KARST MORPHOLOGY AND STRUCTURAL CONTROL IN

KINTA LIMESTONE

MOHAMAD HAFIZUDDIN BIN MOHD SUKRI

PETROLEUM GEOSCIENCE
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI PETRONAS
SEPTEMBER 2018
 Karst Morphology and Structural Control in Kinta Limestone

by

Mohamad Hafizuddin Bin Mohd Sukri

21394

Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of

the requirements for the
Bachelor of Technology (Hons)
(Petroleum Geoscience)

DECEMBER 2018

Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS

32610 Bandar Seri Iskandar
Perak Darul Ridzuan
 CERTIFICATION OF APPROVAL

Karst Morphology and Structural Control in Kinta Limestone

by

Mohamad Hafizuddin Bin Mohd Sukri

21394

A project dissertation submitted to the

Petroleum Geoscience Programme
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY (HONS)
(PETROLEUM GEOSCIENCE)

Approved by,

__________________________
(Dr Haylay Tsegab Gebretsadik)

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI PETRONAS

BANDAR SERI ISKANDAR, PERAK

December 2018
 CERTIFICATION OF ORIGINALITY

This is to certify that I am responsible for the work submitted in this project, that the original
work is my own except as specified in the references and acknowledgements, and that the
original work contained herein have not been undertaken or done by unspecified sources or
persons.

_______________________________________
MOHAMAD HAFIZUDDIN BIN MOHD SUKRI
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………………...i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT………………..…………………………………………………ii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION…………………..…….………………………....1
1.1 Background of Study……………………..….………………...2
1.2 Problems Statements…………...………………...…………....5
1.3 Objectives…………...……………………….……………..…6
1.4 Scope of Study……………………………………..…………..6
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………... 7
2.1 Geology of Peninsular Malaysia………….…………………....7
2.2 Tectonic Evolution of Peninsular Malaysia…................……... 9
2.3 Paleozoic Formation in the Western Zone................................12
2.4 Geological Provinces of Kinta Valley……….....................…. 14
2.5 Development of the Karst phenomena………………………..17
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY…………………..….………………………….20
3.1 Project Workflow………………...………………………..…20
3.2 Desk Study………………....………..……………………….21
3.3 Geological Fieldwork……………………...…………………21
3.4 Field Data Study……………………………...………………22
3.5 Mapping……………………….……………………………..22
3.6 Structural Elemenet Analysis……...………...……………….23
3.7 Petrography Analysis………………………...…...............….23
3.8 Project Gantt Chart…………….…………......………………24
3.9 Project Milestone………………………………………….…25
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS…………………………………..26
4.1 Map of Study Area (Kek Lok Tong) …………………..……..26
4.1.1 Base Map…………………………….……………….26
4.1.2 Study Area Map……………………………….……...27
4.1.3 Geological Map……………………….……………...28
4.1.4 Cross Section………………..............................……..29
4.1.5 Topography Map……………………………………..30
4.2 Outcrop Observation (Kek Lok Tong) .....………...………….31
4.3 Structural Element Analysis (kek Lok Tong) ……...…………36
4.3.1 Rose Diagram………….……………………………..36
 4.3.2 Stereonet…………..…………………………………43
4.4 Petrography Analysis (Kek Lok Tong) ……….……………...44
4.5 Map of Study Area (Tambun) ......…………………………....45
4.5.1 Base Map………………………………………….….46
4.5.1 Study Area Map………………………………….…...47
4.5.1 Geological Map…………….………………………...48
4.6 Outcrop Observation (Tambun) ......……….…..…….……….49
4.7 Structural Element Analysis (Tambun) …..…..…...…………53
4.7.1 Rose Diagram………………………………………...53
4.7.2 Stereonet…………………..…………………………58
4.8 Petrography Analysis………………………………………...49

CHAPTER 5: CONSLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS…………………60

5.1 Conclusions…………………………………………………..60
5.2 Recommendations………………………………...............….60
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………...............…61
APPENDICES….…………………………………………………………………………...63
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Lost World of Tambun, Perak. 4º37’34’ N 101º09’21” E. Digital Globe 2017.
Google Earth…………………………………………………………………………………...3

Figure 1.2: Kek Lok Tong, Perak. 4º34’03’ N 113º02’15.68” E. Digital Globe 2017. Google
Earth…………………………………………………………………………………………...4

Figure 2.1: Simplified geological map of Peninsular Malaysia (The box shows the study
area). Extracted from Tate et al. (2009) ………………………………………………………8

Figure 2.2: Stratigraphic columns of Peninsular Malaysia which divided into Sibumasu
Teranne and East Malay Block (Sukhothai Arc). Extracted from Metcalfe (2000) …………..9

Figure 2.3: Cartoon depicting tectonic evolution of Malay Peninsula. Taken from Metcalfe
(2013) ………………………………………………………………………………………..11

Figure 2.4: Stratigraphy column of Paleozoic Formations of Peninsular Malaysia. Taken from
Foo
(1983) ………………………………………………………………………………………..12

Figure 2.5: Distribution of Paleozoic Stratigraphy unit of Peninsular Malaysia (The box
shows Northwest and Western Belt). Extracted from Foo (1983) ……………………….….13

Figure 2.6: Geological and structural map of the Kinta Valley. (Meng C.C and Pubellier M,
2015) …………………………………………………………………………………………16

Figure 3.1: Project Workflow……………………………………………………………...…20

Figure 4.1: Based Map of Study Area………………………………………………………..26

Figure 4.2: Study Area Map……………………………………………………………….…27

Figure 4.3: Geological Map of Study Area…………………………………………………..28

Figure 4.4: Cross Section of Study Area…………………………………………………….29

Figure 4.5: Topography map of the study area………………………………………………30

Figure 4.6: Outcrop 1………………………………………………………………………..31

Figure 4.7: Outcrop 2………………………………………………………………………..32

Figure 4.8: Outcrop 3………………………………………………………………………..33

Figure 4.9: Outcrop 4………………………………………………………………………..34

Figure 5.0: Outcrop 5………………………………………………………………………..35

Figure 5.1: Rose Diagram of fracture (outcrop 1) …………………………………………36

Figure 5.2: Rose Diagram of fracture (outcrop 2) ………………………………………...…37

Figure 5.3: Rose Diagram of fracture (outcrop 3) ……………………………………….…..38

Figure 5.4: Rose Diagram of fracture (outcrop 4) ………………………………………...…39

Figure 5.5: Rose Diagram of fracture (outcrop 5) …………………………………...………40

Figure 5.6: Rose Diagram of fracture (whole outcrop) ………………………….......………41

Figure 5.7: Rose Diagram of Bedding (whole outcrop) ……………………………………..42

Figure 5.8: Streonet for fracture at Kek Lok Tong (whole outcrop) ………………...………43

Figure 5.9: The thin section from specimen at outcrop 2………………………………...…..44

Figure 6.0: The thin section from specimen at outcrop 5…………………………………….45

Figure 6.1: Based Map of study area………………………………………………………....46

Figure 6.2: Study Area Map………………………………………………………………….47

Figure 6.3: Geological Map of study area……………………………………………………48

Figure 6.4: Outcrop 1………………………………………………………………….……..49

Figure 6.5: Outcrop 2……………………………………………………………………...…50

Figure 6.6: Outcrop 3…………………………………………………………………….…..51

Figure 6.7: Karst Tower……………………………………………………………………...52

Figure 6.8: Rose Diagram of fracture (outcrop 1) ……….………………………………......53

Figure 6.9: Rose Diagram of fracture (outcrop 2) ……………………………...……………54

Figure 7.0: Rose Diagram of fracture (outcrop 3) …………………………………………...55

Figure 7.1: Rose Diagram of fracture (all outcrop) …………………………………….……56

Figure 7.3: Rose diagram of a bedding (all outcrop) ………………………………...…...…57

Figure 7.3: Streonet for fracture at Tambun (all outcrop) ………………………………...…58

Figure 7.4: The thin section from the specimen at outcrop 3……………………………...…59
 ABSTRACT

This study represents about the karst morphology and structural control which is
conducted on Paleozoic sedimentary rocks at the Kinta Valley, Perak. Most of the previous
study have been focused more on geology of Kinta Valley. However, there are limited studies
regarding the karst morphology and structural control. The objectives of the study are firstly,
to find out the controlling factors which affect the geomorphology of the Kinta Limestone.
Next, to determine the relationship between tectonic activity and geomorphology of the Kinta
Limestone. Lastly, to produce a geomorphological map detailing all structure, geological and
topographic characteristics. In this thesis, plots of the collected data in streonet and rose
diagram to identify the fracture trends of the study area and relate the fracture trends with the
regional tectonic history are presented. Both study area Kek Lok Tong and Lost World of
Tambun are consisted of partially metamorphosed outcrops. Furthermore, most of the fracture
network in these areas have a more than 2 set of fractures. The orientation of fractures has been
studied based on the measurement of strike and dip of the fractures, observation on the pattern
of the fractures and bed geometry. The existence of the structural deformation of rock such as
the folding structures and conjugate fractures were the evidence for the process of tilting and
uplifting which occurred at the study area during Late Triassic to early Jurassic where a strong
compression event occurred together with granitic intrusion. The results of this study show that
the rocks had been exposed to E-W compression and the most prominent orientation of the
fractures are strike to NW-SE.

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, praised be to Allah SWT, the Almighty, for the blessing me with
the chance, forte and motivation in completing the final year project. I also would like to
express my highest gratitude to my supervisor Dr Haylay Tsegab and my co-supervisor Dr
Benjamin Sautter for their endless guide and support. Their advices, guidance and constant
supervision had help me to carry out this project without a hitch, and it helps me in term of
getting used to and understanding the hardship in carrying out a research to produce a research
paper. Not to forget, my deepest appreciation to coordinators of this course, Madam Nor
Syazwani and Mr. Abdul Halim for assisting us on report writing and FYP guidance.

Besides, my special thanks to my classmate for their continuous support who are always
there to help and collaborate with each other in the process of completing this final year project.
Last but not least, my special gratitude towards my parents and family for their endless moral
and management support that helps me a lot in completing this final year project. Thank you
and I appreciate so much all your kindness and support.

ii
 INTRODUCTION

This project required the author to describe the karst morphology and structural control
study in the Kinta Limestone in the middle of the Perak region of Kinta Valley. The author will
undergo a field visit and work to give an overview and exposure to a fundamental
understanding of the principles of geomorphology characterization of palaeozoic carbonate and
the role of structures in the development of karst features. During the field work, geological
features on a medium scale will depend on their length and the author must interpret these
terms of the relationship between geomorphology and its history of post-depositional formation.

Studies of geomorphology have been carried out to understand the structural control
that develops the karst features of the formation of Kinta limestone. The Kinta Valley has a
widespread calcareous occurrence. It is triangular in form and bounded in the west by the
Kledang Range and in the east by the Main Range (Yassin et al., 2013). It has numerous
limestone hills of various sizes known as ' mogote,' with caves and caves adorned with beautiful
karstic morphology, such as giant stalactites and stalagmites. Sloping calcareous hills have
been formed by the dissolution of carbonate rocks and these hills have many joints and fractures.
The hill bases are usually swampy and clamps can also be seen due to dissolution.

“The main lithology in the study area of the Kinta Valley is the presence of massive,
heavily joined and fractured limestone bodies. In a cave in the Gunung Rapat area, a located
highly weathered shale was also observed. The shale was found at the bottom of a massive
limestone body. Joints and fractures are common features with two to four joint sets in
limestone bodies. The Kinta Valley limestone was named the Kinta Limestone Formation by
Foo (1983). The Kinta limestone age ranges from Devonian to Permian and has been deposited
in a shallow marine environment (Sutharalingam, 1968).

1
1.1 Background of Study

“The Kinta valley is in the middle of the Perak state. The shape of the Kinta Valley
extends from north to south and is 50 km long, 8-21 km wide, indicating that the valley is wide
as it descends to the south (Kassa,2012). The valley is bordered to the west by the Kledang
Range and to the east by the Main Range, which in topography formed a reverse V shape. The
limestone hills that divide the valley are believed to be of Carboniferous–Permian age (Ingham
& Bradford, 1960) or Silurian to Permian age (Peng, 2009) and are at an extreme stage, as
characterized by their karst caves and dolines (Kassa, Pierson et al., 2012).

“It is believed that the basement of the valley mainly consists of limestone, which is
currently covered by loose sediment. There are many karstic limestone outcrops on the eastern
side of the Kinta Valley, some of which are on the verge of disappearance as they are used as
raw materials for cement factories and construction purposes. The trendy south-southwest
valley is covered by crystalline limestone and locally important argillaceous. They are folded
and often dipped and reversed steeply.

Besides granite and limestone, Kinta Valley is underlain by clastic sedimentary rocks
such as interbedded sandstone and mudstone and shale. Hot molten granite intruded into the
country rocks and occupied the valley during Late Triassic. The heat emitted by the granite
magma caused by nearby lithologies to be metamorphosed. In this case, limestone transformed
into hard marble and shales to schist. The Kledang and the Main Range are massive batholith
and commonly highly fractured.

2
 Figure 1.1: Lost World of Tambun, Perak. 4º37’34’ N

101º09’21” E. (source: Google Earth)

“The author covers two places, including Kek Lok Tong and Lost World of Tambun.
First of all, Tambun area is known for its natural hot spring park. The karstic calcareous hills
with steep cliff faces in the area of Tambun are probably tight folds near the intrusion of granite.
The limestone is not incised by the granite, as is often the case with a normal intrusion. Strong
folds were formed in calcareous beds due to strong compression or collision between
calcareous and asperities (intrusion) probably caused by the elevation of granite magma. The
compression caused the calcareous beds to be shortened by folding.

“Just a few kilometers from the intrusions, the lining of the calcareous stone was not
greatly affected by the intrusion and was dipped gently. The competence of the calcareous steel
caused the tips of the folds to be easily broken, which resulted in the beds no longer displaying
a bending feature, as it is difficult to identify folds in the satellite image. In Tambun 's Lost
World, an exquisite water theme park about 15 kilometers east of Ipoh, there is a unique feature
called " Tambun 's Needle. " This is a thin, vertical karst tower, a few meters in diameter, 20
meters above the valley floor (Meng, Sautter et al).

3
 Figure 1.2: Kek Lok Tong, Perak. 4º34’03’ N

113º02’15.68” E. (source: Google Earth)

The second area is Kek Lok Tong in the northern part of Gunung Rapat and in the
southeastern part of Ipoh City. The highest peak has a height of 318 m and a basal area of 4.6
km2. The limestone in Kek Lok Tong is interpreted as partially marble because the cave's
location is very close to granite rocks and has already been metamorphosed. In plain view, it
is highly irregular in shape, with many appendices rising like amoeba from the whole hill.
Geomorphologically, Gunung Rapat shows a topography of the cockpit type with many peaks
and a number of collapse, dry and doline levels of caves measured around 184,9 m, 138,4 m,
102,4 m, 87,7 m and 80 m above average sea level in this area. The overall floor level of Kek
Lok Tong is about 86 m above msl (Fatihah and Beng 2000).

4
 “Kek Lok Tong cave opens in the northern part when Gunung Rapat leaves south in a
large wang where the western face is eroded. The slightly curved trend of the chamber is about
160˚. It is a small cave that is thought to be the remnant of a much larger cave that was eroded.
The entire length of this passage shows that it is dissolved by turbulent allogeneic water, the
caves of Kek Lok Tong have a characteristic like non-sea deposits and probably come from
streams or drainages. A rock window at a height of approximately 105 m from the level of the
plain is located northwest of Kek Lok Tong's northern entrance, the presence of a number of
bells on the cave roof without evidence of fractures indicates that these could have originated
from corrosion by condensation from warmer allogeneic water sources flowing through the
caves (Ford and Williams, 1989).

1.2 Problem Statements

The Kinta Limestone has been affected by multiphase deformations superimposed with
karstification. However, the role of the structural deformation on the development of the karst
morphology in the Kinta Limestone is not well assessed. This project is intended to evaluate
the controlling factors for the development of karstification in the Kinta Limestone, Kinta
Valley.

A few questions can be raised.

• What is the controlling factor of the geological features in the Kinta limestone?
• How does the tectonic activity affect the geological features of the Kinta Limestone?
• Whether the brittle and ductile deformation reflect the uplifting and erosion activity in
the Kinta Valley and its morphology of Kinta Limestone?

To obtain the surface and outcrop data from the study area near the Kinta Valley, Perak
must undertake a fieldwork including the collection and analysis of rock samples. This provides
a study of the geological features and structural geology of the field of study.

5
1.3 Objectives

The objectives of the research are:

• To find out the controlling factor that affecting the geomorphology of the Kinta
Limestone.
• To determine the relationship between tectonic activity and geomorphology of the
Kinta Limestone.
• To produce a geomorphological map detailing all structure, geological and topography
characteristics.

1.4 Scope of Study

The scope of study for this project can be simplified into several parts. Firstly, to
conduct research on geomorphology and structural control regarding Kinta Limestone
formation in the Kinta Valley which is at Kek Lok Tong and Tambun area of study.
Furthermore, to collect the samples and taking measurements and data, such as strike and dip
and size of outcrop during field visit. Next, in the scope of mapping, a geological map of the
study area will be produce based on available geological map of study area and field data
collected during fieldwork. Lastly, generate multiple diagram of the area, such as rose diagram
and streonet for the structural analysis of the study area.

6
2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Geology of Peninsular Malaysia

“Peninsular Malaysia is an integral part of the Eurasia plate, the South-East Asian part
which also known as Sundaland or Sunda Shield (Hutchison, 1989). According to Lee (2009),
the Peninsular Malaysia can be divided into four geological domains which are Northwest,
West, Central and East domain. Each domain has its own distinctive characteristics and
geological development. While, Bentong-Raub suture zone becomes the boundary of these
domains which extended from south to north. Other than that, sedimentation regime of
Peninsular Malaysia can have divided into two different regimes which is Western regime, also
known as Cambrian-Permian Succession and Eastern regime or known as Carbo-Permian
Strata (Foo, 1990).

The western belt can also be divided into two parts, the northwest and the Kinta-
Malacca sectors. The northwestern sector is made up of clastic, limestone and few volcanic
rocks. Meanwhile, sediments are predominantly argillaceous and calcareous sediments in the
Kinta-Malacca sector, followed by limestone deposition in the Kinta region and in Kuala
Lumpur, where the sediments are the Devonian-Permian age.

As for the central belt, mostly Permian–Triassic clastic, volcanic and limestone. In the
formation of the foothills of the Main Range Granite, sediments are of coarse clastic,
argillaceous sediments dear to the pre-early Devonian, and the entire belt has been
metamorphosed regionally. Schist, amphibolite and phyllites are exposed in the northern part
of the central belt. Most sediments in the central belt are of the Permian–Cretaceous age.

The Eastern Belt is mainly underlain by the clastic and volcanic carboniferous and
permian. Regional metamorphism occurred during the late Palaeozoic period, followed by the
deposition of the conglomerates of Murau and Redang. During the late Triassic orogenic event
on the pan-peninsula, the Eastern Belt was raised. A slightly dipping and younger set of
continental deposits was deposited after the event. They were elevated late in Cretaceous.

7
Figure 2.1: Simplified geological map of Peninsular Malaysia (The box shows the study
area). Extracted from Tate et al. (2009)

8
 Figure 2.2: Stratigraphic columns of Peninsular Malaysia which divided into Sibumasu
Teranne and East Malay Block (Sukhothai Arc). Extracted from Metcalfe (2000)

2.2 Tectonic Evolution of The Peninsular Malaysia

The Malay Peninsula is divided into three separate areas, the West Belt, the East Belt
and the Central Belt. In terms of stratigraphy, structure, magmatism, geophysical signatures
and geological evolution, all three belts differ (Metcalfe 2013). The Malay Peninsula consists
of two continental terranes, the western Sibumasu Terrane and the eastern Sukhothai Arc. The
Western Belt is interpreted as Sibumasu and the Eastern and Central Belt as Sukhothai. The
suture zone of Bentong-Raub separates these two blocks.

The Palaeo-Tethys Ocean started to spread in the early Devonian period. This led to the
separation of the Indochina block from Gondwana, which includes eastern Malaysia. At that
time, Sibumasu was part of Gondwana 's southern passive margin of Palaeo-Tethys (Metcalfe,
2013). The rift on the Gondwana margin during the Carboniferous to Early Permian period was
simultaneous with the beginning of the subduction of Palaeo-Tethys north under Indochina-
South China and the development of the Sukhothai Arc on the Indochina margin. The
9
Spreading of Palaeo-Tethys stopped and the ocean began to contract due to the subduction in
the north. The expansion of the Meso-Tethys Ocean and the subduction of the Palaeo-Tethys
Ocean separated the Sibumasu from Gondwana. In the meantime, the Sukhothai Arc continued
to develop in eastern Malaya with andesitic volcanism and was subsequently separated from
Indochina by a narrow back-arc basin and granitoids related to I-Type subduction (Metcalfe,
2013).

Sibumasu collided with the Sukhothai Arc during the latest Permian to the early Triassic
period. At that time, the subduction of the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean had already stopped and the
resulting crustal thickening developed the Main Range S - type granitoids due to the collision
of Sibumasu with the Sukhothai Arc. According to Metcalfe (2013), the S-type granitoid
generation was also supported by the increase of hot asthenosphere caused by slab breakage.

The front edge of Sibumasu developed a force-deep basin during the collision between
Sibumasu and the Sukhothai Arc. This basin, with its source of deposition from the
accretionary complex, became Semanggol Formation, in which marine hemipelagic deer,
turbidic sandstone and conglomerates were formed (Metcalfe, 2013). The collision between
Sibumasu and Sukhothai Arc lasted from Late Permian to the end of the Triassic period. The
Malay Peninsula had become its present Late Triassic formation.

10
Figure 2.3: Cartoon depicting tectonic evolution of Malay Peninsula.

Taken from Metcalfe (2013)

11
2.3 Paleozoic Formation in the Western Zone

“According to Foo (1983), the Silurian to Permian Kinta Limestone, the Terolak
Formation and the Kati Formation in Perak are the Upper Paleozoic rocks which grow along
the western zone. The Lower Paleozoic Dinding and Hawthornden Scists, the Kuala Lumpur
Limestone and the Permian Kenny Hill Carboniferous in Kuala Lumpur and Selangor are
among them. The calcareous and argillites of the Kinta Valley are classified as the Kinta
Limestone and Baling Limestone, while the western clastic rocks along the Perak River are
grouped under the Kati Foramtion. The formation of western zones is mainly poorly dated
because thermal metamorphism in most sequences has affected the fossil (Foo 1983).

In general, the Kubang Pasu Formation and the Singa Formation exposed in
Langkawi, Kedah and Perlis and the Kati Formation in Perak and the Kenny Hill Formation in
Selangor are Paleozoic clastic formations of the western Peninsular of Malaysia (Foo, 1983
and Hutchison, 2009).

Figure 2.4: Stratigraphy column of Paleozoic Formations of Peninsular Malaysia.

Taken from Foo (1983).

12
Figure 2.5: Distribution of Paleozoic Stratigraphy unit of Peninsular Malaysia (The box
shows Northwest and Western Belt). Extracted from Foo (1983).

13
2.4 Geological Provinces of Kinta Valley

Kinta Valley which is situated at the focal point of western Peninsular Malaysia, is
limited by latitude 4º 15´N - 4º 50´N and longitude 100º 55´E - 101º 20´E. It forms a V - shaped
valley open to the south and bordered by the Main Range granite massif to the east and the
west or Kledang Range to the west. The granite forming the mountains dates back to the
Triassic era (Cobbing, E.J. et al., 1992). There are five main Kinta Valley lithologies that are
interbedded with sandstone and mudstone, shale, calcareous, granite and alluvium. The oldest
formation is sandstone and mudstone, which probably formed in the Devonian age. It consisted
of structure of tilting and fracture. During the Carboniferous period, shale was then deposited
in the Lower Permian Age and mostly found in the southern part of the Kinta Valley. Many of
the small karstic hills stand out from the flat alluvium deposits in the eastern part of Kinta
Valley and adjacent to the base of the Main Range. Based on the record of fossils, calcareous
formed during the Permian age after shale deposition. Karst features like caves, dolines and
pinnacles formed by limestone dissolution. Following the deposition of the calcareous stone, a
tectonic event occurred in which hot molten granite entered the country rock during the Triassic
period, causing lithological deformation. The alluvium deposit will later cover most of the
Kinta erosion product from surrounding country rocks (Meng et al., 2014).

“The limestone hills are the remains of large beds that form part of large Palaeozoic
carbonate platform complexes covering parts of South East Asia. Paleozoic limestone outcrop
area spread intermittently across the Malaysian peninsula. The original limestone beds in the
Kinta Valley were carboniferous and eroded (Ingham and Bradford 1960). Deposited more
than 250 million years ago and buried in great depth, lithified and eventually brought to the
surface by tectonic forces, presumably in the Mesozoic region, the Palaeozoic limestone of the
Kinta Valley has long been exposed to a humid tropical climate that dissolves the limestone.
The hills are the only visible part of the palaezoic limestone layers underlying the tertiary to
recent alluvial deposits throughout and beyond the Kinta valley.

According to Ingham & Bradford (1960), the rocks of the Kinta Valley were grouped
into a number of calcareous and sandy series, granite and alluvium units. The calcareous series
are mainly made of limestone with some clastic sedimentary and metamorphic rocks " while
the sandy arrangement is made of quartzite interspersed with shale groups. Suntharalingam
(1968) considered the fossils in the West Kampar calcareous stone and proposed a Middle
14
Devonian to the Middle Permian period. The limestone paleo-depositional condition of the
Kinta Valley has been translated as a slant related to a large stage in moderately deep water in
the Late Palaeozoic region (Person et al., 2009). This understanding depended on the proximity
of daintily sleeping with or overlapping micritical limestone groups characterized by low
vitality and dropping structures at the base of the slope near the ocean.
16).

“The sedimentary rocks of the Kinta Valley were tilted, generally following the nearby
granite strikes (Ingham and Bradford, 1960). Isoclinal folds and overfolds are mainly found in
the eastern part of the valley (Ingham and Bradford, 1960) and must be recognized from syn-
sedimentary structures or slumps once in a while. Limestone and granite joints are excessively
unpredictable, making it impossible to take a strong understanding into account (Ingham and
Bradford, 1960). In the early 1970s, lineament considerations by Gobbett (1971) of the Kinta
Valley distinguished a reliable example of the introduction of fractures. The prevailing fracture
sets are NW-SE and ENE-WSW strike, which show an E - W pressure approximately.

The Kinta Valley is also well known for its karstic calcareous hills (Kassa, 2012). The
development of karst features in the Kinta Valley was due to prolonged dissolution of carbonate.
The dissolution is caused by the percolation of both allogeneic and autogeneous water.
Allogeneic water comes from adjacent granite hills, while autogeneous water comes from
meteoric water percolation. Even a river controls the development of karst morphology. Caves
usually formed at the foot of the tower karst are one of the karst features that existed in Kinta
Valley. The majority of the cave chambers in the Kinta Valley are caves that usually formed at
the foot of the Karst tower. Most of the cave chambers in Kinta Valley indicate a long passage
through the cave network before collapsing. According to Ingham & Bradford, the depositional
environment of Kinta Valley was shallow in the sea, consisting of carbonaceous terrestrial
sediment, mostly clear, with a warm climate and an intercalation of argillaceous lenses with
calcareous rocks (Kassa, 2012).

15
Figure 2.6: Geological and structural map of the Kinta Valley.
(Meng C.C and Pubellier M, 2015)

16
2.5 Development of the Karst phenomena

In the Kinta Valley there are a number of important elements that play a major role in
the development of the karst phenomenon. In geological history, these elements worked
together under several conditions. Under these conditions, the karst has developed, which is
the tectonic condition of the past period, varying climatic conditions through the past period
from humid tropical to seasonal savanna and arid seasonal conditions, constant water supply
conditions from rainfall in most seasons and, lastly, flood conditions in the Kinta valley form
an area of active fluvial activity.

“Intense fracturing affected the limestone of the Kinta Valley. Several lineaments
have been recorded and their main orientation in the NNW-SSE seems to be. A number of
geologists have suggested that major karstifications are controlled by the structures in the
areas when they occur. The structural geology in the limestone area of the Kinta valley is
dominated by NNW-SSE faults and folds, which give the landscape a noticeable grain, in
particular for the orientation of isolated, steep, residual hills (mogots). Composed of either
calcareous, marble, marbling or dolomite limestone and surrounded by almost flat alluvial
plains in the central part of the valley (Kassa 2012).

Vertical and subvertical joints and defects in marbled limestone are the main weakness
lines. The subsurface karst is characterized by the formation of rounded top pinnacles and
irregularly shaped sinkholes. One important aspect of the sub - surface karst in the study area,
especially in the Kinta valley, is the presence of one or more concordant levels of the rounded
top pinnacles known as plate formation levels. The sub - surface karst is believed to have
been developed under the cover of alluvial sediments in the geological past (Dian, 1996). The
views that the early stage of pinnacle development is due to the differential resistance of the
physical weathering of the rocks and the role of geological structures (bedding planes, joints,
fault etc.) lead to the formation of pinnacles under the cold climates to be developed in Tibet).
The calcareous depth of a few meters from the surface of the ground can be identified from
the depth of the pinnacle.

17
 The authors have investigated many studies on the acidity of the rainwater over the past
14 years. The most imperative conclusion is that increased rainfall and rainwater acidity in
Malaysia and other countries in Southeast Asia are due to increased amounts of liquefied
carbon dioxide and other pollution in the last few decades of the 20th and 21st centuries. The
Air Pollutant Index (API) levels ranged in the sky from 112 to 300 (very unhealthy) from
various states in the peninsula of Malaysia.

This is the result of volcanic and tectonic activity in the Pacific fire ring, which is the
most active in the Philippines and Indonesia. A spectacular volcanic eruption in the
submarine spreads large columns of ash, smoke, gas and steam thousands of feet into the
Pacific Ocean. Liquefied carbon dioxide also results in the emission of large volumes of
smoke and haze pollutants into the atmosphere due to land clearing activities such as the
burning of large jungles and forest areas. Automotive exhaust emissions and factory waste
emissions also contribute significantly to air pollution. All of these events have a significant
effect on the development and rapid dissolution of carbonate rocks.

The authors also believe that most of the largest cave and channels in the marbled
limestone of the Kinta valley are due to the sulfuric acid reaction (H2SO4) with carbonate
rocks, which can also be one of the corrosion factors in karst formation. This mechanism can
also play a role, as surface waters rich in O2 penetrate the ground, bringing oxygen that reacts
with Cassiterite and sulfide. Sulfuric acid then reacts with calcium carbonate leading to
increased erosion in the formation of limestone. The covering layers of alluvial deposits over
marbled limestone in the Kinta valley contain soil tubing or canals. Tin (Cassiterite) was
accumulated in these alluvial channels or pipes, which were washed down from the granite
ranges and carried by rivers, as previously mentioned, which contain sulfur in their chemical
deposits, have a significant impact on the development and rapid dissolution of carbonate
rocks.

18
 Limestone hills exposed over the valley, which dissolved because of water within
geological time. Depending on the complexity of its forms, two groups of tower karst are
composed of either calcareous, marble, marbled limestone or dolomites and are surrounded
by almost flat alluvial plains in the central part of the valley. The cockpit towers or isolated
towers with steep walls are separated from other hills and contain a single peak, representing
the remnants of much larger hills dissolved by meteoric water that percolates vertically or
vertically through the joints or defects. Due to the collapse of the walls, the steep slopes in
the tower and the tropical pit are formed. The other type is a complex tower consisting of a
group of hills with a few peaks and partially separated by sinkhole from each other (Ingham
and Bradford, 1960).

19
3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Project Workflow

This research can be divided into three parts which are pre-fieldwork part, fieldwork
part, and data analysis part. Figure 3.1 shows the flow chart for this study. Workflow
illustrated below are the major achievement that are identified by the author for:

Desk Studies

Geological Fieldwork

Field Study
Laboratory Analysis

Structural Element
Analysis Petrography Analysis

Geological Mapping

Interpretation and Discussion

Conclusion and Recommendation

Final Report

Figure 3.1: Project Workflow

20
3.2 Desk study

The general information about the structural control and geomorphology of Kinta
Limestone had been searched and gathered from the published journals and articles. The study
is important in gaining all geological related knowledge and information of the study area
including the geomorphology and structural control of Kinta Limestone. It is very important to
begin with preliminary study because later on the concept and idea will be used to discuss and
analyses the outcome. Before fieldwork can be done, few things must be done such literature
review and fieldwork planning. This step is important to get the overview of the research and
the general workflow of the project. It also helps to determine the problem statements,
objectives, location of study area and suitable method for the research.

3.3 Geological Fieldwork

Two area in Kinta Valley has been chosen for this project, which Kek Lok Tong and
Lost World of Tambun. Initial planning and preparation were carried out thoroughly before
proceeding to the field work studies. One of the purpose of the trip was to identify trekking
path of the study area and to identify potential outcrops for assessment. The collected
information about the study area will provided basic information about the field. Moreover,
discussion with supervisor were held to determine the data that need to be collected,
technique used in the field and type of lab analyses need to be done after fieldwork. Other
than that, base map and topography map of the study area were created and it was used to
determining the suitable outcrop location and also traverse map.

21
3.4 Field Data Study

Most contents of this research are depending on the field data collection as it is
sedimentology research. Therefore, field data collection is conducted in order to get accurate,
actual and resourceful field data. Few fieldworks will conduct in middle semester of FYP 1 to
collect the field data. The important equipment used in the field such as Brunton-compass,
geological hammer, hand lens, measuring tape, field book, stationery, GPS reader, range finder,
camera and map of study area.

During the fieldworks, all the important geological information such as lithology,
structure and bedding geometry will observe and recorded for each outcrop in the study area.
Data such as strike, dip angle and dip direction of bedding, fracture and folding will be taken
and marked on the map. Different type of rock for each outcrop will be taken and must be
tagged accordingly then details for each sample will documented.

Moreover, the rough sketching of the outcrop is used locate the any available structure
feature such as bedding orientation, fault position and sedimentary structure. Other than that,
the photograph and description of the outcrops will be taken along the samples during the
fieldwork to prevent any unwanted problems later.

3.5 Mapping

Mapping method is required to show the lithology changes in the study area in larger
scale and a geological data presentation that the most competent and used in various purposed.
It also a part of FYP 1 requirement. Mapping can be divided into 3 different stages, which is
pre-mapping, mapping (at the field) and post mapping. For the pre-mapping staged, few things
must be done such as analysis of images of study and topographic map, evaluation of landscape
and strike/dip of bedding, distribution of rock unit/formation and geological structure pattern,
make tentative geological map and traverse planning.

22
 After that, mapping will be done at the study area during the fieldwork. During the
mapping, few things must be take note such as the boundary of the rock, lithology of the area,
direction and coordinate of the outcrop, stratigraphy measurement, geological structure and
geomorphology. After collecting geological data from the field observation, it must be compare
to the available topography maps such as geological map, geomorphology map and topography
map. Then, the map can be produce by using mapping software like ArcGIS, CorelDraw, Surfer
15 etc. Maps that need to be produce by the end of this study is geological map, topography
map, geomorphology map and geological profile of the study area.

3.6 Structural Element Analysis

Measurements collected from fieldwork area used to produce a geological map

detailing. The fracture network taken will be analysed and determine using streonet software
to find the stereonet projection for pole and plane of fractures. It is crucial to understand the
orientation and density of the geological fractures. The rose diagram will then be produced
based on the strike and dip reading of the fracture.

3.7 Petrography Analysis

Petrography analysis or thin-section studies are a study of rock under the polarized-
light microscope or in other word: in microscopic level. The characteristics that need to be
observed under the microscope are the colour of the grain under plane-polarized and cross-
polarized light, shape and form, textural relationship, cleavage, relief, twinning and zoning.
This analysis will help to determine the mineralogy of the rock sample and the textural
relationship between the mineral grains. Moreover, it also helps describe the percentage of
mineral that present on the sample such as rock fragment, quartz, feldspar, matrix and cements
and by using this percentage it can determine nomenclature of the rock especially sandstone.
Then, the interrelationship between the grains must be determined and relating them to features
seen in the hand specimen and outcrop.

23
 3.8 PROJECT GANTT CHART

Final Year Project 1 (14 weeks) and Final Year Project 2 (14 weeks)

WEEK
FYP 1 FYP 2
TASK PROGRESS START END WEEKS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Literature review / background study 100% 14/5/18 14/12/18 28 *
Project planning and external parties arrangement 100% 14/5/18 24/5/18 2
Familiarise with Mapping software 100% 8/6/2018 28/7/2018 *1
Site visit and field data collection 100% 14/7/2018
Collect and analyse rock specimen 100% 14/7/2018
Produce thin section specimen (Petrography Lab) 100% 10/10/2018
Create geological map of the study area 100% *2
Interpretation and Discussion 100% *
Conclusion and Recommendation 100%
Submission of technical report, dissertation and VIVA 80% *

Indicator
* Milestones
Current Week
Plan
Completed

*1 Familiarise with the Mapping software

*2 Produce Geological Map for the study area

24
3.9 Project Milestones

Prelimentary study (W. 3)

• Literature review
Field Study (W. 10 & W. 18 )
•Outcrop observation
•Rock specimen description
•Data and sample gathering

Geological Mapping (W. 18)

•Based Map Lab Analysis (W. 19)
•Geological Map
•Topography Map •Thin section

Interpretation and Discussion (W. 23)

Conclusion &
recommendation (W.24)

VIVA and Submission of Dissertation (W. 28)

25
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

In this report, the result will be consisting of mapping, outcrop observation, structural element
analysis and petrography analysis. The mapping represented the accurate location and
description of the study area. Meanwhile, the outcrop observation helped to view the outcrop
in detail. Thin section analysis helped to determine the composition and mineral content of the
sample. Lastly, the structural element analysis where use the strike and dip data collected based
on fracture and bedding reading to make the rose diagram and stereonet.

4.1. Map of study area (Kek Lok Tong)

4.1.1 Based Map

Figure 4.1: Based Map of Study Area

26
4.1.2 Study Area Map

Figure 4.2: Study Area Map

At the Kek Lok Tong, the total of 5 outcrops are discovered which need to go through
the big cave of Kek Lok Tong to reach that area. At the outcrop, all the reading of the fracture
and bedding area taken for the structural analysis process. Furthermore, samples from each
outcrop were collected for the petrography or thin section analysis.

27
4.1.3 Geological Map

Figure 4.3: Geological Map of Study Area

Figure Above shows the geological map of study area where only one main lithology
can be observed at the study area. All the outcrop at the study area is consist of the limestone
where most of it had been quite weathered. There are also cross section on the map above which
show the elevation of the cut across at the particular location as shown above.

28
4.1.4 Cross Section

Figure 4.4: Cross Section of Study Area

29
4.1.5 Topography Map

Figure 4.5: Topography map of the study area

Figure above shows the topography map of the study area with the contour interval of
20 m. Most of the outcrop at the study area are in the altitude range between 50 to 70 m above
the sea level and only outcrop 5 is 90 m altitude above the sea level. The altitude of the outcrop
at the map above is not too accurate because the most of outcrop is surrounded by the height
altitude of karst which will affected the altitude data and will give an error in tracing the data
of the study area. The highest altitude of Kek Lok Tong area is more than 200 m above sea
level.
30
4.2 Outcrop Observation (Kek Lok Tong)

Along the traversing route, 5 main outcrops are identified. All 5 outcrops consist of
limestone. Traversing route quite flat and flexible and 3 of the outcrop were surrounded with
the beautiful pond on the center and 2 of the outcrop was located beside the cave’s entrance.
Further detail will be discussed based on each outcrop.

Fault

Figure 4.6: Outcrop 1

This outcrop has a horizontal length of 30 m and height about 60m with the recorded
coordinate are 04.55561º N and 101.12973º S. Rock observed in this outcrop consist of
limestone. Outcrop is quite weathered and is covered with some vegetations. This outcrop is
quite small compared with the other outcrops. The fractures and fault are well developed and
it can be seen clearly with the reverse fault at the center of the outcrop that might be due to the
compressional stress occur that area. The fracture reading is quite hard to get because some
parts of the outcrop is not accessible.
31
 Figure 4.7: Outcrop 2
Bedding

This outcrop located beside the outcrop 1 with a height of 15 m and length of 6m. The
outcrop is made up of white to grey colour of limestone. The outcrop is quite weathered and
the surrounding is filled with the dense vegetations. The bedding can be seen clearly at the
outcrop and the strike and dip reading of the bedding and fracture can easily to be taken. The
sample also easily can be taken because most of the part are accessible in this outcrop. Some
part of the outcrop has ironish colour due to weathering process occurred in that area. There
are 3 set of fractures can be found in this outcrop with the different direction.

32
 Figure 4.8: Outcrop 3

The coordinates of this outcrop are 04.55557º N and 101.13094º E. This outcrop quite
massive with the length of 100 m and the height of 70 m. This outcrop also moderately
weathered and heavily fractured which also consist of limestone. The bedding at this outcrop
can be clearly seen but the reading of the bedding and fracture is hard to get because most of
the part is not accessible. The dissolution of the limestone (calcium carbonate) occurred in this
outcrop. This is because the limestone is in contact with the water along the weak plane as it
undergoes the chemical weathering such as dissolution and forming very smooth surface and
features like stalactites and stalagmites. From this area, the structural elements such as fractures,
faults will play the important role in the karstification process.

33
 Figure 4.9: Outcrop 4

This outcrop is located at the right side of the entrance of Kek Lok Tong cave. The
recorded coordinates are 04.55561º N and 101.13042 E. This outcrop is heavily weathered and
rock in this area are mostly highly fracture with numerous joints sets. The sample is hard to
collect in this outcrop because of very weathered surface of rock. The bedding is hard to be
determine here because of too many sets of fractures that close the direction of bedding which
due to compressional stress occurred at that area and the upper part is mostly covered with
vegetation where the continuity of bedding cannot be clearly seen.

34
 Figure 5.0: Outcrop 5

This last outcrop is located at the left side of the entrance of the Kek Lok Tong cave.
The coordinates of this outcrop are 04.55931º N and 101.13081º E. The colour of limestone
bed in this area is a light pink-greyish colour. This outcrop houses a cave and contains
numerous stalactites and stalagmites. There a lot of fractures and bedding reading can be taken
here as mostly part of the outcrop is accessible. At the in front view of the outcrop, there is an
obvious displacement of bedding along the fault plane which this will indicate the presence of
the normal fault.

35
4.3 Structural Element Analysis (Kek Lok Tong)

4.3.1 Rose Diagram

σ1

σ3

σ3

σ1

Figure 5.1: Rose Diagram of fracture (outcrop 1)

For the outcrop 1, the author had measured about 50 readings of the fractures and the
data had been transfer to the rose diagram software to analyses the structural element in
determining the orientation pattern of the fracture at that area. Based on the rose diagram above,
the compressional force (σ1) acted at 150° from south direction while the extensional force (σ3)
acted at 60° from the north. The distribution of fracture value is quite well here that shows this
outcrop contain many sets of fracture system. This condition happens maybe because the
presence of the large reverse fault that will affect and also contribute to the formation of joint
and fracture. The dominant fractures orientation is toward NW-SE direction as shown above.

36
 σ1

σ3

σ3

σ1

Figure 5.2: Rose Diagram of fracture (outcrop 2)

Next, the outcrop 2 also got 50 readings had been taken for the structural analysis. The
rose diagram above has quite similar pattern as outcrop 1 and the value of the compressional
force (σ1) is also same which lies on the 330˚ and 150˚ while for extensional force (σ3) the
value is 60˚ and 240˚. This is maybe due to their location where not too far from each other
which has high chance to undergo the same condition for the formation of fracture. The trend
is NW-SE is which also the same direction of orientation.

37
 σ1 σ3

σ3 σ1

Figure 5.3: Rose Diagram of fracture (outcrop 3)

Based on the rose diagram above, the compressional force (σ1) acted at 135° from south
direction while the extensional force (σ3) acted at 45° from the north. The compressional force
occurs in the middle between the two-dominant fracture orientation at this outcrop where the
readings is 315˚ and 135˚ respectively. This show the outcrop contain many conjugate fracture
that form because of the two directional compression forces that happen at the same time and
because of that many fractures system was produced. As the orientation of the conjugate
fractures above are also from NW-SE, this can be the good evidence to prove the E-W
compression that occurs based on the structural history for that area experience that
compressional force.

38
 σ3

σ1

σ1
σ3

σ3

Figure 5.4: Rose Diagram of fracture (outcrop 4)

The data from outcrop 3 also shows that this outcrop having a conjugate fracture and
having many sets of fracture system. The rose diagrams above which its intensity shows the
direction of the fracture consists of two set of fracture system that which their value at both
range of dipping angle is very high. The compressional stress lies on the value of 275˚ and 95˚
while extensional stress 5˚ and 185˚. This shows that the value of maximum stress in this area
still in the NW-SE direction which show the same trend to others outcrop at Kek Lok Tong.

39
 σ1

σ3

σ3
σ1

Figure 5.5: Rose Diagram of fracture (outcrop 5)

The Outcrop 5 which the furthest outcrop location compared to the other outcrop which
located the other side of the cave also have the same orientation which is the towards NW-SE
direction with compressional stress lies on the value of 320˚ and 140˚ and perpendicular to
sigma 1 is sigma 3 which is the extensional stress that lies on the value 50˚ and 230˚. Mostly
the distribution of fracture at the extensional stress zone is zero or very low value at the Kek
Lok Tong outcrop that proves this location do not occur the extensional process. A few data
maybe because of the fault or other geological process occurs that give the effect of fracture
formation. The general trend at outcrop 5 also shows the NW-SE direction.

40
 S2 L σ3
S1L
σ1

S1R

S2R

S1R

σ1

σ3 S2L S1L

Figure 5.6: Rose Diagram of fracture (whole outcrop)

The total amount of fractures reading was taken is about 250 readings and all the
readings from the outcrop of Kek Lok Tong were combined together to make an outcome of
one result and produce one rose diagram ad above. Compressional force (σ1) acted at 130°
from south with the value of 310˚ and 130˚ direction, while the extensional force (σ3) acted at
40° from the north with the value of 40˚ and 220˚. For the overall data merged, the trend also
shows the same pattern which is to the NW-SE direction which this shows this study area
experience the E-W compression. Therefore, it can be stated that the stress field in the Kek Lok
Tong is coincide with the general trend of the Kinta Valley.

41
 Figure 5.7: Rose Diagram of Bedding (whole outcrop)

According to the rose diagram, the strike of the bedding is around 290° from the north
with dipping 40- 60° to Northen direction. So, the angle shows the orientation of bedding which
is to the North-West direction. The intensity of the bedding value also shows the pattern of the
bedding is almost same for the whole outcrop at the Kek Lok Tong area.

42
4.3.2 Stereonet

Set 1
Set 2

Set 3 Set 4

Figure 5.8: Streonet for fracture at Kek Lok Tong (whole outcrop)

Set 1:103/73

Set 2: 340/64

Set 3:330/50

Set 4: 25//68

In the structural elements analysis, the more value of strike and dip measurements of
fractures. the more accurate and will give solid terms of data validation. The readings have
transferred into stereonet software in order to determine intensity of fractures. For the Kek Lok
Tong area, based on figure above, the intensity is generated from the concentration of poles
and from there the discontinuity plane are produced. This proven that this area has 4 sets of
fracture and that will be coincided with the outcrop observation.

43
4.4 Petrography Analysis (Kek Lok Tong)

Q Q
C

C C

Figure 5.9: The thin section from specimen at outcrop 2

From the thin section above, we can observe the calcite (C) and quartz (Q). This thin
section is dominated by calcite minerals. Calcite crystals are subhedral in shape, uniaxial native,
colourless in plane polarized light and have low relief. The sample above is composed of 90 %
of calcite, 5% of quartz and 5% of matrix. The type of grain cannot be clearly identified because
of irregular structure and not too clear. The grain texture is coarse grain texture and lack of the
micritic material might indicate that this microfacies was deposited in high energy
environments. Most of the minerals in this sample are completely recrystallized.

44
 C C

C C

C
C

Figure 6.0: The thin section from specimen at outcrop 5

From the thin section above, we can observe the calcite (C) mineral. This thin section
is dominated by calcite minerals. Quartz cannot be clearly seen in this thin section. The sample
above is composed of 90 % of calcite and 10% of matrix. The type of grain cannot be clearly
identified because of irregular structure and not too clear. The grain texture is coarse grain
texture and also deposited in high energy environments. The recrystallization of the mineral in
the above thin section is hardly to be observe because there is lack of evidence and maybe in
this sample only some of the mineral are crystallized.

45
4.5 Map of study area (Tambun)

4.5.1 Based Map

Figure 6.1: Based Map of study area

46
4.5.2 Study Area Map

Figure 6.2: Study Area Map

47
4.5.3 Geological Map

Figure 6.3: Geological Map of study area

48
4.6 Outcrop Observation (Tambun)

Figure 6.4: Outcrop 1

The first outcrop of Tambun which is very clearly can be seen the large body of
limestone where the coordinates of this outcrop is 4.37259˚ N and 101.92770˚ E. This outcrop
is quite massive and the biggest outcrop in the Tambun study area where it is about 40-50 m
long compared with others outcrop. Based on the readings, the fracture of this outcrop was
formed because of the tilting process which probably affected by the late deformation. The
conjugate fractures have been observed on the vertical limestone surface where it shows this
area undergo the strong compression in the gently dipping beds and this can be an evidence to
prove the conjugate set were form due to folding, but within the same compressional direction.
This outcrop shows its undergo moderate weathering process as shown by the outcrop
condition.

49
 Figure 6.5: Outcrop 2

Next, the second outcrop which located near to the first outcrop shows the very high
dense of fracture systems where the more than 2 sets of fractures have been identified. Based
on the author observation, there was an orthogonal joint present in this outcrop. Within this
region also undergo the tectonic deformation and strong compression force, these orthogonal
joints are typically associated with either layered or bedded strata that has been folded into
anticlines. The conjugated fracture also can be observed in this outcrop where become the
prove this place had been greatly compress and become folded resulting formation of conjugate
fracture. Fracture offset which probably developed within limited bed and truncated by the
later high-angle conjugate fracture located at both ends.

50
 Figure 6.6: Outcrop 3

The last outcrop is located on the coordinates of 4.37242˚N and 101.92732˚ E and only
besides the outcrop 2. The size of this outcrop is also quite big with the 30m horizontal and
40m vertically. The rocks in this outcrop also contain numerous of joints sets. This outcrop is
highly weathered as show ironish colour at some part of the outcrop body and the structural
component is quietly hard to been observed because of vegetation close the sight.

51
 Figure 6.7: Karst Tower

The diagram above shows the karst tower which the evidence of the E-W compression
occurs in that area. Most of the deformational structures of the Kinta Valley are believed to be
triggered by an E-W compression. A strong compression event occurred together with the
granitic intrusion. The compression caused the limestone to be fractured and thrusted, as we
can see on the satellite image and in outcrops. The limestone close to the granite-limestone
contact was shortened by folding. These folds were eroded since that time and left the highly
dipping lanks, which are essentially the high dipping or even vertical beds.

52
4.7 Structural Element Analysis (Tambun)

4.7.1 Rose Diagram

σ1

σ1

σ3

Figure 6.8: Rose Diagram of fracture (outcrop 1)

The fracture in the first outcrop of Tambun shows a strike trend towards the NW-SE
direction which also the same trend at the Kek Lok Tong area. The compressional stress lies
on the values 290˚ and 110˚ and the extensional stress at 20˚ and 200˚ where it shows no value
is exist in this outcrop produced by extensional force. The structural styles shown in this
outcrop has undergo E-W compression in gently dipping beds and vertically strata that which
can be evidence that the conjugate fractures formed due to the folding but the same
compressional direction.

53
 σ3

σ1

σ1

σ3

Figure 6.9: Rose Diagram of fracture (outcrop 2)

For the second outcrop, the rose diagram above shows clearly the present of conjugate
fracture in this outcrop which also can be prove from the outcrop observation. The
compressional stress is at the value 300˚ and 120˚ while the extensional stress at the value of
30˚ and 210˚. The trend direction of fracture is NW-SE direction which shows the same
orientation with other outcrop and this prove that this also undergo the E-W compression to
form the conjugate fracture.

54
 σ3

σ1

σ1

σ3

Figure 7.0: Rose Diagram of fracture (outcrop 3)

For the rose diagram in this outcrop, the trend of the fractures is also NW-SE direction
which same orientation with others outcrop that prove it undergoes the same process in the
geological time. The compressional stress seems to lies on the value 290˚ and 20˚ while the
extensional force is 20˚ and 200˚. The fracture readings are not distributed well and mostly
only accumulated at the same direction as shown above.

55
 σ1

σ1

Figure 7.1: Rose Diagram of fracture (all outcrop)

The total amount of fractures reading was taken is about 250 readings and all the
readings from the outcrop of Tambun were combined together to make an outcome of one
result and produce one rose diagram ad above. Compressional force (σ1) acted at 105° from
south with the value of 285˚ and 105˚ direction. For the overall data merged, the trend also
shows the same pattern which is to the NW-SE direction which this shows this study area
experience the E-W compression and the trend all Tambun outcrop is same with the all outcrop
at the Kek Lok Tong study area. Therefore, it can be stated that the stress field in the Kek Lok
Tong is coincide with the general trend of the Kinta Valley.

56
 Figure 7.2: Rose diagram of a bedding (all outcrop)

According to the rose diagram, the strike of the bedding is around 280° from the north
with dipping 70- 90° to Northen direction. So, the angle shows the orientation of bedding which
is to the North-West direction. The intensity of the bedding value also shows the pattern of the
bedding is almost same for the whole outcrop at the tambun area.

57
4.7.2 Streonet

Set 1

Set 2

Set 3

Figure 7.3: Streonet for fracture at Tambun (all outcrop)

Set 1:114/66

Set 2:285/34

Set 3: 283/73

In the structural elements analysis, the more value of strike and dip measurements of
fractures. the more accurate and will give solid terms of data validation. The readings which
about 250 readings have been transferred into stereonet software in order to determine intensity
of fractures. For the tambun area, based on figure above, the intensity is generated from the
concentration of poles and from there the discontinuity plane are produced. This proven that
this area has 3 sets of fracture and that will be coincided with the outcrop observation.

58
4.8 Petrography Analysis

Q Q
C Q Q C Q Q

C C

PPL XPL

Figure 7.4: The thin section from the specimen at outcrop 3

From the thin section above, we can observe the calcite (C) and quartz (Q). This thin
section is dominated by calcite minerals. The sample above is composed of 80 % of calcite,
15% of quartz and 5% of matrix. The type of grain cannot be clearly identified because of
irregular structure and not too clear. The grain texture is coarse grain texture and lack of the
micritic material might indicate that this microfacies was deposited in high energy
environments. Most of the minerals in this sample are completely recrystallized and can prove
by the existence of the crystalline structure quartz. This also we can conclude that the limestone
outcrop 3 had been metamorphosed.

59
5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusions

The main evidence of folding structures and conjugated fractures in both study areas
shows that this area has a strong compression that causes the process of tilting and uplifting
fractures that have been heavily influenced by the granite intrusion. This is because the location
of the study area is due to the granite contact of the Main Range, which shows that the existence
of prominent fractures became more intense when calcareous rock was dissolved. This shows
that the influence of tectonic structure in the Kek Lok Tong and Tambun region can be
considered a crucial factor in the formation of structural rock deformation. These strikes control
the formation of karst features such as dolines, caves and steep walls of the hills, and the
limestone and granite have been deformed by the same tectonic stress.

Furthermore, there were same trend had been identified in every outcrop in each study
area with the prominent orientation of fractures are appeared to strike in NW-SE trend. Thus,
it can be stated that the stress field in this two-area coincided with the general trend of Kinta
Valley. The fractures networks in Kinta Valley were formed by the ductile deformation and
triggered by an E-W compression. A massive joints and fractures had existed due to strong
pressure of uplifting and tectonic activity in Kinta Valley.

5.2 Recommendations

1. The project should be continued by exposing to the more different and new outcrop
area which can be used to collect more data and can find a lot of different geological
features which can be evidence to prove the geomorphology of the study area.

2. Broaden the research area at the particular outcrop so that a huge amount of data can
be collected and a better understanding on the whole area itself.

60
 REFERENCES

Cobbing, E. J., Pitfeld, P. E. J., Derbyshire, D. P. F., & Mallick, D. I. J. (1992). The
granites of Southeast Asian tin belt. Overseas Memoir 10, British Geological
Survey of London, pp. 78-86.

Dian, Z., 1996. A morphological analysis of Tibetan limestone pinnacles: Are they
remnants of tropical karst towers and cones? Geomorphology 15, 79-91.

Fatihah, R., & Beng, Y. E. (2000). The Characteristic and origin of some Limestone
Caves in the Sungai Perak Basin

Foo, K. Y. (1983). The Paleozoic sedimentology rock of Peninsular Malaysia.

Stratigraphy and Correlation: Workshop on Stratigraphic Correlation of
Thailand and Malaysia-Geological Society of Malaysia, 1(n.i), 1-19

Foo, K. Y. (1990) Geology and mineral resources of the Taiping-Kuala Kangsar area,
Perak Darul Ridzuan: Geological Survey of Malaysia, Map Report 1, 18 – 24.

Ford, D.C. & Williams, P.W., 1989. Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology, Unwin
Hyman, London, 60lp.

Gobbett, D. (1971). Joint pattern and faulting in Kinta, West Malaysia.

Hutchison, C. S. (2007). Geological Evolution of South-East Asia (2nd Edition) -

Geological Soceity of Malaysia. 433-450

Ingham, F. T., & Bradford, E. P. (1960). The geology and mineral resources of the Kinta
valley, Perak. Geological Survey District Memoir 9, Federation of Malaya
Geological Survey, Ipoh, 347.

Kassa, S., Person, B., Chow, W. S., & Talib, J. B. A. (2012). Identifying the link
between lineament and cave passage trends to comprehend fractures continuity
and influence on the Kinta Valley karst system. International Journal of
Speleology, 42(1), 7

Lee, C. P. (2009). Paleozoic stratigraphy, in Hutchun, C. S. and Tan, N. K. (eds),

Geology of Peninsular Malaysia: The University of Malaya and the Geological
Society of Malaysia, 55-86

Meng, C. C., Sautter, B., Pubellier, M., Menier, D., Sum, C. W., & Kadir, A. A.
GEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE KINTA VALLEY
61
Meng, C. C., Pubellier, M., ABDELDAYEM, A., & SUM, C. W. (2016). Deformation
styles and structural history of the Paleozoic limestone, Kinta Valley, Perak,
Malaysia. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia, 62.

Metcalfe, I. (2013). Tectonic Evolution of the Malay Peninsula. Journal of Earth

Sciences, 76: 195-213.

Peng L.C., 2009 - Paleozoic Stratigraphy. In: Hutchison C.S. & Tan D.N.K. (Eds.),
Geology of Peninsular Malaysia. Geological Society of Malaysia: 55-86.

Sutharalingam, T. (1968). Upper Paleozoic Stratigraphy of the Area West of Kampar,

Perak. Geological Society of Malaysia Bulletin, 1: 1-15.

Yassin, R. R., Muhammad, R. F., & Taib, S. H. (2013). Application of Electrical

Resistivity Tomography (ERT) and Arial Photographs Techniques in Geo Hazard
Assessment of Karst Features in Constructing Sites in Perak, Peninsular Malaysia.
Journal of Environment and Earth Science, 3 (9): 91- 125.

62
 APPENDICES

Appedix I: Fracture readings of the Kek Lok Tong study area (outcrop 1)

Strike Dip Direction Dip

336 66 76
339 69 40
337 67 39
338 68 40
293 23 29
307 37 83
91 181 75
158 248 89
178 268 87
320 50 44
201 291 79
201 291 23
325 55 79
335 65 81
193 283 57
219 309 15
246 336 74
189 279 89
171 261 72
354 84 89
324 54 47
332 62 53
346 76 67
347 77 60
342 72 51
343 73 82
309 39 84
16 106 86

63
 326 56 73
33 123 46
36 126 76
40 130 80
16 106 55
22 112 66
37 127 83
5 95 78
40 130 41
41 131 49
4 94 71
14 104 85
27 117 78
73 163 88
177 267 87
165 255 70
106 196 77
115 205 68
98 188 59
135 225 73
115 205 60
103 193 52

Appedix II: Fracture readings of the Kek Lok Tong study area (outcrop 2)
Strike Dip Direction Dip
344 74 53
62 152 58
46 136 48
64 154 55
334 64 66

64
336 66 59
345 75 63
337 67 70
22 112 81
80 170 83
18 108 54
28 118 78
4 94 45
75 165 42
74 164 73
40 130 49
46 136 57
29 119 61
36 126 52
15 105 75
322 52 42
340 70 78
342 72 69
326 56 75
352 82 50
346 76 66
298 28 55
305 35 44
298 28 54
337 67 51
307 37 79
288 18 85
188 278 73
256 346 41
238 328 38
183 273 35
196 286 44

65
 222 312 57
315 45 63
322 52 69
175 265 72
163 253 81
157 247 48
121 211 57
138 228 52
102 192 66
96 186 74
171 261 64
147 237 42
215 305 36

Appedix III: Fracture readings of the Kek Lok Tong study area (outcrop 3)
Strike Dip Direction Dip
315 45 67
307 37 64
291 21 62
107 197 60
286 16 45
290 20 76
175 265 83
121 211 80
290 20 80
258 348 56
137 227 85
304 34 68
284 14 66
283 13 68

66
101 191 73
154 244 78
351 81 73
336 66 67
286 16 65
285 15 82
282 12 77
281 11 68
89 179 80
332 62 69
340 70 65
162 252 75
344 74 64
298 28 79
288 18 62
291 21 60
287 17 64
295 25 66
330 60 70
332 62 59
286 16 37
95 185 77
334 64 85
335 65 82
155 245 87
142 232 83
340 70 69
328 58 76
153 243 63
327 57 69
340 70 62
156 246 78

67
 335 65 78
152 242 74
245 335 60
285 15 75

Appedix IV: Fracture readings of the Kek Lok Tong study area (outcrop 4)
Strike Dip Direction Dip
264 354 55
260 350 55
265 355 75
255 345 65
255 345 70
260 350 60
250 340 58
255 345 70
263 353 75
268 358 70
200 290 65
310 40 33
290 20 35
295 25 36
292 22 38
298 28 34
295 25 30
315 45 36
308 38 42
302 32 48
320 50 43
70 160 78
90 180 80

68
98 188 82
102 192 60
107 197 75
100 190 68
102 192 66
117 207 65
109 199 72
144 234 74
91 174 74
113 203 85
84 174 74
78 168 77
104 194 81
122 212 72
105 195 32
106 196 83
105 195 81
108 198 78
125 215 81
128 218 86
132 222 81
134 224 76
139 229 72
118 208 67
97 187 57
86 176 82
78 168 77

69
Appedix V: Fracture readings of the Kek Lok Tong study area (outcrop 5)
Strike Dip Direction Dip
67 157 56
62 152 76
88 178 73
112 202 66
138 228 47
143 233 45
264 354 85
265 355 80
270 360 75
255 345 70
200 290 82
268 258 73
256 346 76
220 310 71
227 317 62
225 315 68
232 322 65
237 327 54
253 343 57
205 295 52
211 301 54
218 308 56
195 285 54
189 279 65
204 294 67
308 38 62
312 42 53
324 54 52
317 47 58
302 32 68

70
298 28 59
336 66 48
332 62 82
345 75 86
347 77 68
331 61 65
316 46 64
318 48 64
356 86 67
352 82 60
325 55 55
338 68 53
335 65 52
305 35 46
322 52 48
327 57 42
346 76 62
308 38 64
303 33 64
316 46 62

71
Appedix VI: Bedding readings of the Kek Lok Tong study area (all outcrop)

Strike Dip Direction Dip

298 208 38
282 192 43
286 196 28
291 201 45
281 191 39
288 198 38
274 184 44
303 213 33
291 201 36
282 192 42
318 228 51
282 192 21
281 191 15
318 228 19
300 210 27
289 199 32
291 201 28
279 189 15
296 206 35
284 194 21
295 205 24
294 204 43
286 196 45
299 209 34
306 216 65
322 232 42
304 214 37
319 229 41
311 221 32

72
318 228 26
85 175 39
274 184 44
84 174 42
80 170 45
82 172 32
276 186 70
86 176 32
85 175 45
83 173 27
85 175 42
295 205 43
298 208 56
312 222 47
305 215 32
325 235 29
326 236 38
278 188 47
324 234 58
307 217 37
303 213 45

73
Appedix VII: Fracture readings of the Lost World of Tambun study area (outcrop 1)

Strike Dip Direction Dip

111 201 80
270 360 70
115 205 80
295 25 62
265 355 40
91 181 80
104 194 80
250 340 60
104 194 80
294 24 60
298 28 23
107 197 45
255 345 55
106 196 76
105 195 35
295 25 60
293 23 79
290 20 76
112 202 65
260 350 55
116 206 79
76 166 80
113 203 70
120 210 50
297 27 21
115 205 55
285 15 30
115 205 70
288 18 66
290 20 75

74
287 17 48
262 352 45
110 200 20
290 20 80
114 204 73
285 15 30
287 17 60
155 245 60
289 19 60
285 15 52
95 185 62
295 25 77
285 15 80
284 14 82
282 12 70
274 4 50
285 15 52
286 16 28
295 25 40
282 12 64
275 5 85
110 200 55
276 6 80
112 202 80
270 360 35
282 12 70
285 15 38
290 20 60
285 15 30
285 15 75
282 12 30
291 21 55

75
 117 207 66
295 25 80
291 21 80
310 40 60
278 8 85
120 210 50
144 204 65
265 355 49
280 10 70
280 10 5
281 11 25
285 15 80
279 9 63
290 20 80
278 8 70
285 15 70
95 185 40
275 5 45
280 10 45
260 350 60
285 15 65
280 10 60

Appedix VIII: Fracture readings of the Lost World of Tambun study area (outcrop 2)

Strike Dip Direction Dip

20 360 55
275 5 38
276 6 50
101 191 48
265 355 60

76
281 11 31
282 12 62
279 9 20
268 358 23
280 10 46
278 8 50
313 43 33
276 6 50
295 25 84
325 55 70
310 40 45
330 60 75
280 10 82
305 35 40
305 35 75
270 360 80
127 217 48
290 20 85
280 10 84
134 224 52
320 50 70
126 216 83
129 219 75
120 210 38
132 222 72
125 215 40
304 34 57
285 15 80
143 233 19
310 40 82
293 23 85
127 217 68

77
310 40 47
267 7 75
150 240 80
270 360 78
290 20 85
305 35 85
305 35 87
302 32 85
260 350 70
130 220 78
131 221 80
110 200 50
130 220 50
280 10 68
295 25 83
125 215 83
125 215 44
135 225 40
300 30 30
285 15 80
142 232 40
285 15 63
143 233 19
270 360 80
135 225 75
95 185 55
105 195 45
307 37 70
280 10 85
82 172 85
137 227 85
257 347 35

78
 129 219 78
282 12 83
310 40 38
312 42 34
282 12 58
136 226 76
136 226 80
290 20 75
317 47 31
316 46 31
138 228 57
325 55 65
315 45 50
320 50 52

Appedix IX: Fracture readings of the Lost World of Tambun study area (outcrop 3)

Strike Dip Direction Dip

290 20 65
144 234 78
105 195 45
275 5 37
137 227 84
137 227 82
90 180 80
270 360 60
286 16 38
314 44 53
315 45 50
280 10 80
144 234 55

79
276 6 85
308 38 69
265 355 82
165 255 37
230 320 53
285 15 55
146 236 80
140 230 65
110 200 62
282 12 60
284 14 43
105 195 70
285 15 37
122 212 68
128 218 65
115 205 30
121 211 73
120 210 75
280 10 28
275 5 33
290 20 63
275 5 71
105 195 65
116 206 60
278 8 70
279 9 63
260 350 76
285 15 50
120 210 50
109 199 42
280 10 33
105 195 70

80
270 360 81
260 350 65
113 203 60
109 199 60
95 185 80
265 355 71
290 20 33
120 210 15
140 230 40
110 200 45
106 196 71
85 175 87
178 268 75
288 18 26
115 205 63
284 14 76
108 198 63
279 9 80
287 17 40
115 205 61
106 196 45
110 200 40
117 207 64
116 206 59
275 5 70
295 25 86
113 203 68
291 21 37
374 4 84
290 20 30
278 8 75
105 195 70

81
280 10 73
287 17 40
104 194 75
115 205 42
118 208 62
92 182 72

82
Appedix X: Bedding readings of the Lost World of Tambun study area (all outcrop)

Strike Dip Direction Dip

275 5 18
272 2 17
283 13 20
278 8 21
270 360 15
286 16 18
281 11 17
279 9 16
277 7 14
282 12 15
278 8 17
282 12 20
281 11 15
285 15 16
272 2 15
277 7 18
284 14 22
279 9 20
278 8 20
284 14 16
271 1 18
273 3 14
273 3 21
276 6 17
282 12 17
270 360 18
372 2 19
286 16 15
288 18 15
280 10 21

83