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Bituminous Design
Bituminous design consists of selecting the bitumen and aggregate
gradation, blending the aggregates to conform to the selected gradation,
determining the optimum content, and calculating the job-mix formula
(JMF). After determining the percentages of materials, calculate the total
quantity of materials needed for the project. This chapter details the
design of a typical high mix. Low mixes are designed by the same method,
although many steps are often omitted because the allowable variations
are great enough that accurate measurements are unnecessary.
BITUMEN SELECTION
2-1. The selection of a particular bituminous material depends on the type of
pavement, the range of temperatures, the amount of rainfall, the type and
volume of traffic, and the type and availability of equipment. In general, hard-
penetration grades of AC are used in warm climates and soft-penetration
grades are used in cold climates. Heavy grades of asphalt cutback and tar are
normally used in warm regions, and light grades are used in cool regions. AC
is generally more suitable for high traffic volume than cutback. Asphalt and
tar do not necessarily bond to each other; thus, bonding also becomes a
consideration in bitumen selection. Tables 2-1 and 2-2, pages 2-2 through 2-4,
list the characteristics and uses of bituminous materials.
ASPHALT CEMENT
2-2. AC is usually used in hot-mix pavements and is solid at 77°F. To make
AC fluid enough for mixing with aggregate or for spraying, heat it to a
temperature of 250° to 350°F. A disadvantage of AC is that adequate heating
equipment may not always be available. The various penetration grades of AC
are suitable for plant mixes, penetration macadams, and surface treatments.
ASPHALT CUTBACK
2-3. Different types and grades of asphalt cutback are used during various
climatic conditions. When the cutter stock evaporates, it leaves AC as an
active bonding and waterproofing agent. Consider the prevailing atmospheric
temperature during construction when selecting the grade of asphalt cutback.
Light grades are usually used in cool weather. If the preferred grade and type
of asphalt cutback is unavailable, use a comparable grade of another type. For
example, using RC-70 instead of MC-70 or using RC-300 instead of MC-300
will not seriously affect the finished structure. In the field, light grades of
asphalt cutback can be made by adding solvents to AC or to heavier grades of
asphalt cutback. (See Chapter 5 for more information on the field manufacture
of asphalt cutbacks.)
ASPHALT EMULSION
2-4. The mixing grades of asphalt emulsion can be combined with damp
aggregate with little or no heating. The recommended use depends on the
setting rate and the mixing ability. Use emulsions for surface treatments, road
and plant mixes, and crack and joint fillings.
TAR
2-5. Since tar does not dissolve in petroleum distillates, use it in areas where
asphalt is unsuitable, such as refueling aprons at airfields where petroleum
distillates are likely to be spilled. Because tar has greater penetrating
qualities than asphalt, it is preferred when penetration is critical. Use hot tar
for plant mixes, surface treatments, penetration macadams, and crack fillers.
Use RTCB for patch mixes, surface treatments, and road mixes. Do not use
open flames near storage tanks or drums of RTCB because it is highly
flammable. Tar is more susceptible to temperature changes than asphalt, and
tar becomes soft at high temperatures and brittle at low temperatures.
AGGREGATE SELECTION
2-6. Before including specific aggregate in a mix design, conduct a
preliminary investigation of the aggregate and ensure that its physical
properties conform to those described in Chapter 1. In addition, perform a
complete analysis of the aggregate as described in FM 5-472 and determine
the quantity of aggregate available. Select the gradation specification using
the criteria in Table 2-3, pages 2-6 through 2-9.
MIX GRADATION
2-7. Aggregates and mineral fillers can be combined to produce a dense-
graded or an open-graded mix:
• Dense-graded mix. A dense-graded mix contains a continuous
gradation of particle sizes that are coarse to very fine. Fine particles
fill the voids between large particles, thereby increasing the mix’s
weight. A dense-graded mix is more impervious to water and provides
more protection to the base and the subgrade. It usually requires less
maintenance, and the asphalt life is prolonged. However, a dense-
graded mix requires precise determination and control of the bitumen-
aggregate ratio.
• Open-graded mix. An open-graded mix also contains coarse and fine
particles in a continuous gradation. However, it does not contain
enough fine particles to fill the voids between large particles so it is
less dense. Because of the increased voids in an open-graded mix, the
bitumen-aggregate ratio is less critical.
2-8. The allowable variation in gradation of some low and intermediate mixes
is great enough that natural or man-made aggregates can be used without any
special preparation. High mixes and some intermediate mixes have such a
small allowable variation in gradation that two or more aggregates must be
blended to obtain the desired gradation.
2-9. The following example shows how to determine specific requirements for
a surface course:
Example: You are using an asphalt finisher to place a 2-inch surface course
on a main supply route (MSR). The maximum aggregate size available is 1
inch, and a limited supply of limestone dust is available to use as a mineral
filler. The bitumen is AC, so an aggregate gradation must be selected.
Solution:
• Surface course thickness: 2 inches.
• Bitumen: AC.
• Tire pressure: Low (truck tires have <100 pounds per square inch
[psi]).
• Maximum aggregate size available: 1 inch.
• Method of placement: Machine (2 inches x 0.5 = 1 inch).
• Gradation type: Open-graded (conserves limestone dust).
AGGREGATE BLENDING
2-10. Aggregate blending is proportionately mixing several aggregate
gradations to obtain one desired aggregate gradation. The normal procedure
is to mix three or four aggregates from various sources. Record the results of
gradation tests for each source on Department of Defense (DD) Form 1207
(Figure 2-1, pages 2-11 and 2-12) or present them in tabular form.
2-11. Use DD Form 1217 (Figure 2-2, pages 2-13 and 2-14) as a work sheet to
calculate the aggregate blend. There are several methods for determining the
correct blend; however, use the test-strip method because other methods
require complicated graphs and formulas.
Gradation of Material
2-13. Complete this section as follows:
• Record the sieve sizes and percents passing for all four aggregates.
• Enter the specified gradation limits across the desired row of the
section for reference.
• Enter 100 percent in all the blanks to the left of the 100 percent
passing for each aggregate. (When 100 percent passes any given sieve,
it will also pass larger sieves.)
1 50
--- ( 100 – 45 – 5 ) = ------ = 25 percent
2 2
where—
T = percent passing at the stockpile
S = mean of the upper and lower limits of the specified gradation range for
the percent passing the second largest sieve
C = percent passing the second largest sieve for the original gradation of
the aggregate
Example: In Figure 2-2, page 2-13, and the sample DD Form 1219 shown in
Figure 2-3, the gradation range of the CA is 80 to 95 and 72 percent of the CA
passed the 3/4-inch sieve at the stockpile.
Solution:
1
S = --- ( 80 + 95 ) = 87.5
2
Succeeding Trials
2-16. Each succeeding trial is a refinement of the results from the preceding
trial. Even if the results of the first trial are within the limits of the specified
gradation, try to get a blend that is as close as possible to the means of the
gradation. This allows for a slightly greater deviation in the blend, which
limits the frequency of adjustments to the central plant (see Figure 2-2).
Conduct succeeding trials as follows:
• Inspect the preceding trial and note the sieve sizes whose blend is not
within the specified gradation range.
• Consider changing the percent of intermediate aggregate used to yield
results that are within the specified limits.
E
PL
M
SA
Final Trial
2-18. Conduct a final trial when the set of values are well within the specified
limits. Evaluation of the percent-used column shows that a relatively large
range of values yields results that are within the specification limits. The
purpose of a final trial is to obtain a blend as close as possible to the mean of
the specification limits. Compute the final trial the same as preceding trials,
except ensure that the desired row contains the mean value (average of high
and low values) of the specifications. In the sample, trial 2 is close enough to
the median that no further trials are necessary.
REPORTING
2-19. Allow an independent party to check the calculations completed for the
aggregate blending and record the information on the following forms:
• DD Form 1217 (Figure 2-2, page 2-13). This is a reporting and
computational form. Record the gradation of material and trial
computations. Enter the contents of the final trial in the block
following the last numbered trial.
• DD Form 1207 (Figure 2-1, page 2-11). This is a graphical record of
the aggregate blend. Plot the upper and lower limits of the specified
gradation, the mean of the specified gradation, and the calculated
final blend on the same graph (the mean is sometimes omitted).
• DD Form 1219 (Figure 2-3, page 2-17). This form presents the
results of the Marshall test in graphic form. Ensure that the curves
are smooth and without deviations, including extraneous values.
fall outside the limits, adjust the optimum asphalt content so that the voids in the total mix are within the limits.
2-23. Obtain the percent of bitumen for stability, the unit weight, the percent
of voids in the total mix, and the percent of voids filled with bitumen from
Table 2-3, page 2-6, and Figure 2-3. Average the bitumen-content percentages
and note the result as the trial OBC.
Example: The bituminous mix curves shown in Figure 2-3, page 2-17, are for
an airfield AC surface course (high-pressure tires). Determine the trial OBC.
Solution:
• Unit weight: 4.5.
• Stability: 4.3.
• Percent of voids in the total mix: 4.9.
• Percent of voids filled with bitumen: 5.
• Total: 18.7.
• Average: 18.7 ÷ 4 = 4.7 percent AC (trial OBC).
2-24. Evaluate the curves for stability, flow, percent of voids in the total mix,
and percent of voids filled with bitumen at the trial OBC. Compare these
values with the criteria in Table 2-3, page 2-6. If all the values meet the
criteria, the trial OBC becomes the final OBC. If one or more of the criteria
fails to meet the specifications—
• Recheck computations.
• Determine if any of the curves yields a bitumen that is out of line with
the others. If so, rerun the Marshall test.
• Recheck the aggregate for conformance to the specified blend.
• Rerun the Marshall test (check apparatus first).
• Change the aggregate blend.
2-25. The test properties of the sample mix (Table 2-5) are within the
specification limits, so designate the trial OBC as the final OBC.
JOB-MIX FORMULA
2-26. After establishing the OBC and the aggregate blend, determine the
actual percentages, by weight, of the components in the final mix. The
following example shows how to determine the job-mix formula:
Example: The OBC is set at 5.5 percent, and the aggregate blend is 40/30/25/
5 (CA/FA/FRBS/LSD). Determine the job-mix formula (see Table 2-6, page
2-23).
Solution:
2-27. In the field, check the mix for conformance to specifications using one of
the following methods.
• Mix-percentage check. Compare the percentage of bitumen in the
completed mix with the percentage set up in the design. Perform this
check daily (minimum) at the plant or the construction site. (See FM
5-472 for further details on this procedure.)
• Density check. Perform a density check on samples from the
compacted, cooled, and completed pavement. This test checks the mix
and the construction methods used in placing and compacting the mix.
(See Chapter 4 for further details on the density test.)