Ma{instvo 1(6), 3 – 14, (2002) M. Oru~: ISTR@AIVANJE SLABE DEFORMABILNOSTI MJEDI...

ISTRA@IVANJE SLABE DEFORMABILNOSTI MJEDI CuZn28

U [IPKAMA NAMIJENJENIM ZA DUBOKO IZVLA^ENJE
Dr. Mirsada Oru~, dipl.in`., Metalur{ki institut “Kemal Kapetanovi}”, Travni~ka
cesta 72000 Zenica, BiH, e-mail miz@miz.ba

REZIME IZVORNI NAU^NI RAD

U radu je prezentirano istra`ivanje vezano za pojavu duktilnog minumuma pri ispitivanju zatezanjem
na sobnim i povi{enim temperaturama uzorka mjedi poslije valjanja i vu~enja. Pojava duktilnog
minimuma je vezana za odre|enu temperaturu i odre|eni tip loma koji se pojavljuje isklju~ivo na toj
temperaturi. Ovo uslovaljava izbjegavanje toga podru~ja za plasti~nu deformaciju i oblikovanje.

Klju~ne rije~i: mjed, duktilni minimum, deformacione karakteristike, interkristalni lom,

transkristalni lom, temperatura duktilnog minimuma, plasti~na prerada metala,
valjanje, vu~enje.

RESEARCH ON LOW DEFORMABILITY OF CuZn28 BRASS

INTENDED FOR DEEP DRAWING
Mirsada Oru~, Ph.D., Metallurgical Institute “Kemal Kapetanovi}” in Zenica,
Travni~ka cesta, 72000 Zenica, B&H, e-mail: miz@miz.ba

SUMMARY
ORIGINAL SCIENTIFIC PAPER
This work presents a research on the occurrence of ductility minimum during strain test of brass
after rolling and drawing at room and elevated temperatures. The occurrence of ductility minimum is
connected to specific temperature and specific fracture that appears only at that temperature. That
is why we have to avoid this area for plastic deformation and shaping.

Key words: brass, ductility minimum, deformation characteristics, intergranular fracture,

transgranular fracture, temperature ductility minimum, plastic shaping metals, rolling,
drawing.

1. UVOD 1. INTRODUCTION

Prilikom proizvodnje hladno vu~enih {ipki od mjedi
(mesinga) namijenjenih za duboko izvla~enje
pojavio se problem slabe deformabilnosti i pojave
povr{inskih gre{aka kako na samim {ipkama tako i
u me|ufazama proizvodnje finalnog proizvoda-
~ahure (za vojnu industriju).
Ovo je usmjerilo tok istra`ivanja po{to se analizom
hemijskog sastava, uslova i temperature vru~e a
zatim hladne prerade, mehani~kim i metalografskim
ispitivanjama nije utvrdio navedeni uzrok slabe
deformabilnosti.
Akcenat pri istra`ivanju je stavljen na otkrivanje uzroka
nastajanja povr{inskih i podpovr{inskih gre{aka
povezano sa veli~inom zrna, tehnologijom prerade a
zatim istra`ivanja uticaja temperature na mehani~ke
osobine i duktinost mjedi pri ispitivanju zatezanjem.
During the production of cold drawn brass bars for
deep drawing, the problem of bad deformability
appears as well as the surface defects on the bars
themselves and during the stages of production of
the final products - case.
This fact directed the course of research, because
the analysis of chemical composition, conditions and
temperature of hot and cold mechanical treatment,
mechanical and metallographic research did not
determine the cause of bad deformability.
During this research, stress was on discovering
causes of occurence of the surface and under
surface defects in connection with grain size,
mechanical working technology, as well as on
defining the influence of temperature on mechanical
properties and ductility of brass during strain testing.

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Ma{instvo 1(6), 3 – 14, (2002) M. Oru~: ISTR@AIVANJE SLABE DEFORMABILNOSTI MJEDI...
2. OSNOVNE KARAKTERISTIKE MJEDI
CuZn2811
Mjed CuZn28 je najva`nija legura u grupi mjedi
zbog svoje veoma velike duktilnosti u α oblati.
Mjed je zbirni naziv binarnih ili vi{ekomponentnih
legura bakra, ~iji je prvi legiraju}i dodatak cink [1].
U tehni~koj praksi naj~e{}e se koriste mjedi sa α-
fazom ili smjesom (α+β’) - slika 1.
Faza α koja ima supstitucijski ~vrsti rastvor cinka
u bakru, ima PCK-re{etku i granicu rastvorivosti
kod ∼ 39%, pri temperaturi 450oC.
Mjedi koje formiraju α-fazu s visokim sadr`ajem
bakra (∼ 90%), koriste se u slu~ajevima kada se
tra`e visoke osobine plasti~nosti, otpornosti ka
pojavi korozionog prskanja i visoka toplotna
vodljivost. Mjedi koje grade α-fazu (npr. mjed 70),
ili smjer α+β’ - fazu (npr. mjed 60) sa vi{im
sadr`ajem cinka, dosti`u vi{e nivoe ~vrsto}e, dobro
su obradive, relativno su jeftine, ali pokazuju slabiju
otpornost prema korozionom prskanju2. Najvi{i nivo
plasti~nosti iz ove skupine ima mjed 70 koja se
obi~no koristi u onim slu~ajevima kada je po`eljna
dobra obradivost na normalnim temperaturama, bilo
kovanjem, bilo dubokim izvla~enjem. Na nivo njene
obradivosti veliki uticaj ima veli~ina zrna, koja ne
bi smjela biti ve}a od 30-60 µm. Ako je zrno
grublje dolazi do formiranja tzv. narand`ine kore,
a ako je manje tada se pri dubokom izvla~enju u
deformisanoj mjedi pojavljuju mikropukotine.
Mehani~ke osobine mjedi zavise od koncentracije
cinka u leguri i hladne plasti~ne deformacije (sl. 2
i 3). Cu-Zn legura sa sad`ajem 20-30% cinka,
pokazuje ve}e izdu`enje nego ~isti bakar i legure
sa manjim sadr`ajem cinka [4], iako su Cu-Zn
legure ja~e nego bakar, one oja~avaju manjom
brzinom i izdu`enje se de{ava pri ve}em naponu.
Otuda poslije prolaska ove legure kroz matricu (pri
izvla~enju) metal mo`e biti jako deformisan prije
pojave opasnoti su`enja, navedenog za nepovoljne
lokalne dimenzionalne promjene i za lom.
Po{to je ova legura zna~ajna i za izradu ~ahura i
po tome je dobila naziv i “~ahurasta” mjed veoma
je bitna njena deformabilnost po{to je legura
poslije valjanja podvrgnuta vu~enju i dubokom
izvla~enju. Od nekih autora [5, 6, 7] provedeno je
istra`ivanje pojave duktilnog minimuma kod ove
legure pri ispitivanju zatezanjem na odre|enim
temperaturama. To je usmjerilo tok istra`ivanja u
ovome radu kroz koji se i do{lo do va`nih
prakti~nih pokazatelja.
1
Oznaka mjedi CuZn28 je prema DIN 17 660/84
2 1
Mjedi u deformaciono oja~anom stanju (tj. visokog nivoa
unutarnjih napona), koje sadr`e vi[e od 20% cinka, sklone su tzv.
sezonskom prskanju po granicama zrna usljed djelovanja vlage,
kisika i amonijaka. U cilju spre~avanja toga prskanja preporu~uje se
`arenje polufabrikata na 400-600 oC i gotovoih proizvoda na 250-
270oC
- 4 -
2. BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF
BRASS TYPE CuZn281
Brass type CuZn28 is the most important alloy in the group
of brasses because of its very high ductility in α field.
Brass is the collective name for binary or multi
component copper alloys, whose first order addition is
zinc [1]. In technical practise brasses with α-phase or (α
+ β') mix crystals are used most often (figure 1).
Structural phase α which retains substitutionally
solid solution of zinc in copper has the SCC
crystal lattice and limited copper solubility at the
39 %, at temperature of 450oC.
Brasses which form α - phase, with high copper content
(≈ 90 %), are used in cases when high plastic
properties, resistance to corrosion cracks and high
thermal conductivity are required. Brasses, which form α
- phase (e.g. brass 70), or (α + β') - phase (e.g. brass
60) with higher zinc content, reach higher level of
strength, good deformability, lower price, but at the
same-time lower degree of resistance to corrosion
cracks2. Brass 70 has the highest plastic properties in
this brass group and it is usually used in the case when
good deformability is desirable on normal temperatures
by forging or deep drawing. On the deformability level of
such brass, grain size has a large influence, which must
not be larger than 30 - 60 µm. In the case of coarser
grain size, so-called orange skin appears. In the case of
smaller grain size during deep drawing in deformed
brass micro-cracks appear.
Mechanical properties of brass depend on the zinc
content in alloys and on cold plastic deformation (Fig.
2 and 3). Cu-Zn alloy with the zinc content between
20 - 30 % shows higher extension than pure copper
and alloys with smaller zinc content [4]. In spite of
that Cu-Zn alloys are stronger than copper. They stiffen
more slowly and extension occurs at higher degree of
strain. Therefore, after passing such alloy through die
(during drawing) the metal can get highly deformed
before the danger bottle necking occurs, mentioned in
connection with unfavourable local dimensional
changes and fracture.
Because this alloy is very important for case
manufacturing, it got the name "case" brass.
Deformability is essential for this brass because such
alloy goes through drawing and deep drawing after
rolling. Some authors [5,6,7] did research on the
appearance of ductility minimum of this alloy during
strain testing at certain temperatures. These tests
directed further research in this paper, which has led
to some important practical indicators.
Brass mark CuZn28 is in accordance with DIN 17 660/84
2
Brasses, in deformed strengthen state (i.e. at high level of internal stresses)
which consist of 20 % zinc, are inclined to so-called seasonal cracking over
grain boundaries because of the influence moisture, oxygen and ammonia.
With the aim of preventing of such cracking, annealing of semi-products at
400 - 600 0C, as well as at final products at 250 - 270 0C is recommended.
Ma{instvo 1(6), 3 – 14, (2002) M. Oru~: ISTR@AIVANJE SLABE DEFORMABILNOSTI MJEDI...
Slika 1. Binarni dijagram Cu-Zn [1]
Figure 1. The Cu-Zn phase diagram [1]
Pad dutilnosti na odre|enim tempraturama, tj.
temperaturi duktilnog minimuma mnogi povezuju sa
pojavom interkristalnog loma, isklju~ivo na toj
temperaturi, i pojavu transkristalnog loma iznad i
ispod te temperature. Istra`ivanja tipa loma pri
naprezanju na povi{enim temperaturama, povezivana
su sa mikrostrukturnim promjenama oko tih
temperatura.
Poznavanje razli~itih utjecajnih fakora na pojavu
duktilnog minimuma kod α mjedi otvara mogu}nost
uspostavljanja veze izme|u temperature duktilnog
minimuma, vli~ine zrna, na~ina optere}enja i vrste
3. DUKTILNI MINIMUM I TEMPERA-
TURA DUKTILNOG MINIMUMA α
MJEDI PRI ISPITIVANJU
ZATEZANJEM NA POVI[ENIM
TEMPERATURAMA
Ray i Ashby [7] su teoretski razvili efekat
interkristalnog loma i prelazne temperature. Njihovi
brojni prora~uni odnose ne na odre|ivanje
- 5 -
Slika 2. ^vrsto~ne osobine ovisno od sadr`aja
bakra i hladne prerade [2]
Figure 2. Strenght properties depedence from
copper content and cold deformation [2]
loma.
Many researchers relate the ductility drop at specific
temperatures, i.e. at the temperature of ductility minimum,
with the appearance of intergranular fracture, exclusively
at that temperature, and the appearance of transgranular
fracture above and bellow this temperature.
At higher temperatures, the research on the
fracture type during strain, was related with
microstructural changes around these temperatures.
The knowledge of different influencing factors on the
appearance of ductility minimum with the α brass has
opened possibilities of making a connection between
the temperature of the ductility minimum, grain size,
type of loading and type of fracture.
Slika 3. Uticaj procenta cinka na mehani~ke
osobine [3]
Figure 3. The effect of the zink percentage
on the mechanical properties [3]
temperature duktilnog minimuma za bakar, koji je
pribli`no TMP/2.
3. DUCTILITY MINIMUM AND TEMPE-
RATURE OF DUCTILITY MINIMUM OF
THE α BRASSS DURING STRAIN TEST
AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES
Ray and Ashby [7] have developed the effect of
intergranular fracture and transition temperatures in
theory. Their numerous calculations do not relate to
Ma{instvo 1(6), 3 – 14, (2002) M. Oru~: ISTR@AIVANJE SLABE DEFORMABILNOSTI MJEDI...
definition of copper ductility minimum temperature,
which is nearly TMP/2.
Fizikalno upori{te za ovo je brza nukleacija pora
({upljina) po granicama zrna, ali njihova mala
brzina rasta kod niske temperature, i sa manjom
brzinom nukleacije i ve}om brzinom rasta kod vi{ih
temperatura. Ovo rezultira duktilnim minimumom
kod prelazne temperature.
Mikropukotine-pore po granicama zrna }e smanjivati
plasti~nost uzoraka, ali }e imati mali efekat na oblik
deformacije. Minimalna plasti~nost }e biti uglavnom u
vezi sa unutra{njim osobinama kao {to su indeks
(eksponent) deformacionog oja~avanja (n) i osjetljivost
na brzinu deformacije, tj. eksponent oja~avanja
deformacionom brzinom (m).
Prema istra`ivanjima Wagha i Ezegbunama za mjedi
sa 30% cinka i 70% bakra, kod razli~itih brzina
deformacije od 10-4 /s do 1,3 ⋅ 10-2/s pri opitu
zatezanjem dobijen je duktilni minimum na 510oC. Na
slikama 4. i 5. dat je pregled izdu`enja i su`enja
ovisno od temperatura i ovisnost n i m od
temperature loma.
Sa slike 5. se vidi da n ima znatnu vrijednost na
temperaturi duktilnog minimuma (510oC), a neva`an je
iznad nje. S druge strane m raste iznad temperature
duktilnog minimuma i neva`an je na ni`im
temperaturama.
Ray i Ashly [7] su detaljno analizirali lomove
polikristalnih ~vrstih tijela pod uvjetima trajnog
stati~kog ispitivanja na povi{enim temperaturama.
Do{li su do konstatacije da lom mo`e biti
uzrokovan rastom i koalescencijom pora po
granicama zrna.
Na 510oC efekat smanjenja n i pove}anje m je
takav da materijal postaje najvi{e krt.
Slika 4. Varijacije procenta izdu`enja i
su`enja ovisno od temperature [6]
Figure 4. Variations of the percentage
elongations and reductions with the
temperature [6]
- 6 -
The physical basis for this lies in fast nucleation of
voids on the grain boundaries, but their low velocity
growth at low temperatures with lower velocity of
nucleation and higher velocity growth at elevated
temperatures. This results in ductility minimum at
transition temperature.
Micro voids on the grain boundaries will lower sample
plasticity, but will have litle effect on the shape of
deformation. Minimal plasticity will be generally in
connection with inner properties as work-hardening
exponent (n) and susceptibility to deformation velocity
i.e. strain-rate hardening exponent (m).
On the basis of the research by Wagh and
Ezegbunam for brass with 30% zinc and 70% copper,
for different deformation velocity from 10-4/s to 1,3⋅ 10-
2/s at tensile testing ductility minimum is obtained at
510oC.
Figure 4 and 5 present extension and contraction
depending on the temperature as well as
dependence of n and m on the fracture temperature.
Fig. 5 shows that n has a remarkable value at the
temperature of ductility minimum (510oC), but is
irrelevant above it. On the other hand m rises
above the temperature of ductility minimum and it
is irrelevant at lower temperatures.
Ray and Ashby [7] have analysed, in detail,
fractures of polycrystalline solids under the
conditions of continuous static testing at elevated
temperatures. They concluded that fracture can be
caused by growth and coalescence voids on grain
boundaries.
At the temperature of 510oC, the effect of lowering
of n and increase of m is such that material
becomes more brittle.
Slika 5. Varijacije eksponenta deformacionog oja~avanja
(n) i eksponenta oja~avanja deformacionom brzinom
(m) ovisno od temperature [6]
Figure 5. Variations of the work-hardening exponent (n)
and strain-rate hardening exponent (m) versus temperature
[6]
Ma{instvo 1(6), 3 – 14, (2002) M. Oru~: ISTR@AIVANJE SLABE DEFORMABILNOSTI MJEDI...

S druge strane nukleacija pora nije u potpunosti
razja{njenja. Smatra se da koncentracija napona na
uklju~cima i trojne ta~ke (sjeci{te 3 zrna) vode
nukleaciji pora [7].
Kombinacija koncentracije napona i visoke
me|ugrani~ne energije kod uklju~aka mo`e biti
odgovorna za interkristalni lom kod povi{enih
temperatura u poliktristalima. Pore formirane na
granicama zrna mogu imati rali~ite oblike, zavisno
od toga gdje su formirane: na sastavu dvije
granice, na sastavu tri granice, na sastavu ~etiri
granice ili na granicama sa prisutnim uklju~cima na
granicama zrna.
Na slici 6. prikazane su pore na granicama zrna
bez nemetalnih uklju~aka, i to na granici dva zrna,
trojnom i ~etvorostrukom ~voru, a na slici 7. pore
formirane na uklju~cima prisutnim na granicama
zrna.
Za njihovo opisivanje potrebna su dva nova ugla β
i µ kako se vidi na datoj slici.
On the other hand pores nucleation has not been
fully explained. There is an opinion that strain
concentration on non-metallic inclusions and ternary
points (knot of 3 grains) lead to voids nucleation [7].
The combination of strain concentration and high
inter-boundary energy at non-metallic inclusions can
be responsible for intergranular fracture at elevated
temperatures in polycrystals. Voids formed on grain
boundaries can have different shapes, dependening
on where they have been formed: on juncture of
two boundaries, on juncture of three boundaries, on
juncture of four boundaries or on boundaries with
present non-metallic inclusions on grain boundaries.
Figure 6 shows voids on grain boundaries without
the presence of non-metallic inclusion, which is
actually on two-grain boundary, tripartite and
quadripartite knot, and Fig. 7 shows pores formed
on non-metallic inclusions present on grain
boundaries.
For their description two new anglesare introduced β

Sl. 6. Geometrija pora na granicama

zrna bez uklju~aka [7]
Fig. 6. Void geometries in inclusion
free grain boundaries [7]

Sl. 7. Dva tipa pora koje se mogu

formirati na uklju~cima prisutnim na
granicama zrna [7]
Fig. 7. Two types of voids which can
form at inclusions present in a grain
boundary [7]
and µ, as it can be seen on the figure.

4. POJAVA DUKTILNOG MINIMUMA 4. APPEARANCE OF DUCTILITY

KOD VALJANIH I VU^ENIH [IPKI MINIMUM ON ROLLED AND DRAWN
MJEDI CuZn28 CuZn28 BRASSS BARS

[ematski prikaz izrade opitnih talina dat je na listu 1.
Valjane {ipke promjera φ 16 mm i vu~ene {ipke
nakon valjanja promjera φ 14,2 mm ispitivane su
zatezanjem na sobnoj (temperatura okoline) i
povi{enim temperaturama (200oC, 300oC, 400oC,
510oC i 550oC).
Schematic sketch of melt making processes is
presented on the list 1.
Rolled bars with the diameter of 16 mm and drawn
bars after rolling with the diameter of 14,2 mm are
tensile tested at room temperature (environmental

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Ma{instvo 1(6), 3 – 14, (2002) M. Oru~: ISTR@AIVANJE SLABE DEFORMABILNOSTI MJEDI...
temperature) and on higher temperatures (200oC,
300oC, 400oC, 510oC, 550oC).
Rezultati ispitivanja pokazuju vrijednosti za
konvencionalni napon te~enja (Rp0,2) i zateznu
~vrsto}u (Rm) saglasno o~ekivanjima tj. sa
pove}anjem temperature kod valjanih i vu~enih
uzoraka 9 eksperimentalnih talina one opadaju s
porastom temperature.
Deformacione karakteristike, tj. izdu`enje (A) i su`enje
(Z) kod obje vrste uzoraka opadaju do temperature ≈
300oC i imaju najni`e vrijednosti na toj temperaturi i
tek iznad te temperature po~inju ponovo rasti (sl. 8 i
9).
Zna~i pojavio se duktilni minimum, tj. pad
vrijednosti izdu`enja i su`enja na ta~no odre|enoj
temperaturi kod svih uzoraka.
Iznad te temperature ponovno po~inje rast
navedenih karakteristika.
Prelomi na sobnoj i povi{enim temperaturama
poslije ispitivanja zatezanjem posmatrani su na
opti~kom stereo mikroskopu i skaniraju}em
elektronskom mikroskopu (SEM) za valjane i
vu~ene uzorke.
Potpuniji i zna~ajni pokazatelji su dobijeni na SEM-
u. Oni su ovisno od temperature razli~iti ali su
zajedni~ki i za valjane i za vu~ene uzorke.
Na temperaturi 20oC i 200oC lom je transkristalni.
Na 300oC mehanizam loma se mijenja i
transkristalni lom je pre{ao u interkristalni. Prisutna
su udubljenja i bregovi {to ukazuje na interkristalni
lom sa mikro{upljinama razvijenim po granicama
zrna najvjerovatnije trojnih i ~etvornih ta~aka koje
su se pro{irile u pukotine ili zbog prisustva
uklju~aka uz granice zrna.
Na 400oC, 510oC i 550oC ponovo je primije}en
transkristalni lom. Pored toga svaka povr{ina
pokazuje karakteristike rekristalizacije, a novi kristali
formirani na ni`oj temperaturi, te`e da blokiraju
mikropukotine, na {to upu}uje i ponovno pove}anje
duktilnosti iznad 300oC, {to je uo~eno
posmatranjem vrijednosti izdu`enja i su`enja.
Na smanjenje duktilnosti na 300oC direktno uti~e
pojava interkristalnog loma pri odre|enoj brzini
optere}enja. Slike preloma za jednu od talina na
sobnoj temperaturi i na 300oC i 500oC date su na
listu 2.
Lom poliktristalnih metala pri zatezanju konstantnom
brzinom javlja se rastom i sjedinjavanjem malih
{upljina (pora) po granicama zrna. Nukleacija tih
pora najvjerovatnije nastaje koncentracijom napona
kod uklju~aka i trostrukih ili ~etverostrukih ta~aka
zrna i segragacija nekih atoma ili smjesa.
Nukleacija pora na ni`oj temperaturi je ve}a, ali je
brzina rasta manja dok sa rastom temperature
dolazi do rasta pora, ali opada brzina nukleacije.
Na jednoj odre|enoj (srednjoj) temperaturi brzina
loma je proporcionalna brzini nukleacije i brzini
rasta pora.
The results of tests show values for conventional yield
strength (Rp 0,2) and tensile strength (Rm) in
accordance with the anticipated values, i.e. with
temperature increase for rolled and drawn bars, for 9
experimental melts, they decrease with temperature
increase.
Deformation characteristics, i.e. extension (A) and
contraction (Z) with both sample groups decrease
down to the temperature of nearly 300oC and they
have the lowest values at that temperature and
only above that temperature values begin to
increase (Fig. 8 and 9).
That means that the ductility minimum the appeared
i.e. the fall of extension and contraction values at the
specific temperature with all samples. Above that
temperature increase in values of mentioned
characteristics begins?
Fractures of the examined samples at room and
higher temperatures after tensile tests have been
observed on optical stereo microscope and scanning
electron microscope (SEM) for rolled and drawn
samples.
More complete and more important parameters are
obtained in the SEM test. These results are,
depending on the temperatures, different, but they
are common for rolled and drawn samples.
At the temperatures of 20oC and 200oC, fracture is
transgranular. At 300oC, fracture mechanism is
changing and transgranular fracture converts into
intergranular fracture. There are present cavities and
convexes, which indicates to intergranular fracture, with
micro-pores formed on grain boundaries probably on
the ternary and quaternary knots, which developed into
cracks, or because of the presence of non-metallic
inclusions near grain boundaries.
i At 400oC, 510oC, 550oC transgranular fracture has
been observed again. Beside that, each surface shows
recrystallisation characteristics, but new crystals formed
at lower temperature intend to block micro-cracks, to
which indicates and repeated increase of ductility
above 300oC which has been spotted by observing
the values of extension and contraction.
Appearance of intergranular fracture at defined loading
velocity has a direct effect to the ductility decrease at
300oC. Figures of fracture for one melt sample are on
list 2 at room temperature and for 300oC and 500oC.
Fracture of polycrystalline metals appears at tension
with continuous velocity because of growth and
coalescent of small voids on the grain boundaries.
Nucleation of these voids probably appears due to
concentration strains at non-metallic inclusions or at
tripartite and quadripartite knots of grains and
segregation formations of atoms or mixtures.
- 8 -
Ma{instvo 1(6), 3 – 14, (2002) M. Oru~: ISTR@AIVANJE SLABE DEFORMABILNOSTI MJEDI...
At lower temperatures, pores nucleation is larger, but
growth velocity is smaller, whereas with increase in
temperature increase of voids size is obvious, with
decrease of nucleation velocity. At a specific (middle)
temperature, fracture velocity is proportional to
nucleation velocity and velocity of pores growth.
Trenutak stvaranja mikropukotina pri krtom lomu je
te{ko odrediti. Stvaranje mikropukotina ima povoljne
uslove samo u nekim mikrozapreminama, a one su
IZRADA TALINA od 1 do 9
Indukciona pe} nazivnog kapaciteta 60 kg
LIVENJE Devet ingota
Skra}ena kokila KV 60, Kapacitet 53 kg
Hla|enje 15 min, Stripovanje
KOVANJE 200 tonskom presom
Zagrijev ingota na 880oC u elektrolu~noj pe}i
Slobodno kovanje na kv. 80 mm, poravnanje
otkovka, odsijecanje glave i pete, progrijavanje
na 880 oC
Kovanje na kv. 40 mm
VRU]E VALJANJE
Zagrijev gredica na 880 oC oko 40 minuta
Gredica sa kv. 40 mm na φ16 mm
^i{}enje lju{tenjem na φ15,6 mm
HLADNO VU^ENJE
na vu~noj klupi sa φ15,6 mm na φ14,2 mm
GOTOVI PROIZVODI
[ipke φ14,2 mm
List 1. [ema izrade talina
Scheme of making melt
- 9 -
naj~e{}e posljedica klizanja, lokalnog pritiska, traka
savijanja, granica zrna, dvojnikovanog sloja i sli~no.
The moment of appearance of microvoids at brittle
fracture is difficult to define. Formation of microvoids
has favourable conditions only in some micro-
volumes and they are consequences of sliding, local
press, winding of strips, grain boundaries, twinning of
layer and so on.
MELT MANUFACTURE from 1 to 9
Induction furnace with the nominal capacity 60
CASTING Nine ingots
Shortened casting die KV 60, Capacity of 53 kg
Cooling 15 min, Stripping
FORGING by 200 tons press
Ingot heated at 880oC in arc furnace
Free forging at kv. 80 mm, Flattening the
forging, cutting off head and heel, heating at
880 oC
Forging at kv. 40 mm
HOT ROLLING
Stringer heating at 880 oC for around 40 minuta
Stringer with kv. 40 mm to φ16 mm
Cleaning by cutting to φ15,6 mm
COLD DRAWING
on the draw bench from φ15,6 mm to φ14,2
FINISHED PRODUCT
Barrs of φ14,2 mm
Ma{instvo 1(6), 3 – 14, (2002) M. Oru~: ISTR@AIVANJE SLABE DEFORMABILNOSTI MJEDI...

80 90
A5 Z
70 80
B5491 B5491
B5492 70 B5492
60
B5493 B5493
60
50
50
A5 (%)

Z (%)
40
40
30
30
20
20

10
10

0 0
20 200 300 400 510 550 20 200 300 400 510 550
Tem peratura ( 0C) Tem peratura (0C)
100 90
A5 Z
90 80 B5494
B5494
80 B5495
B5495 70
B5499
70 B5499
60
60
50
A5 (%)

Z (%)

50
40
40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
20 200 300 400 510 550 20 200 300 400 510 550
Tem peratura ( 0C) Tem peratura ( 0C)
90 90
A5 Z
80 80
B5496
70 70
B5497
60 B5498 60

50
A5 (%)

50
Z (%)

B5496
40 40 B5497

30 B5498
30

20 20

10 10

0 0
20 200 300 400 510 550 20 200 300 400 510 550
Tem peratura ( 0C) Tem peratura ( 0C)

Slika 8. Dijagramski prikaz ovisnosti izdu`enja i su`enja od temperature-valjani uzorci

- 10 -
Ma{instvo 1(6), 3 – 14, (2002) M. Oru~: ISTR@AIVANJE SLABE DEFORMABILNOSTI MJEDI...

70 90
A10 Z
A9491 A9491
80
60 A9492
A9492
70 A9493
A9493
50
60

40
A10 (%)

50

Z (%)
30 40

30
20
20
10
10

0 0
20 200 300 400 510 550 20 200 300 400 510 550
Tem peratura (0C) Tem peratura ( 0C)

80 80
A10 Z
70 A9494 70 A9494
A9495 A9495
60 60
A9499 A9499

50 50
A10 (%)

Z (%)

40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
20 200 300 400 510 550 20 200 300 400 510 550
Tem peratura ( 0C) Tem peratura (0C)
80 90
A10 Z
70 80 A9496
A9496
A9497
A9497 70
60 A9498
A9498 60
50
50
A10 (%)

Z (%)

40
40
30
30

20 20

10 10

0 0
20 200 300 400 510 550 20 200 300 400 510 550
Tem peratura ( 0C) Tem peratura ( 0C)

Fig. 8. Diagramic review of depedence of the elongations and reductions on the temperature – rolled
samples

Sl. 9. Dijagramski prikaz ovisnosti izdu`enja i su`enja od temperature-vu~eni uzorci

- 11 -
Ma{instvo 1(6), 3 – 14, (2002) M. Oru~: ISTR@AIVANJE SLABE DEFORMABILNOSTI MJEDI...

Fig. 9. Diagramic review of depedence of elongations and reductions on the temperature-drawn samples

List 2 Izgled povr{ine preloma pri ispitivanju zatezanjem na sobnoj i povi{enim temperaturama

- 12 -
Ma{instvo 1(6), 3 – 14, (2002) M. Oru~: ISTR@AIVANJE SLABE DEFORMABILNOSTI MJEDI...
The looks of fractures surface for tensile testing at room and elevated temperatures
5. DISKUSIJA
• Ispitivanje duktilnih osobina (izdu`enje i 5.
su`enje) na razli~itim temperaturama, pri ispitivanju
zatezanjem konstantnom brzinom za valjane i za
vu~ene uzorke bilo je u temperaturnom podru~ju
od sobne temperature do 550oC. Najmanje
vrijednosti za izdu`enje i su{enje su dobijene na
temperaturi od 300oC. Zna~i da naknadna hladna
plasti~na deformacija - vu~enje poslije valjanja, a
samim tim i smanjenje veli~ine zrna nije imalo
bitnog uticaja na temperaturu duktilnog minimuma.
Sa pove}anjem temperature iznad 300oC pri opitu
zatezanjem duktilnost (pra}ena preko A i Z)
ponovo se pove}ava, i za valjane i vu~ene uzorke,
a to je uslovljeno drugim mehanizmima (drugi tip
loma, rekristalizacija, itd.).
• Eksperimentalno je potvr|eno da se u uslovima
stati~kog optere}enja na zatezanje kod mjedi CuZn28,
sa odre|enom veli~inom zrna, koja je rezultat
tehnologije prerade (valjanje i vu~enje) pojavljuje
duktilni minimum na 300oC, koji je rezultat prelasta
jednog tipa loma u drugi, tj. transkristalnog loma u
interkristalni lom na temperaturi duktinog minimuma.
• Analizom tipa loma pri optere}enju zatezanjem
na sobnoj i povi{enim temperaturama, utvr|eno je
da je ispod temperature duktilnog minimuma lom
transkristalni, na temperaturi duktilnog minimuma
interkristalni i iznad temperature duktilnog
minimuma ponovo transkristalni. Zna~i, pad
duktilnosti na temperaturi duktilnog minimuma je
direktno povezan sa tipom loma. Lom
polikristalnih metala pri zatezanju konstantnom
brzinom javlja se usljed rasta i sjedinjavanja pora
(malih {upljina) po granicama zrna. Nukleacija
pora nastaje vjerovatno koncentracijom napona
kod uklju~aka i trostrukih ili ~etverostrukih ta~aka
zrna po{to je sadr`aj nemetalnih uklju~aka
zanemariv. Na ni`oj temperaturi brzina nukleacije
pora je ve}a od njihovog rasta. S pove}anjem
temperature dolazi do smanjenja brzine nukleacije,
a pove}anje brzine rasta pora.
• Po{to pojava duktilnog minimuma na ni`im
temperaturama (300oC kod eksperimentalnih talina)
nije povoljna, jer se nicanje pora i njihovo
sjedinjavanje pojavljuje i jo{ na ni`im
temperaturama (200oC), to se predla`e deformacija
sa ve}im brzinama, uz zadr`avanje veli~ine zrna od
25-30 µm, postignute kod ovih eksperimentalnih
talina.
- 13 -
DISCUSSION
• Ductility properties tests (extension and contraction)
at different temperatures, by tensile testing with
continuous velocity for rolled and drawn samples,
occurred within temperature range from the room
temperature to 550oC. The lowest values of extension
and contraction are at the temperature of 300oC. It
means that additional cold mechanical working -
drawing after rolling, and along with that decrease of
grains size was without significant effect influence on
temperature ductility minimum. With temperature
increase of over 300oC at tensile test, ductility
(controlled by A and Z) increases again for rolled and
drawn samples, and that is conditioned with other
mechanism (another fracture type, recrystallysation, etc.)
• Experimentally it is confirmed that under
conditions of static loading tension for brass
CuZn28, with defined grain size, which is the
result of technology of mechanical working (rolling
and drawing) ductility minimum occurs at 300oC.
That is the result of transformation of one type of
fracture into another, i.e. transgranular fracture into
intergranular at the temperature of ductility
minimum.
• By analysing fracture types at tensile loading
at room temperature as well as at elevated
temperatures, it has been established that under
the temperature of ductility minimum, fracture is
transgranular, and on temperatures of ductility
minimum fracture is transgranular. At temperatures
of ductility minimum and above the temperatures of
ductility minimum fracture is again transgranular.
Therefore ductility drop at the temperature of
ductility minimum is directly related to fracture
types. Fracture of polycrystalline metals at
continuous tensile velocity appears because of
growth and fusion of voids (small hollow spaces)
on grain boundaries. Voids nucleation occurs
perhaps due to strain concentration at non-metallic
inclusions as well as at on the spot of triple and
four time greater knots of grains because the
content of non-metallic inclusions is irrelevant. At
lower temperature nucleation velocity of voids is
higher than their growth. Temperature increase
causes decrease in nucleation velocity and
increase in voids velocity growth.
• The appearance of ductility minimum at lower
temperatures (300oC for experimental melts) is not
satisfactory. Because the voids nucleation and
their fusion appears still at lower temperatures
(200oC), deformation with higher speed is
recommeaded with retaining grain size between 25
Ma{instvo 1(6), 3 – 14, (2002) M. Oru~: ISTR@AIVANJE SLABE DEFORMABILNOSTI MJEDI...
- 30 µm. Such idea has been realised for these
experimental melts.
• Podru~je temperature od 200oC od 400oC treba
izbjegavati za eventulanu plasti~nu deformaciju ili
optere}enja. Literatura do sada nije razmatrala
pojavu duktilnog minimuma kod α mjedi u
proizvodnim uslovima, tj. uslovima proizvodnje
plasti~nom preradom, te nije mogla ni predvidjeti
dodatne uticajne faktore koji opovrgavaju navode o
duktilom minimumu na znatno vi{im temperaturama.
Taj duktilni minimum je pomjeren na ni`e vrijednosti
(kod jedne taline se pojavio ~ak na 200oC) pa bilo
kakvo pregrijavanje pri proizvodnji mo`e dovesti do
{tetnih posljedica.
6. LITERATURA - REFERENCES
[1] S. Toma{evi}: Dizajniranje tehni~kih materijala,
APEX / Nauka i industrija, Zenica, 1999.
[2] S. Toma{evi}: Osnovni fizi~ke metalurgije-
skripta, Metalur{ki institut, Zenica, 1997.
[3] R. Lipold i dr.: Metali i legure, I dio, Ma{inski
fakultet, Banja Luka, 1987.
[4] C.R. Brooks: Heat Treatment Structure and
Properties of Nonferrous Alloys, ASM, Metals
park, Ohio, 1984.
- 14 -
• Temperature range between 200oC to 400oC
has to be avoided for possible plastic deformation
or loading. In literature there is no data about the
appearance of ductility minimum for α brass in the
production condition, i.e. conditions of
manufacturing by plastic deformation, therefore it
was not possible to predict additional influencing
factors which deny statements about ductility
minimum at considerably higher temperatures. The
ductility minimum is moved to lower values (with
one melt, ductility minimum appears even at
200oC) therefore that any overheating during
production can lead to harmful effects.
[5] N. Igata i dr.: The strain Rate Dependence of
the Ductility Minimum of a Copper and Cu-Zn
Alloy at Intermediate Temperatures, Trams.JIM,
Vol. 20, 1979.
[6] A.S. Wagh and L. Ezegbunam: The intermediate
tempeature ductility minimum in 70% Cu and
30% Zn α brass, Scripta metallurgica, Vol. 18,
1984.
[7] R. Roy and M.F. Ashby: Intergranular fracture
at elevated temperature, Acta Metallurgica, Vol.
23, 1975.
Ma{instvo 1(6), 15 – 22, (2002) S.Leme{;....: IDENTIFIKACIJA OBLIKA OSCILOVANJA...

IDENTIFIKACIJA OBLIKA OSCILOVANJA U DINAMI^KOJ

ANALIZI IMPELERA CENTRIFUGALNE PUMPE METODOM
KONA^NIH ELEMENATA
Samir Leme{, dipl. in`., Ma{inski fakultet u Zenici, Fakultetska 1, Zenica
Van. prof. dr. Nermina Zaimovi}-Uzunovi}, dipl. in`., Ma{inski fakultet u Zenici
Mr. Senad Bali}, dipl. in`., Ma{inski fakultet u Zenici

REZIME PREGLEDNI RAD

Problemi vibracija struktura slo`enijih geometrijskih oblika, kao {to su to impeleri centrifugalnih pumpi,
se danas naj~e{}e analiziraju kori{tenjem metode kona~nih elemenata ili eksperimentalnim metodama
kao {to je modalna analiza. Svaka dinami~ka analiza zapo~inje odre|ivanjem vlastitih frekvencija, koje
se dobiju rje{avanjem problema vlastitih vrijednosti. Ako se analiza vr{i sa ciljem optimizacije
konstrukcije, potrebno je vlastite frekvencije klasificirati prema oblicima oscilovanja, da bi se mogla
izvu}i odre|ena zakonitost. U ovom radu je prikazan na~in klasifikacije oblika oscilovanja impelera
jednog tipa centrifugalne pumpe, za koji je dokazano da se pona{a veoma sli~no okrugloj plo~i.

Klju~ne rije~i: metod kona~nih elemenata, vibracije, oblici oscilovanja, impeler

IDENTIFICATION OF VIBRATION MODE SHAPES IN DYNAMIC

ANALYSIS OF A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP IMPELLER BY USE OF
FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

Samir Leme{, B.Sc., Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in Zenica

Nermina Zaimovi}-Uzunovi}, Ph.D., Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in Zenica
Senad Bali}, M.Sc., Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in Zenica

SUMMARY
SUBJECT REVIEW
Problems of vibrating structures with complex geometry, such as centrifugal pump impellers, are
being analysed by means of Finite Element Method or experimental methods such as modal analysis.
Each dynamic analysis begins with determining natural frequencies, derived by solving eigenvalues
problem. If the analysis is performed in order to optimise construction, it is necessary to classify
natural frequencies according to vibration mode shapes, to enable establishment of certain
dependencies. This paper shows how impeller vibration mode shapes can be classified for one type
of centrifugal pump, and it proves that the impeller presented acts very similarly to circular plate.

Key Words: Finite Elements Method, Vibrations, Mode shapes, Impeller

1. UVOD 1. INTRODUCTION

Impeler centrifugalne pumpe se pona{a sli~no
okrugloj plo~i [2], tako da se mo`e pretpostaviti da
se vlastite frekvencije impelera mogu izvesti sli~nim
postupkom koji se koristi za vibracije plo~a.
Dinami~ka jedna~ina okrugle plo~e se mo`e izvesti
analiti~ki, polaze}i od Hamiltonovog principa, uz
kori{tenje Besselovih funkcija.
Centrifugal pump impeller acts similarly to circular
plate [2]. Therefore, assumption can be made that
impeller natural frequencies can be calculated using
similar procedure as the one used in plate vibration.
Dynamic equation of circular plate motion can be
derived analytically, starting from Hamilton's
principle, and using Bessel functions.

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Ma{instvo 1(6), 15 – 22, (2002) S.Leme{;....: IDENTIFIKACIJA OBLIKA OSCILOVANJA...

Me|utim, za slo`enije geometrijske oblike, kao {to
je impeller centrifugalne pumpe, racionalnije je
koristiti pribli`ne metode, kao {to je metod kona~nih
elemenata. Ova metoda se zasniva na Rayleigh-
Ritzovoj metodi, a svodi se na problem vlastitih
vrijednosti u matri~nom obliku. Numeri~ka rje{enja
tog problema ne daju detaljne informacije o
oblicima oscilovanja (modovima), nego daju samo
vlastite frekvencije i koordinate ta~aka u ~vorovima
kona~nih elemenata. Vlastite frekvencije su date po
veli~ini, a obuhvataju sve oblike vibracija, i
popre~ne i torzione. Identifikacija tih oblika zahtijeva
dobro poznavanje analiti~kog rje{enja za sli~ne
oblike. Kod impelera jedne vrste centrifugalnih
pumpi, to su okrugle plo~e.
For more complex geometric shapes, however such
as centrifugal pump impeller, it is more rational to
use approximate methods, such as finite element
method. This method is based on Rayleigh-Ritz
method, and it is basically eigenvalue problem in
matrix form. Numerical solutions to this problem do
not give detailed information about vibration modes,
but only natural frequencies and coordinates of
points in finite element nodes. Natural frequencies
are sorted by size, and are given for both lateral
and torsional vibrations. Identification of these
vibration modes requires fair knowledge on
analytical solution for similar shapes. For impellers
of one type of centrifugal pump, such shapes are
circular plates.

2. DINAMI^KA JEDNA^INA KRETANJA 2. DYNAMIC EQUATION OF MOTION

OKRUGLE PLO^E FOR CIRCULAR PLATE

Tanka plo~a je dvodimenzionalna analogija Euler- Thin plate is two-dimensional analogy of Euler-
Beronullijeve grede (kada su zanemarena Beronulli beam (where tangential stresses are
tangencijalna naprezanja). Dvodimenzionalna neglected). Two-dimensional analogy of Timoshenko
analogija Timoshenkove grede (kada se uzimaju u beam (including both tangential stresses and inertial
obzir tangencijalna naprezanja i inercione sile usljed forces due to rotation of the plate) is known in
rotacije) je poznata u literaturi kao Mindlin- literature as Mindlin-Timoshenko theory.
Timoshenkova teorija. Differential equation of free vibration of circular plate
Diferencijalna jedna~ina slobodnih vibracija okrugle in cylindric coordinates is:
plo~e u cilindri~nim koordinatama glasi: D∆∆w − ρhw
&& = 0 .................................................... (1)
D∆∆w − ρhw
&& = 0 .................................................... (1)
Where ∆ is Laplace's operator:
Gdje je ∆ Laplace-ov operator:
 ∂2 1 ∂ 1 ∂2 
∂ 1 ∂
2
1 ∂ 2
 ∆ =  2 + +  .............................. (2)
∆ =  2 + + 2  .............................. (2)  ∂r r ∂r r 2 ∂θ 2 
 ∂r r ∂r r ∂θ 2  The goal is to determine conditions where all
Potrebno je odrediti uslove pod kojima }e sve points on the plate will perform harmonic vibration
ta~ke plo~e izvoditi harmonijske vibracije istom with same frequency and in the same phase. The
frekvencijom i istom fazom. Pretpostavi se oblik shape of function w is assumed:
funkcije w:
w(r , ϕ , t ) = W (r , ϕ , t )e iνt ....................................... (3)
iνt
w(r , ϕ , t ) = W (r , ϕ , t )e ....................................... (3)
Introducing constant c:
Ako se uvede konstanta c:
D
D c2 = ..................................................................... (4)
c2 = ..................................................................... (4) ρh
ρh Equation (1) can be written as:
Jedna~ina (1) se mo`e napisati u obliku:
c 2 ∆∆w − w
&& = 0 ........................................................ (5)
c ∆∆w − w
2
&& = 0 ........................................................ (5) Including (3) into (4):
Uvr{tavanjem (3) u (4) dobije se:
c 2 ∆∆W (r , ϕ ) − ω 2W (r , ϕ ) = 0 ........................... (6)
c ∆∆W (r , ϕ ) − ω W (r , ϕ ) = 0 ........................... (6)
2 2
or
ili
∆∆W − λ4W = (∆ − λ2 )(∆ + λ2 )W = 0 ............ (7)
∆∆W − λ W = (∆ − λ )(∆ + λ )W = 0 ............ (7)
4 2 2

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Ma{instvo 1(6), 15 – 22, (2002) S.Leme{;....: IDENTIFIKACIJA OBLIKA OSCILOVANJA...

gdje je: where:

ω ω
λ2 = ....................................................................... (8) λ2 = ....................................................................... (8)
c c
Rje{enje jedna~ine ∆ − λ2 = 0 je: Solution of equation ∆ − λ2 = 0 is:
cos cos
W (r , ϕ ) = (mϕ )[ Aℑ m (λr ) + BYm (λr )] ...... (9) W (r , ϕ ) = (mϕ )[ Aℑ m (λr ) + BYm (λr )] ...... (9)
sin sin
Rje{enje jedna~ine ∆ + λ2 = 0 je: Solution of equation ∆ + λ2 = 0 is:
cos cos
W (r , ϕ ) = (mϕ )[Cℑ m (iλr ) + DYm (iλr )] . (10) W (r , ϕ ) = (mϕ )[Cℑ m (iλr ) + DYm (iλr )] . (10)
sin sin
Op{te rje{enje jedna~ine (5) glasi: General solution of equation (5) is:
cos cos
W (r , ϕ ) = (mϕ )[ Aℑ m (λr ) + BYm (λr ) W (r , ϕ ) = (mϕ )[ Aℑ m (λr ) + BYm (λr )
sin .... (11) sin .... (11)

+ Cℑ m (iλr ) + DYm (iλr )] + Cℑ m (iλr ) + DYm (iλr )]

gdje su ℑ m (λr ) i ℑ m (iλr ) Besselove funkcije where ℑ m (λr ) and ℑ m (iλr ) are first order

prve vrste, a Ym (λr ) i Ym (iλr ) Besselove Bessel functions, and Ym (λr ) and Ym (iλr )
funkcije druge vrste. second order Bessel functions.
Kako se radi o punoj plo~i, mo`e se staviti da je As this is solid plate, it can be assumed that
B = D = 0, jer funkcije Ym (λr ) i Ym (iλr ) B = D = 0, since Ym (λr ) and Ym (iλr ) have
imaju u centru plo~e singularitete. Argument funkcije singularities in the centre of the plate. Argument of
ℑ m (iλr ) je imaginaran broj. Uvodi se oznaka function ℑ m (iλr ) is imaginary number.

I m ( z ) = i − m ℑ m (iz ) I m ( z ) = i − m ℑ m (iz )
gdje funkcija I m (z ) ima sljede}e osobine: where function I m (z ) has these characteristics:

2m 2m
I m −1 ( z ) − I m +1 ( z ) = I m ( z) I m −1 ( z ) − I m +1 ( z ) = I m ( z)
z z
d 1 d 1
I m ( z ) = [I m −1 ( z ) + I m +1 ( z )] I m ( z ) = [I m −1 ( z ) + I m +1 ( z )]
dz 2 ....................... (12) dz 2 ....................... (12)

∫ I ( z )dz = zI ( z )
0 1 ∫ I ( z )dz = zI ( z )
0 1

∫ I ( z )dz = I ( z )
1 0 ∫ I ( z )dz = I ( z )
1 0

Prema (12), za punu kru`nu plo~u dopu{tena su According to (12), for solid circular plate following
sljede}a rje{enja: solutions are permissible:
cos cos
W (r , ϕ ) = (mϕ )[ A1 ℑ m (λr ) + B1 I m (λr )] .. (13) W (r , ϕ ) = (mϕ )[ A1 ℑ m (λr ) + B1 I m (λr )] .. (13)
sin sin
Za slobodno oslonjenu plo~u (vanjski polupre~nik For pinned plate (external radius r = R) following
r = R) va`e grani~ni uslovi: boundary conditions apply:

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Ma{instvo 1(6), 15 – 22, (2002) S.Leme{;....: IDENTIFIKACIJA OBLIKA OSCILOVANJA...

W ( R, ϕ ) = 0 W ( R, ϕ ) = 0
∆W ( R, ϕ ) = 0; .......... (14) ∆W ( R, ϕ ) = 0; .......... (14)

 ∂ 2W  1 ∂W 1 ∂ 2W   ∂ 2W  1 ∂W 1 ∂ 2W 
 2 + ν 
 r ∂r +  =0  2 + ν 
 r ∂r +  =0
 ∂r  r 2 ∂ϕ 2  r =R  ∂r  r 2 ∂ϕ 2  r =R
Uvr{tavanjem (13) u (14), dobiju se dvije homogene Introducing (13) into (14), two homogenous
jedna~ine ~ijim se rje{avanjem dolazi do frekventne equations are derived, and their solution leads to
jedna~ine. frequency equation.

3. OBLICI OSCILOVANJA OKRUGLIH 3. MODE SHAPES OF CIRCULAR

PLO^A PLATES

Oblici oscilovanja (modovi, tonovi) okruglih plo~a se Vibration mode shapes of circular plates can be
mogu prikazati pomo}u nodalnih linija. To su represented using nodal lines. Nodal lines consist
geometrijska mjesta ta~aka koje se ne pomjeraju za of stationary points, i.e. points that do not move for
odre|eni oblik oscilovanja. specific mode shape.

Povr{ine na koje se plo~a dijeli nodalnim linijama Nodal lines divide the plate into areas moving in
se kre}u u suprotnim smjerovima, ~ime se defini{e opposite directions, thus defining vibration mode
oblik oscilovanja plo~e. shape.

Slika 1. Nodalne linije i nodalne kru`nice

Figure 1. Nodal lines and nodal circles

Njema~ki fizi~ar Ernst Chladni je 1787. godine
odredio oblike tih linija eksperimentalno, sipanjem
pijeska na vibriraju}e plo~e (za pobudu vibracija
koristio je violinsko gudalo). Pijesak se zadr`avao
samo na mjestima na kojima je amplituda vibracija
bila najmanja, odnosno na nodalnim linijama.
[vicarski fizi~ar Walter Ritz je 1904. razvio analiti~ki
metod da bi reprodukovao Chladnijeve
eksperimente.
In 1787 German physicist Ernst Chladni determined
the shapes of nodal lines experimentally, pouring
sand on vibrating plate (using violin bow to
produce vibrations). The sand formed patterns
remaining only on places where vibration amplitude
was smallest – on nodal lines. In 1904, Swiss
physicist Walter Ritz developed analytical method to
reproduce Chladni's experiments.

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Ma{instvo 1(6), 15 – 22, (2002) S.Leme{;....: IDENTIFIKACIJA OBLIKA OSCILOVANJA...

Slika 2. Chladnijeve figure – oblici oscilovanja okrugle plo~e

Figure 2. Chladni figures – circular plate mode shapes

Isti eksperiment je 1967. ponovio {vicarski nau~nik
Hans Jenny, ali je ovaj put za pobudu vibracija
koristio ure|aj vlastite izrade pod nazivom "tonoskop"
[1]. To je bio kristalni oscilator pomo}u kojeg su se
frekvencija i amplituda vibracija dale kontrolisati.
Potvrdio je rezultate koje je dobio Chladni, i pro{irio
ih je na plo~e sa pijeskom, `eljeznim prahom,
srebrom, polenom, gasovima, vodom, plasti~nim
supstancama i viskoznim te~nostima. Do{ao je do
zaklju~ka da fluid (voda) prianja na bijele povr{ine
Chladnijevih figura, a da se na crnim povr{inama
(nodalne linije) fluid odvaja od povr{ine plo~e.
Tako|e je zaklju~io da samo frekvencija uti~e na
oblik figura (broj nodalnih linija), a da amplituda
uti~e samo na intenzitet turbulencija i brzinu kojom
se materijal kre}e po plo~i.
In 1967, Swiss scientist Hans Jenny performed the
same experiment. He constructed special device
"Tonoscope" [1] to set the plates vibrating instead
of violin bow. It was crystal oscillator with
adjustable frequency and amplitude. He confirmed
Chladni's results, and he expanded these results to
plates with sand, iron filings, silver, spores, gases,
water, plastic substances and viscous liquids. He
came to conclusion that fluid (water) remains
attached to white (vibrating) areas of Chladni
figures, and it separates from black areas (non-
vibrating nodal lines). He also concluded that the
shape of these patterns (number of nodal lines)
depends only on frequency, and amplitude depends
on intensity of turbulence and velocity by which
material moves on the plate.

Slika 3. Chladnijeve figure nastale vibracijom impelera centrifugalne pumpe

Figure 3. Chladni figures formed by vibration centrifugal pump impeler

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Ma{instvo 1(6), 15 – 22, (2002) S.Leme{;....: IDENTIFIKACIJA OBLIKA OSCILOVANJA...

4. ODRE\IVANJE VLASTITIH 4. CALCULATION OF NATURAL

FREKVENCIJA METODOM FREQUENCIES USING FINITE
KONA^NIH ELEMENATA ELEMENT METHOD

Za odre|ivanje vlastitih frekvencija i oblika Process of determination of natural frequencies and

oscilovanja za slu~aj slobodnih vibracija pomo}u mode shapes for free vibration using Finite Element
MKE polazi se od matri~ne jedna~ine kretanja Method starts from matrix equation of motion of
diskretizirane strukture sa n stepeni slobode discretized structure with n degrees of freedom.
kretanja:
[M ]{q&&} + [C ]{q&} + [K ]{q} = 0 .............................. (15)
[M ]{q&&} + [C ]{q&} + [K ]{q} = 0 .............................. (15) where:
gdje su: [M] – mass matrix
[M] – matrica masa [C] – damping matrix
[C] – matrica prigu{enja [K] – stiffness matrix
[K] – matrica krutosti {q&&}, {q&}, {q} - vectors of generalised acceleration,
{q&&}, {q&}, {q} - vektori generalisanih ubrzanja, brzina velocity and displacement
i pomjeranja Solutions of (15) is assumed in following form:
Rje{enja jedna~ine (15) se pretpostave u obliku:
{q} = {u}e λt .............................................................. (16)
{q} = {u}e λt
.............................................................. (16) Therefore, the problem (15) is reduced to
tako da se problem (15) svodi na problem vlastitih eigenvalue problem:
vrijednosti:
(λ [M ] + λ [C ] + [K ]){u} = {0} ............................ (17)
2

(λ [M ] + λ [C ] + [K ]){u} = {0} ............................ (17)

2
or
odnosno
[H (λ )]n×n {u} = {0}
[H (λ )]n×n {u} = {0} ................................................ (18)
................................................ (18) {v}T [H (λ )] = {0}T
{v}T [H (λ )] = {0}T Solution of (18) gives eigenvalues λi and
Rje{avanjem (18) dobivaju se vlastite vrijednosti λi i eigenvectors {u i }, {vi } , for i=1,2,...,2n. It means
vlastiti vektori {u i }, {vi } , za i=1,2,...,2n. To zna~i
that for dynamic stiffness matrix [H (λ )]n×n there
da za matricu dinami~ke krutosti [H (λ )]n×n postoji are 2n eigensolutions.
2n vlastitih rje{enja. Problems (18) are second order problems by λ.
Problemi (18) su problemi drugog reda po λ. In the case of undamped free vibration, it is
Za slu~aj neprigu{enih slobodnih vibracija assumed that solution has the following form:
pretpostavlja se rje{enje u obliku:
{q(t )} = {u}e iωt ........................................................ (19)
{q(t )} = {u}e iωt
........................................................ (19) which brings:
pa se dobija:
[[K ] − ω [M ]]{u}e
2 iωt
= {0} .................................. (20)
[[K ] − ω [M ]]{u}e
2 iωt
= {0} .................................. (20) or:
odnosno:
[[K ] − ω [M ]]{u} = {0} ......................................... (21)
2

[[K ] − ω [M ]]{u} = {0} ......................................... (21)

2
To have non-trivial solution, determinant of the
Da rje{enje ne bi bilo trivijalno, mora biti matrix should be:
determinanta matrice:
[ ]
det [K ] − ω 2 [M ] = 0 ........................................... (22)
[ ]
det [K ] − ω [M ] = 0 ........................................... (22)
2
This algebraic equation gives array of n positive
Iz ove algebarske jedna~ine dobija se niz od n real values ω2 that represent eigenvalues of given
pozitivnih realnih vrijednosti ω2 koje predstavljaju problem. Values ωi, i=1,2,...,n represent undamped
vlastite vrijednosti datog problema. Vrijednosti ωi, natural frequencies of the system. When these
i=1,2,...,n predstavljaju neprigu{ene vlastite values are entered into (21), n vector solutions are
frekvencije sistema. Kada se te vrijednosti uvrste u derived, which represent vibration modes of the
(21), dobije se n vektorskih rje{enja koja given system.
predstavljaju oblike oscilovanja sistema (modove).

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Ma{instvo 1(6), 15 – 22, (2002) S.Leme{;....: IDENTIFIKACIJA OBLIKA OSCILOVANJA...

5. KLASIFIKACIJA VLASTITIH 5. CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL

FREKVENCIJA DOBIJENIH METODOM FREQUENCIES DERIVED USING
KONA^NIH ELEMENATA KORI[TENJEM FINITE ELEMENT METHOD BY MEANS
CHLADNIJEVIH FIGURA OF CHLADNI FIGURES

U tabeli 1 su prikazani rezultati prora~una vlastitih Table 1 shows results of calculated natural
frekvencija kako ih daje software koji se zasniva na frequencies as they are given by finite element
metodi kona~nih elemenata. Rezultati su sortirani method software. These results are sorted only by
samo prema veli~ini, i nema razlike izme|u torzionih size, and there is no distinction between torsional
i popre~nih vibracija. Izra~unato je prvih 10 vlastitih and lateral vibrations. First 10 natural frequencies
frekvencija, od kojih se neke ponavljaju. are calculated, and some values are repeated.
Na slici 4.a. je prikazan dijagram koji daje la`nu Figure 4.a. shows diagram with false dependence
sliku o zavisnosti debljine diska i vlastitih between disk thickness and natural frequencies,
frekvencija, jer u sebi ne uklju~uje klasifikaciju since it does not involve vibration classification
vibracija prema oblicima oscilovanja. according to vibration modes.
Na slici 4.b. prikazan je dijagram na osnovu Figure 4.b. shows diagram according to results
rezultata sortiranih prema oblicima oscilovanja (desni sorted by vibration modes (right-hand half of the
dio tabele 1). Vlastite frekvencije nisu ozna~ene table 1). Natural frequencies are not denominated
rednim brojevima, nego imaju dva indeksa. Prvi with ordinal numbers, but they have two indexes.
indeks predstavlja broj nodalnih pre~nika, a drugi First index represents the number of nodal diameters,
broj nodalnih kru`nica. Indeks "00" predstavlja and the second one, the number of nodal circles.
torzione vibracije. Index "00" represents torsional vibration.

Tabela 1. Vlastite frekvencije izra~unate metodom kona~nih elemenata

Table 1. Natural frequencies calculated using finite element method
Vlastite frekvencije sortirane po veli~ini Vlastite frekvencije sortirane po obliku oscilovanja
Natural frequencies sorted by size Natural frequencies sorted by vibration modes
Debljina diska 5 6 7 9 Debljina diska 5 6 7 9
(Disk thickness) mm mm mm mm (Disk thickness) mm mm mm mm
f1 3422 3619 3793 4249 f00 4870 4488 4106 4301
f2 3422 3619 3793 4249 f01 4052 4279 4636 5270
f3 3806 4021 4106 4301 f10 3422 3619 3793 4249
f4 3806 4021 4372 5051 f20 3806 4021 4372 5051
f5 4052 4279 4372 5051 f30 5652 6086 6642 7742
f6 4870 4488 4636 5270 f40 7792 8324 8856 9461
f7 5652 6086 6642 7742
f8 5652 6086 6642 7742
f9 7792 8324 8856 9461
f10 7792 8324 8856 9461

10000 10000
Vlastita frekvencija (Natural frequency)
Vlastita frekvencija (Natural frequency)

9000 f1 9000
f2
8000 f3 8000 f00
f4 f01
7000 7000
f5 f10
[Hz]
[Hz]

6000 f6 6000 f20

f7 f30
5000 f8 5000 f40
f9
4000 4000
f10

3000 3000
5 6 7 8 9 5 6 7 8 9
Debljina diska (Disk thickness) h [mm] Debljina diska (Disk thickness) h [mm]

a) Sortirane po veli~ini (Sorted by size) b) Sortirane prema oblicima oscilovanja

(Sorted by vibration modes)
Slika 4. Vlastite frekvencije izra~unate metodom kona~nih elemenata
Figure 4. Natural frequencies calculated using finite element method

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Ma{instvo 1(6), 15 – 22, (2002) S.Leme{;....: IDENTIFIKACIJA OBLIKA OSCILOVANJA...

f10

f20

f30

Slika 5. Oblici oscilovanja okrugle plo~e i impelera centrifugalne pumpe

Figure 5. Vibration mode shapes of circular plate and centrifugal pump impeler

6. ZAKLJU^AK 6. CONCLUSION

Metoda kona~nih elemenata daje dobre rezultate u
prora~unu vlastitih frekvencija. Me|utim, ako se `eli
izvu}i zavisnost nekih parametara, treba poznavati i
fizikalni karakter vibracija strukture koja se analizira.
Chladnijeve figure mogu biti veoma korisne kao
polazna osnova za identifikaciju i klasifikaciju oblika
oscilovanja struktura plo~astog oblika, kao {to su
impeleri nekih vrsta centrifugalnih pumpi, `eljezni~ki
to~kovi, plo~e ra~unarskih tvrdih diskova, itd.
Finite element method gives fair results in
calculation of natural frequencies. Nevertheless, if
dependence of some parameters is needed, it is
necessary to be familiar with physical character of
vibrations of the structure being analysed. Chladni
figures can be of great importance as a basis for
identification and classification of vibration modes of
the plate-shaped structures, such as impellers of
some centrifugal pump, rail wheels, plates in
computer hard disks, etc.

7. LITERATURA - REFERENCES:

[1] Jenny H.: "Kymatik: Wellen und Schwingungen

mit ihrer Struktur und Dynamik", Basilius Press, [3] Br~i} V.: Dinamika konstrukcija, Gra|evinska
1967. knjiga Beograd, 1978.

[2] Kushner F.: "Disc vibration-rotating blade and
stationary vane interaction", ASME paper No. 79-
DET-83, 1979.
[4] Dimargonas A.: "Vibration for Engineers",
Prentice-Hall, 1996.
[5] Japikse D., Furst R., Marscher W.D.: "Centrifugal
Pump Design and Performance", Wilder, 1997.

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Ma{instvo 1(6), 23 – 28, (2002) B.Kosec,....: O[TE]ENJA RADNE POVR[INE ALATA....

O[TE]ENJA RADNE POVR[INE ALATA ZA LIVENJE

ALUMINIJA POD PRITISKOM
Borut Kosec, Universitet u Ljubljani, NTF - Department za Materijale i
Metalurgiju, A{ker~eva 12, 1001 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Doc. dr. Mirko Sokovi}, Universitet u Ljubljani, Fakulteta za strojni{tvo, A{ker~eva
6, 1001 Ljubljana, Slovenia
STRU^NI RAD
REZIME
Do o{te}enja kalupa za livenje aluminijuma pod pritiskom dolazi usljed razli~itih optere}enja koja se
de{avaju istovremeno u toku rada. Dvije su osnovne vrste optere}enja: prvo koje nastaje u toku
proizvodnje kalupa, i drugo koje se javlja u toku samog procesa kori{tenja kalupa. Za ekonomi~nu
proizvodnju aluminijuma pod pritiskom, jako je va`no da alati za livenje imaju veliku postojanost.
Zamjena kalupa mnogo ko{ta, i u novcu i u vremenu za proizvodnju.
Na aktivnoj radnoj povr{ini posmatranih kalupa za livenje pojavile su se pukotine nakon manje od
hiljadu punjenja, koje su se otisnule na izljevane legure aluminijuma AlSi9Cu3. Pukotine an radnoj
povr{ini se mogu vidjeti golim okom ili uz pomo} pove}ala.
Konstrukcija kalupa, odabir materijala i toplotni zamor usljed cikli~kog procesa rada, kao i niske
po~etne i nehomogene temperature kalupa doprinose nastanku pukotina. U predstavljenom radu,
homogenost i intenzitet opsega temperature na aktivnu radnu povr{inu pri~vr{}enog kalupa u toku
procesa prethodnog zagrijavanja provjereni su putem termo-grafi~ke analize.

Klju~ne rije~i: livenje aluminija pod pritiskom, aktivna radna povr{ina, pukotine, predgrijavanje,
temperaturno polje, termografija

FAILURES ON THE WORKING SURFACE OF ALUMINIUM

DIE-CASTING DIE
Borut Kosec, University of Ljubljana, NTF - Department of Materials and
Metallurgy, A{ker~eva 12, 1001 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Doc. dr. Mirko Sokovi}, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
A{ker~eva 6, 1001 Ljubljana, Slovenia

ABSTRACT
PROFESSIONAL PAPER
Aluminium die-casting dies fail because of a number of different and simultaneously operating stresses.
The stresses are of two basic kinds: the first, which are created during the manufacturing of the die,
and the second, which are produced during exploitation process. For economical production of
aluminium die-castings it is very important that the dies have a long working life. The replacement of a
die is expensive in both: money and production time. On the active working surface of the observed
casting die cracks appeared after less than thousand shots and caused in imprints on aluminium alloy of
AlSi9Cu3 castings. The cracks on the surface are visible by visual and magnifying glass observation.
Die design, material selection and thermal stress fatigue due to the cyclic working process, as well as
the low initial and inhomogeneous die temperature contribute to cracks formation. In the presented
research the homogeneity and intensity of the temperature field on the active working surface of the
fixed die half during preheating process were checked through the thermo graphic analysis.

Keywords: aluminium die-casting, active working surface, cracks, preheating, temperature field, thermography

1. UVOD 1. INTRODUCTION

Za ekonomi~nu proizvodnju aluminija i njegovih
legura izuzetno je va`no da imaju alati za livenje
pod pritiskom {to ve}u postojanost. Zamjena alata
je veoma skupa, kako sa stanovi{ta cijene, tako i
neproduktivnog vremena [1].
For economical production of aluminium and its
alloy die-castings, it is important that the dies have
a long working life. The replacement of a die is
expensive in both money and production time [1].

- 23 -
Ma{instvo 1(6), 23 – 28, (2002)
Naj~e{}a o{te}enja alata za livenje aluminija pod
pritiskom su [2,3]:
• tople pukotine,
• velike pukotine ili krhki lom,
• pucanje u uglovima, o{trim radijusima ili
o{trim rubovima,
• habanje ili erozija.
Poznato je da su tople pukotine jedan od glavnih
uzroka skra}enja postojanosti alata (zbog zamora
materiala) [4], koje se javljaju u toku procesa
nastajanja i {irenja loma, nastalog na povr{ini alata.
Neke od faktora, koji uti~u na lom alata, mogu do
odre|ene mjere kontrolisati stru~njaci iz podru~ja
livenja pod pritiskom (konstruktori alata, proizvo|a~i
i operateri). Ovi faktori uklju~uju [7]:
• konstrukciju alata,
• izbor materiala,
• termi~ku obradu,
• zavr{nu obradu,
• rukovanje i upotrebu.
2. VA@NOST PROCESA
PREDGRIJAVANJA
U trenutku kada vru} aluminijum udari na radnu
povr{inu alata, dolazi najprije do {irenja alata, a
onda zbog hla|enja do njegovog skupljanja –
toplota pri livenju se provodi u unutra{njost
materijala alata. [to je ve}a razlika izme|u
temperature alata i vru}eg aluminija ubrizganog u
alat, to }e biti ve}e {irenje i skupljanje povr{ine
alata i br`e }e nastupiti tople pukotine [8].
Po{to su naponi nastali na povr{ini alata obrnuto
proporcionalni temperaturi alata, po`eljno je u
praksi eksploatisati alate zagrijane koliko je to
prakti~no mogu}e i /ili ekonomski opravdano. Alati
za livenje aluminijuma pod pritiskom moraju biti
predgrijani na pribli`no 260 do 315 °C. Iskustva iz
prakse su pokazala da pove}anje radne
temperature alata od 205 na 315 °C mo`e
udvostru~iti proizvodnost alata (slika 1) [3].
- 24 -
B.Kosec,....: O[TE]ENJA RADNE POVR[INE ALATA....
The most frequent failures of aluminium die casting
dies are [2,3]:
• heat checking,
• gross cracking or cleavage cracking,
• cracking in corners, sharp radii, or sharp
edges, and
• wear or erosion.
It is generally agreed that one of the principal
causes of termination of die life is heat-checking
[4], which occurs through a process of crack
initiation and propagation from the thermal stress
fatigue [5,6] induced on a die surface.
Some of the factors that affect die failures may be
controlled to some extent by the die-casting
experts (designers, manufacturers and operators).
These factors include [7]:
• design,
• material selection,
• heat treatment,
• finishing operations, and
• handling and use.
2. IMPORTANCE OF PREHEATING
PROCESS
When hot aluminium strikes the active working
surface of the die, the die expands and then
contracts during cooling, as the heat in the casting
is conduced into the steel bellow the surface of the
die. The greater difference between the temperature
of the die and that of the hot aluminium shot into
the die, the greater will be the expansion and
contraction of the die surface, and the sooner will
the heat checks appear on the die surface[8].
Since the stresses produced on the die surface
are inversely proportional to the die temperature, it
is good practice to run the dies as hot as is
practical and/or economical. Aluminium die casting
dies should be preheated to approximately 260 to
315 oC. Experience has shown that by increasing
the die operating temperature from 205 to 315 oC,
die production may be doubled (Fig. 1) [3].
Slika 1. Produktivnost kao funkcija radne
temperature alata.
Figure 1. Production as a function of the
die operating temperature.
Ma{instvo 1(6), 23 – 28, (2002)
3. IZBOR MATERIJALA ZA ALATE
Promatrani alat za livenje aluminija pod pritiskom
izra|en je iz poznatog BOEHLER-evog alatnog
~elika za rad u toplom stanju – W300 ISODISC
(0,38 %C, 1,1 %Si, 0,4 %Mn, 5,0 %Cr, 1,3 %Mo,
0,4 % V) [9,10]. Ovaj alatni ~elik ima odli~ne
osobine, kao {to su [11,12]:
• otpornost na nagle promjene temperatura,
• ~vrsto}a na povi{enim temperaturama,
• zadr`avanje tvrdo}e na povi{enim temperaturama,
• `ilavost na povi{enim temperaturama,
• deformabilnost / obradljivost,
• otpornost na habanje pri visokim temperaturama,
• toplotna provodljivost,
• dimenzionalna stabilnost,
• smanjena tendencija ka mikrozavarivanju.
4. EKSPRIMENTALNI RAD
4.1 Termografska analiza
Na aktivnoj radnoj povr{ini fiksnog dijela alata
(slika 2) izvedena su termografska mjerenja u fazi
predgrijavanja alata, zagrijavanog do njegove
po~etne temperature (240 oC – ravnomjerno po
ukupnoj aktivnoj radnoj povr{ini alata [15].
Zahtijevana po~etna temperatura je bila malo ni`a
u pore|enju sa predhodno pomenutim referentnim
vrijednostima iz literature.
Slika 2. Fiksni dio alata za livenje pod pritiskom
Figure 2. Fixed half of the die-casting die.
- 25 -
B.Kosec,....: O[TE]ENJA RADNE POVR[INE ALATA....
3. TOOL MATERIALS SELECTION
The observed aluminium die-casting die has been
made from the well-known BOEHLER W300
ISODISC (0.38 %C, 1.1 %Si, 0.4 %Mn, 5.0 %Cr,
1.3 %Mo, 0.4 % V) hot work tool steel [9,10]. This
hot work tool steel has excellent material
properties, (such as) [11,12]:
• thermal shock resistance,
• high temperature strength,
• retention of hardness,
• high temperature toughness,
• workability / machinability,
• high temperature wear resistance,
• thermal conductivity,
• dimensional stability, and
• tendency to micro welding.
4. EXPERIMENTAL WORK
4.1 Thermo-graphic Analysis
On the active working surface of the fixed die half
(Fig. 2) thermo graphic measurements [13,14] have
been carried out in the preheating period of the
die to its initial temperature (240 oC -
homogeneous through the whole active working
surface of the die) [15]. The required initial
temperature was a little lower in comparison to the
above mentioned reference values.
Slika 3. Polo`aj termografske kamere.
Figure 3: Position of thermographic camera.
Ma{instvo 1(6), 23 – 28, (2002) B.Kosec,....: O[TE]ENJA RADNE POVR[INE ALATA....

Termografska merenja su bila izvedena na Testing thermographic measurements on the chosen

izabranom alatu relativno jednostavne geometrije,
tako da je analiza dobivene termografske slike
tako|e jednostavna. Naravno, za svaku termografsku
sliku je vrijeme potrebno za nastajanje slike tako|e
izuzetno va`no (tabela 1).
die have been carried out due to the relatively simple
geometry of the discussed die, so the simple heat
image (thermograph) analyses have been performed.
Of course, for each thermograph the time of formation
of image print is also very important (Tab. 1).

Tabela 1. Proces predgrijavanja.

Table 1. Preheating process.
Time / Vrijeme
Operation / Operacija
(hour:min)/ (ura:min)
10:50 Start of preheating / po~etak predgrijavanja
11:30 Start of measurements / po~etak mjerenja T = 91 oC
max
11:32 Calibrating of thermographic camera / kalibracija termografske kamere
11:50 Opening of the die / otvaranje alata Tmax = 125 oC
Increase of heating oil flow (for 100 %) /pove}anje protoka ulja
12:20
za zagrijavanje alata (za 100 %)
Start of the heating by increased oil flow / po~etak zagrijavanja
12:45
alata sa pove}anjem protoka ulja
14:00 Opening of the die / otvaranje alata Tmax = 150 oC
Opening of the die - end of measurements / otvaranje alata – Tmax = 161 oC
15:00
zavr{etak mjerenja
*Tmax = Maximal temperature measured on active working surface of the fixed die half
Maksimalna temperatura izmjerena na aktivnoj radnoj povr{ini fiksnog dijela alata

Termograf na slici 4 je nastao u temperaturnom Thermograph in Fig. 4 is represented in the

intervalu izme|u 90 i 161 °C, pri ~emu tamna
podru~ja ozna~avaju temperaturu ispod 90 °C. U
praksi su vremena predgrijavanja sli~nih alata bitno
kra}a nego {to je to bilo u primjeru na{eg
ispitivanja (maksimalno do 2 sata u odnosu na vi{e
od 4 sata u posmatranom slu~aju).
temperature range between 90 and 161 oC, where
dark regions are below 90 oC. In praxis the
preheating times of similar dies are much shorter
than they should be during our testing (maximally
up to two hours compared to more than four
hours in the discussed case).

Slika 4. Po~etno temperaturno polje na aktivnoj radnoj povr{ini fiksnog dijela alata-termograf
Figure 4. Initial temperature field on the active working surface of the fixed die half-thermograph

- 26 -
Ma{instvo 1(6), 23 – 28, (2002)
4.2. Metalografska analiza
Pukotine koje su se pojavile na o{trom prijelazu
izme|u dviju povr{ina na fiksnom dijelu alata (slika 5
i 6) nakon manje od hiljadu ubrizgavanja, otkrivene
su i identifikovane upotrebom penetranata [16,17].
Neke od njih su jasno vidljive pomo}u lupe ili ~ak
golim okom. U istra`ivanjima su tako|e primjenjena
i metalografska ispitivanja polimernih replika bez
razaranja, pomo}u opti~kog i SEM elektronskog
mikroskopa, slika 6 [17,18].
Slika 5. Aktivna radna povr{ina alata. Pukotine in
jamice na povr{ini (pove}anje 100 x).
Figure 5. Active working surface of the die.
Surface cracks and pits (magn. 100 x).
Slika 6. SEM snimak povr{ine sa jamicama (pove}anje. 500 x).
Figure 6. SEM micrograph of surface pits (Magn. 500 x).
5. ZAKLJU^CI
Pukotine na povr{ini i unutra{njosti alata za livenje
aluminija pod pritiskom su uzrokovane velikim brojem
razli~itih i simultano djeluju}ih radnih naprezanja.
Lomovi zapa`eni na aktivnoj radnoj povr{ini fiksnog
dijela alata za livenje pod pritiskom aluminijeve legure
AlSi9Cu3 pripisuju se toplim pukotinama, koje su se
najprije pojavile na mjestima sa signiranim oznakama,
kao i lomovima u uglovima, o{trim rubovima i
prijelazima.
Dobijeni termografi pru`aju tehni~ki va`ne i
upotrebljive podatke za razvoj novih alata i
korekciju postoje}ih, kao i provjeru procesa
tehnologije livenja pod pritiskom. Zahtijevani
intenzitet i homogenost po~etnog temperaturnog
polja se u posmatranom slu~aju ne mo`e posti}i
bez rekonstrukcije alata i metode zagrijavanja.
- 27 -
B.Kosec,....: O[TE]ENJA RADNE POVR[INE ALATA....
4.2. Metallographic Analysis
The cracks, which appeared in sharp transitions
between two planes of fixed, die half (Figs. 5,6)
after less than thousand shots were revealed and
identified by the use of penetrants [16,17].
Some of them were also clearly seen by the use
of magnifying glass or even by naked eye. In the
research, also non-destructive metallographic
examination by optical microscope and by
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of polymeric
replicas was also applied, Fig. 6 [17,18].
5. CONCLUSIONS
Cracking on/in aluminium die casting dies is caused
by a number of different and simultaneously
operating stresses. The failures observed on the
active working surface of the fixed die half for die
casting of AlSi9Cu3 alloy belong to heat checking
initiated at identification marks, and cracking in
corners, sharp edges and transitions.
Thermographs give us technically important and
useful data for the development of new dies and
the correction of the old ones, as also for
checking the process of the die casting
technology. The required intensity and homogeneity
of the initial temperature field of the discussed
case are not possible to reach without changing
the design of die and the heating method.
Ma{instvo 1(6), 23 – 28, (2002) B.Kosec,....: O[TE]ENJA RADNE POVR[INE ALATA....

6. LITERATURA - REFERENCES

[1] S. Kalpakjian, Tool and Die Failures - Source [11] R. Ebner, H. Leitner, F. Jeglitsch and D.
Book, ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio, 1982. Caliskanoglu, Methods of Property Oriented
Tool Steel Design, Proceedings of 5th
[2] B. Kosec and J. Vojvodi~ Tuma, Failure International Conference on Tooling, pp. 3 -
Analysis (Postgraduate Course), University of 12, Leoben, 1999.
Ljubljana, Ljubljana, 2001.
[12] L.A. Dobrzanski: Technical and Economical
[3] W. Young, Why Die Casting Dies Fail?, Tenth Issues of Materials Selection, Proceedings of
SDCE International Die Casting Exposition & the Workshop CEEPUS PL – 013/9697, pp. 1
Congress, Paper No. G-T79-092, pp. 1 - 8, – 30, Gliwice, 1996.
St.Louis, 1979.
[13] H. Haferkamp, F.W. Bach, M. Niemeyer and R.
[4] F. Kosel and L. Kosec, Toplotno razpokanje Viets, Merkmale von Wärmebildern zur
orodij za delo v vro~em, Strojni{ki vestnik, Prozeßüberwachung beim Taktgießen,
Vol. 29, No. 7-9, pp. 151 - 158, 1983. Aluminium, Vol. 75, No. 3, pp. 945 - 953,
1999.
[5] Handbook of Case Histories in Failure
Analysis, Volume 1, ASM International, [14] G. Walle, Impuls Video Thermographie, Mater-
Materials Park, Ohio, 1992. ialprüfung, Vol. 36, No. 3, pp. 86 - 88, 1994.

[6] S. Suresh, Fatigue of Materials, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, 1996.
[7] B. Kosec, M. Sokovi}, J. Kopa~, L. Kosec
and B. Te`ak, Analysis of Fixed Die half for
Die Casting of Aluminium Alloys, Proceedings
of AMME 2000, pp 307 - 310, Sopot, 2000.
[8] L. Kosec, F. Kosel and F. Vodopivec,
Nucleation and Growth of Thermal Fatigue
Cracks in Chemically Unhomogeneous Tool
Steel, The Proceedings of the 4th European
Conference on Fracture, Vol. II, pp. 653 –
661, Leoben, 1982.
[15] B. Kosec, B. Te`ak, L. Kosec, J. Kopa~ and J.
Vojvodi~ Tuma, Analiza temperaturnega polja na
delovni povr{ini orodja za tla~no litje z uporabo
termografije, Materiali in Tehnologije, Vol. 34,
No. 6, pp. 415 – 418, 2000.
[16] B. Hertl and B. Kosec, Uporaba
neporu{itvenih preiskav v praksi, Obzornik
Zavarovalnice Triglav d.d., Vol. 21, No. 11, pp.
2 - 5, 1998.
[17] B. Kosec, L. Kosec, J. Kopa~: Analysis of
Casting Die Failures, Engineering Failure
Analysis, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 355 – 359, 2001.

[9] Böhler Edelstahlhandbuch auf PC V2.0, [18] L. Kosec, M. Kmeti~ and B. Arzen{ek,
Kapfenberg, 1996. Neporu{ne metalografske preiskave s pomo~jo
replik, Zbornik 3. Strokovnega posvetovanja:
[10] H. Schweiger, H. Lenger, H.-P. Fauland and
Neporu{ne metode za kontrolo materiala in
K. Fisher, A New Generation of Toughest Hot
izdelkov v sodobni proizvodnji, pp. 251 - 259,
Work Tool Steels for Highest Requirements,
Ljubljana, 1990.
Proceedings of 5th International Conference on
Tooling, pp. 285 - 294, Leoben, 1999.

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Ma{instvo 1(6), 29 – 40, (2002) A. [unje; ...: KORELACIONA ANALIZA UTICAJA SITUACIONIH...

KORELACIONA ANALIZA UTICAJA SITUACIONIH NA

STRUKTURNE VARIJABLE ORGANIZACIJSKIH SISTEMA
Dr Aziz [unje, vanredni profesor, Ekonomski fakultet u Sarajevu
Dr Hasan Muratovi}, profesor, Ekonomski i Elektrotehni~ki fakulteti u Sarajevu
Dr Mugdim Pa{i}, vi{i asistent, Ma{inski fakultet u Sarajevu

REZIME
ORIGINALNI NAU^NI RAD
U ovom radu prezentirani su rezultati istra`ivanja uticaja situacionih varijabli na srukturne varijable
organizacijskih sistema. Analiza uticaja situacionih varijabli na stukturne varijable je ura|ena
Pearsonovom korelacionom metodom. Uzorak na kome je ura|eno istra`ivanje sastoji se od 40
organizacija iz Bosne i Hercegovine. Tabelarno su prikazani svi koeficijenti korelacije, a obja{njene su
korelacije signifikantne na 0,05 i 0,01 nivou.

Klju~ne rije~i: organizacija, dizajn, uticaj, situacione, strukturne, varijable, korelacija, koeficijent

CORRELATION ANALYSIS OF INFLUENCE OF THE

SITUATIONAL ON THE STRUCTURAL VARIABLES OF
ORGANIZATION SYSTEMS
Dr Aziz [unje, Professor, Faculty of Economy in Sarajevo,
Dr Hasan Muratovi}, Professor, Economy and Electrotechnical Faculties in Sarajevo
Dr Mugdim Pa{i},SeniorAssistant, Mechanical Engineering Faculty in Sarajevo

ABSTRACT
ORIGINAL SCIENTIFIC PAPER
In this paper the results of the research of influence of the situational variables on the structural
variables of organization systems are presented. The analysis of influence of the situational on the
strategic variables has been done using the Pearson Correlation Method. The research sample
consists of 40 organizations from Bosnia and Herzegovina. All variables correlation coefficients are
shown in the Table, and each correlation significant at 0,05 and 0,01 level is explained.

Key words: organization, design, influence, situational, structural, variable, correlation, coefficient

1. UVOD 1. INTRODUCTION

Cilj ovog istra`ivanja je da se uradi sistematska
studija odnosa i uticaja situacionih varijabli na
strukturne varijable organizacijskih sistema. Uzorak
na kome je ura|eno istra`ivanje je stratificirani
uzorak, koji se sastoji se od 40 organizacija iz
Bosne i Hercegovine. Uzorak se sastoji od 60%
proizvodnih organizacija, 22,5% uslu`nih, dok je
17,5% trgova~kih organizacija. Tako|er, uzorak se
sastoji od 20% privatnih organizacija, 32,5%
organizacija u mje{ovitom vlasni{tvu i 47,5% u
dr`avnom vlasni{tvu
The aim of this research is to make a systematic
study of relationships and influences of the
situational variables on the structural variables of
(the) organizational systems. The stratified sample
is used in the research, and it consists of 40
organizations from Bosnia and Herzegovina. The
sample consists of 60 % production organizations,
22.5 % service organizations and 17.5 % trade
organizations. (Also), the sample also consists of
20 % private organizations, 32.5 % organizations in
mixed ownership, and 47.5 % state owned
organizations.

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Ma{instvo 1(6), 29 – 40, (2002)
U ovom istra`ivanju kori{ten je kontingencijski
pristup organizacijskog modeliranja. Burns i Stalker
[3] promovirali su tezu da organizacijska struktura
direktno ovisi od stanja varijable okru`enja,
prepoznavaju}i dva potpuno razli~ita
organizacija – mehani~ki i organski. Mehani~ki je
primjenjiv u uslovima stabilnog okru`enja, dok je
organski primjenjiv u uslovima dinami~kog
okru`enja. Khandwalla [6], tako|er, polazi od
principa da je kontingencijska teorija najmo}nija
orijentacija u teoriji organizacije, te analizira
strukturu i funkcioniranje organizacijskih sistema,
kao i uticaj organizacijskih varijabli na dizajn
organizacije. Bridges [2] se u istra`ivanju dizajna
organizacija fokusira na organizacijske promjene
koje postaju uobi~ajene, te kako menad`ment vlada
ovim organizacijskim promjenama. Ashkenes [1]
promovira teoriju da svi organizacijski sistemi bilo
kojih veli~ina imaju granice koje pove}avaju
tro{kove, umanjuju proizvodnju i prigu{uju inovacije,
te predla`u metode za slabljenje ili probijanje ovih
granica. Nolan i Croson [10] predla`u novi set
principa menad`menta kao osnovu u izgradnji
poslovne mre`e na bazi informacione tehnologije,
sa strukturom potrebnom za sofisticiranu
konkurenciju. Ostroff [11] fokusira svoje istra`ivanje
na ”horizontalnu organizaciju” koja daje strukturalnu
formu i integrirani organizacijski pristup sa ciljem
vrijednosti kao krajnjeg produkta. Mintzberg H. [7],
[8], [9], je u {irokoj lepezi svojih radova dao jednu
cjelovitu teoriju funkcioniranja organizacije
kontekstu uticaja razli~itih organizacijskih varijabli.
Mintzberg prepoznaje pet razli~itih
organizacija, prepoznavaju}i u kom organizacijskom
kontekstu, pri kom intenzitetu uticaja organizacijskih
varijabli, je svaki od tipova organizacija djelotvoran.
Odredjeni tip organizacije je djelotovoran kod
odredjenog intenziteta nezavisnih organizacijskih
varijabli. Sa promjenom organizacijskih varijabli
dolazi do potrebe promjene bazi~nog
organizacije. Njegova doktrina je usmjerena i u
pravcu identifikacije nezavisnih organizacionih
varijabli, kao i u pravcu prepoznavanja
organizacijskog konteksta u kojem je odre|en tip
organizacije djelotvoran. Logika organizacijskog
strukturiranja pojedinih tipova organizacije
potpuno inkompatibilna, potvr|uju}i osnovnu tezu
situtacionog pristupa po kojoj nema univerzalinih
organizacijskih rje{enja, odnosno tezu da je
odre|eno organizacijsko rje{enje djelotovorno samo
u odre|enom organizacijskom kontekstu.
A. [unje; ...: KORELACIONA ANALIZA UTICAJA SITUACIONIH...
In this research the contingency approach in
organizational modelling is used. Burns and Stalker
[3] promote the thesis that organizational structure is
directly depends on the state of environment
tipa variables, recognising two completely different types
of organizations: mechanic and organic. The
mechanic can be applied in the conditions of a
stable environment, whereas the organic one can be
applied in the conditions of a dynamic environment.
Khandwalla's [6], theory is also based on the
principle that the contingency theory is the most
powerful orientation in the organizational theory, and
he analyses the structure and the functioning of
organizational systems as well as the influence of the
organizational variables on organizational design.
Bridges [2], in his research of organizational design,
focuses on organizational changes which become
common, and on how management controls these
changes. Ashkenes [1] promotes a theory that all
organizational systems, no matter their size, have the
limits which increase costs, decrease production,
and suppress innovations. He suggests the methods
for weakening or breaking these limits. Nolan and
Croson [10] suggest a new set of management
principles as the basis for building up a business net
based on information technology, with the structure
needed for a sophisticated competition. Ostroff [11]
focuses his research on “horizontal organization”,
which gives the structural form and integrated
organizational approach with the aim to have value
u as a final product. Mintzberg [8], [9], [10], in a wide
spectrum of his research, gives a comprehensive
tipova theory of the functioning of organizations which are
under influence of different organizational variables.
Mintzberg promotes five different basic types of
organization, recognising in which organizational
context and by which intensity of influence of
organizational variables each type works out. A
specific type of organization works out only with a
tipa specific intensity of organizational variables. With a
certain change of organizational variables comes a
change of the basic type of organization. His doctrine
points out in the direction of identifying independent
organizational variables, as well as in the direction of
recognising organizational context in which a certain
je type of organization works out. The logic of
organizational structuring of certain types of
organizations is completely incompatible, confirming
the main thesis of the contingency theory that a
universal organizational solution does not exist, and
that a certain organizational solution works out only in
a certain organizational context.
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Ma{instvo 1(6), 29 – 40, (2002) A. [unje; ...: KORELACIONA ANALIZA UTICAJA SITUACIONIH...

2. POSTAVKA PROBLEMA I 2. EXPLANATION OF THE PROBLEM

MATEMATI^KI MODEL AND MATHEMATICAL MODEL

Situacione varijable se sastoje od vanjskog Situational variables consist of external environment

okru`enja i demografije. Vanjsko okru`enje se mo`e
analizirati u formi svojih osobenosti kao {to su
stabilnost ili nestabilnost, dinami~nost ili stati~nost
homogenost ili heterogenost, sigurnost ili riskantnost
za poslovanje i sli~no, odnosno glavnih komponenti
kao {to su tip ekonomskog sistema, struktura tr`i{ta,
priroda dru{tva u kojoj organizacija funkcionira i
sli~no. Osnovne demografske varijable, kao
sastavnice ukupnih situacionih varijabli, su veli~ina
organizacije, starost, tip vlasni{tva, tip djelatnosti, i
sli~no. Situacione varijable karakterizira osobina da
se vrlo te{ko, ili prakti~no nikako, ne mogu mijenjati
pod uticajem menad`era.
and demography. External environment can be
analysed in the form of its attributes, such as stability
or instability, dynamism or astaticism, homogeneity or
heterogeneity, safety or risk for operation, etc, and
in the form of main components, such as the type of
economic system, market structure, nature of a
society in which on organization functions etc. Main
demographic variables, as a part of total situational
variables are size, age, type of ownership and type
of organization. Situational variables are characterised
by the fact that the management can change them
very little, or practically no change can be made by
the management.

Strukturne varijable predstavljaju skelet organizacije Structural variables define the skeleton of organization.
i definiraju stabilnu, odnosno stati~nu stranu They represent a stable or static side of the
funkcioniranja organizacije. Strukturne varijable su functioning of on organization. Structural variables are
superstruktura infrastruktura i tehnologija. Na~in na superstructure, infrastructure and technology. The way
koji su zaposleni grupirani u podsisteme the people in on organization are grouped in
organizacijskog sistema u okviru formalne subsystems of the organizational system within the
organizacijske strukture naziva se superstruktura. frame of formal organizational structure is called
Na~in upravljanja, odnosi izme|u rukovodilaca, superstructure. The way of control, relationships
formalizacija komunikacija i razne operativne between the people in charge of organization,
procedure predstavljaju infrastrukturu. Tehnologija formalization of communications and all kinds of
spada tako|er u strukturne varijable, jer direktno operative procedures represent infrastructure.
uti~e na odnose izme|u zaposlenih unutar Technology is defined as structural variable too,
organizacije i njihovu satisfakciju, te u odnosu na because it directly influences relationships among
druge organizacijske varijable djeluje sa najve}im employees inside the organization, their behaviour,
intenzitetom na definiranje organizacijske and satisfaction. In comparison with other
konfiguracije, odnosno izbor bazi~nog tipa organizational variables, it affects with the greatest
organizacije. Tehnologija na ni`im nivoima potpuno intensity the defining of organizational configuration
diktira strukturu. Ona je kao strukturna varijabla and the choice of basic type of organization.
odre|ena sa jedne strane strategijskim varijablama Technology on lower levels completely defines the
(cilj organizacije, prevashodno, opredjeljuje vrstu structure. It is, as structural variable, determined by
tehnologije koja }e se koristiti), kao i situacionim the strategic variables (aim of organization namely
varijablama (okru`enje odre|uje postojanje determines the type of technology which will be
odre|ene tehnologije, te i izbor tehnologije zavisi used) on the one hand, and situational variables from
od mogu}nosti eventualnog izbora). Kada se the other (environment determines existence of a
govori o tehnologiji misli se na “metod, proces, certain type of technology, and thus the choice of
itd. za rukovanje specifi~nim tehni~kim problemom” technology depends on the possibility of the eventual
[17]. Tehnologija predstavlja opredme}ena i choice). The word “technology” means “method,
neopredme}ena znanja, koja se koriste u procesu process, etc., for handling the specific technical
transformacije materijalnih, energetskih i problems” [17]. Technology represents materialised
informacionih inputa u outpute u radnom toku [4]. and non-materialised knowledge which is used in
Tehnologija koja se koristi u procesu transformation process of material, energy and
transformacije materijalnih i energetskih inputa information inputs into outputs the workflow [4].
naziva se operacionom tehnologijom, dok Technology which is used in a process of
tehnologija koja se koristi u transformacionom transformation of material and energy inputs is called
procesu informacionih inputa naziva informacionom operation technology, whereas technology which is
tehnologijom. used in a transformation process of information inputs
is called information technology.
U Tabeli 1 i Tabeli 2 prikazane su liste situacionih The lists of situational and structural variables that
varijabli i strategijskih varijabli, respektivno, koje su are the subject the research for this paper are
bile predmet istra`ivanja u ovom radu. shown in the Table 1 and Table 2 respectively.

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Ma{instvo 1(6), 29 – 40, (2002) A. [unje; ...: KORELACIONA ANALIZA UTICAJA SITUACIONIH...

Tabela 1: Lista situacionih varijabli

Table 1: List of Situational Variables

Starost organizacije Dinami~nost okru`enja

V1 V11
Age of organization Environment dynamics
Djelatnost Sigurnost okru`enja
V2 V12
Type of organization Environment safety
Vlasni{tvo Tehnolo{ka sofisticiranost
V3 V13
Ownership Technology sophistication
Prihod Tarife na uvoz/izvoz
V4 V14
Turnover Import/export taxes
Broj zaposlenih Poreski sistem
V5 V15
Number of employees Tax system
Ratna {teta Vladina regulativa o radu
V6 V16
Damage caused by the war Government labour regulation
Konkurencija za radnom snagom Proces i model privatizacije
V7 V17
Labour competition Process and model of privatisation
Konkurencija u kvalitetu proizvoda/usluga Slaba kontrola dr`avne granice
V8 V18
Products /services/ quality competition Weak control of the state border
Konkurencija u cijeni proizvoda/usluga Nepostojanje jedinstvenog tr`i{ta u dr`avi
V9 V19
Products /services/ price competition Non-existence of a single market in the state
Homogenost okru`enja Politi~ka situacija u dr`avi
V10 V20
Environmnet homogeneity Political situation in the state
Politi~ka i ekonomska kretanja u susjedstvu
V21
Political and economic situation in the neighbourhood

Tabela 2: Lista strukturnih varijabli

Table 2: List of Structural Variables
Automatiziranost tehnologije
V31
Technology automation
Zastupljenost “tehnologije za kupca” - proizvodnja jedne jedinice ili vi{e jedinica proizvoda
(usluga) prema specifikaciji potro{a~a ili potro{a~evim potrebama
V32
Use of “custom technology” – production of a single unit or a few units of products (services)
according to customers specification or needs
Zastupljenost “tehnologije malih serija”- kreacija malih serija sli~nih jedinica
V33
Use of “small batch yechnology” – creation of small batches of similar units
Zastupljenost “tehnologije velikih serija” - kori{tene u proizvodnji velikog broja proizvoda,
odnosno davanju usluge velikom broju klijenata
V34
Use of “large batch technology” – used in production of a large number of products, or in
providing services to a large number of clients.
Zastupljenost “tehnologije masovne proizvodnje”
V35
Use of “mass production technology”
Zastupljenost “tehnologije kontinuiranog procesa” - npr. kori{tene u automatiziranim procesima, u
kojima je izlaz visoko standardiziran i mehaniziran, proizvodnja se odvija kontinuirano
V36
Use of “continues process technology” – used in automated processes, in which the output is
highly standardized and mechanized, production goes on continuously
Zastupljenost “tehnologije usluga” - kori{tene od strane organizacija da slu`i njihovim klijentima
V37
Use of “service technology” – used by organizations to serve their clients
Podijeljenost organizacije
V38
Division of organization
Prenos ovlasti sa visokog rukovodioca na druge kako bi se donijele odluke o stvaranju
dugoro~nog kapitala u cilju finansiranja novih investicija
V39
Delegation of authority from chief executive to others to make decision about raising long term
capital to finance new investments

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Ma{instvo 1(6), 29 – 40, (2002) A. [unje; ...: KORELACIONA ANALIZA UTICAJA SITUACIONIH...

Prenos ovlasti sa visokog rukovodioca na druge kako bi se donijele odluke o razvoju novih
proizvoda (usluga)
V40
Delegation of authority from chief executive to others to make decision about development of
new products (services)
Prenos ovlasti sa visokog rukovodioca na druge kako bi se donijele odluke o primanju na
posao ili otpu{tanju sa posla
V41
Delegation of authority from chief executive to others to make decision about hiring and firing
of employees
Prenos ovlasti sa visokog rukovodioca na druge kako bi se donijele odluke o davanju cijena
novim proizvodima (uslugama) i zna~ajnoj promjeni cijena postoje}ih proizvoda (usluga)
V42
Delegation of authority from chief executive to others to make decision about pricing of new
products and significant change of price of existing products (services)

U ovom radu istra`en je uticaj situacionih varijabli In this, a paper research of the influence of the
na strukturne varijable, prikazanih u Tabelama 1. i situational on the structural variables (listed in the
2, respektivno. Ulazni podaci za matematsku analizu Table 1 and the Table 2 respectively) is
podataka su dobijeni na osnovu empirijske performed. The input data for mathematical analysis
metodologije anketiranja organizacija pa`ljivo are obtained on the basis of empiric methodology
dizajniranim Upitnikom. Odgovori na pitanju su of questioning the organizations by carefully
dizajnirani u obliku linearne skale. Od ukupnog designed Questionnaire. The answers to the
broja onih koji su popunjavali Upitnik, 72,5% questions are designed in the form of a linear
pripadaju najvi{em menad`mentu, 22,5% visokom scale. Out of the total number of those who filled
menad`mentu, te 5% srednjem menad`mentu the Questionnaire, 72.5% are top management,
22.5% to high management and 5% to middle
Matematska analiza odnosa varijabli je ura|ena management.
Pearsonovom korelaciono teorijom. Nulta i
istra`iva~ka hipoteza u ovom radu su definirane na Mathematical analysis is done using the Pearson's
sljede}i na~in: correlation theory. In the paper the Null and the
Research hypotheses are defined as follows:
H0 :r = 0
H0 :r = 0
H1 : r ≠ 0
H1 : r ≠ 0
U nultoj, H0, hipotezi pretpostavljeno je da je In the Null, H0, hypotheses, it is assumed that
Pearsonov koeficijent korelacije r jednak nuli, tj. da the Pearson correlation coefficient r equals zero,
ne postoji korelacija izme|u varijabli, dok je u in other words that there is no correlation between
istra`iva~koj hipotezi (hipoteza koju `elimo da the variables, whereas in the Research , H1 ,
doka`emo) pretpostavljeno da je Pearsonov
hypothesis (the hypothesis which we want to
koeficijent korelacije r razli~it od nule, odnosno da
prove), it is assumed that Pearson correlation
postoji korelacija izme|u varijabli ~iju zavisnost
coefficient r is different from zero, in other words
ispitujemo. Na osnovu ovako definirane nulte i
that there is a correlation between the variables
istra`iva~ke hipoteze, slijedi da u slu~aju
whose dependance is to be investigated. Bearing
istra`iva~ke, H1 , hipoteze, r mo`e biti ve}e od in mind the way that the Null and Research
nule, odnosno manje od nule, tj. mo`e postojati hypotheses are defined, it follows that in the case
pozitivna (direktna) i negativna (inverzna) korelacija. of the Research, H1 , hypotheses, r can be higher
Po{to, zbog kompleksnosti odnosa organizacijskih
or lower than zero, in other words the pozitive
varijabli, ne postoje validni pokazatelji kojim bi se
(direct) and negative (inverse) correlation can exist.
unaprijed pouzdano odredila direkcija korelacije, u
Because of the complexity of relationships between
ovom istra`ivanju kori{ten je tzv. nedirekcioni, 2-
the organizational variables, there are no valid
tailed test signifikantnosti.
indicators for a hable pre-determination of the so
called correlation directions. In this research non-
directional 2-tailed test of significancy is used.

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Ma{instvo 1(6), 45 – 55, (2002) A. [unje; ...: KORELACIONA ANALIZA UTICAJA SITUACIONIH...
3. REZULTATI ISTRA@IVANJA
U sljede}oj, Tabeli 3, prikazani su matematski
rezultati istra`ivanja, odnosno matematske vrijednosti
svih korelacija. Izra~unate su sve korelacije, dok su
analizirani oni koeficijenti korelacije koji su
signifikantni na 0,01 nivou i 0,05 nivou, odnosno u
intervalu 0,00 do 0,05, kada odbacujemo nultu
hipotezu kao neta~nu i dokazujemo istra`iva~ku
hipotezu. Korelacije signifikantne na 0,05 i 0,01
nivou su u Tabeli 3 su markirane sa jednom i
dvije zvjezdice respektivno. Ta~ka u Tabeli 3
ozna~ava decimalno mjesto. Broj prije decimalnog
mjesta je izostavljen i u svakom slu~aju je jednak
nuli. Slovo K u Tabeli 3 ozna~ava koeficijent
korelacije, slovo S ozna~ava signifikantnost, dok
slovo N ozna~ava broj elemenata u uzorku.
4. ZAKLJU^AK
Iz rezultata istra`ivanja prikazanih u Tabeli 3., mo`e
se vidjeti da vrsta djelatnosti (proizvodna, uslu`na i
trgovina), kao situaciona varijabla, inverzno korelira
sa mjerom sa kojom je zastupljena ¨tehnologija
malih serija¨ (kreacija malih serija sli~nih jedinica)
u organizaciji sa signifikantno{}u na 0,05 nivou.
Apsolutna vrijednost korelacije je 0,367. To zna~i
da proizvodne organizacije vi{e koriste tehnologiju
malih serija, dok u slu~aju trgovinskih organizacija
ona je minimalno kori{tena ili gotovo nikako
kori{tena tehnologija. Kod uslu`nih djelatnosti
kori{tenje ove tehnologije je izme|u intenziteta
prikazanih kod proizvodnih i trgovinskih.
Tip vlasni{tva (dr`avno, mje{ovito i privatno) korelira
sa stepenom automatiziranosti tehnologija u
organizacijama. Keficijent korelacije je 0,431, i to sa
signifikantno{}u na 0,01 nivou. Ovim se dokazuje
da je veoma mala automatiziranost karakteristi~na za
dr`avna preduze}a, dok je veoma visoki stepen
automatizacije tehnologije djelatnosti organizacije
karakteristi~an za privatne organizacije. Stepen
automatizacije kod organizacija u mje{ovitom
vlasni{tvu je na nivou izme|u nivoa automatizacije
tehnologije dr`avnih i privatnih organizacija.
Prihod organizacije je u direktnoj vezi sa
kori{tenjem tehnologije masovne proizvodnje.
Koeficijent korelacije je 0,378 sa signifikantno{}u
na 0,05 nivou. Istra`ivanje je pokazalo da {to je
ve}i godi{nji prihod organizacije, pove}ava se i
zastupljenost kori{tenja tehnologije masovne
proizvodnje. Organizacije sa malim godi{njim
prihodom uop}e ne koriste ovu tehnologiju, dok je
ova tehnologija veoma prisutna kod organizacija sa
velikim godi{njim prihodom.
- 34 -
3. THE RESULTS OF RESERACH
In the following Table 3, the mathematical results of
reserach and exact numeric||al data of correlations
are shown. All correlations are calculated, whereas
only the correlation coefficients significant at 0.01
and 0.05 (interval 0.00 to 0.05) levels are analysed.
These correlation coefficients are significant at 0.01
and 0.05 levels when the Null hypothesis is
dropped as false and the Research hypothesis is
proved. The correlation coefficients significant at
0.01 and 0.05 levels are marked in the Table 3
with one and two stars respectively. Dot in the
Table denotes the decimal place. The number
before the decimal place in the Table is omitted
and in all cases it equals zero. The letter K in the
Table denotes the “correlation coefficient”; the letter
S denotes “significant”, whereas the letter N
denotes the number of elements in the sample.
4. CONCLUSION
From the results of this research, shown in the Table
3, it can be seew that the type of organization
(production, service and trade organization) as a
situational variable, is in the inverse correlation with
the usage of small batch technology (creation of
small batches of similar units) in an organization.
The correlation coefficient is –0.367 significant at 0.05
level. It means that production organizations use
small batches technology more frequently, whereas
trade organizations, use this technology very little or
do not use it at all. In the case of service
organizations the usage of this technology is on the
level between those used in production and trade
organizations.
The type of ownership (state, mixed and private
ownership) affects the level of technology
automation in organizations. The correlation
coefficient is 0.431, significant at 0.01 level. This
correlation proves that very little automation is a
characteristic of the state owned companies,
whereas the high level of technology automation is
a characteristic of the private companies. The level
of technology automation in mixed owned
companies is the mid level of the private and state
owned enterprises.
The turnover of an organization is directly related
with the usage of the mass production technology.
The correlation coefficient is 0.378, significant at
0.05 level. The research shows that the higher
turnover, the higher usage of mass production
technology. Organizations with a small turnover do
not use this technology at all, whereas this
technology is very much present in the
organizations with a high turnover.
Ma{instvo 1(6), 29 – 40, (2002) A. [unje; ...: KORELACIONA ANALIZA UTICAJA SITUACIONIH...

Tabela 3: Korelacije varijabli

Table 3: Variables Correlation
V31 V32 V33 V34 V35 V36 V37 V38 V39 V40 V41 V42
K .007 -.072 -.128 .059 .092 .118 -.176 .079 -.084 .065 -.093 .015
V1 S .968 .673 .479 .760 .628 .533 .344 .626 .628 .694 .567 .928
N 37 37 33 29 30 30 31 40 36 39 40 40
K .201 .042 -.367* -.148 -.047 .030 .213 .255 .224 -.154 .117 .282
V2 S .241 .809 .039 .445 .807 .877 .259 .118 .196 .355 .478 .082
N 36 36 32 29 29 29 30 39 35 38 39 39
K .431** .312 -.003 .193 .298 .280 .215 .223 .048 -.013 .094 -.162
V3 S .008 .060 .986 .317 .109 .134 .245 .167 .781 .939 .563 .317
N 37 37 33 29 30 30 31 40 36 39 40 40
K .328 -.124 -.047 .191 .378* .281 -.281 .284 .085 .071 .003 .237
V4 S .058 .485 .803 .341 .047 .148 .140 .088 .636 .681 .984 .158
N 34 34 31 27 28 28 29 37 33 36 37 37
K .077 -.091 -.043 .098 .080 .012 -.171 .187 -.063 .000 -.106 .208
V5 S .657 .599 .816 .618 .681 .952 .366 .255 .720 1.000 .519 .203
N 36 36 32 28 29 29 30 39 35 38 39 39
K -.044 -.110 .125 -.128 -.267 -.077 -.327 .491* .007 .016 .110 .242
V6 S .837 .616 .589 .614 .284 .754 .137 .013 .975 .940 .600 .245
N 24 23 21 18 18 19 22 25 24 25 25 25
K .277 .222 .136 .286 .333 .045 .057 .167 .000 -.042 -.119 -.160
V7 S .102 .193 .459 .132 .078 .815 .759 .310 1.000 .798 .471 .331
N 36 36 32 29 29 29 31 39 36 39 39 39
K .397* -.019 .483** .107 .054 .211 -.021 -.190 -.038 .006 .103 .050
V8 S .018 .914 .006 .589 .784 .282 .912 .253 .829 .971 .540 .765
N 35 35 31 28 28 28 30 38 35 38 38 38
K .156 -.082 .123 -.015 .034 -.023 .020 -.369* -.154 .014 -.042 .060
V9 S .355 .630 .497 .940 .858 .905 .915 .019 .370 .932 .796 .714
N 37 37 33 29 30 30 31 40 36 39 40 40
K -.043 .031 .160 -.521** -.414* -.117 .373* .047 -.286 -.089 -.011 .096
V10 S .799 .858 .373 .004 .023 .538 .039 .771 .091 .590 .947 .556
N 37 37 33 29 30 30 31 40 36 39 40 40
K -.422** .016 -.251 -.151 -.242 -.046 -.043 .273 .085 .043 .024 .064
V11 S .009 .925 .159 .433 .198 .809 .819 .088 .623 .793 .882 .694
N 37 37 33 29 30 30 31 40 36 39 40 40

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Ma{instvo 1(6), 29 – 40, (2002) A. [unje; ...: KORELACIONA ANALIZA UTICAJA SITUACIONIH...

K .248 .018 .190 -.363 -.318 -.101 .313 -.056 -.017 -.157 .176 .019
V12 S .139 .915 .291 .053 .086 .595 .087 .731 .920 .340 .278 .909
N 37 37 33 29 30 30 31 40 36 39 40 40
K -.318 -.199 -.177 -.152 -.079 -.151 -.281 .066 -.149 -.050 -.108 .046
V13 S .055 .237 .324 .430 .678 .427 .126 .685 .387 .764 .508 .780
N 37 37 33 29 30 30 31 40 36 39 40 40
K -.233 -.052 -.158 .144 -.089 .087 -.258 .351* .290 .260 .206 -.048
V14 S .191 .780 .405 .473 .652 .661 .185 .039 .108 .137 .236 .784
N 33 32 30 27 28 28 28 35 32 34 35 35
K .360* .163 .089 .050 -.052 -.137 .089 .174 -.095 -.153 -.209 -.010
V15 S .033 .351 .632 .801 .791 .487 .640 .297 .588 .359 .209 .951
N 35 35 31 28 28 28 30 38 35 38 38 38
K .198 .158 .335 .292 .142 .139 .151 -.010 -.190 -.078 -.048 -.334*
V16 S .240 .351 .057 .125 .453 .465 .418 .950 .267 .635 .769 .035
N 37 37 33 29 30 30 31 40 36 39 40 40
K .229 .045 .273 .015 .046 .139 .091 .099 -.123 -.098 .267 -.176
V17 S .178 .796 .130 .940 .814 .473 .631 .547 .481 .556 .101 .284
N 36 36 32 28 29 29 30 39 35 38 39 39
K -.098 .083 .326 -.034 -.257 -.207 -.004 -.182 -.219 -.082 -.283 -.013
V18 S .563 .626 .064 .862 .171 .272 .984 .260 .199 .620 .077 .935
N 37 37 33 29 30 30 31 40 36 39 40 40
K -.098 .083 .102 .145 -.059 -.207 .115 -.182 -.016 -.091 .031 -.013
V19 S .563 .626 .573 .452 .756 .272 .537 .260 .925 .581 .847 .935
N 37 37 33 29 30 30 31 40 36 39 40 40
K .015 .271 -.256 .196 .181 .181 .247 -.234 -.081 .018 -.004 -.188
V20 S .928 .104 .151 .307 .338 .339 .181 .146 .638 .915 .978 .247
N 37 37 33 29 30 30 31 40 36 39 40 40
K .180 .383* -.054 .036 .158 .301 .307 -.273 .075 .090 -.004 -.065
V21 S .287 .019 .765 .853 .405 .106 .093 .088 .662 .586 .981 .690
N 37 37 33 29 30 30 31 40 36 39 40 40
K .332 .093 .136 .326 .375* .429* .039 .036 -.133 .138 .019
V31 S .051 .614 .483 .078 .041 .016 .817 .836 .438 .415 .913
N 35 32 29 30 30 31 37 35 36 37 37
K .180 .170 .070 .324 .515** -.195 -.024 -.138 -.167 .022
V32 S .323 .378 .714 .081 .004 .247 .892 .421 .322 .895
N 32 29 30 30 30 37 34 36 37 37

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Ma{instvo 1(6), 29 – 40, (2002) A. [unje; ...: KORELACIONA ANALIZA UTICAJA SITUACIONIH...

K -.015 -.214 .011 -.055 -.158 -.121 -.186 .018 -.019

V33 S .938 .265 .955 .779 .380 .524 .307 .921 .918
N 28 29 30 28 33 30 32 33 33
K .648** .346 -.128 .165 .215 .147 -.155 -.054
V34 S .000 .071 .532 .392 .273 .447 .423 .781
N 28 28 26 29 28 29 29 29
K .603** .029 -.075 .324 .454* .193 .050
V35 S .001 .887 .695 .093 .013 .308 .794
N 29 26 30 28 29 30 30
K .216 -.144 .360 .476** .337 .253
V36 S .279 .448 .060 .009 .069 .177
N 27 30 28 29 30 30
K -.321 -.188 -.262 -.059 -.150
V37 S .078 .319 .155 .751 .420
N 31 30 31 31 31
K .176 .031 .088 .003
V38 S .304 .853 .590 .985
N 36 39 40 40
K .349* .616** .401*
V39 S .037 .000 .015
N 36 36 36
K .467** .121
V40 S .003 .463
N 39 39
K .192
V41 S .236
N 40

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Ma{instvo 1(6), 29 – 40, (2002) A. [unje; ...: KORELACIONA ANALIZA UTICAJA SITUACIONIH...
Interesantno je da su organizacije koje imaju manju
ratnu {tetu u su{tini organizacije koje imaju jedan
profitni centar, dok su organizacije kod kojih je
ve}a ratna {teta, ustvari visoko podijeljene
organizacije sa vi{e profitnih centara. Koeficijent
korelacije je 0,491 sa signifikantno{}u na 0,05
nivou. Naime, mo`e se zaklju~iti da one
organizacije, koje su bile slo`ene, odnosno koje su
imale svoje organizacijske jedinice na cijeloj teritoriji
BiH su imale ve}e ratne {tete, nego organizacije
koje su bile u su{tini sa jednim profitnim centrom i
stoga locirane na jednom lokalitetu.
Konkurencija u kvalitetu i razli~itosti proizvoda ili
usluga korelira direktno sa automatizirano{}u
tehnologije djelatnosti organizacije sa koeficijentom
korelacije 0,397 i signifikantno{}u na 0,05 nivou, i
sa kori{tenjem tehnologije malih serija (kreacija
malih serija sli~nih jedinica); koeficijent korelacije
je 0,483 sa signifikantno{}u na 0,01 nivou. Dakle,
sa pove}anjem konkurencije u kvalitetu i razli~itosti
proizvoda ili usluga, pove}ana je automatiziranost
tehnologije djelatnosti organizacije. Obrnuto, ukoliko
je konkurencija u kvalitetu i razli~itosti proizvoda ili
usluga manja, smanjuje se i automatiziranost
tehnologije. Tako|er, u uslovima ekstremno jake
konkurencije, pove}ava se i kori{tenje tehnologije
malih serija, odnosno kori{tenje ove tehnologije je
minimalno ili se uop}e ne koristi kada
konkurencija ne postoji odnosno kada je
homogena industrija proizvoda ili usluga.
Homogenost okru`enja negativno korelira sa
kori{tenjem tehnologije velikih serija. Koeficijent
korelacije je –0,521 sa signifikantno{}u na 0,01
nivou. Naime ukoliko je okru`enje unutar koga
organizacija djeluje homogeno, onda se tehnologija
velikih serija veoma mnogo koristi, odnosno
ukoliko je okru`enje organizacije heterogeno,
tehnologija velikih serija se minimalno koristi ili
gotovo se nikako ne koristi.
Homogenost okru`enja negativno korelira sa
kori{tenjem tehnologije masovne proizvodnje
(korelacija –0,414 sa signifikantno{}u na 0,05
nivou). U slu~aju homogenog okru`enja tehnologija
masovne proizvodnje se veoma mnogo koristi, dok
u slu~aju heterogenog okru`enja ova se tehnologija
uop}e ne koristi ili se gotovo nikako ne koristi.
Pozitivni koeficijent korelacije sa vrijednos}u 0,373 i
signifikantno{}u na 0,05 nivou, vidljiv je izmedju
homogenosti okru`enja i podijeljenosti organizacije.
Organizacije koje djeluju u homogenom okru`enju
nisu podijeljenje u smislu organizacijske strukture, u
su{tini postoji jedna profitni centar, dok organizacije
koje djeluju u heterogenom okru`enju su visoko
podijeljenje organizacije sa vi{e profitnih centara.
- 38 -
It is interesting that the organizations which have
small damages caused by war are, in essence,
organizations that have one profit centre.
Organizations which have areat war damages are
highly divisional organizations with more profit
centres. The correlation coefficient is 0.491,
significant at 0.05 level. It can be concluded that
those complex organizations, in other words,
organizations which had its units on the whole
territory of the state had bigger war damages than
organizations which had, in essence, one profit
centre, and thus locatedin one place.
The products (services) quality competition directly
correlates with the technology automation of a
business. The correlation coefficient is 0.397
significant at 0.05 level. Product (service) quality
competition correlates with the usage of small
batche technology too. The correlation coefficient is
0.483 significant at 0.01 level. The higher the
product (service) competition, the higher the level
of automation of a business in an organization.
And vice versa, the lower the level of automation of
a business in an organization, the lower the level
of automation of a business in an organization. In
the conditions of extreme competition, the usage of
small batche technology is higher. This technology
is minimally used or not used at all when
competition is low, and in the case of homogeneity
of product or service industry.
The environment homogeneity negatively correlates
with the usage of large batch technology. The
correlation coefficient is -0.521 significant at 0.01
level. If the organization environment is
homogeneous, the large batch technology is widely
used. And vice versa, in the case of
heterogeneous environment, the large batch
technology is used very little or not used at all.
The environment homogeneity negatively correlates
with the usage of mass production technology. The
correlation coefficient is -0.414 significant at 0.05
level. The more homogeneous the environment, the
more mass production technology is used. And
vice versa, the more heterogeneous the
environment ,the less mass production technology
is used.
A positive correlation coefficient (0.373, significant
at 0.05 level) is obtained calculating the correlation
between environment homogeneity and division of
organization. Organizations that operate in
homogeneous environment are not divided with
respect to organizational structure, Csseatially, there
is a single profit centre, whereas organizations
which operate in heterogeneous environment are
highly divided with a few profit centres.
Ma{instvo 1(6), 29 – 40, (2002) A. [unje; ...: KORELACIONA ANALIZA UTICAJA SITUACIONIH...
U uslovima stati~nog okru`enja, veoma je mala
automatiziranost tehnologije djelatnosti organizacije,
dok je u uslovima dinami~kog okru`enja u
potpunosti izvr{ena automatizacija tehnolgije. Ovaj
koeficijent korelacije je, dakle, negativan –0,422, sa
signifikantno{}u na 0,01 nivou.
Tarife na uvoz/izvoz pozitivno koreliraju (0,351), sa
signifikantno{}u na 0,05 nivou, sa podijeljnosti
organizacije u smislu organizacijske strukture. Tako,
ako tarife negativno uti~u na poslovanje
organizacije ({to je naj~e{}e i bio slu~aj), onda
nema podijeljenosti organizacije u smislu
organizacijske strukture i obrnuto.
Kada poreski sistem negativno uti~e na poslovanje
organizacije, onda je automatiziranost tehnologije
djelatnosti organizacije veoma mala. Suprotno,
ukoliko poreski sistem pozitivno uti~e na
poslovanje organizacije, onda je vidljiva tendencija
za potpunom automatizacijom tehnologije djelatnosti
organizacije. Koeficijent ove korelacije je 0,360, sa
signifikantno{}u na 0,05 nivou.
Vladina regulativa o radu negativno korelira sa
prenosom ovlasti kod davanja cijena novim
proizvodima/uslugama i zna~ajna promjena cijena
postoje}ih proizvoda/usluga. Koeficijent korelacije je –
0,334, sa signifikantno{}u na 0,05 nivou. U
potpunosti su ovlasti prene{ene kada vladina
regulativa o radu negativno uti~e na poslovanje
organizacije.
Kada politi~ka i ekonomska kretanja u neposrednom
susjedstvu negativno uti~u na poslovanje organizacije,
tada se tehnologija za kupca (proizvodnja jedne
jedinice ili vi{e jedinica proizvoda/usluga prema
specifikaciji potro{a~a ili potro{a~evim potrebama)
veoma malo ili gotovo nikako ne koristi, i obrnuto.
Koeficijent ove korelacije je 0,383 sa signifikantno{}u
na 0,05 nivou.
5. LITERATURA - REFERENCES
[1] Ashkenes R., “Ulrich D., Jick T. Kerr S, The
Boundaryless Organisation”, Jossey-Bass,
Publishers, San Francisco 1995;
[2] Bridges W., “Managing Transitions – Making
the most of Change”, Adison-Wesley
Publishing Company, Massachusetts 1991;
[3] Burns T., Stalker G.M., “The Management
Inovation”, Tavistock, London, 1966;
- 39 -
In the conditions of static environment, technology
automation is very small, whereas in the case of
dynamic environment there is a complete
technology automation. The coefficient of this
correlation is –0.422, significant at 0.01 level.
The Export/import taxes correlate with the division
of organization with respect to organizational
structure. The correlation Coefficient of is 0.351,
significant at 0.05 level. If the taxes negatively
affect operation in an organization (this is present
in majority of cases), then there is no division of
organization with respect to organizational structure
and vice versa.
When the tax system negatively affects operation,
then the technology automation is very small. In
the case when the tax system positively affects
operation, there is a trend of having a complete
technology automation. The correlation Coefficient
of is 0.360, significant at 0.05 level.
The government labour regulation negatively
correlates with the delegation of authority in to
makeing decisions about pricing of new products
and significant change of price of existing products
(services). When the regulation negatively affects
operation, there is a complete delegation of
authority. The correlation Coefficient is -0.334,
significant at 0.05 level.
When the political and economic situation in the
neighbourhood negatively affects operation, then
the customer technology (production of a single
unit or a few units of products /services according
to customer specification or needs) is used hardly
at all, and vice versa. The coefficient of the
correlation is -0.383, significant at 0.05 level.
[4] Gerwin D., “Relationship between Structure
and Technology”, Handbook of Organizational
Design, Vol 2, Oxford Press, 1984;
[5] Kaplan R., Norton D., “The Strategy-Focused
Organization”, Harvard Business School Press,
Boston 2000;
[6] Khandwalla P., “The Design of Organizations”,
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, International Edit.,
New York 1977;
Ma{instvo 1(6), 45 – 55, (2002) A. [unje; ...: KORELACIONA ANALIZA UTICAJA SITUACIONIH...

[7] Mintzberg H., “The Structuring Of [12] Pa{i} M., “Strukturianje i menad`ment
Organizations”, Prentice Hall. Inc., New Jersey organizacijskih sistema modeliranjem
1978; interaktivnih varijabli”, doktorska disertacija,
Ma{inski fakultet Sarajevo, novembar 2001;
[8] Mintzberg H., “A Guide to Strategic
Positioning”, Harvard Business Review, May- [13] Robbins P.S., “Bitni elementi organizacijskog
June, strana 18-24, Boston 1996; pona{anja”, (prevod), MATE, Zagreb 1992;

[9] Mintzberg H., Ludo Van der Heyden,
“Organigraphs: Drawing How Companies
Really Work”, Harvard Business Review,
September-October, strana 42-49, Boston
1999;
[10] Nolan R., Croson D., “Creative Destruction –
A Six-Stage Process for Transforming the
Organisation”, Hardvard Business School
Press, Massachusetts, Boston 1995;
[11] Ostroff F. “The Horizontal Organisation”,
Oxford University Press, New York 1999;
[14] Sirkin M., “Statistics for the Social Sciences”,
Sage Publications, New York 1995;
[15] Tatham R., Hair J., Anderson R., Black W.,
“Multivariate Data Analysis”, fifth edition,
Prentice Hall, Upper Saddler River, New
York, 1998;
[16] Zook C., Allen J., “Profit From the Core:
Growth Strategy in an Era of Turbulence”,
Harvard, Busines School Press, Boston 2001;
[17] Webster’s New World College Dictionary, Third
Edition, A Simon & Schuster Macmillan
Company, New York, 1997;

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Ma{instvo 1(6), 41 – 50, (2002) E. Kuli}: KORI[TENJE ENERGIJE U ZGRADARSTVU...

KORI[TENJE ENERGIJE U ZGRADARSTVU – STANJE U

BiH I TRENDOVI U SVIJETU
OP[TI POKAZATELJI ENERGETSKE POTRO[NJE (DIO I)
Prof. dr. Emin Kuli}, profesor, Ma{inski fakultet Sarajevo, Univerzitet u Sarajevu,
Sarajevo, BiH

REZIME PREGLEDNI RAD

U radu je analizirano stanje primarne energetske potro{nje i energije krajnjih korisnika za sektor
zgradarstva u svijetu i u BiH. Istra`ivanja pokazuju da sektor zgradarstva sa aspekta potro{nje
primarne energije stoji uz bok potro{nje primarne energije sektora industrije i saobra}aja zajedno. To
~ini oko 50 % energetske potro{nje prosje~no industrijski razvijene zemlje. Kada se sektor
zgradarstva posmatra sam za sebe onda do oko ¾ energije ovog sektora otpada na potrebe
zagrijavanja stambenih i poslovnih zgrada-prostora. Ti odnsi su dosta sli~ni u svijetu i u BiH.
Pored toga bitno je konstatovati da se specifi~na potro{nja energije u zgradarstcu u svijetu drasti~no
smanjila. Istovremeno su se u svijetu relativni odnosi udijela transmisionih toplotnih gubitaka u odnosu
na ventilacione gubitke u zgradarstvu tako|er drasti~no smanjili. Te promejene u svijetu nisu up}e
pra}ene ni u BiH, ni na prostoru ex-Yu, izuzev Slovenije.

Klju~ne rije~i: primarna energija, energija krajnjih korisnika, karakteristika energetske potro{nje
zgrade, klimatski projektni parametri, transmisioni i ventilacini gubici toplote

USE OF ENERGY IN BUILDINGS – SITUATION IN B&H

AND WORLDWIDE TRENDS
GENERAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION CHARACTERISTICS
(PART I)
Prof. Emin Kuli}, M.A.Sc. Ph.D., Mechanical Engineering Faculty Sarajevo,
University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

SUMMARY SUBJECT REVIEW

Primary and final energy consumption for building sector in B&H and around the world are analyzed
in this paper. Research shows that building sector, from the aspect of primary energy consumption,
is close to primary energy consumption of traffic and industry sector together. It amounts close to
50% of energy consumption of an average developed industrial country. When one considers the
building energy sector alone, then around ¾ of this energy goes on heating of residential and
commercial spaces. These relations are similar around the world and in B&H.
Beside that, it is necessary to realize that the specific energy consumption in buildings around the
world has drastically decreased. At the same time, relative ratios of transmission and ventilation
losses have also drastically decreased around the world. These changes around world were not
followed in BiH and ex-Yu, except in Slovenia.

Key words: primary energy, final energy consumption, characteristic of building energy
consumption, climatic design parameters, transmission and ventilation heat losses

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Ma{instvo 1(6), 41 – 50, (2002)
1. UVODNE NAPOMENE
Pod pojmom "zgradarstvo" se ovdje podrazumjeva
sektor rezidencijalnog (residential) i komercijalnog
(commercial) stambenog fonda.
Sektor zgradarstva je najzna~ajini "pojedina~ni"
potro{a~ energije. Radi toga i energetska efikasnost
zgrada ima visoki prioritet u mnogim zemljama.
Sljedstveno tome i potencijal za u{tede energije u
sektoru zgradarstva.ie ogroman.
Kao {to je ranije istaknuto, efikasna upotreba
energije je bitna s obzirom da su globalni
energetski resursi kona~ni, a generisanje elektri~ne
i drugih vrsta energije iz fosilnih goriva (kao {to su
ugalj, nafta i donekle prirodni gas) imaju adverzne
efekte na okolinu.
Naime, nakon {to su Ujedinjeni narodi, zajedni~kom
akcijom (pridr`avanjem odgovaraju}ih protokola o
smanjenju upotrebe klasi~nih rashladnih medija -CFCl
i njihovoj zamjeni novorazvijenim rashladnim
medijima) uspjeli okrenuti trend stanjenja (depletion)
ozonskog sloja, neprekidni porast potro{nje energije
doveo je do porasta stakleni~kih gasova u atmosferi
(klju~ni element je CO2) {to rezultira u postepenom
porastu prosje~ne temperature atmosfere. Slika u
Prilogu 1., prikazuje rezultate uspje{nosti borbe
"Ujedinjenih naroda" za smanjenje potro{nje -
uni{tavanja ozonskog sloja u atmosferi Zemlje.
2. STANJE ENERGETSKE POTRO[NJE
U NAS I U SVlJETU S NAGALSKOM
NA SEKTOR ZGRADARSTVA
Slika 1. prikazuje stanje energetske potro{nje za
potrebe grijanja zgrada u uporedbi sa ostalom
energetskom potro{njom krajnjih korisnika za
Saveznu Republiku Njema~ku (BRD). Slika 2.
prikazuje analogne odnose u Bosni i Herzegovini
za 1985-tu godinu. Slika 2a. prikazuje stanje iz
1985-te, a slika 2b prognoze (krajem 80-tih)
potro{nje 2000-te godine.
Svjetlo Light Grijanje prost. Space
2% heating
Meh. energ. Mech
Energy
38%
Proc. topl.
Process heat
23%
E. Kuli}: KORI[TENJE ENERGIJE U ZGRADARSTVU...
1. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
The term « buildings» here, refers to residential and
commercial sector of housing.
The building sector is the most important « single»
energy consumer. For that reason, building energy
efficiency has high priority in many countries.
Having that in mind, energy saving potential in
building sector is very big.
Efficient energy use is essential, since global
energy resources are final, and generation of
electrical and other energy kinds from fossil fuels
(coal, oil, and partially natural gas) have adverse
effects on surrounding atmosphere.
Namely, after the United Nations, acting in
common interest (respecting relevant protocols
about reduction of classical cooling mediums -
CFC1, and their replacement, newly developed
cooling mediums), succeeded to turn over trends
of ozone layer depletion, a new problem evolved.
Thus, continuous energy consumption increase has
caused steady increase of solar garden gases in
the atmosphere (key element is carbon dioxide -
CO2), with steady increase of atmospheric
temperature. Figure 1. in the appendix 1 shows
results of successful measures by the United
Nations to prevent decrease of ozone layer
depletion.
2. STATE OF THE ENERGY
CONSUMPTION B&H (EX YU) AND
AROUND THE WORLD WITH EMPHASIS
ON THE BUILDING SECTOR
Figure 1. presents the state of the energy
consumption for the needs of heating in building
in comparison with the rest of energy consumption
in Germany. Figure 2a. shows analogous results for
B&H in 1985. Figure 2b. shows the situation in the
year 2000, based on prognoses from the alte
eighties.
32%
Topl. voda Sanit
w ater Slika 1. Udio energije grijanja
5% zgrada u ukupnoj potro{nji
energije krajnjih korisnika (BRD
u 1991. godini)
Figure 1. Distribution of total
final energy consuption in
Germany in 1991
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Ma{instvo 1(6), 41 – 50, (2002) E. Kuli}: KORI[TENJE ENERGIJE U ZGRADARSTVU...

Sa Slike 1. se vidi da je udio energi.ie za
zagrijavanje zgrada u Njema~koj veoma visok. Sa
sanitarnom vodom to predstavlja oko 40 % energije
krajnjih korisnika. Zavisno od stepena razvijenosti
zemlje i strukture njene privrede, ti se odnosi
kre}u aproksimativno izme|u 40 i 60 %.
From the Figure 1. one can see that the partion of
the building energy consumption in Germany is very
high. Along with the sanitary water consumption it
represents around 40 % of final energy consumption.
Depending on the development stage of the country,
these relations are between 40 to 60 %.

18% 15% Stambeni i prate}i sadr`aji - ostalo 15%

Housing and accompanying elements -
remainant 15%
Stambeni i prate}i sadr`aji - grijanje 39%
1% Housing and accompanying elements -
heating 39%
Industrija 27% Industry 27%

Slika 2a: Analogno stanje u

Javna rasvjeta 1% Public lighting 1% BiH (1985. godina)
27%
39% Figure 2a: Analogous
Saobra}aj 18% Traffic 18% situation in B&H ( the year
1985)

Stambeni i prate}i sadr`aji - ostalo 16%

16% Housing and accompanying elements -
25% remainant 16%
Stambeni i prate}i sadr`aji - grijanje 33%
Housing and accompanying elements -
heating 33%
Industrija 25% Industry 25% Slika 2b: Analogno stanje u
1%
BiH (progonoza za 2000.
Javna rasvjeta 1% Public lighting 1% godinu)
33% Figure 2b: Analogous
situation in B&H (prognoses)
Saobra}aj 25% Traffic 25%
25% for the year 2000.

Saglasno prethodno navedenom ova potro{nja In accordance with the above said, this
energije za Bosnu i Hercegovinu pada negdje na consumption of energy for Bosnia and Herzegovina
sredinu godi{nje ljestvice tj. iznosi oko 50 %., is in the middle of annual range i.e. it is ca 50 %
energetske potro{nje krajnjih korisnika, kao {to se of the final consumer energy, as one can see
vidi sa slika 2a. i 2b. from the Figures 2a. and 2b.

Slika 3. prikazuje udio energije grijanja zgrada u Figure 3 represents a portion of heating energy in
krajnjoj potro{nji energije doma}instava, (bez buildings as the final energy consumption of the
saobra}aja), BRD u 1991. godini. building sector for FRG in 1991.

Slika 4a. prikazuje analogne odnose u Bosni i Figure 4a. represents analogous relations in Bosnia
Herzegovini za 1985-tu godinu, dok Slika 4b prikazuje and Herzegovina for 1985, whereas the Figure 4b.
prognoze (krajem 80-tih) za 2000-tu godinu. shows prognoses for the year 2000.

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Ma{instvo 1(6), 41 – 50, (2002) E. Kuli}: KORI[TENJE ENERGIJE U ZGRADARSTVU...

6%1.50%
4%
Grijanje 76,5% Heating 76,5%
12%
Topl. voda 12% Hot water 12% Slika 3: Udio grijanja zgrada u krajnjoj
potro{nji energije doma}instava, BRD u
Proc. topl. 4% Process heat 4% 1991. godini
Figure 3: Portion of building the
Meh. energ. 6% Mechanic energy 6%
heating energy in buildings the final
Svjetlo 1.5% Lighting 1,5% energy consumption of the building
sector in FRG in 1991.
76.50%

11.30%
Grijanje prostora 73,6%
3.80% Heating 73,6%

Sanitarna voda 11,3%

11.30%
Sanitary water 11,3%

Kuhanje 3,8% Cooking

3,8% Slika 4a: Analogno stanje u BiH
(1985. godina)
73.60% Nezamj. el. energija 11,3% Figure 4a: Analogous situation in
Irreplacable electric power B&H ( the year 1985)
11,3%

S druge strane slike 3, 4a. i 4b. pokazuju da se od
ove energije za zgradarstvo oko 3/4 tro{i za ~isto
zagrijavanje objekata, te oko 10 % za potrebe
pripreme sanitarne vode, a preostalih 10 do 15 % pre-
dstavlja potrebe energije za osvjetljenje i nezamjenljivu
elektri~nu energiju (ku}anski aparati i sli~no).
On the other hand, figures 3, 4a. and 4b. show
that around 3/4 of this energy is used for heating,
and around 10% for sanitary water heating, and the
remaining 10 to 15% represent energy needs for
lighting and irreplaceable electric power (household
appliances, and similar).

Grijanje prostora 66%

18.00% Heating 66%

Sanitarna voda 12%

4.00% Sanitary w ater 12%

Kuhanje 4% Cooking 4%
12.00%
Slika 4b: Analogno stanje u BiH
(prognoza za 2000. godinu)
Nezamj. el. energija 18%
66.00% Irreplacable electric pow er
Figure 4b: Analogous situation in
18% B&H (prognoses year 2000)

Slika 5. prikazuje stanje specifi~ne godi{nje Figure 5. represents level of specific energy
energetske potro{nje za razli~ite izvedbe stambenih consumption for different residential constructions,
objekata, odnosno primjenjene propise o toplotnoj or different level of insulation standards applied in
za{titi u BRD. the FRG.

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 Ma{instvo 1(6), 41 – 50, (2002) E. Kuli}: KORI[TENJE ENERGIJE U ZGRADARSTVU...

300
250
200 Postoje}e stanje
kWh/m 2

Popis '84
150
Popis '95
100
Nisko energetska ku}a
50
0 Slika 5: Godi{nja potro{nja energije
Porodi~na ku}a Ku}a u nizu Stambena zgrada za grijanje u [kWh/a m2 povr{ine
Family house Attached dwelling Residential stana], BRD-1991.
building building Figure 5: Annual energy consumption
Vrsta objekta for heating [kWh/am2] of the
Types of buildings apartment area, FRG-1991.

100

80

60
2
w/m

40

20
Slika 6: "Analogni" odnosi kod nas -
0
Sarajevo (1985. -2015.)
Period 1985-2000 godina Period 2000-2015 godina
Figure 6: "Analogous" situation in
Period B&H, - Sarajevo (1985 -2015)

Slika 6 s druge strane, prikazuje "analogno stanje"
(izra`eno kao projektno optere}enje na jedinicu povr{ine
poda), odnosa kod nas za period 1985-2000 sa progno-
zama (krajem 80-tih) za period 2000-2015. Napominje se
da su podaci na slici 6 bazirani na mjerenjima na
"novim" objektima (Aerodromsko naselje, Sarajevo, 1989.).
On the other hand, Figure 6. shows "analogous
situation" (expressed as design load per floor unit
area) in B&H for the period 1985-2000, with
prognoses for the period 2000-2015. It should be
noted that the data in Figure 6 are based on
measurements on "new" buildings (Aerodromsko
naselje, Sarajevo, 1989).

Gore navedeni prognozirani podaci o ukupnoj The above stated prognoses data related specific
specifi~noj potro{nji energije za grijanje (q1=85 energy consumption for heating (q1=85 [W/m2] and
[W/m2] i q2=65 [W/m2], u navedenim vremenskim q2=65 [W/m2], in the stated time intervals, 1985-
intervalima, 1985.-2000. i 2000.-2015.) izra~unati su 2000 and 2000-2015, are determined for
za uslovan stan povr{ine 60 [m2], za zgrade u nizu anticipated apartment of 60 [m2], for detached
sa brojem objekata 4 do 64 na prostoru povr{ine buildings with the number of building-units from 4
0,05 [km2], odnosno dimenzija 160[m] x 315 [m]. to 64 on the lot of land of 0,05 [km2], or with
dimensions 160 [m]x315 [m].
Ako se to prera~una za uslove Sarajeva, sa brojem
stepen dana ≈3,000 [Kdan/a], projektnom If this is recalculated for the situation in Sarajevo,
temperaturnom razlikom jednakom ≈40 [K] dobiju with ≈3,000 [Day/a] degree days, design
se sljede}i pribli`ni komparativni podaci: temperature difference of ≈40 [K], one gets the
following approximate comparative data:
q1=160 [kWh/a m2] i q2=120 [kWh/a m2].
q1=160 [kWh/a m2] i q2=120 [kWh/a m2].
Ove brojke svrstavaju toplotnu za{titu kod nas na
nivo pojedina~nih ku}a saglasno nivou toplotne These numbers class the building insulation levels
za{tite iz 1982. u Njema~koj. in B&H on the level of a single house insulation in
1982 in FRG.

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Ma{instvo 1(6), 41 – 50, (2002)
Slika 7. prikazuje rezultate nedavnih istra`ivanja
(mjerenjem) potro{nje energije nekih stambenih
objekata u Sarajevu. Na istoj slici je prikazana
prognoza potro{nje energije u 2015. godini uz
nespecificirane mjere pobolj{anja toplotne za{tite,
{tednje, racionalizacije. Interesantno je da rezultati
istra`ivanja prikazani na slici 6 transformirani kroz brojke
160 i 120 kWh/m2a, respektivno, pokazuju blisku
podudarnost, mada su rezultati dobijeni od potpuno
neovisnih istra`iva~a i institucija, u vremenskom
razmaku preko 10 godina (1989. i 2000.).
180
157.5
160
140
120
kWh/am 2
100
80
60
40
20
0 for heating of some buildings in Sarajevo in
Period 1985-2000 godina Period 2000-2015 godina
Period
Slika 8. prikazuje odnose specifi~ne energetske
potro{nje po~ev{i od stare gradnje (do dono{enja
prvih propisa o toplotnoj za{titi 1970.) preko zgrada
gra|enih po propisima o toplotnoj za{titi (1984. i
1995.) zatim za zgrade gra|ene po principima
niskoenergetske ku}e -NEK i kona~no za zgrade
izvedebe saglasno principima pasivne ku}e
odnosno solarne arhitekture.
Slika 9 prikazuje analogne odnose u usporedbi sa
[vedskim propisima iz 1980. uz istovremeno
pore|enje energetskih u{teda kori{tenjem obnovljive
energije gradn.iom pasivne ku}e.
E. Kuli}: KORI[TENJE ENERGIJE U ZGRADARSTVU...
Figure 7 shows the results of recent research
(measurements) of energy consumption of some
buildings in Sarajevo. Prognoses of specific energy
consumption in the year 2015, without specification
of insulation quality improvements, energy savings
and/or rationalization, are shown in the same
figure. It is interesting that the research results,
shown in Figure 6, transposed through numbers,
160 and 120 kWh/m2a, respectively, show close
agreement, although the results are obtained by
independent researchers and institutions, in the
time span of more than 10 years (1989 and 2000).
112.5
Slika 7: Prosje~na specifi~na potro{nja
energije za zagrijavanje nekih objekata u
Sarajevu i mogu}e smanjenje do 2015,
godine.
Figure 7. Average specific energy consuption
2000, and its eventual decrease by year
2015
Figure 8 represents relations of specific energy
consumption starting from old construction houses
(until the first insulation standards were introduced
in 1970), through the buildings built by insulation
standards (1984 and 1995), then for buildings built
by low energy building principles – LEB, and
finally for buildings built by the passive house
principles and/or solar architecture building
principles.
Figure 9 represents analogous relations compared
with the Standards in Sweden in 1980, as well as
with energy savings using renewable energy
sources by building a passive house.
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Ma{instvo 1(6), 41 – 50, (2002) E. Kuli}: KORI[TENJE ENERGIJE U ZGRADARSTVU...

Slika 8: Usporedba specifi~ne potro{nje ukupne energije odnosno energije za pojedine namjene unutar
zgrade, za objekte razli~itog na~ina gradnje u Njema~koj
Figure 8. Comparison of specific energy consumption and energies for specific application within a
building, for buildings built by different standards in the FGR

Slika 9. Usporedba specifi~ne potro{nje "ukupne" energije, odnosno energije za pojedine namjene, unutar
zgrade, za objekte razli~itog na~ina gradnje u Njema~koj

Figure 9: Comparison oftotal specific energy consumption and energies for specific application within a
building, for buildings built by different standards in FRG and Sweden in the 1980

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Ma{instvo 1(6), 41 – 50, (2002)
Slika 10: Reperkusije poja~ane toplotne za{tite na odnos ventilacionih i transmisionih gubitaka
Figure 10: "Results" of increased insulation standards on ventilation and transmission heat losses, the years
Usporedbom slika 8 i 9 mo`e se zaklju~iti da je
tehnologija gradnje objekata dovela do drasti~nog
smanjenja specifi~ne energetske potro{nje na 30
do 50 [kWh!m2a]. Istovremeno je do{lo do
postepenog ujedna~avanja potro{nje za zagrijavanje
objekta i pripremu sanitame vode, kao {to.ie to
vidljivo za "pasivnu ku}u".
Oportuno je ovdje ista}i da najnovi.ii propisi u
Njema~koj planiraju smanjenje potro{nje energije u
zgradama za daljnjih 25 do 35 % u odnosu na
va`e}e propise o toplotnoj za{titi donesene 1995.
godine, ili samo 5 godina ranije, dok na prostoru
ex YU (izuzev Slovenije) nema promjena u odnosu
na propise donesene 1987.
Kao {to se sa gomje Slike 10 vidi, do{lo je do
drasti~nog smanjenja udjela transmisionih gubitaka
toplote u odnosu na ventilacione (oko 1/4), {to
implicira da sada zahtjevi higijene (potrebe za
svje`im vazduhom, koje iznose od 0.5 do 0.8
izmjena svje`eg vazduha na sat) prakti~no diktiraju
toplotne potrebe objekta.
Kona~no, uspore|uju}i stanje u svijetu sa stanjem
kod nas mo`e se konstatovati da kod nas postoji
drasti~no zaostajanje za trendovima u svijetu. Propisi
o toplotnoj za{titi doneseni (na prostoru prethodne
Jugoslavije) 1970. godine, su zadnji put mijenjani
1987. godine, te se kao takvi koriste i u BiH.
- 48 -
E. Kuli}: KORI[TENJE ENERGIJE U ZGRADARSTVU...
By comparing Figures 8 and 9, one may conclude
that the building construction technology) has led
to drastic decrease of specific energy consumption
to 30 -50 [kWh/m2a]. At the same time, the energy
used for sanitary water heating is approaching
heating energy, consumption as one can see from
the data for the « passive house» .
It would be good to point out at this stage that
the latest German standards anticipate reduction in
the building energy consumption by 25 to 30 %,
compared to existing insulation quality standards
published in 1995, or only 5 years earlier, where
as in all the countries of former Yugoslavia (except
Slovenia) there have been no changes in relevant
standards since 1987 .
As one can see from Figure 10, there was drastic
decrease of portion of heat transmission losses
(around 1/4), compared to ventilation losses, which
implies that hygiene and fresh air requirements (fresh
-ventilation air requirements, which correspond to
minimum 0.5 to 0.8 air changes per hour), practically
dictate heating energy needs of buildings.
Finally , when one compares the situation around
the world and here in B&H, it can be said that
we are lagging behnid the trends around the
world. Insulation standards accepted in 1970 (in
former Yugoslavia), were slightly changed last in
1987, and are still in '"use" in B&H.
Ma{instvo 1(6), 41 – 50, (2002)
Nadalje, transmisiona koli~ina toplote, odnosno
potro{nja energije, potrebna za zagrijavanje zgrade
se odre|uje na osnovi kvaliteta toplotne za{tite,
odre|ene vrijedno{}u koeficijenta prolaza toplote
gra|evinske konstrukcije, i na osnovu vrijednosti
spoljnje projektne temperature, jer je unutarnja
temperatura prostora definisana zahtjevima
termalnog komfora na pribli`no 20 oC. Dakle,
Q = k A (tu - ts) = k A ∆t (1)
gdje su:
k - koeficijent prolaza toplote odgovaraju}eg
gra|evinskog elementa, W/m2K
tu- unutranja temperatura prostora, oC
ts- spoljnja projektna temperatura, °oC
Ventilacioni gubici toplote su definisaniti sljede}om
jedna~inom prema DIN 4701 iz 1959:
QLS = (∑ al )s HRZ E (tu − t s )
(2)
gdje su:
a - propusnost procjepa-fuga elemenata gra|evinske
konstrukcije na naduvavanoj fasadi, [m3/msPa2/3]
l - du`ina fuga elemenata gra|evinske konstrukcije
na naduvavanoj fasadi; [m.]
H = karakteristika ku}e,
R = karakteristika prostorij e,
ZE = 1, ili 1,2 zavisno od pravca dejstva vjetra
Saglasno DIN 4701, 1995, ventilacioni gubici se
ra~unaju na osnovi sljede}e jedna~ine:
 
QLS = ε SA ∑ (al )Aj + ε SN ∑ (aj )Nj  HR(tu − t s )
 j j 
gdje su:
εSA εSN= korekcioni faktor za visinu za nastrujavanu
i fasadu u zav.ietrini, respektivno,
(al)Aj, (al)Nj =, ukupna propusnost procjepa-fuga za
nastrujavanja i fasadu u zavjetrini, respektivno,
[m3/msPa2/3]
Imaju}i sve ovo u vidu te da je ukupna koli~ina toplote
objekta (transmisioni + ventilacioni gubici) direktno
ovisna o spoljnjoj projektnoj temperaturi i termofizikalnim
i geometrijskim karakteristikama zgrade to }e se u
narednom poglavlju razmatrati problemi odre|ivanja
spoljnje projektne temperature u nas i u svijetu, kao i
razvoj-stanje propisa o toplotnoj za{titi objekata.
- 49 -
E. Kuli}: KORI[TENJE ENERGIJE U ZGRADARSTVU...
Furtheremore transmission quantity of heat (energy
consumption) needed for heating in building, is
determined based on building insulation quality ,
defined by the value of heat transfer coefficient of
building construction together with the design value
of extemal air temperature, since room temperature is
defined by thermal cornfort requiremnts of
approximately 20 oC. Hence,
Q = k A (tu - ts) = k A ∆t (1)
where:
k = total heat transfer coefficient of corresponding
construction element, W/m2K
tu = inside design temperature of the room, oC.
ts = extemal air design temperature, oC.
Ventilation heat losses are defined by the following
equation (DIN 4701, 1959).
QLS = (∑ al )s HRZ E (tu − t s )
(2)
where:
a- gaps transfer coefficient of building construction
openings on upwind facade, [m3/msPa2/3]
l = gaps length of building construction openings
on upwind facade; [ m ']
H = house characteristics,
R = room characteristics,
ZE = 1, or 1.2 depending on wind direction
According to DIN 4701, 1995, ventilation heat
Iosses are calculated from the following equation.
 
QLS = ε SA ∑ (al )Aj + ε SN ∑ (aj )Nj  HR(tu − t s )
 j j 
where:
εSA εSN = height correction factor for upwind and
downwind facade, respectively,
(al)Aj, (al)Nj = total gaps transfer coefficient for
upwind and downwind fasade element, j,
respectively, [m3/msPa2/3]
Having in mind that total heating energy quantity
(transmission+ventilation Iosses) is directly dependent
on outside air design temperature and thermo-physical
and geometric properties of the building, the next part
of the presentation: PART II, SPECIFIC ENERGY
CONSU-MPTION CHARACTERISTICS, will deal with the
problem of extemal air design temperature calculation
and its as well as definition, with the problem of
evaluation building insulation standards.
Ma{instvo 1(6), 41 – 50, (2002) E. Kuli}: KORI[TENJE ENERGIJE U ZGRADARSTVU...

PRlLOG 1 APPENDIX 1.

PROSJE^NI NIVOI OZONA IZNAD SJEVERNOG POLA. VISOKE VRIJEDNOSTI SU PRlKAZANE CRVENO I
ZELENO DOK NI@E VRIJEDNOSTI PRIKAZANE PLAVO I LJUBI^ASTO

AVERAGE OZONE LEVELS ABOVE THE NORTH POLE. HIGH VALUES ARE IN RED AND GREEN COLOUR,
WHEREAS LOWER VALUES ARE IN BLUE AND VIOLET

NA SLICI SU PRIKAZANA SVOJSTVA OZONA NAD ANTARKTIKOM U DOBSONOVIM JEDINICAMA KOJE

POKAZUJU DEBLJINU SLOJA SABIJENIH MOLEKULA OZONA IZNAD ODBRANOG DlJELA ZEMLJE
DANAS SE OZON MJERI SA SATELITA POSTUPAK JE POZNAT POD lMENOM TOMS – TOTAL OZON
MAPPING SPECTROMETER

THE FIGURE SHOWS THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OZONE ABOVE ANTARCTIC EXPRESSED IN
DOBSON'S UNITS, WHICH REPRESENT THE LAYER THICKNESS OF THE COMPRESSED OZONE
MOLECULES ABOVE THE CHOSEN PART OF THE EART
NOWADAYS, OZONE IS MEASURED FROM SATELITES. THE PROCEDURE IS KNOWS AS TOMS-TOTAL
OZONE MAPPING SPECTROMETER

- 50 -