal, mechanical
and chemical properties unmatched by other engineering polymers. One of the earliest LCP films
used in MEMS is a Vectra® A – 95O aromatic liquid crystal polymer, produced by Hoechst
Celanese Corporation. The reported melting temperature of Vectra A – 95O is 28OoC. the specific
gravity ranges from 1.37 to 1.42 kg/m3, and the molecular weight is greater than 2O,OOO g/mol.
The compatibility of this LCP with commonly used chemicals in micromachining was first
investigated. LCP is virtually unaffected by most acids, bases and solvents for a considerably long
time and over a broad temperature range. Extensive tests showed that LCP was not attacked or
dissolved by at least the following chemicals common in microfabrication:
1. Organic solvents including acetone and alcohol,
2. Metal etchants for AI, Au and Cr
3. Oxide etchants (49% HF and buffered HF) and
4. Developers for common photoresist and SU – 8 resist.
[12]
LCP films have excellent stability. It has very low moisture absorption and low
moisture permeability, which are better than PMMA and comparable to that of glass. For other
gases, including oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, argon, hydrogen and helium, LCP also exhibits
above – average barrier performance. Further, the permeation of gases through LCP is not affected
by humidity, even under elevated temperatures. The thermal expansion coefficient of the LCP
material can be controlled during the fabrication process to be both small and predictable. The
LCP film also shows excellent chemical resistance.
LCP was originally used as a high – performance substrate material for high –
density printed circuit board (PCB). A number of unique processing methods have been
developed for LCP, including laser drilling and via filling (for low – resistance electrical through
interconnects). LCP films are used as substrates for space and military electronics systems, both for
its performance and its stability. For instance, it has been explored as a high – performance carrier
of radio frequency electromagnetic elements such as antennas. Results from high – frequency tests
show the LCP has a fairly uniform relative dielectric constant of 3 in the range O.5 to 4O GHz and
an extremely low loss factor of ~O.OO4.
5. i. State the Principle and explain the operation of a typical micromirror.
Micro-electro-mechanical systems, (MEMS), technology enables the creation of
micro-optical elements which are inherently suited to cost effective manufacturability and
scalability as the processes are derived from the very mature semiconductor microfabrication
industry. Indeed, optical MEMS components have been successfully incorporated into commercial
systems for displays1 and more recently optical switches. The extremely rapid growth of optical
MEMS technology driven by miniaturization, lightweight, low energy consumption, and reduced
cost, is projected to continue in response to the demand for large scale optical switching in fiber
optic networks.
While intensive efforts from industry over the last five years have facilitated the
migration of many new optical MEMS components from research laboratories to commercial
reality, research is ongoing to develop newer photonic MEMS components and technologies to
address next and future generation photonic systems. In this paper we present the development of
current optical MEMS research at UCLA with the description of three optical MEMS devices:
a 1 mm diameter scanning micromirror with an angular vertical combdrive actuator,
an analog micromirror array with hidden vertical combdrive actuators, and a nano-electro-
mechanical photonic crystal switch. All three devices employ electrostatic combdrive actuation:
vertical combdrives actuate the micromirrors, and for the on/off photonic crystal switch, a lateral
combdrive provides the motion between states. The optical components of these devices span a
size range from millimeters to nanometers, a characteristic dictated by the specific optical
application. Optical imaging applications may require only one or two scanning micromirrors but
the resolution is critical. In order to achieve approx. 1OOO resolvable spots, the micromirror needs
both a large optical aperture, (mirror diameter), and a large scan range.
A 1 mm diameter scanning micromirror has been developed for such an application.
The analog micromirror array has been developed for free space switching of grating dispersed
collimated beams and the mirror pitch of 15O μm is dictated by the design of the overall system.8
[13]
Such switching applications require less resolution; here the integration of many individual
micromirrors with near identical scanning performance is important. Switching in the photonic
crystal device requires silicon dimensions in the nanometer range corresponding to the quarter
and full wavelength thickness from a 1.55 μm center wavelength.
Since MEMS are still a new microfabrication technology as compared to e.g.,
standard CMOS, considerable flexibility in both design and fabrication may be exercised to
achieve the desired outcome. For the three devices presented here, we have utilized both, silicon-
on-insulator, SOI-MEMS, processes developed at UCLA and a surface micromachined foundry
process, Sandia ultra-planar multilevel MEMS technology-V, (SUMMiT-V). The motivations and
advantages for the process technologies will be presented in the following sections for each device.

5.ii. Explain how micromirror technology is applied in scanning electron


As high resolution is a key parameter for imaging applications. Resolution as defined
by number of resolvable spots is a function of the beam divergence and the scan range as shown in
the following equations:
𝜽𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑵=
𝜹𝜽
𝜽𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑫
𝑵 ∝
𝝀
In addition to high resolution, the micromirror should be optically smooth (<𝝀/1O),
and flat (radius of curvature approx 1m). The single crystal silicon of SOI material is superior to
deposited thin films since the surface is highly polished and there is little or no low residual stress.
The actuator needs to be electrically fast (kHz range), have low operation voltage
(<1OOV), and be capable of a large optical scan angle (+15°). For high speed scanning applications,
electrostatic combdrive actuation has several advantages over parallel plate actuation. A relatively
stiff torsion bar, required for high frequency operation, is feasible since more electrostatic force is
generated by the large capacitance area and the narrow gap spacing between comb fingers
providing more effective utilization of the driving voltage. Decoupling of the mirror and actuator
permits a large deflection angle since the under mirror electrode is not required and the underside
can be opened to accommodate a larger range of motion. In addition, the entire scan range is
available since pull-in, (an unstable condition which renders the lower 6O-7O% of the gap spacing
unusable in most parallel plate type scanners), can be avoided.
Vertical combdrives have been demonstrated, with a staggered vertical combdrive by
patterning the fixed and moving teeth in distinct layers separated by sacrificial oxide 10 or by
adding a metal offset electrode on top of the fixed teeth. The two layer staggered vertical
combdrive requires critical alignment, although a 2-layer self-aligned process was reported
recently. Our approach, the angular vertical comb (AVC), features self-alignment between the
fixed and moving teeth since the entire device is patterned with deep reactive ion etching, DRIE, in
the top layer of a single SOI wafer. Furthermore our models shows that the AVC can achieve a
5O% higher scan angle than a staggered vertical comb of equivalent dimensions due to the larger
initial angle as shown in the schematic cross sectional views in Fig.

[14]
The initial angle determines the maximum scan angle and is achieved by rotating the
moving comb structure out of the wafer plane with a surface tension assembly technique driven
by melting or reflowing photoresist. It can be shown that the maximum scan angle is directly
proportional to the comb finger thickness and we have used SOI wafers with a 25 μm device layer.
The details of the fabrication process shown in Figure Briefly, the device is patterned into the top
silicon layer with DRIE, an oxide is deposited and then opened in the regions where the
photoresist hinges will attach, the backside is removed under the mirror with DRIE, the 9.5 μm
photoresist hinge is patterned, the device is released in HF, the photoresist is reflow in hot water,
and finally a blanket metallization is deposited.
Development of new processes to improve the planarity of the top layer is ongoing
as photoresist residue in high aspect ratio structures after hinge patterning is difficult to remove
and impacts the device yield by preventing the assembly of the moving comb teeth.

An SEM of the scanning micromirror with angular vertical combdrive is shown in


Fig. 3a. The self assembled angle, (initial angle), of the moving comb is controlled by a physical
stop or limiter as shown in Fig. 3b, the moving teeth and limiter arm are rotated out, (toward the
viewer), until the moving sidewall hits the fixed sidewall and stops. The mirror scan angle for a
prototype device was found by measuring the static deflection, as a function of DC voltage, with a
[15]
Wyko RTS 500 optical surface profiler. The maximum mechanical scan angle for the AVC scanner
was found to be •}1.6° at 108V.
Our theoretical models show that the DC performance can be further improved by
using SOI starting material with a thicker device layer and by increasing the number of comb
fingers. The resonant frequency for the scanning micromirrors was characterized with a Polytech
Vibrascan laser doppler vibrometer. A resonant frequency of 1.4 kHz was measured for the device
which is in good agreement with the calculated value of 1.44 kHz.
Deflection at resonance is significantly larger and we have measured an optical scan
angle of ±18º with a 21Vrms sinusoidal input at 1.4 kHz. With this resonant scan angle and the
mirror diameter of 1 mm, a resolution of approx. 96O resolvable spots is calculated for a
wavelength of 633 nm. As stated previously, this is a key parameter for imaging applications
where a few high resolution devices are required.

6. Explain about optical applications of MEMS devices


OPTICAL MEMS
Optical MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems) is the integration of mechanical
elements, sensors, actuators, and electronics on a common silicon substrate through
microfabrication technology. And Optical MEMS has created a new fabrication paradigm for
optical devices and systems. Using tools developed for the integrated-circuits industry, Optical
MEMS brings unprecedented levels of miniaturization and integration to optical communication
systems. Today ,
The capacity of optical communication networks is limited by the switches that are
electronic in their core. Optical MEMS is transforming the telecommunications infrastructure by
providing all-optical switches that enable high-capacity networks. Optical MEMS devices are
driving the trend toward all-optical telecommunication networks. With the ability to directly
manipulate an optical signal, MEMS have several applications that eliminate unnecessary
optical-electrical-optical (O-E-O) conversions. In optical communication, electrical components
such as inductors and tunable capacitors can be improved significantly compared to their
integrated counterparts if they are made using optical MEMS technology. With the integration of
such components, the performance of communication circuits will improve, while the total
circuit area, power consumption and cost will be reduced. In addition, the mechanical switch, it
is a key component with huge potential in various microwave circuits. Optical MEMS technology
is currently used in low- or medium-volume applications. It proves to be a boon for the modern
world.

MICRO LENSES
Microlens arrays are the key component in the next generation of 3D imaging
system, for it exhibits some good optical properties such as extremely large field of view angles,
low aberration and distortion, high temporal resolution and infinite depth of field. Although
many fabrication methods or processes are proposed for manufacturing such precision
component, however, those methods still need to be improved.

[16]
Two main challenges in manufacturing microlens array are identified: how to obtain
a microlens array with good uniformity in a large area and how to produce the microlens array
on a curved surface? In order to effectively achieve control of the geometry of a microlens,
indirect methods involving the use of 3D molds and replication technologies are suggested.
Further development of ultraprecision machining technology is needed to reduce the surface
fluctuation by considering the dynamics of machine tool in tool path planning.
Natural compound eyes are extensively prominent in the biological optical systems
of many diurnal insects or deep-water crustaceans, and such eyes consist of a mosaic of
hexagonal ommatidia that work as tiny optical units. Unlike single aperture eyes, natural
compound eyes are characterized as having extremely large field of view angles, low aberration
and distortion, high temporal resolution and infinite depth of field. However, the compound eye
image system has intrinsic low resolution and sensitivity. The image resolution is subject to both
the number and size of the ommatidia. If the image resolution of compound eyes increases to the
same level as the human aperture eye, the radius of the overall lens would be at least 1 meter.
Although the image resolution and sensitivity of compound eyes are relatively low, microlens
arrays, the artificial counterpart of natural compound eyes, still have crucial potential in a
variety of applications in image systems, under the condition that high-resolution is not always
required.
For example, microlens array are more suitable in the extremely miniaturized
imaging systems and 3D light field cameras. In addition, the high quality microlens arrays were
applied in color imaging systems, 3D image acquisition systems and fingerprint identification
systems. Since the 198Os, the fabrication of microlens array is realized by different methods,
such as Micro-electromechanical Systems (MEMS) based technologies and ultraprecision
machining technologies. However, little work has been focused on the comparison of these
methods in terms of the surface finish, form error and the efficiency of production. One of the
major challenges in the fabrication of the microlens array is the fabrication and assembly
accuracy in a large area. As the image resolution of a compound eye optical system is increased
with the number of microlens and the radius of each microlens unit, enlarging the overall size
of a microlens array can make up the deficiency. However, to achieve the required uniformity
in a large area is very difficult. Another challenge for microlens fabrication is producing
microlens array on a flexible layer or a curved surface.
The curved artificial compound eye is similar to the eye of the fruit fly Drosophila,
which is more compatible and has a larger Field of View (FOV). Such curved compound eye
imaging systems may have great potential in terrestrial aerial vehicles, visual reality systems,
surveillance etc. Image detectors, such as conventional complementary metal-oxide-
semiconductor (COMS) and charge-coupled device (CCD), are planar and not suitable for
curved image systems. Recent developments in flexible technologies enable the formation of
microlens arrays on flexible substrates which are bent to a spherical surface. Similar to the
problem in the fabrication of planar compound eye, the requirement of precise alignment of the
photodetector and microlens is hard to achieve.

[17]
Principle of Compound Eyes

In nature, compound eyes can be categorized into 2 types, e.g., apposition


compound eyes and superposition compound eyes, as shown in Figure 1. In natural apposition
compound eyes, the light through each ommatidia is received by only one photo receptor. In
contrast, every photo receptor in the superposition compound eye is able to acquire light from
several ommatidia.
Therefore, superposition eyes are much more light-sensitive, and more suitable for
deep-water crustaceans living in dim light. However, the main drawbacks of superposition
eyes are the aberrations as the consequence of the combination of light from different
ommatidia. Therefore, the artificial compound eyes are mainly of the apposition form. In most
of artificial compound eye optical systems, microlens array which is the counterpart of
ommatidia, is arranged on a plane (Figure 2) to fit with CCD and CMOS. Moreover, the
fabrication process of microlens array on a plane is much simpler.

For each unit of the microlens array, the geometric size is determined by the pitch
(D), the height (h), the radius of curvature (Ru) and contact angle (θ), shown in Figure 3. These
parameters can be measured through optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy as well
as contact profilometry. The quality of the microlens often is denoted by the numerical aperture
(NA), surface roughness and array uniformity.
Applications
Microlens arrays can be integrated into a light field camera to achieve the function
of “take photo and then focus” and obtain an image with both large FOV and aperture.
Figure shows the current light field of cameras, including the camera arrays
[18]
developed by Stanford; Integrated lens array designed by the Adobe company light field
camera and microscope developed by Lytro.
3D light field camera produced by Raytrix and compound eye camera module
developed by the Toshiba company. Compared with the camera array based devices, the
microlens based devices have more potential in the market because of their light and compact
structure. Such microlens array is mounted between the main lens and the light sensor,
changing the light path. Figure shows the experimental setup and the image acquired by the
camera, having a compound eye microlens array fabricated by single point diamond turning
and injection molding. Figure shows the images processed by the digital refocus algorithm. To
our knowledge, although 3D images can be obtained, however, the resolution of image
obtained from current light field camera (less than 12OO × 9OO pixels) is much lower than the
single-lens reflex camera.

[19]
7. Analyze the fabrication steps in Parylene surface micro machined pressure sensor.
The surface micromachining process and the use of metal as strain gauges
completely eliminate the need to use thin films silicon or substrates, thus reducing the cost of
development and the cost of final devices.
Parylene Surface Micromachined Pressure Sensor
The basic design of a surface micromachined Parylene membrane with integrated
resistors is shown in figure. The membrane, circular as shown, as elevated from the substrate
surface by a distance of O.5 to 3Oµm. strain gauge resistors for sensing membrane displacement
are typically placed along ht periphery of the membrane, as depicted in figure. Metal films can
serve as piezoresistors in place of doped polycrystalline silicon.
However, one disadvantage lies in the fact that the resistivity of thin film metal is
much smaller compared with that of polycrystalline silicon. In order to achieve appreciable
magnitude of resistance, these resistors are zigzagged, consisting of alternating radial segments
and tangential ones. The redial segments are primarily responsible for the displacement sensing.
When a vertical force or pressure is applied on the membrane, the membrane will be deformed to
induce in – plane stress in the radial direction which is sensed by radial segments of the strain
gauge resistors.

Major design variables of a membrane device include the diameter and thickness of
the membrane, the height of the underlying cavity, and the resistance of thin film resistors. A
successful design must take into consideration of processing and performance needs
simultaneously. For example, to avoid unwanted membrane collapse and sticking to the substrate,
it is generally desirable for a membrane is overly small, it may not have enough area to
accommodate appreciable resistance from embedded metal resistors. Increasing the cavity height
(and membrane clearance) will generally cause difficulties with electrical continuity front eh top of
the membrane to the substrate level; there are also practical difficulties with building thick
sacrificial layer.
a. A layer of photoresist is spin coated on the front surface of a substrate and patterned
photolithographically. The spin – on photo resist is cured in a convection oven, first at 6O oC
for 5min (to remove edge beads) and then at 11OoC for 1 min. the patterned photoresist will
reflow slightly during post – development bake
b. Optionally, the photoresist can be selectively thinned neat etch/sealing holes
c. A 1 µm – thick Parylene thin films is then deposited on top of the wafer surface
[20]
d. The Parylene is subsequently coated with a 15O – nm –thick AI thin film, which is then
patterned photolithographically
e. Oxygen plasma etch is used, with the thin film AI as the mask, to remove the exposed
Parylene and to reach underlying hard substrate.
f. A layer of photoresist is spin coated following the removal of the thin film metal. The top
profile of the photo resist after curing and reflow is much smoother than the slope in
Parylene
g. A global oxygen plasma etch is performed to etch the photoresist
h. After the edge profile is adjusted, a layer of 2OO – nm – thick Au is deposited and
patterned on top of the Parylene thin film.
i. The thickness of short tangential segments are made thicker by depositing an additional
layer of metal using the lift – off process
j. The entire device is then coated with another 8 - µm – thick Parylene layer
k. A global plasma etch is performed to pattern the newly deposited Parylene film. This
exposes end regions of etch hole and also reopens the contact pads
l. The photoresist sacrificial layer inside the cavity is removed using acetone
m. At the opening of each etch hole, two fronts of Parylene will grow from opposite surfaces
and eventually meet to seal the cavity interior
n. The authors performed another sequence of masking and etching to reopen the bonding
pads regions

[21]

S-ar putea să vă placă și