Outline

 Density, specific weight, specific gravity,

specific volume
 Viscosity
 Compressibility
 Surface tension
 Vapor pressure
Density
The density of a fluid is its mass per unit
volume. It is denoted by the Greek symbol ρ
kg
ρ water= 1000 kg/m3
ρ= m
kg/m3 V m3 ρair = 1.2 kg/m3

If the density is constant (most liquids),

the flow is incompressible.
If the density varies significantly (e.g. some
gas flows), the flow is compressible.
(Although gases are easy to compress, the flow may be treated
as incompressible if there are no large pressure fluctuations)
 Density

 How does temperature

change density?
 Densities of fluids
decrease with temperature
 How does pressure change density?
 Densities of gasses increase with pressure
 Densities of liquids are nearly constant
(incompressible) for constant temperature
Specific Weight and Specific Volume

 Specific Weight  γ
 weight per unit volume γ=ρg
 for water spec. wt

γw = 62.4 lb/ft3 or 9.81 kN/m3

 Specific Volume
 volume per unit weight = 1/ γ
Specific Gravity
 Specific Gravity  SG
 Ratio of the density of a fluid to the density
of water
γ f ρf
 SG = =
γ w ρw
SG of Hg =13.6 (dimensionless)
SG of Water =1

 SG is actually a ratio and not a property

 Shear in Different Fluids
 Shear-stress and rate of
deformation relations for
different types of fluids
 Newtonian fluids: linear
relationship
 Slope of line (coefficient of
proportionality) is “viscosity”

dV
τ∝
dy
dV
τ =µ
dy
 Causes of Viscosity
 Intermolecular cohesion (liquids)
 Molecular activity (momentum exchange (gases))
dv
τ = const ×
dy
Where µ is the coefficient of
F dv
τ = =µ viscosity (dynamic viscosity)
A dy
 dyne.s  in SI N .s
µ=
F
≡
F FT
≡ 2  cm 2 ≡ poise  µ≡
A×
dv
L2 ×
L /T L system m2
dy L
M .L / T 2 M
µ ≡ ≡
L / T L.T
L2 ×
L
 Flow between 2 Plates (Example)
du V
Shear stress anywhere between plates τ = µ dy = µ B
µ = 0.1 N ⋅ s / m 2 2 3m / s
τ = (0.1 N ⋅ s / m )( )
V = 3 m/s 0 .02 m
B = 0.02 m = 15 N / m 2
y Moving plate u=V
V
τ
u( y) =
V
y on Shear
B B fluid
τ
x
Fixed plate u=0
More about Viscosity

 Kinematic viscosity

µ
ν=
ρ
Units of ν are m2/s or cm2/s
(1 cm2/s = 1 Stoke)
 Surface Tension
 It is the liquid property that creates the
capability of resisting tension at the interface
between two different liquids or at the interface
between a liquid and a gas.
 Cohesion : molecular attraction between the
molecules of the same material. Forms an
imaginary film capable of resisting tensile stress
at the interface.
 adhesion : molecular attraction between the
molecules of the liquid and the solid surface
which is in contact with the liquid.
 Capillarity is due to cohesion and adhesion
 Surface Tension Coefficient

 Surface tension coefficient defined by:

σ = force/unit length (SI units N/m)

 For water, σ = 0.073 N/m (@ 20oC)

typically but decreases with an increase
in temperature
 Surface Tension
Capillary Rise in a Tube
 Capillary head held in place by
surface tension
 Weight of column of fluid = (πd2/4) h ρg
 Vertical component of surface tension = σ π d cosθ
 ∴ (πd2/4) h ρ g = σ π d cosθ
and h = 4 σ cosθ / (ρ g d)
(θ is the contact angle between liquid and solid)
Examples of Surface Tension
 Compressibility
 Relates to variability of density
 Compressible - variable density
 Incompressible - constant density
 No such thing as an incompressible fluid really
but often assumed to simplify calculations
 For liquids, where density variation is relatively
weak (relatively small pressure variation)
 For gases if pressure variation is small compared
with absolute pressure (e.g., flow in ventilation
system, flow around low-speed aircraft)
Compressibility in Liquids
 Compressibility (K ) is defined as the
relative change in fluid volume per unit
external pressure change:
ΔV / Vo
K =−
Δp
 Where:
 Vo = original volume
 ∆V = volume change
 ∆p = pressure change
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (Ev)
 Compressibility in liquids more usually considered
in terms of Ev = 1/K
Δp
Ev = −
ΔV / Vo
 Analogous to modulus of elasticity for solids
 Note that Ev units are same as for pressure (N/m2,
bar, Pascal, atmosphere, etc.)
 Note that the negative sign in the relation because
increasing the pressure will decrease the volume,
so that ∆V is negative
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (Ev)
volumetric stress
Ev =
volumetric strain
Δp
Ev = −
ΔV / V
≡ F / L2 (N / m )
2

ΔV Δρ
=−
V ρ

Δp Δp
Ev = =
Δγ / γ Δρ / ρ
 Vapor Pressure
 The vapor pressure of a liquid is the equilibrium pressure of a
vapor above its liquid; that is, the pressure of the vapor resulting
from evaporation of a liquid above a sample of the liquid (or solid)
in a closed container.

 The process of evaporation in a closed

container will proceed until there are as many
molecules returning to the liquid as there are
escaping (equilibrium state).

 At this point the vapor is said to be saturated.

 Vapor Pressure (cont.)

 The pressure of that vapor (usually expressed in

mmHg) is called the saturated vapor pressure or vapor
pressure.
 Vapor pressure increases Vapor Press. vs. Temp.

with temperature. 120

 Since the molecular kinetic 100

energy is greater at higher Vapro Pressure (kPa) 80

temperature, more 60

molecules can escape the 40

surface and the saturated

vapor pressure is
20

correspondingly higher. 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Temperature (oC)
Vapor Pressure (cont.)

 Notice that if the liquid is open to the air, the

vapor pressure is seen as a partial pressure
as it will be mixed with the other constituents
of the air.

 The temperature at which the vapor pressure

is equal to the atmospheric pressure is called
the boiling point.
Vapor Pressure (cont.)

 For instance, increasing temperature of water

at sea level to 100 oC, increases the vapor
pressure to 14.7 psi (abs) and boiling occurs.

 In addition, boiling can occur below 100 oC if

we lower the pressure in the water to the
vapor pressure of that temperature.

At 10 oC, the vapor pressure is 0.178 psi (abs). If you

reduce the pressure in water at this temperature, boiling
will occur (cavitation)