China Myth or History?

CHINA Myth or History?
By J.G.Cheock
Table of Contents:
Chapter 1 Ancient China in World Context 1
Chapter 2 Philippine Jade Culture 35
Chapter 3 Liuli Glass (China's Lost National Treasure) 74
Chapter 4 Discovering the Bronze Age of China

in the Philippines 103
Chapter 5 Finding Tarshish 133
Chapter 6 What Now? 177
Addendum 226
Chapter 1
Ancient China in World Context
Over 4000 years ago, according to the Shu King (Classic of History/Documents), Emperor Shun
performed the Border Sacrifice for Shangdi (上帝, God, the Supreme Emperor). The official liturgy in
the worship of Shangdi, generally believed by scholars to have originated from the start of the
Chinese nation - predating Taoism, Confucianism and Buddhism - the Son of Heaven (天子,
Emperor) who was both the political and religious national leader would declare the greatness of
god’s creation, and how, “The round heaven was like a covering over the square earth, and all things
were at peace.”1
China’s most ancient script portrayed the heavens as a circle with a shaded dot in the center.
This logogram has been interpreted to mean sun/day, with the circle representing the round heavens
and the shaded dot radical at its center indicating fire/glory.
The concept of the square earth is also present in China’s script as shown by the characters used
for field (田), country (國),and garden (園), where the square or quadrilateral shape acts as an
enclosure that defines the border of the land being described.
A Confucian classic The Record of Rites, tell us that “...within the four seas there are nine regions,
each a 1000 li squared (about 330 square miles/550 km2).”2 In the Classic of Documents (Shu King)
we learn that it is Yu the Great (c. 2200 BC) who divided the realm into these nine regions.
Nine regions squared formed a square territory with the central square,belonging to the
Son of Heaven, earthly emperor who ruled the territories by the will of heaven. This same land
division of nine equal squares that formed a larger square was used in smaller scale for the division
of fields, with the central square belonging to the government (公田) and whose cultivation was the
shared responsibility of those families in the surrounding squares.3
Although the earth itself is spherical, something many ancient civilizations may have known as
implied by their comprehensive knowledge of astronomy, the most logical way to divide land is into
China: Myth or History? 1

quadrilateral or square areas with the assistance of the four cardinal directions (North, South, East,
and West). In fact, this ancient squaring of territories is so practical that it has been carried over to the
present manner in which we measure land (i.e. square meters, square miles, and square feet).
China was not the only civilization in antiquity that saw heaven and earth in this way. Egyptian
hieroglyphs also describe the heavens (sun/day) as a circle with a central dot, and the earth/land was
represented as a quadrilateral shape.4 Ancient Hebrew and the Proto-Canaanite script used the same
circular symbol with a central dot “Ayin/Omicron”5 to represent the heavenly watchers/eye/sun. And
could it have been coincidence that the square character “Bet/Beta” should mean earth/house?
Proto-Canaanite/Proto-Sinaitic script was the precursor of the Phoenician alphabet from which most
of our modern alphabets are derived.6
Round heaven and square earth appears to be an international concept central to the cultures of
many ancient civilizations at the dawn of history. In this beginning age, leaders of nations were
shepherds of the people in both political and religious spheres. With no clear separation of ‘church
and state’, it was natural for their early pictographic writings to have their beliefs and histories
intrinsically woven into their script as they were created.
The Beginning
What did China’s first ancestors believe? How did the world and all its creatures come into existence?
In the first song used in the worship of Shangdi (上帝, God) we learn that,
“Of old in the beginning, there was a great chaos, without form and dark. The five elements (referring
to the five visible planets) had not begun to revolve, nor the sun and the moon to shine. In the midst
thereof there existed neither form nor sound. Thou, O Spiritual Sovereign, camest forth in Thy
presidency, and first didst divide the grosser parts from the purer. Thou madest heaven; Thou madest
earth; Thou madest man. All things with their reproducing power got their being.”7
The formless and dark chaos in the beginning is parallelled by the Hebrew Genesis creation story.
“In the beginning...The earth was formless and void, and darkness was over the surface of the
deep…”8 The liturgy in honor of Shangdi tells us that the creation involved dividing things, this was
also the situation in Genesis one when God divided light from darkness, divided the waters above
from the waters below, and divided the waters below from dry land. It was after this process of
division that, the Creator of heaven and earth, made the celestial bodies, and all living creatures on
earth, including mankind.

Similar descriptions and sequence of events in these creation stories are difficult to ignore, and yet
even more information is preserved in China’s ancient script. The word for create/make (造) is
composed of several characters that together paint a picture of what creation meant. Bronzeware
characters (over 3500 years ago) (土, earth/soil) serves as the base for the word (生,
life/birth), which finds its place above the character (口, mouth) to make the word (告, say/tell)
which is placed over the radical for movement (辶) to form the word for “create” 造.9
Could the men and women of ancient China have shared the Hebrew idea that all life had been made
from the dust of the earth? The Hebrew creation story informs us that all vegetation and living
creatures, even man had been made from the earth.10 But even more interesting is the concept
captured by this logograph that creation involved speaking things into existence.
The book of Genesis tells of how God spoke things into being, beginning with light, followed by
heaven and earth, vegetation, celestial bodies, and all living creatures. Many other scriptures confirm
the speaking of things into being, the idea that all visible things originated from the invisible word of
God. The Creator said it...and it came into being.
The concept that all the universe and its contents sprang forth from the mouth of the divine is not an
isolated idea in the ancient world. Similarly, the Mayan Popol Vuh (Book of Counsel) describes the
gods speaking the word to create the earth and its inhabitants.
A similar creation story from God’s mouth can be found in Africa.

“The Bushongo people of the Congo region called the creator Bumba. He was the sole inhabitant of
a watery universe until he vomited up the sun, which dried the water. Then he vomited up the first
animals and people.”11
The Shabaka Stone from ancient Libya captures the Thoth creation myth including a description of
the god Ptah who,
“....conceived ideas in his heart, considered them with his reason, and then spoke the words from his
mouth. As the words dropped from his tongue, they turned into physical entities.” 12
These are some of the oldest creation myths recorded all over the globe, many have been found in
sacred documents of these ancient civilizations from various nations and continents. Similarities are

difficult to dismiss as random coincidence or copying from one another. Instead it seems reasonable
to consider that if all mankind did share a common ancestor, and that if the original “Adam” was not
an ape but had the ability to transmit a record to his progeny, then he would send them off with the
most significant information they would need for life, starting with an understanding of their origins.
The most ancient religious concepts revealed in what has been preserved in Chinese texts show a
monotheistic belief in a supreme creator God. The mention of other supplemental spirits of divine
nature, may be likened to the western idea of angels or hosts of spirit beings that serve the most high
God. So called ancestral worship, may be more of a form of reverence and honor in a family centric
society, rather than deification of the deceased.
Out of Eden
園, the garden is how Eden, humanity’s original home was called in the Hebrew creation story. Within
the enclosure of the Chinese character for garden we find the combined logographs for soil and
mouth, similar to the composition of the word ‘create’ 造 over the radical seen as the character 人
(human) repeated twice, with the second person appearing to sprout from the side of the first one. It
is not difficult to read the story of God speaking life into existence from the earth, to create the first
man, and the first woman who had been made from the man’s rib, all within the confines of the first
garden.
The Tree of Life, located at the center of the paradisical garden from which the primordial waters flow,
is a familiar theme in worldwide mythology.
“In Babylonian mythology, the Tree of Life was a magical tree that grew in the center of paradise. The
Apsu, or primordial waters, flowed from its roots.”13 “In Judeo-Christian mythology, the Tree of
heaven sits at the center of creation, and is the source of the primordial rivers that water the earth-” 14
In Chinese myth, The Divine Trees found in the earthly paradise on the summit of the Universal
Mountain of Hsi Tien (a.k.a. Shan Tian), are at the source of a great river. One of these Divine Trees
was the colossal Peach Tree of Immortality. 15
The mountain paradise Shambhala from Tibetan Buddhist scriptures is also known as the Land of
White Waters, which may refer to the powerful flowing riverhead that gushes from this location.16
Stories of the forbidden land of Shambhala (a.k.a. Shangri-La, Olmolungring, Dejong) are well known
in Central Asia, and is one of its most ancient myths. Old Russians call this hidden paradise
Belovodye, and the Kirghiz people call it Janaidar.17

Hebrew scriptures tells us that God planted a garden full of beautiful flowering and fruit bearing trees
(Genesis 2:8-9). From the center of this garden called Eden flowed the headwaters, the beginning of
a river, that split into four rivers as it passed the area of the garden.
“Now a river flowed out of Eden to water the garden; and from there it divided and became four
rivers. The name of the first is Pishon; it flows around the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold.
The gold of that land is good; the bdellium and the onyx stone are there. The name of the second
river is Gihon; it flows around the whole land of Cush. The name of the third river is Tigris; it flows
east of Assyria. And the fourth river is the Euphrates.”18
Four rivers flowing out from the center of the garden seems to be described in another ancient
Chinese character for garden/field 田 that is a square enclosure with two intersecting lines. As a field,
this lines would represent irrigation waterways, but could the original script be based on the primeval
garden watered by great rivers that extended past its borders?
Aside from the rivers that spring from the garden, an intrinsic part of the myth of the paradisical
garden is that access to it was lost. Hindus call this forbidden paradise Aryavartha (‘The Land of the
Worthy Ones),19 carrying the implication that humanity was no longer worthy to enter in and partake
of the treasures found in that land. Most notable prize of all, is the immortality that myth tells us is as
simple as plucking a fruit from a tree and taking a bite. Just as China’s Hsi Tian has its Peach Tree of
immortality, the Hebrew scriptures speak of the Tree of Life in the garden of Eden that would allow
those who would eat from it to live forever. Many nations have some kind of lore that relates to a
sacred tree linked to life on earth, suggesting a common memory from our distant past.
Historical Zhou Dynasty text from 3000 years ago says that,
“...As a result of mankind having sinned in ancient times, the emperor of heaven commanded the two
persons Chong and Li to close off the passageway between heaven and earth so that no one could
go back and forth between the two.”20
The book of Genesis records that after the fall of mankind, God “...drove the man out; and at the east
of the garden of Eden He stationed the cherubim and the flaming sword which turned every direction
to guard the way to the tree of life.”21 Could Chong and Li have been the names of the guardians of
the gate to the garden?
Hebrew scriptures speak of two trees in the garden: the Tree of Life and the Tree of the knowledge of
good and evil. God had forbidden Adam and Eve from eating from the Tree of the knowledge of good
and evil, however the story tells us of how the woman was tempted by the snake. As a result of this,

the snake was cursed to have his head crushed by the future seed of the woman as it bit his heel,
woman would be ruled by man, and man would work the land. Together Adam and Eve were sent out
of the garden.22
The significance of this event in human history should rightly find itself captured into the logographic
script of China. 禁 is a word that carries the meaning ban/forbid/command made of the character for
tree 木, repeated twice over 示 which has been identified as a radical connected with God/altar. The
tempter 魔 (demon/magic/tempter) is portrayed by two trees 木木 with the 鬼 (devil/demon) hidden
below. Deceived by devil’s lies, the woman greedily desired the forbidden fruit. 婪 (covet/greed) is an
image of a woman 女 under two trees 木木. The concepts contained in the Chinese logographic
script seems to corroborate the Hebrew Genesis story. Interestingly, the consequences of the fall of
mankind was recorded into the very words used for snake, woman, and man.
蛇 (snake) was originally written in oracle bone script as . “The Dictionary of Character Origins
explains this as a poisonous snake biting someone on the foot.”23 No other Chinese character for
animals show them in action with another element (i.e horse with rider or dog with bone), making this
a very unusual exception - an image of the snake biting the heel of the one who is crushing its head.
It is difficult not to connect this with God's promise of a son of the woman that would one day crush
the serpent's head as he himself would be bitten on the heel (Genesis 3:15).
女 (female) was written in antiquity, portraying a kneeling figure. “The original pictograph for
woman depicted her in a bowing position...for ease in writing, man reduced this to a humbler form--a
woman kneeling down...”24 Subjection to the rule of man as a result of her part in the entrance of
death into the world (Genesis 3:16), appears to be ingrained in the ancient word for woman.
男 (male) is composed of two characters: the garden/field 田 that seems to be supported by the word
力 for force/strength, which together paint a vivid picture of man’s plight to work the land by the sweat
of his brow. When strength is gone, we return to the ground/ field. For from the dust of the earth man
was made and to dust he will return (Genesis 3:19).
Man and woman are then sent away from the beautiful garden 園, removed from the protective
enclosure, they are alienated 遠 from the Creator. 遠 (alienate/far) is composed of the exact same
characters inside of the enclosure of the garden --the two created people, now removed from the
enclosure and placed over the radical for movement 辶.

The Deluge
It has only been in the past few hundred years that the story of the global flood has been relegated to
a fable or fairytale. The ancient historian Josephus, considered the account of the Deluge a true
historical event. After the flooding of the earth and its subsequent recession, he noted that, “the ark
rested on top of a certain mountain in Armenia; which, when Noah understood, he opened it...when
the water was decreased to a greater degree, he sent out a raven, as desirous to learn...whether he
might go out of the ark with safety; but the raven, finding all the land still overflowed, returned to Noah
again. And after seven days he sent out a dove...which came back to him covered with mud, and
bringing an olive branch...so after he had staid seven more days, he sent the living creatures out of
the ark; and both he and his family went out, when he also sacrificed to God, and feasted with his
companions...the Armenians call this place, (Greek) The Place of Descent; for the ark being saved in
that place, its remains are shown there by the inhabitants to this day.”25
Josephus was not alone as a historian to claim the historicity of Noah and the ark. Berosus the
Chaldean historian wrote of the flood and mentions that, “It is said that there is still some part of this
ship in Armenia, at the mountain of the Cordyaeans; and that some people carry off pieces of the
bitumen, which they take away, and use chiefly as amulets for the averting of mischiefs.”26 The
knowledge about the location of the ark would be no secret to the second age population. It is to be
expected that it would be scavenged for anything that would be of use. Historians tell us that even in
the past, people wanted to take souvenirs. If every visitor took a chunk of the ark away, it is to be
expected that after thousands of years, very little if anything should be left of this remarkable vessel.
Nicolaus of Damascus also wrote in his ninety sixth book, “There’s a great mountain in Armenia, over
Minyas, called Baris, upon which it is reported that many who fled at the time of the Deluge were
saved...an ark came on shore upon the top of it; and the remains of the timber were a great while
preserved.”26 Josephus tells us that many historians such as the Egyptian Hieronymus wrote of the
Deluge in the Phoenician Antiquities, Mnaseas, and many more.
The ancient Chinese Book of All Knowledge records that the deluge was a result of man’s rebellion
against God. Chinese ancient records are united with worldwide mythology in noting planetary and
celestial changes that occurred during the deluge.
“The Earth was shaken to its foundations. The sky sank lower towards the north. The sun, moon, and
stars changed their motions. The Earth fell to pieces and the waters in its bosom rushed upwards
with violence and overflowed the Earth.”27

Similar to the other myths from antiquity China records confirm the shattering of the giant
supercontinent into many pieces. The Epic of Gilgamesh describes it well when it notes that ‘he
smashed the land like a cup’.28 Both myths on opposite sides of the world are united in informing us
that the waters of the Deluge came from deep within earth’s bosom, or as the Mesopotamians put it,
‘the dams of the nether waters that rose from the abyss’.28 Hebrew scriptures described it as the
‘fountains of the great deep bursting open’ (Genesis 7:11).
The North American Choctaw Tribe has a flood myth 29 from long ago when corrupt men disregarded
the warnings of a prophet. God directed this prophet to build a raft of sassafras logs to save him from
the coming flood. It is his children that have repopulated the world.
A myth from Scandinavia vividly portrays the magnitude of the Deluge when it recounts, “...
the chaos of the world when the mighty wolf Fenrir (possibly the planet Venus) shook himself and
“made the whole world tremble. The aged ash tree Yggdrasil [envisaged as the axis of the earth] was
shaken from its roots to its topmost branches. Mountains crumbled or split from top to bottom ... ”.
Men “were driven from their hearths and the human race was swept from the surface of the earth.
The earth itself was beginning to lose its shape. Already the stars were coming adrift from the sky
and falling into the gaping void. ... Flames spurted from fissures in the rocks; everywhere there was
the hissing of steam. All living things, all plant life, were blotted out. ... And now all the rivers, all the
seas rose and overflowed. From every side waves lashed against waves. They swelled and boiled
and slowly covered all things. The earth sank beneath the sea ...”. Then slowly “the earth emerged
from the waves. Mountains rose anew ... . Men also reappeared. ... Enclosed in the wood itself of the
ash tree Yggdrasil ... the ancestors of a future race of men had escaped death.”30
Hundreds of flood myths are deeply ingrained into the collective memories of the ancestors of the
nations of the world. China has succeeded in preserving a great deal of information about this global
event not only in myth and ancient texts but also in their remarkable form of writing.
The Huainan- tzu, written in the 2nd century B.C, gives us a mythically embellished account of Nü
Kua. “The story says that, in very ancient times, the habitable world was split apart, waters inundated
the earth without being stopped, and fires flamed without being extinguished. “Therefore,” the text
reads, “Nu- kua fused together stones of the five colors with which to patch together the azure
heaven.” This is perhaps a distorted retelling of the Flood story, over 2,000 years after it happened.
The stones of Five Colors by which Nukua patched the heavens may be a legendary retelling of the
rainbow that Noah saw in the sky after the Flood, which was to be a covenant between God and the
earth that God would never again destroy the earth by water.”31

The Five colors were seen in ancient China as the rainbow of colors that would appear through a
prism. In essence it could mean the colors of a rainbow.
China’s grand historian Sima Qian wrote of the Deluge as part of China’s histories. “Fu Hsi was
succeeded by Nü Kua, who like him had the surname Fêng. Nü Kua had the body of a serpent and a
human head, with the virtuous endowments of a divine sage. Toward the end of her reign there was
among the feudatory princes Kung Kung, whose functions were the administration of punishment.
Violent and ambitious, he became a rebel, and sought by the influence of water to overcome that of
wood [under which Nü Kua reigned]. He did battle with Chu Jung [said to have been one of the
ministers of Huang Ti, and later the God of Fire], but was not victorious; whereupon he struck his
head against the Imperfect Mountain, Pu Chou Shan, and brought it down. The pillars of Heaven
were broken and the corners of the earth gave way. Hereupon Nü Kua melted stones of the five
colours to repair the heavens, and cut off the feet of the tortoise to set upright the four extremities of
the earth.”32
Sima Qian gives us the Chinese names of two pre-flood kings: Fu Hsi and Nü Kua who were related
by blood, the latter of which we could suppose to be Noah who survived the deluge to begin anew.
Similarly, the Phoenician historian Sanchuniathon gave the names of the kings of the 9th and 10th
generations of mankind, Elioun (the Most High) and his son Ouranus (Heaven) who married his sister
Ge (Earth).33 Similarly, the Greek Sybilline Chronicles rename Noah 'Uranus' (Heaven), and his wife
identified as Gaia (Earth). According to the Hebrew book of Genesis, Lamech was the Patriarch of
the 9th generation from Adam, while his son the Patriarch Noah belonged to the 10th.
An ancient account from China seems to shed light on the confusion regarding Nü Kua being a male
or a female. It separates Nü and Kua as brother and sister, through whom the world was
repopulated.34 This is in alignment with the ancient Phoenician histories of the flood survivor Ouranus
and Ge, his sister wife. The idea that they were the ‘creators’ of humanity would be logically negated
by the fact that they themselves were children of Fu Hsi. Instead it implies that they were the
survivors of a global catastrophe that destroyed the previous civilization, making them the sole
lineage through whom humanity might start again.
Hebrew scriptures tell of eight (8, 八) human flood survivors: Noah and his wife, their three sons and
their wives. Chinese characters with the radical 八 seem to thread together the story of the Deluge.
洪 (flood/deluge/vast) an ancient word with the water radical (氵) and what used to be raised hands
over the number 8 (八) meant a vast flood. A 船 (ferry/ship) was composed of a 舟 (boat) with 八 (8)

口 (mouth/people). Four hands joined together while floating above the waters is another ancient
character for an immense deluge .
(沿) The character that means to pass on traditions from generation to generation was an image
of 八 (8) 口 (mouth/people) floating on the waters. It was up to the flood survivors and their
descendants to pass on their traditions and beliefs to succeeding generations. Earliest ancestor
mentioned in the histories is Fu Hsi 伏羲 (a.k.a. Pao Hsi 庖犧) the father of Nü Kua. This venerable
great ancestor would have imbedded in his name/title the most important message of his faith. Hsi/Xi
(犧,羲) is a character that means to sacrifice. It is made up of the words cattle 牛/牜 and sheep 羊,
the word excellent 秀 and a spear 戈 - all of these elements together paint the picture of a perfect
blood sacrifice. Fu Hsi may actually have been more of a title than a proper name, implying that it
was the role of the righteous leader to perform the religious duty of animal sacrifice in behalf of the
people. Blood sacrifice was a tradition carried by the emperors of China for thousands of years.
Genesis eight tells us that Noah performed animal sacrifice as soon as he came out of the ark. This is
something he must have learned from his father, who must have learned it from his father. Hebrew
holy scriptures tell us plainly of the blood requirements.
“And according to the Law, one may almost say, all things are cleansed with blood, and without
shedding of blood there is no forgiveness.”35
The early understanding of the blood requirement is global. Our ancient ancestors, separated by vast
distances over land and seas, shared a global consciousness regarding the necessity of blood
sacrifice. In the Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia, we learn
that based on their research on these continents that, “...animal sacrifice was commonplace in
prehistoric times, and its continuation varied from community to community later in history.”36
Abel, son of Adam (the first created human), did well when he brought the firstlings of his flock and
their fat portions, taking his place in history as the earliest record for the performance of animal
sacrifice to the divine. Yet the book of Genesis shows that the first to actually spill blood for mankind
was the Creator Himself, when He made garments of skin to clothe the fallen first couple (Genesis
3:20). In this way, graphically instituting the necessity of shedding blood to cover over man’s sin.
Ti Shun, sacrificed several times as part of his duties, “...he sacrificed specially, but with ordinary
forms, to God; sacrificed with reverent purity...offered their appropriate sacrifices to the hills and
rivers; and extended his worship to the host of spirits...he presented a burnt-offering to Heaven...and

sacrificed a single bull.”37 The faithful observance of the Chinese culture to traditions and values is
shown by the fact that, “This ceremony, which goes back at least to 2230 B.C. was continued in
China for over four thousand years, up until the fall of the Manchus in A. D. 1911.”38
The concept of a substitutionary death in exchange for the true culprit had been introduced to the
world through blood sacrifice. The innocent dying for the guilty. The blood of the perfect sacrifice
poured out for one who could not save himself. And what sacrifice could be more excellent or more
perfect than God’s own son? The book of John tells us that, “...the blood of Jesus His Son cleanses
us from all sin.”39
What is it with blood? Why is it so valuable to the gods? The book of Leviticus explains, “For the life
of the flesh is in the blood, and I have given it to you on the altar to make atonement for your souls;
for it is the blood by reason of the life that makes atonement.’”40 Therefore, it is the lost life that the
blood represents, which atones (pays, compensates) for the offenses of man against his Maker. The
Creator had made it clear in the garden of Eden that the transgression of his commandment would
bring death (Genesis 2:17). Although first man and first woman believed the protestations of the
serpent that, “You surely will not die!”,41 and acted out on it, we learn that believing a lie doesn’t make
it true nor does it release one from due consequences.
Almost 2000 years ago, the apostle Paul wrote to the Roman believers to confirm that humanity had
indeed legally earned the judgment of death on our heads. “For the wages of sin is death…” This was
old bad news that mankind had known from the start, however, it was the good news that Paul
wanted to proclaim, “...but the free gift of God is eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord.”42
The gift may be free to us who believe, but this freedom we are given, was paid for with blood. At the
last supper shared with his disciples, the Christ declared that, “for this is My blood of the covenant,
which is poured out for many for forgiveness of sins.”43
It was not just the blood of any man, but the blood of the divine Father’s own precious son --His most
priceless treasure. The most excellent sacrifice to end all other sacrifices. ““For God so loved the
world, that He gave His only begotten Son, that whoever believes in Him shall not perish, but have
eternal life.”44 The Son had been sent to end mankind’s condemnation and bring about redemption
and restoration. This was the promised seed of the woman who crushed the serpent’s head as it
bruised his heel.

Dealing with Post-Flood Earth
The Shu King (Classic of Documents) claims to be a record of China’s earliest age. The first Chinese
leader of this age was Yao who was succeeded by Shun (c. 2357 BC). The major problem the early
nation builders had to face was the watery mess caused by the Deluge that ravaged the land from the
lowest valleys to the highest mountaintops.
In the Book of Thang, first book of the Shu King, we find Yao talking about the problem.
...destructive in their overflow are the waters of the inundation. In their vast extent they embrace the
hills and overtop the great heights, threatening the heavens with their floods, so that the lower people
groan and murmur ‘Is there a capable man to whom I can assign the correction (of this calamity)?’45
The devastation described was from more than a simple annual flooding, because the situation
seemed nationwide and continued on for many many decades. An ordinary local flood would naturally
resolve itself over a few months and would not be the number one problem on the agenda of a ruler
of a nation as large as China. It wasn’t until Yu (c.2205 BC) was appointed, that this national issue
was resolved. The public works of Yu the Great in this second age has been called mythical because
of its scope and claims, that do not fit into current assumptions of mankind’s past.
Below, we find Yu making a report of what he had done.

“Yu replied,’The inundating waters seemed to assail the heavens, and in their vast extent embraced
the hills and overtopped the great mounds, so that the people were bewildered and overwhelmed. I
mounted my four conveyances, and all along the hills hewed down the trees... I (also) opened
passages for the streams (throughout the) nine (provinces), and conducted them to the four seas. I
deepened (moreover) the channels and canals, and conducted them to the streams...’”46
Chinese myth holds “that Yu was a nineteenth-generation descendant of Nü Wa 女媧, a creator of the
universe.”47 His father Gun, had tried to resolve the problems caused by the inundation of the waters
unsuccessfully for decades. But Yu’s efforts proved more efficient with the help of his ‘four
conveyances’ and what appears to be first age technology that has since been lost.
“Yu was brought the work of his father to a good end by building dykes and dams and digging out
canals. He was supported by a dragon called Ying Long 應龍 or Huang Long 黄龍. The book Shizi
尸子 says that when he controlled the Yellow River, the River God He Bo 河伯 (He Jing 河精)
emerged out of the floods and handed over the River Chart (Hetu 河圖) to Yu, a kind of map of

mountains and creeks that helped him channeling the waters. According to the book Shiyiji 拾遺記,
he met the august deity Fu Xi 伏羲 in a cave near the Longmen Gate 龍門 who gave him the Jade
Tablets (Yujian 玉簡) that was a kind of trigonometric chart and also helped him to level the rivers. At
the Wushan Gorge 巫山 of the Yangtse River, Lady Yunhua 雲華夫人 handed over to him a similarly
helpful book, the Shuibaoshu 水寳書, and ordered her servants Geng Chen 庚辰 and Kuang Zhang
狂章 to support Yu in his work. This story is told in the book Yongcheng jixian lu 鏞城集仙錄. Yu was
supported by a yellow dragon (huanglong 黃龍) and a black turtle (xuangui 玄龜). Commentators
interpret the former as a kind of dredge, the latter as a dam... His tomb and a temple are still
preserved and are located near Shaoxing 紹興, Zhejiang.”47
The Yellow River 48 one of the world’s largest river basins, stretches 5,400 kilometers through nine
Chinese provinces and is still used today for agriculture irrigation. The Yangtze River 49 is even more
formidable, being the longest river in China at 6,300 kilometers and passing through nineteen
provinces. Both rivers are considered key river basins of the world. If this should be accepted as
history, Yu’s accomplishments would be astounding, yet he is not alone in making such claims in
civilization’s earliest stage.
In the Lugal-e Tablets of ancient Sumer at around the same time, the land is described to be in a
watery muddy mess that needed a lot of work. Then we are told that Ninurta began a great public
works program of ditch digging, dredging, and redirecting the flow of streams and rivers. Ninurta built
dams, canals, organized the lakes and directed the waters of the Tigris to empty in the sea. According
to the tablets, all these works were an application of Ninurta’s great wisdom and cleverness. The
technologies for these achievements probably owed much to the advancements of the earlier lost
civilization.
According to the Lugal-e Tablets,

“334-346 At that time, the good water coming forth from the earth did not pour down over the fields.
The cold water (?) was piled up everywhere, and the day when it began to ...... it brought destruction
in the Mountains,... The Tigris did not bring up its flood in its fullness. Its mouth did not finish in the
sea, it did not carry fresh water…”50
(Interestingly, today, salinity levels are becoming a problem in the Tigris once more. 51 Could this issue
have been resolved in the past?)
“No one yet cleaned the little canals, the mud was not dredged up. Ditch-making did not yet exist…
347-359 The Lord applied his great wisdom to it. Ninurta (1 ms. has instead: Ninjirsu), the son of

Enlil, set about it in a grand way. He made a pile of stones in the Mountains. Like a floating cloud he
stretched out his arms over it. With a great wall he barred the front of the Land. He installed a sluice
(?) on the horizon. The Hero acted cleverly, he dammed in the cities together. He blocked (?) the
powerful waters by means of stones. Now the waters will never again go down from the Mountains
into the earth. That which was dispersed he gathered together. Where in the Mountains scattered
lakes had formed, he joined them all together and led them down to the Tigris. He poured carp-floods
of water over the fields.”50
The second largest river in Western Asia, the Tigris river basin 51 of 1,800 km in length runs through
Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey. With a river basin area of 221,000 square kilometers the Tigris is fed by
numerous tributaries from the Zagros Mountains in Iran, Iraq and Turkey. It provides irrigation for
approximately 4.6 million ha in its basin. To consider that this massive river could have had manmade
origins from the directing of its tributaries all the way to it’s finding its way to the sea would be an
unbelievable engineering and manpower achievement.
But isn’t this the same Tigris river that flowed from the garden of Eden? Because of the shattering
and resurfacing of the earth, this is highly unlikely. It is more reasonable to consider that the second
age peoples would name their new cities, bodies of water, and other landmarks from things that they
remembered from their past homeland, as is commonly done even today (i.e. York, New York).
These records may have easily been set aside as exaggeration or myth had it been alone in making
such astounding claims. After all, this is the age when the prevailing scientific assumptions tell us,
that mankind was just barely beginning to get it together. How could our ancestors have
accomplished the mind boggling earthmoving public works that would seem overwhelming even in
our modern times?
But then over a thousand kilometers away at the same relative time period, Menes (Mizraim),
grandson of Noah was working a similar wonder with the waters of the Nile river to establish the
mighty Egyptian civilization.
“Menes, or Menas, as already stated, is allowed by universal consent to have been the first
sovereign of the country; and was the reputed founder of Thebes as well as Memphis.
Having diverted the course* of the Nile, which formerly washed the foot of the sandy mountains of the
Libyan chain, he obliged it to run in the centre of the valley, nearly at an equal distance between the
two parallel ridges of mountains which border it on the east and west; and built the city of Memphis
on the bed of the ancient channel. This change was effected by constructing a dyke about a hundred
stadia above the site of the projected city, whose lofty mounds and strong embankments turned the

water to the eastward, and effectually confined the river to its new bed. The dyke was carefully kept
in repair by succeeding kings; and even as late as the Persian invasion, a guard was always
maintained there, to overlook the necessary repairs, and to watch over the state of its embankments.
For, adds Herodotus, if the river was to break through the dyke, the whole of Memphis runs the risk of
being overwhelmed with water, especially at the period of the inundation. Subsequently, however,
when the increased deposit of the alluvial soil had heightened the circumjacent plains, these
precautions became unnecessary; and though we may still trace the spot where the diversion of the
Nile was made, owing to the great bend it takes, about fourteen miles* above the site of ancient
Memphis, the lofty mounds once raised there are no longer visible.”52
Menes (Mizraim) was also credited to having excavated a lake and building canals but the claims of
historians of the past that he had somehow managed to control and redirect the Nile has probably
been relegated to myth because of the sheer magnitude of such an endeavour. The Nile at 6,695
kilometers is the longest river in the world with an average discharge of 3.1 million litres per second.
Scholars agree that ancient Egypt could not have existed as it did without the river Nile. It was an
essential source of fresh water, food, livelihood, fertile soil, and transportation.53
Could the current Nile actually have been a product of the ingenuity of man harnessing nature at the
very start of this civilization? If this alone can be proven, we seriously need to rewrite our history
books and revisit the foundation of the assumptions on which our past is based.
The Nile in antiquity had an even greater flow rate and river plan form and would have been a greater
challenge to redirect and manage than today. “In the case of the Nile, a higher flow rate in antiquity
ensured that the Delta head was further south and that there were more numerous distributaries.
Historical sources such as Herodotus and Strabo support the view that there were many more
distributaries in antiquity.”54
Is there any geological physical evidence that the Nile had been diverted from an ancient river bed to
run its present course? Yes there is, and it has caused much speculation as to how it could have
happened so suddenly as to enable the founders of ancient Egypt to have built the oldest pyramids in
Giza. Of course the unnaturally rapid change of direction from west to east is attributed to natural
migration since any other alternative does not fit into the current world view.
An article on Egyptian archaeology by geologists Katy Lutley and Judith Bunbury, speculates on
geological evidence of the river’s movement from the Nile’s ancient course.
“Our map suggests that an active Nile had an impact on the development of the site of the pyramids

at Giza. We propose that a branch of the Nile was located to the far west of the valley prior to the
building of these pyramids. By the time of the completion of the causeway to the Khufu pyramid
(mapped by Mark Lehner), it must already have moved away from this extreme western location. It is
interesting to speculate whether the blocks quarried for the Khufu pyramid created the embayment in
the river-bank that was later used as a harbour as shown by the Giza project. That the river rapidly
moved away from this location was a product of its natural migration, but did waste from the pyramid
builders’ quarry enhance deposition and force the river eastwards? Once the process of migration
away from the site began, it seems to have continued. At what point there ceased to be more than
one branch of the Nile at this latitude (one of the others passing by Heliopolis) has yet to be
determined…”54
Historians from antiquity tell us that the Nile was diverted from its far western course to its current
eastern direction then made to or ‘obliged’ to travel in a single stream through the center of the valley
at nearly equal distance parallel to the bordering mountain ridges on the east and west sides. The
dyke made by Menes had to be maintained for many generations all the way to the Persian invasion
and was recorded by other historians. If past historians are to be recognized then perhaps there
would be fewer mysteries. Perhaps if our scientists were not limited by assumptions, they would not
be forced to make incredible theories, like thinking that a massive river on which the Egyptian
civilization relied on for its existence, could be accidentally diverted by throwing in construction waste.
The book of Ezekiel, writing about Egypt’s pride, implies that the Nile is a manmade public work as it
repeats twice the Egyptian boast that “My Nile is mine, and I myself have made it”(Ezekiel 29:3 and
Ezekiel 29:9).
India has a rich and ancient lore regarding the origin of their rivers. The Ganges river which is
considered the most sacred river in India has a myth about King Bhagirath who went on a quest to
save his ancestors. “King Bhagirath prayed to Lord Shiva who, after some time, agreed to hold
Ganga in his hair. Accordingly, Ganga descended from heavens on Lord Shiva’s head and was soon
trapped in his thick locks. In the process, the river water got further purified. One the request of King
Bhagirath, Lord Shiva opened one of the locks and the river reached the Earth. It is said that Ganga
followed the chariot of Bhagirath to the place where the ashes of his ancestors were lying and
released them from the curse. Alert reader will notice that this legend is a simple description of the
hydrologic cycle. Perhaps King Bhagirath was an ancient civil engineer or a hydrologist!
Since Bhagirath brought Ganga to Earth, one headwater stream of Ganga is known as Bhagirathi.
Further, the Hindi term Bhagirath prayas describes valiant efforts or difficult achievements of a
person.”55

The Ganges river basin is 2,525 kilometers (1,569 miles) long and passing through India and
Bangladesh. Millions of people rely on this river as a source of fresh water and livelihood. It is the
third largest river in the world in discharge. Could we owe this river to the public works accomplished
during the second age?
Getting the communities started in agriculture and productive labor was another important priority
dependent on the steady provision of water. The Books of Hsia record the works of Yu the Great,
went past being the one who oversaw the work on the river basins of China. Yu cleared forests and
prepared the land for cultivation, determined soil quality and the appropriate cultivar for each
province, developed mulberry groves for silkworm fabric production, and other trades. He determined
what each area was capable of and taught them to trade to get what they needed with what they
had.56
This multitasking brilliant founder of Chinese civilization was not unique in the second age. Ninurta
(Nimrod) who was accredited for the public works that developed the mighty Tigris river was also
lauded for developing the agriculture of Mesopotamian civilizations. And just like Yu the Great,
Ninurta (Nimrod) taught the people how to trade their goods.
“Now, today, throughout the whole world, kings of the Land far and wide rejoice at Lord Ninurta. He
provided water for the speckled barley in the cultivated fields, he {raised up} {(2 mss. have instead:)
piled up} the harvest of fruits in garden and orchard. He heaped up the grain piles like mounds. The
lord caused trading colonies to go up from the Land of Sumer. He contented the desires of the gods.
They duly praised Ninurta's father.”57
The records from Babylon and China seem to indicate, not a recovery from a local flood, but a global
reboot of civilization. Learning farming, establishing a commercial system, studying the lands in which
they had settled, and basically just learning how to survive as a community after the great Deluge.
Yu says in the Yi and Ki: “I mounted my four conveyances,’ --carriages on the land, boats on the
water, sledges in icy places, and shoes with spikes in them in ascending the hills, -- ‘and all along the
hills hewed down the woods, at the same time along with Yi, showing the people how to, get flesh to
eat,’ --that is, by capturing fish and birds and beasts...sowing grain, and showing people how to
procure the food of toil in addition to flesh meat. I urged them to exchange what they had for what
they had not, and to dispose of their accumulated stores. In this way all the people got grain to eat,
and the myriad regions began to come under good rule.”58

The historical records that are handed down to us from the past, were handed down through the
generations as historical records and not fairy tales. The clay tablets from Sumer were not handed to
people thousands of years later, but to the population who were actually there to witness these
achievements. They in turn handed over their records to the next generations. The same goes with
the Egyptian and Chinese records.
The Division of the Nations

The Sibylline Chronicles tell us that,
“...when the generation tenth appeared of mortal men, from the time when the flood came upon
earlier men. And Cronos reigned and Titan and Iapetus; and men called them best offspring of Gaia
and of Uranus, Giving to them names both of earth and heaven, since they were very first of mortal
men. So there were three divisions of the earth according to the allotment of each man, and each one
having his own portion reigned and fought not; for a father’s oaths were there and equal were their
portions.”59
Ancient texts relate how the earth was divided equitably among Shem, Ham, and Japheth, the sons
of Noah who at this second age were tasked with repopulating the world. These three sons of Noah
were renamed Cronos, Titan, and Iapetus in the Sibylline Chronicles - names that were later
attributed to the gods or godlike beings. Hindu lore tell the story of Manu (a.k.a. Satyavrata), a first
age man who was warned of the coming great deluge that would soon destroy the world. Manu
followed the divine instructions to build a boat and was saved along with his three sons who had been
born before the flood: Sharma, C’harma, and Jyapeti. Mesoamerican myth speak of Viracocha who
along with his sons introduced civilization after a great flood. Hebrew scriptures tell us that the earth
was divided amongst Noah’s three sons, “...according to their families, according to their languages,
by their lands, according to their nations.”60
Regarding the ‘Toldoth Beni Noah’ (Genesis 10), M. Francois Lenormant wrote, “...This document
furnishes an inestimably valuable basis for the researches of ethnography, that is, the science which
investigates the relationships of nations with each other, and their origin. The attentive study of
historical tradition, the comparison of languages, and the examination of physiological characteristics
of different nations, lead to results in complete accordance with the inspired volume.”61
Professor George Rawlinson saw the Hebrew scriptural record in Genesis ten as “the most authentic
record that we possess for the affiliation of nations...alike in accordance with the earliest classical
traditions, and with the latest results of modern comparative philology.”61

It seems that the dispersion of the people at this time happened peacefully, and as the myths recount,
the colonies were provided with the things that they would need for both travelling to their assigned
land areas and for establishing their community once they arrived. Leaders or heads of family groups
were assigned with ‘chiefs’ under them. There is an implied social organization even before they set
out on their journeys.
Plato recounts in the Critias regarding the time when the earth was peacefully divided,
“Once upon a time the gods were taking over by lot the whole earth according to its regions, --not
according to the results of strife: for it would not be reasonable to suppose that the gods were
ignorant of their own several rights, nor yet that they attempted to obtain for themselves by means of
strife a possession to which others, as they knew, had a better claim.” 62
Men became founding fathers of nations, just as the Semitic Abraham was the grandfather of Jacob
whose descendants became the nation of Israel. Mizraim, grandson of Noah, was seen as the
founding forefather of ancient Egypt.
Vietnam, home to one of the world’s oldest civilizations, had formed states by the third millennium
BC, that cooperated to construct hydrological systems to prevent flooding from the Red River. “The
Red River valley formed a natural geographic and economic unit, bounded to the north and west by
mountains and jungles, to the east by the sea and to the south by the Red River Delta.”63 The
Vietnamese trace their origins to the god Lac Long Quan who married the fairy/goddess Au Co.
“Eventually, Au Co longed to live in the mountains and Lac Long Quan craved the sea, so the two
separated. Fifty children went with each parent—those in the mountains grew rice, and those on the
coast lived by fishing.”64
Throughout the Philippine Cordillera region, “Lumauig was frequently encountered, often as a son
Kabunian who descended to earth.”65 It is Lumauig from sky world /heaven that thought the mountain
tribes how to plant rice, rituals and customs pleasing to the gods, and brought many beneficial gifts.
The American historian W.H. Scott suggested that Lumauig may have been a real person
mythologized through time.
Armenian legends hold that Hayk, great grandson of Noah, founded Armenia when he departed from
Babylon after the Tower of Babel incident. This brought down the ire of Nimrod, other stories call the
protagonist Bel, who led an army to get the freedom loving Hayk in line. Hayk led a successful
rebellion against the Babylonian tyrant and built a settlement in the Armenian highlands. Armenia may
have been named after his son Armenak. 66

Dangun, son of the woman Ung-Yo and her husband Hwang Ung (a direct descendant of Hwanin, the
Emperor of Heaven) is seen as the founder of the first Korean kingdom, Gojoseon, which dates to
around 2300 B.C.67 This is around the same time as the dispersion of the nations, after the
appearance of various languages.
Gikuyu is seen as the ancient ancestor of the peoples of Africa that live around the foothills of Mount
Kenya. Gikuyu had been given the lands by Mogai who was also credited with the construction of
Kere Nyaga (Mount Kenya). Traditions hold that Mogai rested on that mountain when he came
around after travelling the world. When Gikuyu had nine daughters but no sons, Mogai provided
young men for them after the sacrifice of a ram.68
The Chinese trace their ancestral roots back to Huangdi, the Yellow Emperor, who came to China
under the direction of the Jade emperor (a.k.a. emperor of heaven and earth), after a great flood.
Seen as China’s founding father, Huangdi 黃帝 may also be written 皇帝 which means ‘august
ancestor’. Both Huangdi (symbolized by the dragon) and his wife (symbolized by the phoenix) were
said to have come from ‘heaven’.
Ouranos/Uranus, meaning sky or heaven, was the name given by the Phoenicians and Greek writers
to the Patriarch Noah who survived the flood and led humanity for another 300 years. Many of the
founding fathers claimed to have been sent from sky or heaven, possibly referring to the authority
given to them by the Patriarch Noah, who in turn received his leadership from Heaven (God).
The Yellow Emperor is seen as an actual historical figure, who Sima Qian records as having 25 sons
that began the clans that comprised the Middle Kingdom 中國.
“The Yellow Emperor also belongs to the cultural heroes by the many inventions he made, like
bronze tripods, boats and carts, and even the compass cart (zhinanche 指南車). His wife Lei Zu is
the inventor of silk spinning, his minister Cang Jie 倉頡 invented the script, Xi He 羲和 (two persons,
Xi and He?), Chang Yi 常儀, Sou Qu 臾區 astronomy and astrology, Ling Lun 伶倫 (also written 泠
綸) the musical pitchpipes, Da Rao 大擾 the sexagenary cycle of the calendar, and Li Shou 隸首
mathematics. The Yellow Emperor ruled for one hundred years. His tomb mound Huangling 黄陵 is
to be found in Huangling 黄陵, Shaanxi.”69
Archaeology has been uncovering neolithic cultures in China that were contemporaneous to the time
that Huangdi (Yellow Emperor) had begun the Chinese nation. One of these was the Liangzhu

Culture 70 that showed advancements in rice cultivation, irrigation and flood control, and a
sophisticated jade culture. The neolithic Liangzhu culture that developed in the Lower Yangtze River
area built the biggest city in China of that time period, revealing a stratified society with developed
religious practices and military. However, around 2200 BC the peoples that we call the Liangzhu
culture, composed of over 300 communities found so far suddenly disappeared.
The peoples called the Liangzhu Culture, who may have been the originators of the jade Bi, the Cong
and many other exquisitely carved jade items, did not leave a single tool behind. Liangzhu craftsmen
were masters of miniature jade works with the ability to carve several fine lines within 1 mm width. 71
Harvard researchers have discovered that the Liangzhu craftsmen had used diamonds to grind and
work the nephrite jade which was harder than iron or steel.72
China’s most ancient historical chronicles makes no mention of these peoples. Could it be because
they were not considered part of the Chinese nation? Could they have been a different nation or
company of nations assigned to different lands who were temporarily residing in Chinese territory as
they prepared for the next leg of their journey? A journey which they continued around 2200 BC. The
Liangzhu Culture and their lands, languages, and nations have been traced genetically to the
Austronesian and Tai-Kadai speaking peoples with high frequencies of Haplogroup 01 (Y DNA).73 The
Austronesian group includes the Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia. And Thailand, Laos, Southern
China, Taiwan, and Northeast India are part of the Tai-kadai language speakers.
The fact that these peoples are genetically linked as one family group, but divided into nations by
languages, seem to lend credence to the claims of ancient texts that people were divided according
to bloodline and language and allotted their different territories. The Chinese character for country 國
is an enclosure protected by a spear 戈 possibly representing the rule of law/military with one 一
mouth 口 that may graphically portray one language.
Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties and Their Territories

Yu the Great was the first emperor of China’s Xia Dynasty from around the end of the third millennium
BC, a few hundred years after the Deluge. He led the division of the nine regions, taught the people
agriculture and trade, classified the lands and determined taxes (tribute), and instituted a central
government that conferred land and surnames. Xia Dynasty lasted until 1600 BC and is described in
the historical chronicles of the Bamboo Annals, Shu King Classic of Documents/History, and the
Records of the Grand Historian.

The territory of the nation that Yu the Great served and developed was repeatedly called ‘the land
within the four seas’. It was the land within the four seas whose rivers and lands he brought under
control, arranged, and divided. It was the people within the four seas that mourned for the Ti (king)
before Yu. The land within the four seas is where the Chinese leaders ‘ruled all under heaven’. The
statement of ‘ruling all under heaven’ is best understood in the context of the belief that it is Heaven
(天, God), that confers the right to rule to any man. Therefore the leader must always remember that
as he rules all, this authority is under the gracious will of Heaven. It is clear that the borders of the
Chinese nation, the Land within the four Seas, had been defined long before its first official dynasty.
The Shu King repeatedly calls the Chinese territory, the ‘Land within the four Seas’. Each Sea was
identified with the four cardinal directions (North, South, East, and West). The South China and East
China Seas are easily identifiable as the Southern and Eastern Seas, but what of the ancient
Northern and Western Seas?
To the North of China was an ancient inland salt lake ‘Sea’, which has largely dried up during our
modern era - the Lop Nur Basin. Archaeologists have discovered thriving settlements built around the
shores of this salt lake ‘Sea’ from around 1800 BC-900 AD. Ancient Chinese texts wrote of its saline
nature, and the Hanshu recorded its dimensions as 300-400 li (120-160 km) in length and breadth.74
The Western Sea of ancient China was even larger. Tarim Basin to the West of China is an oval basin
with an area of about 1,020,000 square kilometers in the Xinjiang region.75 Although mostly desert
land today, it was an ancient endorheic basin -a closed drainage inland salt lake ‘Sea’. The ancient
Uyghur name Altishahr (six cities), imply that like the Lop Nur, the Tarim Basin was bordered by at
least six sizable urban centers. Tian Shan mountain borders the Tarim to the North, and the KunLun
mountains mark its Southern edge. More details on the four seas, China's ancient borders, will be
discussed in later chapters.
After the global Deluge, these Northern and Western inland seas naturally began to dry up in the
absence of natural climatic forces that could replenish their waters. Monsoon rains from the Indian
Ocean were blocked from reaching the Northern and Western regions of China by the Himalayas and
high Tibetan Plateau, while rain clouds from the East and South did not reach this far inland. Over the
millennia, the arid dry climate evaporated these inland salt seas, leaving vast desert basins.
The Xia Dynasty was followed by the Shang Dynasty (1600 BC - 1046 BC) whose existence is
supported not only by historical chronicles, but also by a great deal of archaeological evidence, has
yielded the earliest known body of Chinese writing -the oracle bone script.

Sima Qian records that it was Tang, the first Shang emperor, who overthrew the wicked and impious
final Xia king at the Battle of Mingtiao. Tang, a tribal leader who felt that he was under a divine
mandate incited a rebellion that overthrew the weakened Hsia dynasty, and marked the beginning of
the Shang dynasty.
“The king of Hsia extinguished his virtue, and played the tyrant, extending his oppression over you,
the people of the myriad regions...The way of Heaven is to bless the good, and make the bad
miserable. It sent down calamities on (the House of) Hsia, to make manifest its guilt...I...charged with
the decree of Heaven and its bright terrors, did not dare to forgive (the criminal).”76
Ancient Chinese texts tells us that some signs of heaven’s displeasure over the bloody Hsia rule
included changes in the paths of the sun and moon, confused seasons, and drought. People and
animals were in terror and suffering. Thus, under Heaven’s help and guidance Shang Tang easily
defeated the Xia ruler. The Books of Shang found within the Shu King tells us the Shang Dynasty
maintained its rulership over the territory of the land within the four seas.
The Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC - 256 BC) was the longest lasting dynasty in Chinese history. Similar to
the fall of the Xia Dynasty, the fall of the Shang Dynasty was seen as the mandate of Heaven due to
the wickedness of its king. The Duke of Zhou, brother of first Zhou Dynasty King Wu, defended his
dynasty’s right to rule by expounding on the mandate of Heaven to choose a god fearing leader for
their nation. Their father King Wen had died before the decisive Battle of Muye where King Wu led an
army of 50,000 against over half a million armed men. The decadence and cruelty of the Shang lords
were shown by the way that most of the Shang army turned away from them and joined the Zhou in
their uprising. It has been estimated that more than 13,000 humans lost their lives as sacrificial
offerings in the last 250 years of the Shang dynasty. The Duke of Zhou declared that none of the line
of Shang were found worthy of government so, “Heaven thereupon instructed us, and increased our
excellence, made choice of us, and gave us the decree of Yin (Shang), to rule over your numerous
regions.”77
Heaven’s mandate on deposing and promoting leaders in this age was not a unique Chinese concept.
Israel’s first king, Saul (1050 BC) from the tribe of Benjamin, was divinely chosen and then later
deposed by the righteous god-fearing David from the tribe of Judah according to what was seen as
God’s will.
The Chaldean tribal leader Nabopolassar (father of king Nebuchadnezzar) defeated the Assyrian
empire to begin the Babylonian empire wrote on the Nabopolassar Cylinder that he had been chosen
and assisted by the divine. “Nabopolassar, the King of Justice, the Shepherd...the lord who
understands the hearts of the gods of heaven and the underworld, who constantly observes the

deeds of humanity, perceived my inner thoughts and raised me, the client who was anonymous
among the people, to a high status in the country of my birth. He called me to the sovereignty over
the land and the people. He caused a benevolent protective spirit to walk at my side. He made
everything I did succeed. He made Nergal, the strongest of the gods, to march at my side; he
slaughtered my enemies, dropped my enemies. The Assyrian ruled Akkad due to divine anger and
oppressed the inhabitants with his heavy yoke.”78
The Persian Cyrus who defeated the Babylonian empire claimed that he was appointed by Heaven to
be the new world leader, because of his heart for justice and righteousness. “[11-14]Marduk surveyed
and looked throughout the lands, searching for a righteous king, his favorite. He called out his name:
Cyrus, king of Anšan; he pronounced his name to be king all over the world. He made the land of
Gutium and all the Umman-manda [i.e., the Medes] bow in submission at his feet. And he [i.e., Cyrus]
shepherded with justice and righteousness all the black-headed people, over whom he [i.e., Marduk]
had given him victory. Marduk, the great lord, guardian of his people, looked with gladness upon his
good deeds and upright heart.”79
It was the Duke of Zhou who carried out numerous military campaigns to establish the new dynasty.
Crushing those who would rebel against the new dynasty, he is said to have destroyed around 50
States in his military campaigns. He is also credited with writing the Chinese Classics like the I Ching
(Classic of Changes), Shijing (Classic of Poetry), and the Rites of Zhou. “...the Duke of Kau (Zhou), a
name in Chinese history only second to that of Confucius. He was the legislator and consolidator of
the Dynasty of Kau (Zhou), equally mighty in words and in deeds, a man of counsel and of action.”80
Dan (旦), The Duke of Zhou became regent for the young King Cheng when his father King Wu died
a few years after the Zhou dynasty began. The Duke of Zhou was not only outstanding in the
battlefield, but was an eloquent statesman and poet. It was Dan, whom the historical chronicles
record, that spoke to the young king, presumably after his regency, to carry out a military campaign to
extend the territory beyond the borders of the land within the four seas. Dan advised the young
emperor to...
“Have well arranged ( also) your military accoutrements and weapons, so that you may go forth
beyond the steps of Yu, and traverse all under the sky, even beyond the seas, everywhere meeting
with submission…”81
The steps of Yu the Great were limited by the borders of the Chinese territory that had been
established at the beginning of the age. The Duke of Zhou called for a military expansion of this
allotted borders to bring the lands of the nations beyond the seas to submit to China’s dominion.

Before approaching the young king with this proposal, the Duke of Zhou had first spoken to the Duke
of Shao regarding ‘enlightenment’ received by his father King Wan of ‘his high distinction and
universal rule’ that began when Heaven gave the position held by the Shang dynasty over to him and
his descendants. Asking for the support of the influential Duke of Shao, Dan insisted that, “We must
both go on, abjuring all idleness, to complete the work of King Wan, till it has grandly overspread the
kingdom, and from the corner of the sea, and the sunrising, there shall not be one who is disobedient
to the rule (of Kau/Zhou).”82
There is no recorded response of the young king to the Duke of Zhou’s advice for which he had
sought the support of the Duke of Shao, but by the time of Duke Mu of Qin (659 to 621 BC) 14th
Ruler of Zhou dynasty state of Qin, a poem entitled ‘The Northern Hills’ claimed that,
“All land beneath the broad sky–
there is none that is not the king’s.
To the shores most distant,
there are none who are not his subjects.”83
Two poems from the States of Pei and Yung in the collection of the Shijing (Classic of Poetry) written
from the start of the Western Zhou dynasty that seem to speak of the heartbreak caused by the
military expansion into the territories of other peoples. By the time of Confucius (551 BC), the states
of Pei and Yung had long been consolidated into the single State of Wei, therefore these poems must
have been written during the earliest stages of the Zhou Dynasty. The Chinese characters come from
the Shijing Book of Poetry, while the translation is mine with the help of Pleco (translation application)
and Google Translate.
Both poems are identically titled ‘Cypress Wood Boats’ (柏舟) which may be referring to the Nanmu
evergreen wood used to build ships since ancient times. Archaeology has uncovered multiple sites
with many Eastern Zhou dynasty to Warring States lords buried in Nanmu wood boat shaped coffins,
implying the great importance of these wooden vessels to their culture.
A. 柏舟 84 Cypress Wood Boats
1 汎彼柏舟. Those cypress wood boats floating about
2 亦汎其流. Also floating in its stream
3 耿耿不寐. My mind is burning (bright), sleepless

4 如有隱憂. Like having a secret/hidden sorrow
5 徵我無酒. I was drafted without wine
6 以敖以遊. [instead lured in] With pride (arrogance), with travel (adventure)
7 我心匪鑒. My captive/stolen heart (has become what it was not) -a brass mirror
8 不可以茹. Not able to bear/take it in
9 亦有兄弟. Also have brothers
10 不可以據. Who cannot seize and take possession of the base position
11 薄言往愬. Words are weak (not strong enough) to communicate
12 逢彼之怒. The fury of those we come upon
13 我心匪石. My captive/stolen heart (has become what it was not) -a rock
14 不可轉也. Also not able to turn around
15 我心匪席. My captive/stolen heart (has become what it was not) -a mat
16 不可卷也. Also not able to roll up (sweep off, answer back)
17 威儀棣棣. Manner and conduct completely correct, powerfully held in check
18 不可選也. Also not able to make a choice
19 憂心悄悄. Quietly (secretly) the heart is worried
20 愠于群小. Resentment/indignation from crowds/herds of the small
21 覯閔既多. Feeling compassion for the many already unexpectedly encountered
22 受侮不少. Received not a few insults
23 靜言思之. Words pondered over in the stillness (calm)
24 寤辟有摽. A sign is provided
25 日居月諸. Occupy in a day, Everything (Everybody) in a month
26 胡迭而徵. Recklessly repeatedly attack alternately lose or win, and draft troops
27 心之憂矣. The heart’s grieving/worries carries on
28 如匪澣衣. Like captive/stolen washed clothes (meaning he did not belong there)
29 靜言思之. Words pondered over in the stillness (calm)
30 不能奋飛
飛 . I cannot spread my wings and fly away

匪 translates to ‘robber’ or ‘bandit’ or simplified as ‘not’ is poetically used to describe how the author’s
heart or entire being has been held captive to become what it was not (lines 7, 13, 15, and 28).
徵 translates to be drafted or called up for the army. It may also be used for the levy of taxes and
solicitation. The Mandarin definition includes the concepts of invasion, attack, and conquest (lines 5
and 26).
據 is to occupy or seize by force. The Mandarin definition includes the concept of taking over and
occupying a territory or a base (line 10).
群小 Crowds or herds of the small are used to describe the angry people groups that they encounter
as they go out to occupy and rule the lands. Insight to this statement may have been given by
Mencius when he noted that “King Wan was believed to have been 10 cubits high and T’ang 9
cubits. The speaker in that passage gives his own height at 9 cubits 4 inches…” 85 Based on the
Chinese cubit used in the Zhou dynasty (1 cubit = 20 centimeters), King Wan was around 6 ½ feet,
T’ang was 5 feet 10 inches, and the speaker was 6 feet 1 inch. Compared to the median height of the
Zhou Dynasty army, the small stature of the indigenous Aetas of the ancient Philippine islands, often
barely four feet, would have been a stark contrast. Their tendency to attack en masse, described by a
Spanish chronicler that they “were accustomed to burst like an avalanche upon the villages…”86 may
have been the reason for the use of the character 群 which is also used for flocks or herds of
animals.
寤辟 these two characters together mean ‘provided’, but 辟 carries the meaning of opening up new
territory (land) to develop and rule, while 寤 alone is to wake up. 摽 used as a noun means a ‘sign’.
The Mandarin definition include the concepts of throwing out and striking. Therefore, line 24 may
carry the deeper meaning of striking out to take new territory to develop and rule as soon as they
wake up. I have translated it as ‘A sign is provided’ because this may have been its primary meaning.
The Zhou dynasty which had followed the Shang relied heavily on divination and oracles as the
previous dynasty had done.
B. 柏舟 87 Cypress Wood Boats
2 在彼中河. There in the middle of the Ho (Yellow River)
3 髧彼兩髦. Their pair of bangs hanging down over the forehead (style of young boys)
4 實維我儀. My appearance of dignity is honestly preserved
5 之死矢靡他. Death’s arrow will extravagantly waste them

6 母也天只. Only mothers and also God (understands)
7 不諒人只. Only man does not understand
9 在彼河側. There by the side of the Ho (Yellow River)
10 髧彼兩髦. Their pair of bangs hanging down over the forehead (style of young boys)
11 實維我持. My special distinction (government office) is honestly preserved
12 之死矢靡慝. Evil thoughts of death’s arrow extravagantly wasting them
13 母也天只. Only mothers and also God (understands)
14 不諒人只. Only man does not understand
The description given in lines 3 and 10, 髧彼兩髦 of the ancient manner in which a young boy or
young man whose parents were still alive, indicates that these Cypress Wood Boats were loaded with
males in their youth. That this same statement is repeated, emphasizes this point and the pain it
brings to the poet. Apparently the situation has reached a point where even the very young were
being drafted.
The prominent placement of the 柏舟 poems, “A”-the first song of the Odes of P’ei and the “B”-the
first song of the Odes of Yung, may have had deep symbolic meaning. When King Wu defeated the
Shang dynasty, he divided the domain into three parts: P’ei (North), Yung (South), and Wei (East).
Thus, revealing that the burden and grief brought on by these military campaigns was felt from North
to South of ancient China - from one end to the other.
Clues that these poems were related are seen by:

1. Same title 柏舟
2. Presence of exact same line 汎彼柏舟 (First line of both odes)

3. Same placement as the first Ode for both the States of Péi and Yung.
4. The use of the same character 儀 to describe the appearance of proper conduct (A. line 17, B.
line 4)
5. Same style of closing the ode with a repeating line near the end. (A. line 23 and 29, B. lines 6-
7 and 13-14)
6. Continuity - first poem tells of an anxious concern, a worry that as the battles are won or lost,
more troops were to be drafted. The second poem reveals the grief felt as the very young men
are called in to meet the need. The first poem does not name the waters their boats are afloat

on, possibly foreign waters. The second poem tells us that the young men are departing on a
cypress boat on the Yellow River in China, where those left behind sorrow at the loss of their
young men.
The 柏舟 ode A line 24 uses the character 辟 that bears the meaning of opening up new territory
(land) to develop and rule. This character is also used to describe a persona of the mythical creature
called the Qilin that had the highest rank during the Zhou Dynasty, even higher than the dragon or
phoenix.88
Tianlu 天祿 the male Qilin was the one who went out into the world to search for gold and other forms
of wealth for the emperor, while the female Bixie 辟邪 was given the task to hold on to it. Bixie 辟邪
could be literally translated as developing and ruling by law against evil.
The Qilin was brother to the Pixiu, another earth and sea chimeric mythical creature that served the
emperor by seeking out, obtaining, and protecting wealth for the empire. Pixiu was known was known
for its voracious appetite for gold, silver, and precious stones. Qilin and Pixiu are often mistaken for
each other, and while some websites say that the difference is that the Pixiu has wings, it seems that
the Qilin is often portrayed with wings too. This is even in the website of Japanese Mythology &
Folklore 88 where the Qilin is shown with wings and lions paws just like the Pixiu. The Pixiu appears to
be a variant of the Qilin in its aggressive war like phase that the Japanese called the Sin-You. The
less timid Sin-You was represented as a thick maned lion with wings and a horn that he used to
pierce those deemed guilty.
“...the Pixiu became synonymous with the army in ancient China. In fact, the word "pixiu", interpreted
as meaning "fierce beast" and also "brave warrior", was used as a symbol on battle flags and
banners.The Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty, in ancient China, declared that the wonderful,
magnificent and devoted Pixiu, who obtained and guarded the Master's gold, would be forever known
as the "Treasure of the Emperor".89 The Pixiu was such an important symbol that only the emperor
himself or members of the royal family could own a representation of it. This law was kept until the
end of the Qing Dynasty. It is significant to note that the image of the Pixiu and Qilin are some of the
most abundantly found nephrite jade artifacts on the Philippine islands.
An ancient Zhou poem in the Shijing calls the Duke of Zhou and his brothers and their royal lineage
--the feet, head, and horns of the Qilin.90 Another ode in the Shijing regarded the Duke of Zhou as a
heavenly protector of the Chinese Empire (Tang the Succesful IV.iii.II).

Archaeologists have unearthed numerous Nanmu wood (cypress) boat coffins in the Zhou Dynasty
State of Shu located in the Chengdu Plain in the Western Sichuan Basin. The rare Nanmu wood, a
type of evergreen tree specifically used for boats in antiquity were “...fire-heated to make them solid,
pressurized and waterproof.” 91 These coffins are believed to date back to the Eastern Zhou Dynasty.
Archaeological evidence shows contact with the State of Shu during the late Shang and early Zhou
Dynasty. The Shu King (Classic of History) mentions that the Shu teamed up with armies of King Wu
of Zhou to defeat the Shang in the Battle of Muye (1046 BC). 92 But shortly after their victory, the
Yizhoushu tells us that a military campaign against Shu was led by a subordinate of King Wu.93 The
Lords of Shu may have had a large role in the military campaign in the colonization and subjugation
of nations proposed by the Duke of Zhou. The Lords of Shu were seasoned warriors who may have
had the technology to build the Cypress Wood Boats that would carry the troops and armaments to
the distant shores that could be reached through the rivers and seas.
The presence of Phoenician core formed fused glass beads, exotic foreign items found in these boat
coffin tombs, imply that they may have encountered and traded with these maritime Phoenician
merchants who had also been busy establishing distant colonies in antiquity. The proposition that
these glass beads had arrived via the Silk Road which was established during the Han Dynasty,
many hundreds of years later, is highly improbable.
It seems that there were two historical periods in ancient times when China impacted the Philippines.
The first was during the Liangzhu Culture period, when it provided a temporary home for their kindred
to prepare and grow until they were ready to begin their nations in their own lands. Migration of the
Liangzhu Culture communities occurred around 2200 BC, and a part of this company settled into the
Philippine islands. The second time was when the Zhou Dynasty military campaign, initiated at the
very beginning of its long dynastic reign, reached the Philippines in their effort to bring all under the
broad sky under their dominion.
Historical events as significant as these would leave an indelible mark that would be recognizable for
future generations. The Spanish colonizers acknowledged that China had colonized the archipelago
long before their arrival, ruling over Philippine national territories in the distant past, as revealed by
artifacts and histories available at that time.
In Spanish texts from 1493-1898, they wrote regarding the nations who had colonized the Philippines
in the past, “...to conquer and settle in parts of these islands--especially the Chinese, from whose

histories, and their remains found in various parts, it is learned that in former times they were masters
of all these archipelagoes. [9] If they were the first settlers of the Javas (as is told by Juan de Barros)
they could still more easily have settled in some parts of these islands which are nearer to them.”94
The Chinese soldiers who colonized the Philippines in antiquity were a people of much larger stature,
like those from the Zhou Dynasty with heights of over 6 feet tall, and have the treasures that identified
their culture buried with them.
“Persons who know the provinces of Ilocos and Cagayan, in the north of this island of Luzon, assert
that they have discovered there the graves of people larger than the Indians, and the arms and
jewels of Chinese or Japanese, who, it is presumed, conquered and settled in those parts, led on by
the desire for gold.”94
Robert von Heine-Geldern (1885-1968) was a distinguished ethnologist, historian, and archaeologist
who pioneered the field of Southeast Asian Anthropology and played a major part in the creation of
the Southeast Asia Institute in the United States. Heine-Geldern theorized that China's Zhou and Han
dynasties took an active part in maritime expansion, “...he showed many arbitrary and detailed
commonalities between Chinese art and iconography of the first millennium BC Zhou Dynasty and
other arts around the Pacific, including the Americas.”95
Art and iconography was just part of what Heine-Geldern brought forward, “...the wonderful life-
arranging assemblage of ideas and principles – including those of kingship, writing, mathematics, and
calendrical astronomy [began in the Near East] and probably spread from China across the Pacific
[via Easter Island] during the prosperous sea faring period of the late Chou (Zhou) Dynasty...”96
Evidence found in the Philippine islands seem to corroborate the histories recorded by our
predecessors. We will follow the trail of clues left behind in jade, bronze, liuli (China’s lost national
treasure), and world mythology in order to discover our nation’s past, for as Sima Qian the Grand
Historian so wisely reminds us, “Those who do not forget the past are the masters of the future.”97

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86. CHAPTER XXXIX. Of the Origins of the Indians. 392-394.The Project Gutenberg EBook of "The Philippine
Islands, 1493-1898 - Volume 40 of 55 1690-1691 Explorations by Early Navigators,
Descriptions of the Islands and Their Peoples, Their History and Records of the Catholic
Missions, as Related in Contemporaneous Books and Manuscripts, Showing the Political,
Economic, Commercial and Religious Conditions of Those Islands from Their Earliest
Relations with European Nations to the Close of the Nineteenth Century". by Francisco Colin and
Francisco Combes and Gaspar de San Agustin. 2009.
<https://archive.org/stream/thephilippineisl30253gut/30253.txt>
87. James Legge, trans. The She King. Book IV. The Odes Of Yung. I.Peh chow. 柏舟. P.73
88. “Kirin --the Japanese Unicorn.” Japanese Mythology & Folklore. 2017. WordPress.com. 9/28/17.
<https://japanesemythology.wordpress.com/2014/11/21/the-unicorn-of-japan/>
89. “Pixiu.” Wikipedia. Source: Li, Jinn (2015). Pi Xiu Celestial Coming with Fortune. Estalontech (PublishDrive). ISBN
9789634280958. 2017. <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixiu>
90. James Legge, trans. The She King. Book I. The Odes Of Chow and the South. XI.Lin che che. P19
91. “Mystery Coffins Opened in 2,500-year-old-tomb. [2007/07/02]” China Daily.com.cn. 2017.
<http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-07/02/content_908084.htm>
92. “Shu State.” Wikipedia. 2017. <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shu_(state)>
93. Terry F. Kleeman (1998). Ta Chʻeng, Great Perfection - Religion and Ethnicity in a Chinese Millennial Kingdom.
University of Hawaii Press. pp. 19–22
94. The Project Gutenberg EBook of "The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898 - Volume 40 of 55 1690-1691 Explorations by
Early Navigators, Descriptions of the Islands and Their Peoples, Their History and Records of the Catholic
Missions, as Related in Contemporaneous Books and Manuscripts, Showing the Political, Economic, Commercial
and Religious Conditions of Those Islands from Their Earliest Relations with European Nations to the Close of the
Nineteenth Century". by Francisco Colin and Francisco Combes and Gaspar de San Agustin. 2009.
95. Charles W. J. Withers, Hayden Lorimer. Geographers: Biobibliographical Studies, Volume 26. Bloomsbury
Publishing, 14 Dec 2015. p32
96. Carol Miller. The Other Side of Yesterday: The China-Maya Connection. Xlibris Corporation, 17 Aug 2000.
97. Edward L. Shaughnessy, ed. China. London: Duncan Baird Publishers. 2005. p 6

Chapter 2
Philippine Jade Culture
For a country that has no natural resource of jade, either nephrite or jadeite, the Philippines has a
very long historic jade culture that goes back at least 4000 years. Archaeological excavations on
these islands have uncovered tens of thousands of beautifully carved ancient jade in the form of
chisels and other tools, as well as ornaments (i.e. bracelets, beads, pendants, etc.).1 Since jade was
not and is not a local resource, then it is likely that jade, and the craft of working with jade, came from
another East Asian location.
Ancient jade found in the Philippines is a type of Nephrite, which also happens to be the type of jade
used by the Chinese from neolithic times. Geological formation of nephrite jade requires unique
conditions that include tectonic plate movements and a specific mix of minerals, pressure and
temperature to make this unique mono-mineralic rock. This makes nephrite a rare resource, and our
closest neighbours that have it in their territory are China, Korea, and Taiwan.2
China has one of the oldest history of working with jade, going back over 5000 years to Neolithic
times. One of the most sophisticated jade cultures was attributed to more than 300 communities of
peoples who lived along the Lower Yangtze River area in the Jiangsu province of China that have
been grouped together as the Liangzhu Culture. During the 3rd millennium BC in China, the Liangzhu
Neolithic culture reached great heights in skill and craftsmanship in jade. Harvard researchers have
discovered that the Liangzhu culture had been using diamonds to polish and work their exquisite
nephrite jade,3 producing amazingly polished surfaces, fine sharp sculpted edges, and elegant thin
incised lines on this hard stone. They also used Nephrite jade that did not develop a white surface
patina, unlike the contemporaneous Hongshan culture.4
Professor Mitchell Chen notes that, “ The major motif of Liangzhu Culture jade artifacts is "God's
Face," which is usually carved with slim and incised lines.”5 The Liangzhu Culture “God Face” which
featured prominently in their jade artifacts has distinct and identifiable geometric features, as well as
the methods of producing the image on the jade primarily through the use of slim incised lines and
low relief. The eyes are formed by two concentric circles on each side that are surrounded by a larger
egg-shaped mask, often decorated with incised patterns. The egg-shaped masks are in turn
connected by several parallel lines or two lines defining an area that was then filled with incised
patterns. The open mouth was indicated by a rectangle with curved edges, also decorated with
incised patterns.

6 7 8
*LIANGZHU CULTURE BEAD WITH GOD FACE MOTIF (6), GOD FACE ON JADE CONG STYLE BEAD (7), GOD FACE MOTIF ON CONG (8)
It is believed that it is this God Face motif that inspired the Taotie motif that became a major motif in
the Shang and Zhou Dynasties. Another design element that may have been carried over from the
Liangzhu culture to China’s archaic dynasties could have been the curling auspicious cloud motif,
spirals, circles, and net patterns appearing in the large Liangzhu jade bead below.
Neolithic China possessed very different tools for working their jade from what is used today. Ancient
drill holes are very difficult or almost impossible for modern forgers to recreate using modern
equipment. Professor Mitchell observed that, “...holes of Hongshan and Liangzhu Cultures jade have
shown patterns of dual holes having an irregular inner surface or helical scoring on the same side.”10
11 11
*ABOVE LEFT NEOLITHIC CHINA HONGSHAN CULTURE DRILL HOLE, ABOVE RIGHT LIANGZHU CULTURE DRILL HOLE

This unusual dual hole drilling technique used by the Neolithic Hongshan and Liangzhu cultures is a
vital part in determining the authenticity of the jade artifact. It is apparent from Liangzhu culture jade
artifacts that they preferred to use the opaque to semi-translucent variety of Nephrite jade for their
craft. They also tended to work more with jade of strong varied colors or high contrast whites and
blacks, often choosing jade stone with dramatic color variegations, setting themselves apart from the
predominantly solid green jade that grew in popularity during later dynastic periods.
Jade in the Liangzhu culture was of great spiritual significance. Ritual use of jade in burial practices
has been shown in Liangzhu culture archaeological sites. Numerous jade Congs and Bis were buried
in graves. The Cong is a tube of jade with a squarish outer section and a circular inner area with a
circular hole, while the Bi is a circular ring found positioned in specific places in alignment with the
body, often on the waist or chest of the deceased. “Large and heavy jade discs...appear to have
been an innovation of the Liangzhu culture (about 3000-2000 B.C.E.)”12 The significance of the jade
Cong and Bi was not only shown by their usage, but also by the fact that their production required a
lot of time and effort to grind down the nephrite stone, that was harder than iron or steel, into these
elegant artifacts.
Liangzhu communities opted to live near rivers, and were most likely proficient in the use of
watercrafts. Boats, oars, fish and bird shaped artifacts, and wooden piers have been found in
Liangzhu archaeological sites. Liangzhu people groups lived in thatched roof houses elevated by
wooden stilts. They raised pigs, dogs, and water buffalo. They were fishing communities that
cultivated and ate rice as their primary staple.
The Liangzhu culture gathered together to build the biggest city in Chinese territory at that time,
which appeared to have been a pan-regional urban center where an elite leadership group ruled over
the various cultural communities. “The Liangzhu Ancient City is located in a wetland environment on
the plain of river networks between Daxiong Mountain and Dazhe Mountain of the Tianmu Mountain
Range. This ancient city is said to be the largest city during this time period. Its interior area is 290
hectares, surrounded by clay walls which had six city gates. Two gates were located in the north,
east and south walls. At its center was a palace site that spanned 30 hectares and there was also
evidence of an artificial flood protection design implemented within the city. Both of these
constructions are said to be indicators of the social complexity developing in Liangzhu at the time. A
granary may have been in place containing up to 15,000 kg of rice grain.”13
Establishing this large city took a lot of community effort and planning, yet there were very few older
artifacts found previous to the city’s construction, which has led scholars to speculate on why they

had built it. “The Liangzhu city-site is said to have been settled and developed with a specific
purpose in mind since this area has very few remains that can be traced back to earlier periods.”14
Could it have been constructed as a central planning zone in preparation for leaving to the lands in
which they would plant their own nations? If so, there was much to organize, such as the safe
transport by sea of several large populations, the advance preparations to make the areas they would
reside habitable, and ensuring that the supplies and food storage would be sufficient for the
communities before they could harvest from their new lands. Could it have been in this city that their
learned men developed innovations in the Chinese ‘Junk’ (i.e. bulkheads, sternpost rudders, flat
bottomed vessels, etc.) that remained unequaled by any other nation for thousands of years? These
were ships that increased safety, maneuverability, with the capability of transporting large cargoes of
goods and people.
Around 2,200 BC they packed up and left the Lower Yangtze River area, leaving very little behind.
“The Liangzhu Culture entered its prime about 4000 ~ 5000 years ago, but suddenly disappeared
from the Taihu Lake area about 4200 years ago when it reached the peak. There are almost no
traces in the following years ever found in this area.”15
“...Liangzhu Kingdom seemed to disappear overnight after 1000 years’ prosperity...Someone says
that it was washed away by floods. Someone says that it was destroyed by war. Someone says that it
was destructed by interior luxury and extravagance. Also, someone says that it did not disappear and
it hasn’t been discovered yet.”16
The people groups called the Liangzhu culture may have elected to migrate to tropical coastlands
with rich riverways that would support their way of life -- lands that were suitable for rice cultivation.
They may have been urged to move on by the changing climate of the Lower Yangtze River area.
“The climate in the Lower Yangtze 5000 to 4000 years ago was warm and humid, typical of a mid
subtropical zone climate, with the temperature was two to three degrees higher than today. The land
was covered by lush growth of evergreen chinquapin and big leave trees. Along with the expanding
of the Yangtze River delta towards the sea, the area became farther from the seaside with many
lakes and ponds. There many water plants and fruits on the trees all year around. Many big and
medium mammals including tigers, elephants, alligators and rhinoceros, in the forests and swamps.
Small animals, birds and fishes provided plentiful sources of food.”17
Faced with repeated flooding, the destruction of fertile lands by salt water, and climate changes that
was bringing their subtropical paradise to an end, the Liangzhu culture group may have sent out
scouts to find appropriate locations for their peoples. Four things that may have been on their list

were: 1) Subtropical humid climate suitable for rice cultivation, 2) Rivers that would be useful for
irrigation, aquaculture, and transportation, 3) A close supply of jade, and 4) A close source of Nanmu
wood that they used for boat building, architecture, and wood crafts.
Nanmu wood is a type of superior durable soft wood used for boat building since ancient times,
because of its resistance to decay, durable consistency, and beauty when polished to a mirror finish.
It is extremely resistant to humidity and temperature changes, and is not prone to warping,
contracting or expanding, and cracking. More than 30 varieties of the Nanmu evergreen trees are
found just south of the Yangtze River.18
Genetic testing of remains found in Liangzhu culture burial sites has given us clues as to where these
peoples may have gone.
“...ethnological studies suggest an origin in Southeastern China for Tai-Kadai and Austronesian
families. In the Neolithic Age, the Liangzhu cultural context was distributed in this region. The human
remains from Liangzhu sites belong to Y haplogroup 01, which is the unique haplogroup of Tai-Kadai
and Austronesian speakers.”19
The Tai-Kadai language groups are found in Thailand, Laos, North Vietnam, Southern China (Hainan
island), and Northeast India.20 Austronesian speakers inhabit the islands from Madagascar in the
west, to Pacific islands in the east. This includes Taiwanese aborigines, some regions of Thailand,
Vietnam, Hainan (China), Cambodia, southern Myanmar (Burma) and the Philippines. 21
The genetic evidence seems to show that the peoples grouped together as the Liangzhu culture did
not migrate and spread inland to China, but instead travelled to various coastal islands and riverine
areas where they established their civilizations. In the Tai-Kadai and Austronesian language groups
we find the similar pattern of communities living near rivers, eating and cultivating rice, living in stilt
houses, fishing and proficient in the use of watercrafts.
“The Liangzhu culture existed in coastal areas around the mouth of the Yangtze. Haplogroup O1 was
absent in other archeological sites inland. The authors of the study suggest that this may be evidence
of two different human migration routes during the peopling of Eastern Asia, one coastal and the
other inland, with little genetic flow between them.”22
Two different migration routes may have been taken by the Liangzhu Culture communities, although
neither was by land. One through the seas and into the Pacific Ocean. The second route could have
gone through the Yangtze River to the Mekong River carrying the migrants through China to
Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, and Cambodia - all countries that have Austronesian and Tai-
Kadai speaking populations (Haplogroup 01).

As for the list of four prerequisites,
1. The centrality of rice in the life and cultures of the Tai-Kadai and Austronesian speakers
cannot be over emphasized. The Filipino word ‘kain’ (to eat) is not difficult to connect to ‘kanin’
(rice), while the Thai greeting ‘Giin khao reu yang?’ translates to ‘have you eaten rice yet?’. In
these Southeast Asian nations, “To eat is to eat rice. Never just ‘eat’ on its own. You hear the
same in the Burmese sa tamin, the Cambodian si bai, in the Vietnamese an com…”23
2. Thailand has the Chao Phraya River system, Vietnam has the Mekong River that it shares
with Cambodia and Burma that also has the Irrawaddy and Salween Rivers, Philippines has
numerous river systems as does the other coastal nations of Southeast Asia. Almost all
ancient civilizations in these lands were riverine.
3. Nephrite Jade (Fengtian jade) was mined in Taiwan since archaic times, and Jade in the form
of top grade Jadeite has been mined in Burma for hundreds of years. Taiwan and Burma both
have populations of Austronesian speakers from Haplogroup 01. Taiwan Fengtian jade has
been found in archaeological sites in the Philippines, Malaysia, Cambodia, Thailand and
Vietnam, revealing an ancient Haplogroup 01 trade network. “There was a very huge
workshop in Fengtian, dating back to 3,000 BC,” Hung said, adding that one of the earliest
pieces of Fengtian jade found in the Philippines dates back to 2,000 BC.”24
4. The Nanmu evergreen wood which grew south of the Yangtze River, may also be found in
Hainan (island in the southernmost tip of China) and in Vietnam.25 Both Hainan and Vietnam
are lands in which the Tai-Kadai and Austronesian speakers had migrated to. The peoples
whom scholars called the Liangzhu culture must have been outstanding seafarers with reliable
and well-constructed watercrafts, since the seas and river were the ancient roads that they
travelled with ease.
The migration of the Liangzhu communities have not gone unnoticed, partly due to the trail left by
their sophisticated jade culture. And although they originated from the Lower Yangtze River area,
“These were non-Sinitic populations ancestral to many modern Southeast Asians...About 2500 B.C.,
some of the people -who according to linguistic research were speakers of early Austronesian
languages - crossed on boats or rafts from Taiwan to Batanes and Luzon to found the main
component of the modern Filipino population.”26
In the earliest period of their migration the jade craftsmen were made busy in the production of tools
likes adzes, chisels, axes, knives, and spear points made from the hard nephrite material. But as they
started to settle in and the communities began to grow and flourish in their lands, it allowed the
beauty of jade to be displayed as ornaments, beads, bracelets, pendants, earrings and ritual items
used for burial.

Scholars have determined that Taiwan was home to the largest center of ancient jade craft production
in Southeast Asia, until about 500 BC when the jade workshops moved to the Philippines. Of course
the nephrite jade had to still be imported from Taiwan or reworked from larger pieces of crafted jade.
However, archaeological evidence seems to point to an even much earlier period when the
Philippines may have been the epicenter of working jade.
“In the Philippines, several thousand tools of a white variety of nephrite, especially adzes and
chisels, were discovered during the 1930s and 1940s by H. Otley Beyer in Batangas, Rizal and
Laguna Provinces in southwestern Luzon (Beyer 1948: 44-71).”27
27
Examples of white nephrite adzes from the Philippines (Beyer collection, courtesy: National Museum of the Philippines).
Beyer estimated the dating of these white jade tools to have been from 1500 BC - 500 BC, but
definitely before the green Fengtian jade period. It is plausible that these artifacts may be dated even
earlier, to the time of departure from the Lower Yangtze River of the Liangzhu culture communities
(c.2200 BC). Beyer based his dating on migration theories, but now with the advancements of
technology we have been able to scientifically date the Fengtian jade,
“Discarded debris produced during the manufacture of nephrite lingling-os was unearthed on Anaro,
Itbayat Island in the Northern Philippines dating to 2600–2400 BP. The raw material was sourced to
Fengtian in Southeastern Taiwan, demonstrating that it was being exported from Taiwan to the
Northern Philippines for ornament production.”28
If the Fengtian jade was worked in the Philippines since 2000 BC, this gives a much earlier date for
the white nephrite debris.
Many more white nephrite jade artifacts and jade working-debris have been discovered on these
islands in the past decades in Calatagan, Palawan, Surigao del Norte, Bulacan, Rizal, Laguna,
Batangas and Quezon provinces. White (tremolite) nephrite jade artifacts far outnumber the green
(actinolite) nephrite jade from Taiwan. Such large quantities of jade artifacts and nephrite working
debris has led to the belief that there should be a jade mine somewhere in the vicinity, however the
Philippine source remains undiscovered. It is no question that ancient Filipinos worked extensively

with jade, but the story of how we had come to this specialization when we had no jade on our islands
had yet to be realized.
The white nephrite found in the Philippines may be described as milky white, opaque to semi-
translucent, sometimes displaying reddish-brown, black and green banding. The ancient source for
these predominantly white tremolite nephrite jade artifacts have not yet been identified from available
Asian sources. But a match may not have been found for these jade objects because the local source
from which the Liangzhu peoples harvested their jade has long been depleted. “During Neolithic
times, the key known sources of nephrite jade in China for utilitarian and ceremonial jade items were
the now depleted deposits in the Ningshao area in the Yangtze River Delta (Liangzhu culture 3400–
2250 BC)”29
Perhaps it would be worth testing the archaic white jade artifacts found abundantly on the Philippine
islands to the excavated Liangzhu culture jade. When the Liangzhu communities sailed off on their
ships laden with everything they would need to build their nations, jade would definitely be one of
their main cargo, at least enough to get started. They may have used their supply from around c.
2200 BC, but by at least 2000 BC, archaeological evidence shows that they were able to import
Fengtian (Taiwan) jade for their crafting needs.
Thousands of adzes, chisels, and other neolithic jade tools have been found on the Philippine
islands. Interestingly, Liangzhu Culture manufacturing processes for jade is still largely unknown due
to the fact that no jade working tools have ever been found in any Liangzhu culture archaeological
site 30 -- even in their Megacity. This could be seen as a clue that the Liangzhu culture communities
had packed away and brought along the tools that they would need to continue their jade culture. If
their communities had been destroyed by wars or floods or internal decay, their tools would not have
been absent from the sites of this jade working culture.
If the Liangzhu culture had indeed traversed the seas and rivers in an organized venture with culture
intact, then we would expect to find evidence of their sophisticated stone working and jade craft on
the lands to which they went. This is exactly what we find in the islands of the Philippines. All the jade
artifacts in the following Figures A to Z were uncovered in the Philippine territories, unless noted
otherwise.

Figure A
The distinctive Liangzhu culture God Face Motif is plainly portrayed on the ellipsoid nephrite beads
shown in Figure A. Crafting of the image with sharp incised lines on a flat polished background is
typical of the Liangzhu style for this motif. Compare the semi translucent to opaque variegated colors
of the nephrite used on the God Face motif beads, to the authenticated Liangzhu culture Bi and Cong
below. Both the Bi and Cong display the God Face motif on their surface. Tremolite crystal build up
may be seen on the close-up surface details of the Bi, this may have been caused by being exposed
to water for a long period of time.

31
*(ABOVE) LIANGZHU CULTURE BI ON NEPHRITE JADE W/ YELLOW GREEN TO REDDISH AREAS.
*(BELOW) GREEN TO REDDISH BROWN NEPHRITE JADE CONG FROM LIANGZHU CULTURE
31
The heavy nephrite jade bangles in Figure B from the Philippines, share similar coloration and other
qualities found in Liangzhu culture jade artifacts.

Figure B
Following are two samples of possible Liangzhu culture stone Bis from the Philippines that show
traces of their ancient stone working methods and style. These Bis are very small compared to the
large heavy nephrite jade discs that trace their beginnings from the neolithic Liangzhu culture. It is
possible that very few, if any, of these large spiritually significant discs have survived to the modern
era. Evidence from the jade workshop debris seem to indicate that the larger nephrite pieces like the
heavy jade discs had been recycled to create new jade artifacts.
When H. Otley Beyer found thousands of white nephrite jade artifacts, “Beyer also drew attention to
a range of “geometric objects of uncertain use” from Batangas. Nowadays, we know that these are
the debris left by the technology of cutting and grinding jade “preforms” into artifacts. The inhabitants
of Batangas were not only using ornaments, but they were making them as well.”32

It is possible that before leaving to migrate to their new lands, they had mined the Ningshao deposits
near the Yangtze Delta to exhaustion in order to bring along the precious jade stone in large heavy
preformed Bi rings or blank jade discs to maintain the continuity of their jade culture. The geometric
shaped debris found in ancient Philippine jade working sites are like puzzle pieces that may be
reconstructed into large flat rings with missing sections.
Figure C
It may be easily observed from the Bi in Figure C, that the central hole has been drilled from both
sides, leaving a ridge in the middle. This is a method of perforation used on the Liangzhu culture Bis
that were excavated from archaeological sites. Because of the jade working debris and tools found in
the Philippines, it has been inferred regarding nephrite stone that, “Most grooves and drilling marks
were made from both sides of the blanks, and in the case of grooving the usual procedure seems to
have been to cut in from both sides until a thin ridge was left, which could be snapped prior to
polishing and finishing.”33

Figure D
The tiny stone Bi seen in Figure D exhibits the pattern of an irregular inner surface with a one sided
helical scoring, often seen in dual holes of the neolithic Hongshan and Liangzhu cultures. Similar to
the first Bi, this little Bi was drilled from both sides, thus both sides has similar one sided helical
scoring in the perforation. This type of drill hole is a result of ancient drilling tool used by China’s
neolithic high jade cultures that we are no longer familiar with. The Liangzhu culture may have also
used this tool for single to multiple perforations, as shown by the drill holes on the Liangzhu culture
artifact (#34). It may have been more convenient to make this type of hole for this tiny Bi than the
traditional method used on the Bi in Figure C.

Figure E
The nephrite jade Horned Beast in Figure E is another example of Neolithic jade culture from ancient
China that has found its way to the Philippine islands.
34
One sided helical scoring on irregular drill hole shown on jade headgear engraved with a god-man figure with an animal’s mask from Liangzhu Culture
excavated from China.

The nephrite jade frog from the Philippines shows both single and double holes with this type of
irregular scoring.
Figure F
The unique drill holes made by ancient China's Neolithic Jade Hongshan and Liangzhu cultures are
difficult, if not impossible for forgers to recreate with modern drilling tools. These drill holes are an
important indication of their origins and authenticity. Another indicator to identify the craftsmen who
made them are their motif and style. Smooth curved symmetry, plain surfaces, incised lines, are just
some of the techniques used by the Liangzhu Culture. Evidence of antiquity in these jade artifacts
reveal that these nephrite jade objects have been exposed to the elements for a very long time.

Figure G
The white nephrite jade pendant artifact shown in Figure H is very interesting, because it not only
shows the distinctive irregular dual drill hole of Neolithic Chinese jade, but also the Liangzhu culture
Cong shape with outer square and inner circle, the mythical beast on the surface of the Cong, and an
ancient Sycee on the top.
The Sycee of antiquity, often made of silver and/or gold, was an ancient form of currency in China.
Silver boat shaped Sycees have been excavated by archaeologists from Zhou Dynasty period grave
sites. Could this ancient currency have been used, as claimed by the Grand Historian Sima Qian,
from remotest antiquity - the very start of civilization?

Figure H
The Liangzhu Culture communities with stone crafting workshops in their new nations were forced to
import jade from the nearest source -Taiwan. Archaeology has shown that the Liangzhu Culture
preferred to use locally sourced materials, but because of the rarity of nephrite deposits they were
forced to become part of an international network in order to continue their sophisticated tradition of
jade craftsmanship.Taiwan nephrite has been found in white, red, black, and green with dark specks.
““Taiwan jade” is famous all over the world, and yet so far it is only found and mined in Fengtien,
Hualien... Black speckles in the jade are “chromite”.”35
Many jade artifacts across Southeast Asia, from Vietnam to Thailand to Taiwan to the Philippines
have been traced to Fengtian jade from Taiwan. Ancient debris from jade workshops found in the

Philippines and in other Southeast Asian nations indicate that the raw materials were imported then
the finished products were exported for trade c. 2000 BC. Some of the most popular items of that
period seemed to be the penannular lingling-o and the bicephalous jade ornaments.
Figure I
These bicephalous jade artifacts, that seemed to have been popular among the Liangzhu Culture
communities as they began their nation building in their new lands, may have been inspired by the
China’s neolithic Hongshan culture long horned gods. These bicephalous artifacts bear the shape of
the Liangzhu Culture trident shaped jade artifacts. This form also appeared in the late Shang to
Western Zhou Dynasty as a god riding two horned creatures.

36
(# 36) Liangzhu Culture trident jade plaque excavated from China, engraved with god-man figure and animal masks, (Right) Drawing of 12th to 10th century
Nephrite jade artifact from Shang to Western Zhou Dynasty, currently at Arthur M. Sackler Museum, Harvard University
A celestial god connected with two horned creatures was revered around the world in this era. The
Norse war and storm god Thor is believed to travel through the heavens in a chariot drawn by two
goats (total of four horns).37 The Hittite god Teshub is often depicted “in a chariot drawn by two
sacred bulls, Sheri and Hurri.”38 Homer wrote of the steeds, of the Greek god Mars/Ares, that pulled
his golden chariot. "[Ares] ordered Phobos (Fear) and Deimos (Terror) to harness his horses, and
himself got into his shining armour."39 In order to understand the global fascination with this god, read
the book “Myth or History” (Chapter Eight: The Third Age).

Below is another traditional Liangzhu Culture form --the jade Huan-ring, found in the Philippines.
Figure J
40 Figure K
(#40) Neolithic Hongshan Culture C shaped dragon from China, Figure K appears to be a representation of the C shaped dragon excavated from the
Philippines, possibly made from Fengtian jade
Li Liu, Xingcan Chen wrote in his book on The Archaeology of China: From the Late Paleolithic to the
Early Bronze Age (Cambridge University Press, 30 Apr 2012. P206), that “A jade dragon is shown
with the head biting the tail so the body forms a circular shape with a hole in the center, and the mane
runs along the entire back of the body...” was another form typical of the Neolithic jade found in the
Lingjiatan Culture. Note the mane of the dragon that covers the entire length of its body until the tip of
its tail, shown in Figure K, jade C shaped dragon found in the Philippines.
Liangzhu culture possibly traded and networked with other Neolithic cultures in China, spreading their
distinctive iconography. The Liangzhu culture trait of connecting with different communities and
groups continued even after they relocated to their coastal nations.

Figure L

Figure M
Sometime around the first millennium BC the Philippine archipelago became the epicenter of jade
works in Southeast Asia.41 This could have been brought about by the Philippine colonization by
China during the Zhou Dynasty, when the Liangzhu Culture communities who had settled in the
Philippines were made to create miniature masterpieces of nephrite jade for the new colonial
government. They may have established a base government in the Philippines to closely monitor the
gold mining and processing. Although gold was not greatly valued in China, the Zhou Dynasty lords
knew that it was of great worth to many lands in the Western hemisphere. It could have been at the
very start of the first millennium BC that the enterprising Chinese conquerors collaborated with the
Phoenician merchants to trade gold to King Solomon (970 BC-931 BC) of Israel who was building a
temple for his God.
Some Zhou Dynasty grave sites have been shown to have strings of imported Phoenician glass
beads. Scholars speculate that these beads had come through the Silk Road. However, since the Silk
Road would not be established for another several hundred years later, during the Han Dynasty, this
idea seems highly unlikely. If you would like to learn more about the Phoenician connection, you may
read about it in the book “Phoenicians in the Lands of Gold”.
Israel may have called the peoples of the Liangzhu Culture ‘Tarshish’, an ancient ancestral name for
Tarshish the son of Javan the son of Japheth the son of Noah. Genesis 10 tells us that Tarshish
became a forefather of the nations and language groups that would populate the coastlands. The
book of Psalms indicates that Tarshish is not a single nation but a company of nations with many

kings, “Let the kings of Tarshish and of the islands bring presents…”42 The prophet Ezekiel calls
Tarshish a ‘customer’ of the Phoenician seafaring traders, who paid for their merchandise with silver,
iron, tin and lead.43 All natural resources that are found in abundance in many of the Southeast Asian
nations. And it was Ophir (a.k.a Uphaz) --an ancient name that may have been given to the
Philippines, that paid with gold.44 Ophir was the son of Joktan the son of Eber the son of Shelah the
son of Arpachshad the son of Shem the son of Noah. It may have been the lineage of Ophir that
arrived on the Philippine archipelago first, but since they preferred to live in the mountains, while the
people of Tarshish desired to reside by the coastlands of the rivers and the seas, they may have
easily come to a peaceful resolution.
Ships of Tarshish were the ancient maritime vessels that could safely travel the rivers, seas and open
oceans carrying a large amount of cargo and humans. This is corroborated by texts like the
Document Number 98 of Documentos Del Archivo de Indias (1520-1528) that has a subheading
Tarsis beside a description of the maritime vessel known as the Junk.45 The Fra Mauro Map (1450)
tells us that it is the Junks (Zonchi) that were capable of navigating the Indian Ocean from the
Western ports in order to reach the distant Eastern ports.46 Marco Polo (13th century) makes detailed
descriptions of the amazing vessel that could safely transport goods and merchants to the West and
back --the Junk.47
These Ships of Tarshish innovations which will be discussed later in detail, may have originated from
the planning phase in the Liangzhu culture mega-city, then developed and improved upon by the
nations that virtually lived on the waters that served as their roads. It was hundreds to thousands of
years before the West could catch up and apply these maritime innovations. It was the Ships of
Tarshish that made the steady sea route trade between East and West possible in antiquity.
The Western Zhou Dynasty (1047 BC-772 BC), like the Shang Dynasty, saw jade objects as
important in religious ceremonies, rituals, and symbols of government status. The level of jade
craftsmanship reached a peak in the Zhou Dynasty period. “During the Zhou Dynasty (1100-221
B.C.) jade pendants were very popular and the level of their craftsmanship was unmatched in any
future period.”48
Early Zhou Dynasty period jade carving was noted for its use of single 45 degree big slant and double
slant incised carving style. The jade objects of the Western Zhou were much smaller than those of the
Shang Dynasty, but the fine workmanship and streamlined curves of their jade is highly desired by
collectors. “The royal court has given high priority on people’s living. Thrifty and simple life is
cherished by the royal families. The society is in a harmony atmosphere. Raw jade consumption is

set to the minimum since jade items are considered luxury. The most variety of jade artifacts in the
Western Zhou Dynasty is small size jades or jade plaque…”49
Hole drilling patterns of the Western Zhou Dynasty shows similarity to the patterns used in antiquity
since the Xia Dynasty. A unique double surfaced hole that was produced by the ancient drilling tool of
those times. Below are jade beads found in the Philippines with this drillhole.
Figure N
The Shang to Western Zhou Dynasty values of jade used to primarily represent worship and warfare
may be seen in the Ceremonial Axe (Yue), and the circular Bis shown below that were recovered in
the Philippines. The Shu King (Classics of History) Books of Yu tell of how jade was a symbol that
was used for instruments of rank. The Books of Zhou record how jade was distributed amongst their
relatives who were in charge of states, strengthening their connection to the king.

Figure O
The Qilin ranked first among the mythical creatures in the Zhou Dynasty, even higher than the dragon
or phoenix. An ancient Zhou poem in the Shijing calls the Duke of Zhou and his brothers and their
royal lineage --the feet, head, and horns of the Qilin.50

Figure P
Several of the Qilin in Figure P, particularly the pair of 3 Color Qilin, have the ox-nose hole type with
twin tear-drop shaped drill holes that lead diagonally to each other with reducing depth bore -drill
holes that are known to have been used by China’s neolithic Liangzhu culture.

The Qilin was an auspicious sign of great prosperity, whose appearance was seen to inaugurate a
golden age. It was a chimeric mythical creature that could have one or two horns, the tail of an ox, the
qualities of a horse, deer, fish, toad, lion and could be shown with flames or wings along its sides.
“...in Japan, the kirin occupies the top spot. This is following the style of the ancient Chinese, as qilin
was ranked higher than the dragon or phoenix before the Qin dynasty. During the Zhou dynasty, the
qilin was ranked the highest, the phoenix ranked second, and the dragon the third.”51
The Qilin was brother to the Pixiu, another earth and sea chimeric mythical creature that served the
emperor by seeking out, obtaining, and protecting wealth for the empire. Pixiu was known was known
for its voracious appetite for gold, silver, and precious stones. Qilin and Pixiu are often mistaken for
each other, and while some websites say that the difference is that the Pixiu has wings, it seems that
the Qilin is often portrayed with wings too. This is even in the website of Japanese Mythology &
Folklore 51 where the Qilin is shown with wings and lions paws just like the Pixiu. The Pixiu appears to
be a variant of the Qilin in its aggressive war like phase that the Japanese called the Sin-You. The
less timid Sin-You was represented as a thick maned lion with wings and a horn that he used to
pierce those deemed guilty.
“In tribute to the legend of the ferocity and prowess of the Pixiu in battle, the Pixiu became
synonymous with the army in ancient China. In fact, the word "pixiu", interpreted as meaning "fierce
beast" and also "brave warrior", was used as a symbol on battle flags and banners.
The Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty, in ancient China, declared that the wonderful, magnificent and
devoted Pixiu, who obtained and guarded the Master's gold, would be forever known as the
"Treasure of the Emperor".52
Could the jade Qilin/Pixiu have been the emblem of authority carried by the Duke of Zhou and the
other royal descendants from the lineage of King Wen his father? Dan, the Duke of Zhou had wanted
all under the broad skies to be brought to submission to the Chinese emperor. Could he have
become the epitome of the fierce beast and brave warrior that fetched untold riches of silver, gold and
jewels from the colonized lands to enrich the coffers of China?
It is said that the Emperor declared that only Royal persons could possess a Pixiu and it was strictly
forbidden for all others to own one, including officials.[11] This law was kept through to the end of the
Qing dynasty.”52
Imperial decree allowed only royalty to possess the Pixiu, ordinary officials were not allowed to carry
this very important symbol of power and trust. So why do we have so much ancient jade Qilin/Pixiu on
the islands of the Philippines? In fact, among all the jade mythical creatures and animals, it seems to

be the most numerous from antiquity. Could this be a clue that there may have been an imperial seat
of Chinese government somewhere on our islands that was presided over by the royal lineage of
King Wen? The Pixiu’s task was not only to find the gold and treasures, but to protect it. Thus, it is
often shown literally hiding the wealth under its belly and sharp claws with teeth bared. Once they
had found the abundant gold in the Philippines whose mines have been said to have been active
from 1000 BC,53 the armies from China were not going anywhere. The 1000 BC date is around the
same time the Duke of Zhou made his proposal to conquer beyond the seas that had been set as
China’s territorial boundaries. It is also very near the time that the ancient Phoenicians and Israel’s
King Solomon collaborated with the Ships of Tarshish to make the regular trade journey to Ophir in
order to procure large amounts of gold for the construction of the temple in Jerusalem.
China in antiquity was more interested in bronze and jade than gold, but once they had the supply of
gold, it was natural to seek for a buyer. This they found in the Western nations across the seas who
desired gold above all else.
Figure Q
Above are two ancient jade plaques of Qilin about to swallow a golden ball. Under the hooves of the
brown Qilin we see the boat shaped Sycee (made in silver and gold) carrying a similar round ball. The
two plaques show the Qilin in his tasks of obtaining and keeping the wealth of the emperor. Evidence
of antiquity include weathering, calcification,cleaving vein, and diffusive markings.
During the Western Zhou Dynasty the most common nephrite jade artifacts were small sized
pendants and plaques. “Western Zhou jade artifacts were mostly in the form of strung ornaments
designed to highlight the wearer's noble status. Designs were mostly plate-shaped, with curved lines
to create a flowing effect. Early styles continued the Shang tradition of solemnity and gravity; but by
the middle Western Zhou dynasty, grandness and exquisiteness in design became the preferred
style.”54

Figure R
The Trigram was of great significance to the early Zhou Dynasty. Both King Wen and his son the
Duke of Zhou wrote treatise and explanations for this mysterious 8 Trigrams featured in the ancient
book of the I Ching (Classic of Changes). Trigrams were seen to provide signs and guidance for life’s
changes. Signs from the trigram and divination may have been used to confirm their military incursion
on the foreign nations as implied by the imagery on these jade artifacts. Both the dragon and the
phoenix are symbolic of China’s emperor and empress that may be seen as ruling over or swallowing
all under heaven ( ). The Trigram is central to both images. These small plaques show elegant
curves and fine details. The classic ancient Double Dragon with Trigram is being copied until today,
as shown by this 'jade' plaque sold at Aliexpress.com.
55
Designs created and popularized in remote antiquity are still very much in demand in the present. We
are told that the level of jade craftsmanship during the Zhou Dynasty was unmatched by any other
period. The excellence of craftsmanship may clearly be seen in the ancient jade lock with dragon and
Phoenix shown below. The modern copy pales in comparison to the ancient original.
Figure S 56

The Chinese characters on the Dragon & Phoenix in Lock is the Da-zhuan 大篆 style used around
1000 to 200 BC during the Zhou Dynasty.
“Da-zhuan literally means "greater seal" is also called Zhou. This was the style of writing used in the
numerous inscriptions cast into the bronze vessels, both secular and sacred, of the Late Shang and,
in far greater numbers, the Chou dynasties. Since the inscriptions are generally intaglio in the body of
the vessels, one can see that skillful carving of clay was required to produce these results. Various
methods were employed, but in general, designs were first written with brush and ink on a clay
surface; the graphs were then cut into the clay to produce an intaglio mold; from that mold, a negative
clay cast of the inscription, in relief, was made…”57
The writing of the Chinese characters in the double Dragonfish below, seem to have been written in
the Li shu 隸書 flowing manner of the clerkly script which may have been in use from the 6th century
BC or earlier.57 The jade Dragonfish was also a popular Shang to Zhou Dynasty motif, often
appearing as a dragon-faced fish with legs.
Figure T
Nephrite jade prized for its deep symbolic meaning for rituals in worship and warfare, soon reflected
the true heart of mankind in its translucent nature. 'Universal rule' was simply an excuse to ravage
lands and take from other nations in order to enrich their own way of life. The nephrite jade artifacts of
different forms of money reveals the true reason for the military campaigns to bring distant lands to
submit to colonial rule.

Figure U
Following are several similar kneeling figures in the same positions and styles that were a motif used
in the late Shang to early Western Zhou Dynasties.
58 59 60
(#58) Fragment salvaged from Shang Dynasty royal tomb, (#59) Kneeling Zhou Dynasty figure with archaic scripts, (60) Zhou Dynasty jade servant
Prostrate and kneeling figures were a popular motif during the Western Zhou Dynasty, that may have
been in line with their campaigns to conquer the lands. During the late Shang Dynasty humans were
sacrificed during the burial of the kings, a tradition that the early Zhou Dynasty seem to have tried to
replace by using representative figures instead. Unfortunately, the practice of human sacrifice was
resumed during the latter part of the Dynasty.
Jade hatchets, swords and knives may have been symbols of distinction and power of China in
antiquity, these symbols of authority may have transformed into small pendants during the Zhou
Dynasty period. Etched on the Jade Knife Coin is oracle bone script for 五百 five hundred.

Figure V
Following are more jade artifacts excavated from the Philippine islands exhibiting Shang to Western
Zhou motifs, forms, and carving styles. Western Zhou Dynasty copied many traditions and motifs
from the previous dystnasty. The Shang seemed particularly fascinated with imagery of frogs. Figure
W shows two bi discs, rings of nephrite, with stylized frogs incised onto the surface.
Another popular motif was the Cicada, that may have represented life after death, because of the way
the Cicada emerges from the ground. The jade cicada is often placed in the mouth of the deceased
during burial. Later, imitation jade made from glass was used as a cheaper mass produced
alternative to the more expensive nephrite jade material.
Figure X is a rare motif of an honored government official with hat and robes in black. Brilliant
execution of the jade craftsman uses the layers of black and white nephrite in order to reveal the
image of this scholarly gentleman in full costume. A poem in the Shijing, dating back to the Zhou
Dynasty period, describes this black suit worn by esteemed government officials.

Figure W
Figure X
Figure X shows the official black robes and hat worn by Ministers of the Court when they were on
duty in their courts or offices, described in the She King poem Tsze e (She King, Book VII.i).
This traditional costume may have been used for thousands of years and was noted by historians as
the outfit of the Mandarin or Chinese bureaucrat.

61 62
Below is another ancient animal plaque that became a classic from antiquity to the present.
Figure Y 63
The jade ‘Monkey Charm’ offered on Ebay is clearly not up to par with the craftsmanship from ancient
times that is displayed on this plaque. The monkey is shown holding the boat shaped Sycee that
represented currency and wealth. It has often been interpreted as monkeys on peach, but there were
several strange things in the sculpture that indicates otherwise. I propose that the fruit shown are
actually coconuts. Firstly, a pair of monkeys would not comfortably rest their entire weight on a peach.
They could and do perch on the sturdy coconuts. Secondly, the appearance and details of the fruit
and the spiky projections resemble that of the coconut tree
As shown in the picture below (#64). Thirdly, the monkeys look very much like the Philippine
Macaque with the adult having a long mane of hair, while the juvenile does not.
64
The image of this monkeys bringing wealth could be understood in the light of the biblical references
to monkeys being part of the cargo traded from Tarshish and Ophir via the Phoenician merchants to
the people of Israel (c.1000 BC).

Below are beautifully carved jade plaques and pendants with animal motifs common to late Shang
and early Western Zhou Dynasties. Particularly interesting are the Big Yellow Pig and Small White Pig
that have symbols/characters engraved on their butts. The Yellow Pig has the Heaven and Earth
symbol which may also be seen to represent a type of Chinese coinage. The White Pig appears to
have the ancient Chinese script for 'pig' inscribed.
Figure Z

Figure Z.2

In conclusion
During the period we currently call the pre-history of the Philippines, China’s ancient influences and
presence on our islands is literally written on stone.
First we have found nephrite jade evidence of the arrival of the Liangzhu Culture community (c. 2200
BC) who had migrated en masse from their Lower Yangtze River region to the different Austronesian
and Tai-Kadai speaking nations and communities via the waterways of South East Asia. Based on
genetics, we discover that the Liangzhu Culture community became one of the major people groups
to inhabit the islands of the Philippines.
An abundance of Nephrite jade artifacts and workshop debris they have left behind reveal the
sophisticated jade culture and superior levels of craftsmanship exhibited in ancient times. Although
originating from China around 2200 BC, the Liangzhu Culture communities were non-Sinitic and
exhibited their own distinct rice intensive water loving culture. Their unique style in jade crafts, use of
tools, drill holes, and motifs are present in the Philippine islands and other neighboring nations in
which they built their nations. These nations formed an international trade community that were
connected by the rivers and seas, that became the roads they travelled with ease on their superior
water vessels, able to securely carry large numbers of passengers and heavy loads of cargo.
Second major pre-historical event between Philippines and China was the arrival of the Zhou Dynasty
colonizers (c.1000 BC), who harvested the gold and natural resources of our islands, tapping the
talents of our peoples in their inherent stoneworking craftsmanship. Once again we find this era in
Philippine history indelibly written in stone. Nephrite jade that is harder than iron or steel has
preserved the Zhou Dynasty ancient motifs, preferred carving styles, drill holes, and sometimes even
their writing.
These two events will be further explored in the next three chapters on Liuli Glass: China’s Lost
National Treasure, China's Bronze Age in the Philippines, and Finding Tarshish.

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Chapter 3
琉璃 Liuli Glass (China’s Lost National Treasure)
There is much modern literature, websites, and other media that inform us that Liuli glass of ancient
China was a man-made glass. However, ancient texts from people who were actually there seem to
tell us a different story. This chapter aims to share the story of our predecessors regarding Liuli glass,
and will hopefully help in the understanding of how the definition of Liuli glass transitioned over time.
瑠 an older variant of 琉 (liu) which means a sparkling stone, is a combination of 玉(jade, precious
stone), 刀(knife), 田(field), and another character over the field that looks like an arm with a tool
chipping at the field. While 璃(li) simply means glass, the ancient character for 瑠 (琉, liu) seems to
imply that what they were originally describing during the early stages of China’s past, was a natural
glass found in the ground similar to many other precious stones.
Yang Hsiung, a poet of the early Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD), supports the idea that Liuli was
mined and not made when he wrote in a Fu (ode):
“They break up with Mallets the night-shining liu-li,
And open the shells of oysters pregnant with Moon-bright pearls.”1
The poet even used the word Liu-li to mean ‘radiance’ itself, strongly suggesting that Liu-li glass was
known for its brilliance and sparkle.
Another poet, Ssuma Hsiang-ju from an earlier period, used Liuli to depict the dispersion of birds.
This could be a reference to Liuli glass’ ability to act as a prism -dispersing a single beam of light into
a rainbow of colours. Liuli glass would then have to be transparent and able to refract light when cut
in the correct angle.
The Shih from the Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BC) shows that Chinese were familiar with the use of
prisms even at this early age. “The five colours of sunlight are the essence of the Yang and resemble
the virtue of a Prince. They (may be made to) stream forth with great brilliance.”2
Five colours to ancient China appeared to represent all the colours of light as seen in a rainbow. This
concept is captured in the story of Nükua, ancient ancestor and flood survivor, who saved the world
by fusing together minerals of five colors in order to repair the blue heavens.3

Knowledge of these five colors of light is evident even from the Xia Dynasty (2100-1700 BC) when
the Ti (National Ruler) is recorded by the Shu King to have desired “to see the five colors fully
displayed on the ceremonial robes.”4
Liuli glass was considered one of the valuable national treasures in China and was highly regarded
by the emperor himself. Yan Tie Lun (Discourses on Salt and Iron) written in 100 BC gives a list of
natural resources that were considered national treasures, “...jade, auspicious stones, corals, and
liuli, become national treasures.”5
The Han Wu Gushi records the Han Emperor Wu (156 BC-87 BC) using doors made from
transparent Liuli for a temple that he had built. The Xi Jian Zaji tells of Emperor Cheng (32 BC-6 AD)
who used green Liuli glass for windows, and transparent Liuli glass for an opening that was so clear
that someone reportedly walked right into it.6
7th century Beishi text recounts that it was “During the time of Emperor Tai Wu [424-452 CE], traders
came to the capital of Wei from the Da Yuezhi Country [Central Asia, the territory of former Kushan
Empire], who said that by fusing certain minerals they could make the five colours of Liuli glass. They
then gathered (materials) and dug in the hills, and fused the minerals at the capital. When ready, the
materials so obtained was of even greater brilliance than Liuli glass imported from the West...after
this, articles made of glass became considerably cheaper in China than they had been before, and
no one regarded it as particularly precious.”7
This record implies that the glass imported from the ‘West’ was not made by fusing together minerals,
since this technology was a magical novelty that amazed both the Emperor and his people. The
manufacture of this man-made brilliant transparent glass from locally sourced materials was newly
taught by foreigners from Central Asia to 5th century China. It is apparent that these Central Asian
merchants had attempted to duplicate the highly valued natural Liuli glass in its transparency,
brilliance, and colours. The introduction of this technology caused the price of transparent glass to
drop, with the common people not able to tell natural or man-made glass apart. Tang Dynasty scholar
Hsuan Ying wrote in the Chhieh Ching Yin, how to distinguish between the natural precious stone
Liuli and the artificial man-made Liuli.8
Baopuzi (Master who Embraces Simplicity) text from 300-400 BC indicates that the Chinese people,
before the merchants from Central Asia introduced transparent glass making technology, understood
that Liuli was a natural glass mined from the earth. “The ‘crystal’ (liuli) vessels, which are made
outside China, are in fact prepared by compounding five sorts of (mineral) ashes. Today this method

is being commonly practiced in Chiao and Kuang (i.e. Annam [Vietnam] and Kuangtung
[Guangdong]). Now if one tells this to ordinary people, they will certainly not believe it, saying the
crystal (liuli) is a natural product belonging to the class of rock-crystal.”9
水晶 (shuijing) is the Chinese words for rock-crystal, which is the clear form of quartz. Crystal Water,
the literal translation of the Chinese characters reflects this stone’s icy appearance. The ancient
Chinese knew that Liuli was not a crystal but a type of glass, and labeled it as such. They also
included in the ancient character for Liuli 琉璃 (瑠璃) the idea that this was a natural glass mined
from the earth.
Keeping in mind that prior to the 5th century, Liuli glass represented a natural glass regarded as a
highly valued national treasure, will be helpful in understanding the Liuli Wan Fu (Ode on a Glass
Bowl) written by 3rd century poet Pan Ni. Because of the time when the ode was written, it is highly
implausible that the poet was writing about the foreign man-made transparent glass.
“Examining those rarities among the regional tributary offerings,

One prizes the uniqueness of this bowl.
It would have had to cross the remote perils of the shifting sands
And traverse the precipitous dangers of the Pamirs.
The way it came was obstructed and distant,
The place to which it was consigned was dark and deep.”10
The Liuli Bowl that had inspired this poet was a rarity (not a mass produced man-made item) that had
been given as a ‘regional tributary offering’. Historical tributes were payments given by rulers of
territories or states that were dependent or in submission to another ruler. Pan Ni informs us that this
Liuli bowl had to cross the ‘Shifting Sands’. The Shifting Sands or Moving Sands was the name of the
deserts that formed the Western boundaries of ancient China established since the Xia Dynasty.11 To
the West of China are the Pamirs, some of the highest mountains of the world, where we are told by
the poet that one had to brave its dangers to travel back and forth in order the get the Liuli glass. A
‘dark and deep’ place is suggestive of a mine from which the natural glass could be obtained.
The Liuli Wan Fu gives us some interesting details on the attributes of natural Liuli glass as it goes on
to describe its outstanding characteristics.
“They would have drawn on the flowing splendor of glass
And given orders to the excellent craftsmen of that far world.

Its gleam and glitter [match the] the sun‘s dazzle.
Its roundness and repletion [mirror] the moon‘s fullness.
Hairline blemishes are not to be found,
And flying dust does not adhere.
Its clarity and sparkle are on a par with a candle flame,
Its outer and inner surfaces conform to [one] shape.
Congealed frost is inadequate to match its purity.
Limpid water unable to convey its clarity.
Its hardness is beyond
that of gold or stone,
Its strength challenges the most excellent jade.
Grinding does not wear it down,
Besmirching does not soil it.”10
The ‘flowing splendor’ of glass may be describing variegations in the glass (i.e. bubbles, minerals,
other matter) that could appear like moving water that had been frozen in time. Dazzling as it gleams
and glitters like the sun, sparkling and clear like a flame. Liuli is pure as ice and transparent as still
water. The poem tells us that it is impervious to dust, dirt and stains. Liuli is strong as jade and harder
than stone (This attribute alone should rule out man-made glass). Like gold it does not age, and holds
up well through time with no hairline weathering cracks or cleaving veins. It is not destroyed by
grinding - a stone working lapidary technique used for jade, gems and other precious stones.
Where did natural Liuli glass come from? Where are the mines?
Yen Shih Ku (579-645) text noted that Liuli glass were imported from the country of Ta-Chhin.
“The country of Ta-Chhin exports Liuli glass...of ten different colours, light red, white, black, yellow,
blue-green, green, yellowish green, deep purple, dark red, and purple...This material is a natural
product, variegated, glossy, and brilliant, exceeding all hard stones (i.e. jade), and most constant in
color. Nowadays the common people make (something of the kind) by melting certain minerals, to
which they add a number of chemical substances, and so pouring (into moulds, makes vessels). The
mass, however, is hollow, brittle and not evenly compact -It is not the genuine article.”12
This record confirms several of the attributes of natural Liuli glass described in the Liuli Wan Fu. Liuli
glass is a natural glass variegated or streaked, it is shiny and smooth (glossy), brilliant, harder than
stone, and like gold does not fade or change color (constant in color). The Yen Shih Ku makes a clear
distinction between natural Liuli glass and the man-made variety, as well as specifying Ta-Chhin as
their land of origin.

Chinese diplomat and geographer Zhang Qian (張騫) served as the imperial envoy of Han Dynasty
Emperor Wu in the 2nd century BC.13 In Zhang Qian’s exploration of the West, he notes that he
crossed the Western Ocean and came to the land of Ta-Chhin.14
Scholars have assumed that the Western Ocean referred to the Caspian Sea, thus identifying the
land of Ta-Chhin with Persia or Roman Syria or other Central Asian lands.
But what would the people of ancient China have thought of as the Western Ocean? The Shu King
repeatedly calls the Chinese territory, the ‘Land within the four Seas’. Each Sea was identified with
the four cardinal directions (North, South, East, and West). The South China and East China Seas
are easily identifiable as the Southern and Eastern Seas, but what of the ancient Northern and
Western Seas?
The Western Sea of ancient China was even larger. Tarim Basin to the West of China is an oval basin
with an area of about 1,020,000 square kilometers in the Xinjiang region.16 Although mostly desert
land today, it was an ancient endorheic basin -a closed drainage inland salt lake ‘Sea’. The ancient
Uyghur name Altishahr (six cities), imply that like the Lop Nur, the Tarim Basin was bordered by at
least six sizable urban centers. Tian Shan mountain borders the Tarim to the North, and the KunLun
mountains mark its Southern edge. Thus, when Zhang Qian recorded around 200 BC that he
‘crossed the Western Ocean and came to the land of Ta-Chhin’, it would have been understood by
the Chinese readers of that age that he meant the Western Sea -the Tarim Basin. This direction is
aligned with the Beishi text that informs us that natural Liuli glass was an import from the West.
The West or Western Regions (西域), when used by Chinese chroniclers from 300 BC-800 AD, were
sometimes used to specifically identify the area of the Tarim Basin in Southern Xinjiang, 17 although it
could also be used for areas West of China (i.e. India).
Sailing West on the Tarim Basin would bring geographer Zhang Qian to the foot of the Pamirs with
the Tian Shan mountain range to the North and KunLun mountains to the South. Pamir mountains are
partly in China, but mostly in Tajikistan which was most likely the ancient country of Ta-Chhin. Around
138 BC, Zhang Qian had reached the Fergana Valley, Northwest of the Pamirs.18 The Fergana Valley
is spread out over eastern Uzbekistan, southern Kyrgyzstan and northern Tajikistan.19 After Zhang
Qian crossed the Tarim Basin (Western Ocean), he came to the land of the Tajik speaking peoples -
the Ta-Chhin to the Chinese.

Aside from the Ta-Chhin being an exporter of Liuli natural glass, the Hou Shan Shu tells us that, “The
Indians are in communication with Ta-Chhin and get gems from there.”20 The Pamir region has
abundant Ruby deposits, Lapis Lazuli, Emeralds, Malachite, Quartz, Amethyst, and Nephrite, with
mines that may have been active as far back as 3000 BC.21 Trade between Tajikistan and India is
entirely plausible in view of their proximity.
Ancient Chinese texts also record that, “Ta-Chhin people have a fine cloth said to originate from the
down of a ‘water sheep’ (shui yang tsui) and also have stuff made from cocoons of wild silkworms.
They weave the hair of the ‘water sheep’ into cloth which is called ‘cloth from the West of the Sea’
(hai hsi pu).”22
Interestingly, Tajikistan (Pamirs) have an ancient tradition of weaving a very high quality cloth from the
wool of local goats and sheep into a fabric comparable to cashmere, while the very rich nobles wear
turbans of silk.23
Geographer explorer and imperial envoy Zhang Qian, serving under Han Dynasty Emperor Wu, was
instrumental in the colonization and occupation of this region. “...the Tarim Basin region of Xinjiang in
Northwest China, including the Saka-founded oasis city -State of Khotan and Kashgar, fell under Han
Chinese influence, beginning with the reign of Emperor Wu (141-87 BC) of the Han Dynasty.”24
Could this historical event explain the records in the Han Wu Gushi of how Emperor Wu was able to
furnish a temple he had built with doors made from transparent Liuli glass, and how Han Emperor
Cheng got green Liuli glass to use for windows? This could also explain the poem Liuli Wan Fu (Ode
on a Glass Bowl) that identifies the Liuli bowl as a regional tributary offering, since tributes were given
by territories occupied or colonized by the imperial government.
Based on China’s ancient histories and other texts, it appears that Liuli glass was mined from the
Pamirs, which were in the country of Ta-Chhin or the Tajik speaking peoples (possibly identifiable as
the land of Tajikistan). The Pamirs have many ancient mines which are not easy to find in some of the
world’s highest mountains.

What is Liuli Glass?
A natural glass is formed when silica rich sand or rocks reach very high temperatures, then are
cooled so rapidly that it had no time to crystallize. Examples of natural glass include: obsidian,
moldavite, tektites, and Libyan Desert glass. Obsidian is a result of volcanic activity, while the last
three examples are produced by lightning strikes or meteor impacts.
Dr. David Anderson, who had served as Professor of Medicine in both the University of Manchester
and the Chinese University, has a theory on the unique natural glass artifacts he has collected, that
he suspects to be from China’s neolithic Hongshan Culture.
The natural glass, being almost pure silica with no synthetic additives, needed temperatures above
1600 degrees centigrade to form. Although similar in composition to Libyan Desert Glass, China’s
natural glass appears to have been produced from a much larger meteor impact event that hit the
earth at a specific angle. “The existence of spheres of glass of up to 1 metre in diameter, coated with
and enveloping secondary partial melt, suggests a low trajectory of ejection with rapid cooling.”25 If
sheets of this natural glass were large enough to make a temple door, then there is a possibility that
much larger spheres exist.
Dr. Anderson theorizes that the natural glass was formed when very large low trajectory asteroids
broke apart and hit the silica rich sandy deserts of Inner Mongolia, flinging large melted glass spheres
into the air that became encrusted with a rock-like secondary partial melt coating. Should these
spheres have landed on the freezing Pamir mountain range or in China’s ancient Seas, they would
have cooled down quite rapidly. The spherical characteristics of the natural Liuli glass and the rocklike
material that formed a crust around it may have been captured in early Han poetry.
Yan Hsiung wrote, “They break up with mallets the night shining liuli and open the shells of oysters
pregnant with moon-bright pearls.”26
Liuli glass artifacts of blue, red, clear, and opalescent colors had been collected by Dr. Anderson.
Ancient records tell us that they may be found in the five colours, which in ancient texts meant every
color found in the rainbow or refracted by a prism. Natural glass appears in different colors based on
the combination of substances contained in the melted silica (i.e. magnesium, iron, aluminum, gold,
tin, lead, etc.). Inner Mongolia is in the Western Block of the North China Craton. “This block is the
oldest and most stable part of the Craton and contains some of the oldest and mineralogically most
valuable rocks in Asia, especially in Inner Mongolia where huge deposits of coal and iron ore are
found.”27 Over 400 types of valid minerals are found in Inner Mongolia.28 A large asteroid impact on

this extremely mineral rich sandy area could have thrown millions of tons of natural glass ejecta of
various colours into the air. Hot melted glass being a liquid would have ejected out as spheres, which
could have gotten covered in a rocklike secondary partial melt that would have cooled quickly if they
had landed in China’s ancient Sea or frigid mountains.
If as we are told, Liuli natural glass was harder than stone and as strong as jade, How did Neolithic
peoples carve this difficult material? The clue to this mystery is in the artifacts themselves.
“Two carved pieces studied by Professor Anderson include encased putative micro diamonds...Micro
diamonds are produced in enormous quantities from impacted graphite within one second of
meteorite impact. Professor Anderson presents evidence for an advanced carving technology...with
the use of alluvial micro diamond sand.”29
Inner Mongolia has huge coal deposits, the force at point of impact of a large asteroid going 15-20
miles per second would produce at impact, the temperature and pressure exceeding what is needed
to produce diamonds.30
In fact, so much impact diamonds may have been readily available to ancient China that Harvard
Researcher Peter J. Lu has proven that the Sanxingcun Culture (4000-3800 BC) and the Liangzhu
Culture (3400-2250 BC) used impact diamonds to polish and grind their jade artifacts. The skill and
art of these ancient cultures are revealed in the superiority of their finish even when compared to
modern polishing with diamonds.31 This research into the use of impact diamonds may even be
expanded to the historic use of impact diamond drills and grinders on these very hard stones.
Diamonds are ranked 10 on the mohs scale, and has the ability to scratch all other minerals of equal
or lesser hardness.32
Given the tools plus the work of the ‘excellent craftsmen’ lauded by the Liuli Wan Fu, Liuli may truly
have been one of the most valued national treasures of China as claimed in the Yan Tie Lun (c.100
BC). But because of the excellence of workmanship (Liuli may look almost machine made) and its
similarity to gold’s unchanging attribute over time, being virtually impervious to cracks and cleaving
veins, remaining unstained and untarnished...ancient Liuli thousands of years old may appear brand
new and be ignored as ordinary or newly made glass items.
Some ways that ancient natural Liuli glass may be identified:

1. The presence of impact diamonds left behind on its surface from ancient polishing.
2. The use of ancient drilling techniques on the Liuli glass perforation.
3. The use of stone working techniques, lapidary methods (i.e. grinding, drilling, sanding).

4. Chemical composition of almost pure silica with no additives (i.e. lead, barium, soda, potash,
lime, etc.)
5. Although we are told that Liuli glass may present itself absolutely pure and clean and
transparent, the Yen Shih Ku tells us that it may also appear variegated with streaks and
bubbles. Streaks in Liuli glass would be very different from the stationary banding formed in
Agate or other quartz crystals as layers form over time. Liuli streaks would be reminiscent of
flowing water frozen in time.
6. Unusual phenomena such as impacted partial melt minerals and other debris trapped in the
glass with bubbles frozen in flow patterns, strange perforations caused by Channels
(elongated bubbles), Oval shaped bubbles, bubbles in rows or lines, Lechatelierite (Melted
grains of pure quartz often twisted and elongated), Schlieren (Streaks or lines in the glass
caused by the insufficient time to mix while glass was in liquid consistency). Characteristics
such as these are evidences of impact origin for the natural glass.
7. Excellent craftsmanship, because Liuli was valued even by China’s emperors, only the finest
craftsmen would have been entrusted with them. Thus, Liuli glass artifacts may appear almost
too perfect, new and machine made.
It is because of the direct observation of six of these seven ways to identify Liuli glass (#4 still to be
tested) that this research began. The investigation into Liuli glass was born from a desire to identify
the material and the makers of ancient natural glass beads excavated in the Philippines. Note that the
Philippines has a very ancient Jade Culture, going back to 2000 BC, but there are no known
geological jade deposits in the islands.33 Thus, the Jade Culture of the Philippines, archaeologically
shown through numerous carved nephrite artifacts, was brought to the country by a group familiar
with this rare mineral that only forms under unique geological conditions.
Around 2200 BC, the highly developed Liangzhu Neolithic Jade Culture in the Yangtze River Delta
suddenly disappeared, coinciding with the appearance of the Philippine Jade Culture. The link is
reinforced by the genetic match of the Filipinos to the Liangzhu Culture peoples.
“A 2007 analysis of the DNA recovered from human remains shows high frequencies of Haplogroup
O1 in Liangzhu culture linking this culture to modern Austronesian and Tai-Kadai populations. It is
believed that the Liangzhu culture or other associated subtraditions are the ancestral homeland of
Austronesian speakers.”34
The Philippines is part of the South East Asian islands belonging to the Austronesian language family.
The Liangzhu Culture was one of the two cultures shown by Harvard researcher Peter Lu to have
used impact diamonds in their Jade carving. Since Liuli is said to have been as strong as jade or

even harder, then the same technology of grinding and polishing using impact diamonds may have
been used even for the natural glass beads (liuli) found in the Philippines.
Based on descriptions of natural Liuli glass from ancient texts, and the copies of Liuli glass that were
focused on matching both its brilliance and transparency, it is strange that Scholars would find it
suitable to accept Doris Dohrenwend’s definition of Liuli glass as “small opaque items pre-dating the
third century AD [CE].”35
This definition is most likely based on archaeological discoveries of glass objects from as early as the
Zhou Dynasty. Glass eye beads, cups, vessels, bi, along with other man-made glass objects have
been excavated in ancient tombs. These glass objects may have been categorized as a type of li (璃,
glass) by the Chinese of that period, but it would not fit into the radiant sparkly transparent category
of Liuli (琉璃).
Most of the excavated ancient glass artifacts are opaque with barely any translucence. They were not
stronger than jade or harder than stone. Many of the ancient glass are found broken, chipped or
cracked. They could not be described as pure, unblemished and crystal clear for they very often
appeared opaque, imperfect, and pocked by bubbles on the surface. Some glass objects from this
early period had been mistakenly classified by excavators as jade.36 This is not surprising since jade
may have been what the manufacturers of these glass artifacts were trying to replicate.
Man-made glass during the late Zhou Dynasty was often used to try and and copy the precious stone
jade for use in funerary objects. The use of man-made glass made it more economical and easier to
mass produce the bi, orifice plugs, cicadas and other artifacts traditionally produced by craftsmen in
jade. Although the glass objects made by melting minerals and other substances together then
placing in molds were often slightly imperfect and not as strong as jade, the practice gained ground.
But as the Beishi text records, it was only in the 5th century that foreigners brought in the
glassmaking technology that mimicked the brilliance and transparency of Liuli glass. And even if the
glass produced was inferior to the natural Liuli, it was a cheaper alternative that won the masses.
So that by AD 1175, almost 700 years later, the Yen Fan Lu informs us that, “The Liuli [glass] which is
made in China is rather different from that which comes from abroad. The Chinese variety is bright
and sparkling and the material is light but fragile. If you pour hot wine into it, it will immediately break.
That which is brought by sea is rather rough and unrefined, and the color is also slightly darker...”37

Liuli glass was used to refer to glass that was 'made in China'. It was no longer stronger than jade or
enduring like gold, instead it was used to refer to man made glass, so weak, that it immediately
breaks under sudden temperature changes.
The Lead-Barium man-made Liuli glass that was produced in China by the 12th century was brilliant
due to a high refractive index and low dispersion, however Lead-Barium also made the glass fragile,
soft and brittle -easily cracked under sudden temperature changes. This was obviously not the Liuli
for which Fu (odes) were made in China’s early history.
The transitions in Chinese thought in regard to Liuli glass is graphically illustrated below. In the period
before AD 300-400, the perception of the masses regarding Liuli glass was a natural material mined
from the earth. It was a precious treasure that stood out because of its highly transparent and
sparkling appearance. Unfortunately, beauty came with a price, it was not easy to mine and it was a
hard material to work with, making it very expensive. Liuli glass was a national treasure that only the
wealthy elite could own.
After AD 500 when the 'man made' variety of transparent and sparkly glass in many different colours
were introduced to the Chinese empire. The general population was won over by the fact that the
prices were low enough for even the commoners to own a piece of Liuli glass. The downside was that
as soon as it was commonly available at a low price, the expensive natural Liuli glass quickly lost its
attaraction. Craftsmen probably started working on other stones and miners may have chosen to
expend their efforts on other more lucrative materials.
700 years later, around AD 1200, natural Liuli glass had been forgotten and Liuli was used to refer
only to the brittle transparent 'man made' glass.

Following are samples of what I suspect to be Liuli Natural Glass Artifacts found in the Philippines:

These beads bear the dual directional double surface perforation used during the Xia Dynasty
through to the Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties.

Philippine craftsmen during ancient times may have worked on the precious natural Liuli impact glass
that became one of China's national treasures. These were the same craftsmen who worked on
nephrite jade, based on the marked similarities in form, carving styles, drill holes, and motif. Liuli
glass appears to have been introduced early in the Liangzhu culture around 2000 BC when the
bicephalous pendants were a popular craft. These craftsmen later became the artisans for China in
antiquity, creating the exquisitely beautiful beads with mathematical balance and perfection.

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Delhi: Oxford India Paperbacks. P58
36. Christopher F.Kim. “Early Chinese Lead Barium Glass: Its Production and Use from the Warring States to Han
Periods (475 BC-220 CE)”. ARCH 0305. May 7, 2012. P26.
<https://www.brown.edu/Departments/Joukowsky_Institute/undergrad/prizes/Kim2012.pdf>

38. Frantisek. “Internal Structure of Moldavites - Fluidal Texture.” [June 17, 2014]. AboutMoldavites.com. 2017.
<http://www.aboutmoldavites.com/internal-structure-fluidal-texture/>

Chapter 4
Discovering the Bronze Age of China in the Philippines
The period from the Shang (1600 BC-1045 BC) to the Zhou (1046 BC-256 BC) Dynasties is officially
seen as the Bronze Age of China, but the ancient records of Chinese bronze casting goes several
hundred years before the Shang Dynasty to the time when Yu the Great was said to have controlled
the rivers and instructed the people on agricultural cultivation, working for wages, and learning to
trade.1 Yu also established a tribute or tax for the nine regions in which he had divided the land
between the four seas. And when the governors of the nine regions of ancient China presented metal
tribute, Yu the Great (or his son) used it to make the Nine Tripod Bronze Ding 九鼎,2 that became the
symbol of power and authority for every ruling Dynasty from the Xia (2070 BC-1600 BC) until it was
lost before the Qin Dynasty (221 BC-206 BC).3
“After Tang of Shang overthrew Jie of Xia, the nine tripod cauldrons were moved to the Shang capital
at Yan. Later, when the Shang king Pan Geng moved his capital to Yin (殷), the cauldrons again went
with him. Following the overthrow of the Shang Dynasty by the Zhou Dynasty, the new King Wu of
Zhou put the nine tripod cauldrons on public display...”4
It was the analysis of the Geochemist Sun Weidong of bronze vessels from the Shang capital city of
Yin that led to a controversial discovery, “...the bronze that was found in the ancient city of Yin, is not
native to China, but rather, African mines, which is the same as those from ancient Egypt, "while
performing radiometric dating of ancient Chinese bronzes; to his surprise, their chemical composition
more closely resembled those of ancient Egyptian bronzes than native Chinese ores,"5
The discovery of Sun Weidong regarding Shang Dynasty bronze vessels carry implications of a very
ancient international trade network. Bronze is an alloy made from Copper with amounts of tin and
possibly other metals, making it harder and stronger with the ability to be made into long weapons
with sharp edges, transforming the nature of armaments by its introduction to any civilization. Could
the worldwide introduction of Bronze technology that ushered in the Bronze Age in numerous cultures
not have just coincidentally occurred around the same time? Could it have been carried by the
Phoenician seafaring merchants who were known to have produced many of ancient Egypt’s gold,
silver, and bronze treasures? Phoenician traders whose histories record having done business with
Africa in the West and Tarshish in the Far East?

Possession of bronze ritual cauldrons became linked to the heaven given right to government over
the land between the four seas. Although only the emperor could have Nine Tripod Ding 九鼎, lesser
government were allowed to have a smaller number of bronze Ding 鼎 according to their official rank.
A bronze tripod Li Ding (鬲鼎) with hollow legs and body divided into three lobes, decorated with
taotie masks and other mythical creatures in mid to high relief on a background of leiwen and whorl
patterns, excavated from the Philippine islands may indicate the presence of some sort of Chinese
imperial government office that ruled over the archipelago in our distant past.
China’s colonization of the Philippines in our prehistory is mentioned by Spanish historians in texts
from 1493-1898, “...the Chinese, from whose histories, and their remains found in various parts, it is
learned that in former times they were masters of all these archipelagoes.”6
Current Philippine history has no record of such a colonization event with China. But historical events
do not pass without leaving evidence. Even a tiny pebble will make ripples in a pond. According to the
Spaniards, there are remains (i.e. artifacts, ruins) found on different locations in the Philippines. Of
the items they had left behind, it may be the bronze that speak the loudest.
In the over 500 years that the Shang Dynasty reigned, there are observable artistic evolutions in their
bronze imagery, particularly in the bronze ding. “Scholars divide the vessel styles into five different
stages. In the oldest pieces, the decoration lines were carved into the mould and thus stand proud on
the surface of the vessels. While the lines of the oldest stage were uniformly thin, stage II decorations
show thick and thin lines and patterns of stilised flowers, clouds (leiwen 雷文) and dragons. In the next
step the decoration covers more and more of the vessel's surface, and within the labyrinth-like
patterns the face of a "voracious" animal (later called taotie 饕餮) is hidden. The last two styles are
characterized by the accentuation of the animal faces, either by minimizing the size of the
surrounding clouds or by rising the face in a high relief.”7
Based on the noticeable changes in form and style, the excavated ding from the Philippines would
most likely have been a product of the latter part of the Shang Dynasty to the beginning of the
Western Zhou Dynasty who followed after the bronze traditions of the late Shang. The Philippine ding
with its high relief Taotie motif would have been made before 900 BC because, “By the end of the 9th
century BC, moreover, certain Shang shapes such as the gu (觚) and gong (觥) were no longer being
made, and the taotie (饕餮) and other Shang zoomorphs had been broken up and then dissolved into
volutes or undulating meander patterns encircling the entire vessel, with little apparent symbolic
intent.”8

The ding gives us a possible date of around 1000 BC for the Chinese occupation of the Philippines.
This coincides with the time the Duke of Zhou had proposed that they go beyond the seas, the
boundaries set from remote antiquity, and bring the distant lands into submission.9
Figure M-A

Following is a Tripod Ding that belonged to Duke Xi of the state of Lu, Western Zhou Dynasty in the
10th century BC. Next to it is a bronze ritual wine vessel used from the Shang to the Western Zhou
Dynasty. Both show the Taotie motif with mythical creatures with leiwen and swirl background.
10 11
Bronze vessels were used as potent symbols of political power and religious authority. Shang and
Western Zhou Dynasty ancestral temples housed jade and bronze vessels for ritual use. Shang
Dynasty mastery of bronze, coupled with the organization needed for its production, propelled it
forward as a powerful military power with the technology for bows with bronze tipped arrows,
daggers, axes, spears, and other weapons. Armed with superior bronze weapons and armor, China’s
ancient armies would have been a formidable force to reckon with in antiquity.
When the Zhou Dynasty defeated the Shang, they maintained their predecessors’ bronze traditions
and workshops in their capital Anyang. “The ritual bronzes of the early Western Zhou continued the
late Anyang (安陽 ) tradition; many were made by the same craftsmen and by their descendants.”12
This is why some bronzes and even jades have been dated to late Shang to Western Zhou Dynasty
because of the similarities in the arts of these periods in antiquity.
Over the years many Ding type bronze vessels have been found on the Philippine islands, bearing
the style and craftsmanship of the Shang and Western Zhou dynasties. Due to the lack of
understanding regarding the historical significance of these vessels, for the Philippine nation has yet
to present the story of their provenance, many of these bronze artifacts may have ended up as scrap
metal in junk shops or disappeared into the black market of antiquities, never to be allowed to shed
light on Philippine history. Following are some ancient bronze Ding that have been saved from loss.

“Early Zhou art shows considerable continuities from Shang tradition. For the first two centuries of
Zhou, all major vessel classes and all the main types of ornament used by the Shang continued to
be used...Bronzes also continued to function as symbols of secular power, and were often given as

gifts by the Zhou kings to their followers.”1
Following are some bronze arm bands excavated from the Philippines that show both the motif and
style of the late Shang to Zhou Dynasty.
Figure M-B
Multiple copies of these bangles were uncovered at the site indicating that they may have been
produced for the purpose of trade or symbolic gifts. “Bronze design motifs were sometimes created
with repetitive stamps, pointing to the nascent development of mass production techniques.”14
The Heavy Bronze Bangle (Figure M-B) appears to show Phoenician influences from motif to
‘method of manufacture’. Although the bangle was cast in a mold, the trademark Phoenician
techniques of granulation and use of filigree wires in metal decoration is simulated. The flower shape
composed of circles are also used by the Phoenicians to represent their celestial goddess Tanit, while
the braiding design along the borders of the bangle appears in many Phoenician made gold, silver
and bronze artifacts. Following is a sample of Phoenician type braiding with filigree wire and
granulation with glass cabochons. The making of ancient glass was a Phoenician trade secret in
antiquity, making glass as valuable as precious gems.
Figure M-C

Bronze in ancient China was connected to power, especially in important symbolic forms that had
deep meaning to the peoples of that period. The dragon and phoenix bronze garment hooks
excavated from the Philippines must have had a yellowish polished shine when worn proudly over the
shoulder. Today, after being buried for millennia, they carry the brownish black patina of time as their
constituent elements interacted slowly with the ground. But what remains unchanged is the
significance of the story they tell without words. The Dragon represented the emperor himself, while
the Phoenix represented the empress. An ode in the Shih King likens government officers to male
and female phoenixes that serve the King and implement his commands.15 Who could these have
belonged to?
Figure M-D
Although possibly colonized by imperial China under the reign of the Zhou Dynasty from around 1000
BC, the Liangzhu Culture community that had arrived in the Philippine islands a thousand years prior,
still remembered their ancient traditions and ancestral symbols. Using technologies that they had
learned from their colonizers, these master craftsmen continued to produce their sacred amulets in a
new medium --bronze.

Figure M-E
Philippine craftsmen also learned to incorporate their own symbols and forms to those of ancient
China, like in Figure M-F. The kneeling or prostrate figure is a common motif in Shang to Western
Zhou Dynasty sculpture. Rising above the ground of swirls and granules cast in bronze, the Temple of
Heaven is a recognizable structure with its three layered roof terminating in a sphere of circular
heavens, and four pillars at the bottom forming the square earth. The Temple of Heaven is where
heaven and earth meet as the emperor presents the sacrifice in behalf of the people of his land. This
is another bronze artifact of great significance, that had been mass produced in the Philippines.
Multiples of this bronze cast Temple of Heaven Lingling-o form have been uncovered. The whole
image would have inspired veneration for the emperor who alone could enter in and offer the sacrifice
to Heaven as the political and religious leader.
Figure M-F
Of all the bronze artifacts left behind by the Zhou Dynasty colonists, none speak louder than the
coins. These currencies give us more accurate dates and insight into the how long and how much of
the Philippines had actually been under their rule, and subjected to using the coinage of a foreign
government.

According to Sima Qian, the Grand Historian c. 100 BC, "With the opening of exchange between
farmers, artisans, and merchants, there came into use money of tortoise shells, cowrie shells, gold,
coins (Chinese: 錢; pinyin: qián), knives (Chinese: 刀; pinyin: dāo), spades (Chinese: 布; pinyin: bù)
This has been so from remote antiquity."16
What would people of Sima Qian’s time have understood as ‘remote antiquity’? The Shu King
(Classic of Documents/Histories) uses the word antiquity four times when referring to the period of Yu
the Great. “The Canon of Yao and three of the four still existing books of the time of Yu, all
commence with the words, ‘Examining into antiquity, we find’.”17
As a historian, Sima Qian would have had read these very important historical texts and known
exactly what he meant when he claimed that currencies had been exchanged in the land within the
four seas since ‘remote antiquity’ - the start of the Xia Dynasty with Yu as its first king. Yu the Great
whom the histories attribute teaching the exchange of goods, labor for wages, and paying taxes
among his many other accomplishments.
Most scholars prefer to think of the origin of currency in evolutionary stages, not as a system
universally implemented by a governing body. Start with the most primitive, cowrie shells for example,
which some guy in the neolithic age may have picked up thinking, “pretty shell. Someone might be
willing to give something in exchange for this”. Maybe it works so well others start doing it too, then
perhaps a thousand years later somebody has the bright idea of using bronze and soon everyone’s
doing it. However, real life is seldom so simple. Archaeology has often found ancient hoards of mixed
coinage, showing as Sima Qian had written, that the general population may have used them
concurrently. As for the 'primitive' cowrie shells that have been known to have been used since the
Shang Dynasty (c.2000 BC), few realize that they were still being used as currency in remote
southwestern areas of China as late as the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644).18 Another thing most people
are unaware of, is that the cowrie shells (bei) used in ancient China were not locally found, they were
harvested from the seas far south of China, and only the king had the resources to import these
intelligent solutions to 'small change' that was naturally impossible to counterfeit. Thus it looks like
even the use of the cowrie shells had to be a nationally implemented coinage system.
If Yu the Great had been able to cast the nine large bronze ding, then it is plausible to imagine that
the craftsmen of remote antiquity should have been capable of casting the small bronze spade and
knife coins. Bronze artisans of the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, that followed the Xia, were capable of
creating sophisticated bronze vessels using China’s unique section mold casting technique with
bronze inscriptions of up to hundreds of words.

“Of the 12,000 inscribed bronzes extant today, roughly 3,000 date from the Shang dynasty, 6,000
from the Zhou dynasty, and the final 3,000 from the Qin and Han dynasties.”19
Unlike Western coins that were typically made by cutting and hammering or milling, Chinese coins in
antiquity were cast in molds.20 This was similar to the bronze vessels, but much much simpler. Thus it
stands to reason that if they had been able to make the bronze vessels, what would keep them from
being able to cast the bronze coinage with their relatively simple inscriptions?
Casting bronze coins would have been so much simpler to mass produce, than searching for cowrie
shells or catching turtles. After China’s Neolithic age, “...due to the lack of shells in Northeast China,
other materials such as pottery, stone, bone, jade, copper and gold began to be made to coins.”21
But exactly when after the Neolithic age the casting of coins occurred is still a matter of debate.
Grand Duke Wang who served as the military commander of the Zhou army in the battle that
overthrew the last Shang king was said to have established the nine economic ministries at the start
of the Zhou Dynasty. The nine economic ministries included the supervision and control of natural
resources, regulation of commerce,overseeing the national treasury, and minting of currency. 22
Ancient texts describe the minting, under the supervision of the Grand Duke Wang, of a round copper
coin with a square center hole. The Zhou Dynasty was composed of many different states that were
casting their own currencies. This would have been considered a national coin cast by the imperial
Zhou government. Sima Qian mentioned that it was under the reign of King Cheng, son of King Wu,
that this round coinage was made. “The only events chronicled by Sze-ma Khien are a coinage of
round money with a square hole in the centre,--the prototype of the present cash;”23
A round coin with a square hole attached to a square base that bears the inscription Guo Bao Jin Kui
國寶金貴 (National Treasure Metal/Money Precious) has Paleo Numismatists arguing with many
historians who claim that this was the tally mentioned in the histories. Only 2 and a half of this coin
have been recovered in China with only one intact specimen, one broken in half, and one with the
square base missing.24 In the Philippines however, we seem to have this coin in abundance. Could
this national currency from China have been used for high value international trade transactions?

Figure M-G
The denomination of the Guo Bao Jin Kui 國寶金貴 written on it square base is Zhi Wan (10,000
cash). This may have been a bigger value currency issued nationally, as opposed to the smaller value
state issued coinage. If this is the coin that the Grand Duke Wang had minted for the beginning of the
Zhou Dynasty then we may be able to date the Chinese colonization to the 10th century BC.
Another Zhou Dynasty copper coin whose inscribed characters have not yet been fully understood is
a long square footed Spade coin with archaic seal script writing. Interestingly, the denomination looks
quite similar to the denomination written on the Guo Bao Jin Kui 國寶金貴. Could this have been
another high value currency used for international trade? Many of this type of Spade coin, like the
one in Figure M-H, have been found in the Philippines.
Figure M-H

The ancient Spade coin in Figure M-I literally have their name written on it. The Eastern Zhou
Dynasty is identified on the obverse in seal script Dong Zhou 東周 with the characters for King of Ji
on the reverse. A stylized Zhi 十 (ten) made by crossing the central vertical line may be an indication
of the denomination. Because numbers of this Spade coin is found in the Philippines, we have
indications that the Zhou governance of prehistoric Philippines continued for hundred years. This may
have been another nationally minted currency with a similar value.
Figure M-I
Following are several more types of Spade coins known to have circulated during the Zhou Dynasty
that have been found in the Philippines.
Figure M-J
3-Holed Spade Coins San Kong Bu 三孔布 are very rare Zhou Dynasty coins that have set records for
the highest priced Chinese coins bought at auction. They are noted for their round handle, shoulders,
and feet with holes on the handle and two feet. “Three hole spades are so rare that it is unlikely that
you will ever see an authentic piece outside of a museum.”25 But the strange thing about this rare
Zhou Dynasty Spade coin is that although there are very few pieces, there seems to have been a
very wide variety of them. “Based on specimens appearing in coin catalogs dating back to the Qing
Dynasty (1644-1911), there are believed to be more than ten city names used in the inscriptions and

a total of more than thirty varieties of this coin. Chinese numismatists remain puzzled as to why a
state would issue so many varieties in such small quantities.”25
Perhaps the fact that numerous 3-Holed Spades are found in the Philippines will shed some light on
why so few are found inside China.
Figure M-K
3-Hole Spades are noted for having an issue or series number written on the reverse side of the
handle. This issue number is not found among the 3-Hole Spades found in the Philippines. We can
only speculate, but perhaps it is because the issue numbers were a later addition in an effort to
regulate the currencies used in China’s ancient colonies. There is usually never an issue number on
the very first ones made. Therefore, I would posit that these 3-Hole Spades found in the Philippines
are much older than newer issues that never made it out of China. Maybe a few Spade coins with
issue numbers may turn up later, yet because they were regulated there may be a lot less of them.
San Kong Bu 三孔布 Spade coins were issued in two denominations: the Liang 两 which was equal to
24 shu 銖 and the 12 shu 銖 coin. This was one of the standard denominations for currency used in
ancient China. All the samples in Figure M-K have the 12 shu 銖 denomination, following are some
coins valued at a Liang 两.

Figure M-L
Aside from having to deal with a wide variety of metal coins (i.e. spades, knives, circles), cowrie shell
money and possibly jade money; the Zhou Dynasty also had to work with various mints. There was
the China national minted coins, the coins made by the various States, and the privately cast coins.
In order to minimize the financial confusion, most governments prohibit or severely regulate the coins
minted by other groups --particularly the private ones. Private minting of coins was allowed, tolerated
or banned at different periods in ancient China. It was made illegal during the Qin dynasty, “Emperor
Qin Shi Huang, now world famous for his army of terracotta soldiers, was the first person to militarily
conquer the various "warring states" and thereby unify China in 221 BC. He then undertook the task
of creating a central government which included unifying scripts, weights and measures as well as
standardizing the monetary system.”26 However, Emperor Wen of the Han Dynasty (175 BC)
legalized the production of private coinage once again.
The 3-Hole Spade in Figure M-L with the ancient character for 某 which may mean a ‘certain thing or
person’ could be an example of privately cast coins that were used in international trade within the
Zhou Dynasty colonies. This could be a very ancient coin design, since we also have a similar coin in
white nephrite jade. “It has been suggested that pieces of jade were a form of money in the Shang
Dynasty.”27 The highly calcified nephrite jade bears the evidence of antiquity within itself.
Jade may have naturally been phased out during the Zhou Dynasty when there may have been a
rapid financial boom brought on by the subjugation of the colonies and an increase of international
trade. After all, it was much easier to cast bronze coins, than to look for the rare nephrite stone and
carve the material that was harder than iron or steel into the required shape. China’s ancient bronze
coins were an alloy of copper mixed with amounts of tin and sometimes lead and other metals. The

histories of ancient China simply called them copper or copper coins, as many writers still do today.
Metal coinage was measured by Liang 两 which was equal to the the Jin 釿, a weight of around one
ounce (12-16 grams). The Liang 两 is equivalent to 24 Shu 銖 with the weight of the Shu 銖 based on
the weight of 100 millet grains.28
These technical details from antiquity will help us understand historical text from the Shu King
(Classic of Documents) regarding the Zhou Dynasty penalties or fines for various offenses written
around 950 BC. In it there are financial values that are given to release the offender from suffering
physical punishments for criminal offenses. If the crime deserved a branding, the fine was 600
ounces of copper, and it was 1200 ounces if sentenced to having your nose cut off.29 To prevent the
cutting off of feet 3000 ounces, 3600 ounces to stop a castration, and 6000 to redeem one from the
death penalty. Or we could simply say 600 两 to escape branding, 1200 两 for nose cutting, 3000 两
to save your feet, 3600 两 for castration, and 6000 两 to get away with your life.
These fines or redemption costs were nationally implemented by the Zhou Dynasty. It is therefore
understood that the population of that time were familiar with the use of the various copper (bronze)
coins and their weight-values, and had them readily available in large numbers? And since we have
learned that the Western Zhou Dynasty preferred to continue the rituals and traditions of their
predecessor --the Shang Dynasty, would it not be plausible to consider that this use of copper
coinage was just carried over from the previous dynasty? It is clear from ancient texts and from the
perpetuation of Shang Dynasty arts and forms, that the Zhou Dynasty founders did not want to make
any sudden changes that would cause disturbance among the Chinese people. What could be more
disturbing than shifting the whole economic system to a new currency at the very beginning of their
reign? The histories make no mention of such a drastic change, it only speaks of the minting of a new
type of circular copper coin with a square hole that was integrated into an already existing economic
system.
In fact, according to the Shu King, it was under the administration of Shun (King even before Yu the
Great started the Xia Dynasty c.2000 BC) that the punishment of paying with money for redeemable
offenses was instituted (02. The Books of Yu. 01 The Canon of Shun).
Claims of ancient forgeries of China’s coinage shows a lack of understanding of the currency of that
age. When speaking of ancient forgery, it is in reference to coins that have been proven to have been
made in antiquity but are claimed by some to be fakes made in the distant past. Modern forgery of
currencies only work today because the amounts printed on the scrap of paper we hold is not the real

value of the paper itself. As opposed to the denominations of ancient China which was based on
weights, such as the one ounce Liang 两. A one Liang 两 copper coin would be a piece of copper
weighing roughly one ounce (12-16 grams). The minting of coins in antiquity was far from precise and
so we find coins that may weigh more or less than the given denomination. “The manner in which the
coins were cast made weight precision of individual coins tricky so the average weight of a large
number of coins was the concern instead.”30 Coins were traditionally strung together in bundles of a
thousand and divided by ten strings of a hundred coins. Thus, an ancient forgery makes no sense.
Why? Why make the effort of forgery when no matter what name or shape the coin comes in, it is the
weight and material of coinage that mattered?
Private mints were often perfectly acceptable, particularly in antiquity when the economy was just
getting started. Of course there will always be the sneaky businessmen who would try to go a little
underweight or mix more of the other cheaper metals in with the copper to increase profit but the
national government probably set and enforced regulations to manage this type of problems.
Private mints, casting coinage to be used by the general population may have been a necessary evil
for the Chinese nation whose economy and population was growing at a rapid pace. The Songs of
the Five Sons from the Books of Xia dynasty tell us that even at that early time (c.2000 BC), the
population the ruling dynasty served numbered in the millions.31 In the Shu King (Classic of
Documents) the Shang Dynasty claims four times that there are millions of people within the four
seas, a claim that the Zhou Dynasty makes six times in the Books of Zhou. If everyone had to depend
on a lone central authority in antiquity to manually cast each coin for public use, the result would have
been chaos and economic shut down. Instead, to keep the financial systems running smoothly,
coinage was based on weight and material standards that allowed each state and even private
enterprises to make their own coins.
One of the eight purposes of government, as listed in The Books of Zhou in the document of The
Great Plan, is to oversee the wealth and articles of convenience.32 The Han Shu expounds on this
responsibility, explaining that this, “...refers to cloths of fibers and silk from which clothes may be
fashioned, and metals, knife-shaped coinage, turtle shells and cowries. These are all media by
means of which wealth may be divided and benefits distributed; they are the conduit between those
who have and those who lack. These are the roots of sustaining the people.”33 (Han Shu 24a.1117).
Logically each person would need more than one coin, and most likely had to have had hundreds of
copper coins if even just to get to pay the lowest government fines. Wealth had to be divided, benefits
distributed, wages paid, and needs met --Coinage in abundance was essential for this government
objective to be fulfilled.

Cast bronze coins dominated the coinage of ancient China. Copper cash had the advantages of
being sturdy enough for everyday handling and its materials were relatively easier to find in large
quantities then the nephrite stones and organic shells. And with the use of metal casting technology,
they were much more efficient to produce and duplicate with speed, then hardy enough be bundled
together in diao 吊, one thousand coins divided into ten strings of hundreds.
Bronze was the most common qian 錢 (metal money) China used in antiquity. Silver and Gold were
seldom seen in ordinary transactions. One Liang 两 of Silver was equal to 1000 cash copper coins.34
The yuan bao 元宝 (Sycee, Silver ingot) has archaeologically been found to have been used as
currency during the Zhou Dynasty, “The sycee was a form of silver currency made into various
shapes. They circulated as a form of money as early as the Spring and Autumn and the Warring
States Periods.”35 Although, the sycee may have been produced by silversmiths instead of mints, they
still followed the national system of receiving their value based on their weight in Liang 两.
China lacks abundant domestic mines of silver, thus making it a very rare and precious metal in
antiquity, and it is generally thought that they did not have the technology to refine and purify silver at
this early stage. Because of this, many scholars disregard China’s ancient historical texts and records
that claim to have made silver coinage in ancient times. Thinking instead that silver coins were first
introduced to China from foreign nations around the latter part of the first millennium AD. But one just
needs to take a quick tour of the Qi Heritage Museum 齐文化博物院 in Shandong, China to see
numerous silver boat shaped sycee ma di yin 马蹄银, silver round sycee yuan ding 圆锭, and silver
trade bar sycee mao yi yin tiao 贸易银条 excavated from the Zhou Dynasty period, to realize that
silver was indeed known and used as currency in ancient China.
The sudden abundance of Silver in a country lacking in this resource indicates that they were getting
it from another land or lands. By the Eastern Zhou period, they could have held control over their
colonies for hundreds of years --sufficient time to have mined and transported large amounts of silver
and gold to enrich the national treasury.
“In the 1970s, in 扶溝縣 "Fu Go County" of Hobei Province, several pieces of 空首布 "Hollow
Headed Spades"(*) made of silver were unearthed. These specimens have been authenticated as
belonging to the Spring Autumn (770-476 BC) and to the Warring States Periods (475-221 BC).”36
Buried inside a bronze tripod ding were 18 Spade coins made of silver. Could this be an exception, or
did the Zhou Dynasty period use silver coinage similar to their existing spade and knife coins for
larger transactions?

“It is also recorded that during the Western Han Dynasty(202 BC-5 AD), Wu T'i had issued a series
of 3 kinds of silver currency, and Wang Mang of the Hsin Dynasty (8-23 AD) had also issued 2
varieties of silver currency, but both efforts completely failed. Wu T'i's overvaluation of the silver
currency prompted widespread forgeries, and hundreds of thousand of forgers were caught and
executed. Not a single example of either Wu T'i's and Wang Mang's silver currency has been found,
and they have become 2 mysteries of Chinese numismatic history.”36
These mysterious silver currencies mentioned in the histories that are very difficult to find in China,
may have been used in large international transactions, because like many of the very rare Chinese
coins used in ancient China, they may be found on the Philippine islands. In Figure M-M, there is a 3
character Knife from the State of Qi that may date back to its establishment (c.1100 BC) that appears
to be made of silver.
Figure M-M
The Three Character Silver Knife Coin in Figure M-M may have been in use concurrent to the stash
of silver Spade coins excavated from Fugou County 扶沟县, Henan Province. Silver Spade and
Knife currencies may have been used for high value transactions in antiquity, since silver was even
more precious than gold in China during that age. Beneath these 18 silver coins kept in a bronze
tripod ding, were 392 gold coins inside a pot.37

A very large silver Banliang 半两 from the State of Qin (900 BC-221 BC) was sold in a 2011
auction for around $334,103. This silver coin was dated to the Zhou Dynasty Warring States Period
when Banliang coinage began to be cast in the State of Qin 秦.38

Archaeological discoveries is shedding light on the use of precious metals like silver and gold in
ancient China. Although copper coins were most commonly used in currency, silver and gold
currencies appear not to have been absent in antiquity.
A hoard of ancient coins including several of these silver Zhou Dynasty spades were found buried
near Butuan City, Philippines. Copper/bronze An Yi I Jin 安邑一釿 Spade coinage are one of the
commonest heavy flat spades with a typical layout to the inscription. An Yi 安邑 was the capital of
the State of Liang (Wei) prior to 400 BC. Thus, this coin must have been in circulation prior to 400
BC. These silver versions of the coinage appear to have daintier curved legs with flat bottoms that
have a more aesthetic appearance than the bigger and flatter feet of the copper coins. A fine casting
seam may be seen around the border of the entire coin on both sides. The An Yi I Jin 安邑一釿
were seen as the next step of coinage from the blank spades that have been found in graves from
1200 BC.
Figure M-N

The very rare 3-Hole Spade coins would probably be considered much rarer in silver. Yet more than
it's rarity, the coins in Figures M-O and M-P may be of great historical value. During the Western Han
Dynasty (202 BC-5AD), records tell us that Emperor Wu Ti had issued 3 kinds of silver currency that
numismatists have not been able to find as of the present time. Due to internal evidence which will be
discussed further, I believe that these may possibly be two of the missing Han coins.
Figure M-O
Silver Liang Spade coin that seems to match the 12 shu Silver 3 Hole Bu (Figure M-O) but is
strangely smaller and weighs less.
Figure M-P
Could these have been two of the three silver coins said to have been cast by Western Han Dynasty
Emperor Wu T’i (202 BC-5 AD)? The ancient seal script on the obverse of the coin seems to be
identifying the capital Luoyang 雒陽 as the mint name. Luoyang 雒陽 was the capital of the Western
Han Dynasty under Emperor Wu T’i.

These coins may have been cast after the Qin Dynasty destruction of China’s histories and texts. Qin
Shi Huang Di had tried to wipe out all knowledge of past dynasties and massacred numerous
scholars. He had also established a new round currency called the Banliang 半两 (half a Liang).
“During the Zhou period, there had been a direct connection between the "Liang as a weight" (12
grams when applied to coinage) and the Liang as a coin denomination. About the time the Chin
Dynasty established control over China (and possibly a little earlier), the Pan Liang (or 1/2 Liang)
coinage was introduced at this weight standard (about 6 grams), but very quickly the connection
between the weight and the monetary unit ceased to apply.”39
By the time of the Western Han Dynasty, they may still not have fully understood the meanings of the
different denominations from antiquity. First emperor Qin was very thorough in his wiping out of
China’s ancient history, and what little he did leave was ravaged by fires after his demise.
Thus the coin denominated as the Liang 两 ( 24 shu 銖) was almost half the weight of the 12 shu 銖
Spade coin --a case that should have been reversed. This was a mistake that would never have
been allowed in the dynasties prior to the Qin. And since the value of the coins were no longer
pegged to weight, then this was when forgeries began in force. Western Han Dynasty officials went
after forgers, executing many. But the token silver currency may have been given an unrealistic value
that could have precipitated its failure to be accepted by the general public.
Han Dynasty coinage were of higher quality bronze craftsmanship than that of the Qin Dynasty Ban
Liang 半两. When they introduced the Wu Shu 五銖 coinage, “Wu Shu were better cast with finished
edges usually leaving no trace of the casting sprew, well developed outer rims on both sides and a
inner rim on the reverse, and finer calligraphy of a more modern style.”39 The Silver Spades in
Figures M-O and M-P are very finely cast with finished edges and sharp clear inscriptions. Thus,
because of the mint name (Luoyang) inscription, the error in weights and values, and the quality of
casting compatible to that of Han Dynasty bronze craftsmen, these may be the Silver coins
mentioned in the histories.
One Liang 两 of silver was equivalent to 1000 Liang 两 copper coins or a bolt of silk or a bushel of
grain.40 Silver coins in antiquity were probably an efficient way to carry and pay with a large amount of
cash without the bulk. Han Emperor Wu Ti may have tried to give their nationally minted silver coins a
very high value, high enough for some to put their lives on the line to make forgeries of the silver
coinage.

Wang Mang the usurper who reigned in the Xin Dynasty could have tried to create similar high value
token coinage using silver. But like that of the Western Han issued coins, Wang Mang's silver coins
failed as well. One of Wang Mang’s two issued silver currencies may have been found in the
Philippines as shown in Figure M-Q.
Figure M-Q
An exception to the ancient China weight standard may have been the nationally minted coins cast by
the ruling dynasty. A higher value coin is indicated (i.e. Guo Bao Jin Kui 國寶金貴 10,000 cash) and
implied in ancient texts, that may have been backed by the resources of ancient China. This could
have been what Wang Mang, the government official who usurped the throne to start the Xin Dynasty
(7-23 AD), had in mind when he reintroduced the knife coins in the form of the Yi Tao P’ing Wu-Chien
(One Knife: Value Five Thousand) and the Ch’i Tao Wu-Pai (Ch’i Knife: 5 hundred).
“At that time 5000 Wu Shu was equal to 1/2 cattie of gold. A cattie weighed about 120 grams, so
these knifes were valued at about 60 grams (2 ounces) of pure gold. We have not been able to find a
relative value for gold in ancient China, but in the same time frame in the Roman Empire, this would
have been at least a year's wages to an average citizen.”41
Wang Mang allowed the lower denomination Wu Shu 五銖 to continue circulation for smaller daily
transactions, but wanted his new knife coins to be used as token coinage to replace gold in larger

transactions. All gold was confiscated and exchanged for the token coinage and placed in the
national treasury, where after his death, 150 tons of gold was found in storage.
Following are samples of Qi Heavy Knife Coins from the Warring States Period that were found in the
Philippines. According to their histories, these may have been cast in commemoration of their
successful victory over their enemies who had exiled their ruler for five years, thus reestablishing the
State of Qi in 279 BC. These Knife coins have a very high casting seam around its border with clear
and sharp cast inscriptions. There is a yellowish patina with very slight greenish tints.
Figure M-R
Although not bronze or even metal, included in this section is possibly one of the oldest Knife coins in
the collection. The nephrite jade Knife coin with the oracle bone script of 五百 (500 hundred) etched
on the obverse with a heavenly circle engraved on the back may have circulated during the Shang
Dynasty or even earlier. Knives, hatchets, and axes were ancient symbols of distinction. The great
white jade mace was the ancient emblem of sovereignty, very much like the scepter of the Western
civilizations. These weapons are also representative of the military might that may have been seen as
giving them the right to bring the various lands beyond the seas into submission.
Ironically this Knife coins were money, and it was for the love of money and all that it promised to give
them, they went forth to conquer and oppress those they had once sheltered in their land. The
Liangzhu Culture communities that had once sheltered in the Lower Yangtze River region had been
China’s kindred guest for several hundred years before they left to build their own nations. They
would have had some kind of remembrance of the goodwill between their peoples and the Chinese

nation as they encountered each other again around 1000 BC. The shock and outrage they must
have felt, and the pain of the Chinese soldiers who were following imperial orders were poignantly
captured in the Zhou Dynasty She King Odes 柏舟 (full text in the first chapter).
Figure M-S
The Han Shu texts tell of how, “...rulers became increasingly avaricious and the people were bitter,
natural disasters and social chaos appeared. The situation deteriorated into the period of the Warring
States, during which crafty deception was esteemed and humanity and righteousness held cheap,
riches were given foremost place and rituals and courtesy left behind.”42 (Han Shu 24a. 1124)
Bronze and Jade were the two most valuable materials in ancient China. The significance of bronze
and jade went beyond material value. They were used extensively for religious rituals and emblems of
power and authority for the elite.
According to historian and numismatist Boyet Manuel, he first encountered what appears to be late
Shang to early Western Zhou Dynasty bronzeware recovered from Central Luzon region around 3 to
4 years ago, offered by an online reseller. Skeptical and expecting a modern copy, they acquired and
studied one piece to verify the bronzeware's authenticity. Based on their research, the bronze artifact
seemed to be from the Shang and Zhou Dynasty but the specimen was different from those displayed
in the Chinese museums because the bronze had gold inlays. This single antiquities dealer had
around a hundred pieces of bronzeware of different forms and styles which may be dated to the
Shang and Zhou Dynasties. (More images in next chapters).
Director of Filipino Numismatist, Boyet Manuel said that, “In the Philippines antiquities auctions, lots
of knife and spade coins have been offered for sale since I started going to local auctions of coins
and antiquities around 15 years ago.” Finding abundant bronzes of China's ancient dynasties on the

islands of the Philippines carries the implications that this land had been under some form of
prolonged Chinese colonization in antiquity. Silver coins which were of greater value than gold in
ancient China, found in abundance, tells us that large international transactions could have been
commonplace here. However, China was not the only one who had given silver the foremost ranking,
there was also a time in ancient Egypt when silver was considered to be more valuable than gold. 43
The bronze ding with high relief taotie motif was a symbol of governmental authority under the
Chinese empire sometime before the 9th century BC. Several of this type of Tripod Ding Bronze
vessels have been found in the Philippines. China may have tried to maintain occupation of their
Philippine colony until the Xin Dynasty 7-23 AD, after which time internal problems and natural
catastrophes may have no longer allowed them to continue domination of the archipelago. Philippine-
China trade probably went on among small pockets of the communities with little interruption.
It was not until the Ming Dynasty, that the desire to colonize the Philippine islands was once again
revisited. The Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) restored rulership to the Chinese after almost a hundred
years of Mongol dominion over China. The Ming may have also desired a revival of ancient China's
glory days. The Zhou Dynasty, considered the 'classical period' of ancient China,44 was their model
for jade and bronze craft, literature, and even political rule –restoring literary examinations for public
office.45 It was Yung Lo, 2nd emperor of the Ming Dynasty, that sent out a vast fleet of over 60 vessels
and 27,000 men under the command of Admiral Cheng Ho. With the purpose of enlarging China's
imperial domain, and possibly guided by ancient texts like the Shan Hai Jing, his journeys took him
through southeast Asia, India, Arabia, the Persian Gulf, and the eastern coast of Africa.
The Philippines was an important point in Admiral Cheng Ho's travels as he and his soldiers went to
“...Lingayen and Manila bays, Mindoro and Sulu around 1405-1410...A Chinese governor named Ko-
ch'a-lao was even appointed for the island of Luzon, but with the death of Cheng Ho in 1435 and the
passing of the Yuang Lo regime, political control over the islands disappeared and the purely
commercial relationship of earlier eras returned.” 46

Even the brief rule of the Ming Dynasty left traces of their rule on the Philippine soil. The ancient
colonization of the Philippine archipelago left an abundance of evidence, particularly in bronze
artifacts.
During the Ming Dynasty, a map showing the American continent in an ancient world map was
published in 1418.
47

Liu Gang was an attorney who purchased this map from an antique dealer in Shanghai. “The
similarities (including errors) that the secret European maps shared with the Ming maps suggest that
the maps used by European explorers were partly derived from the Chinese. Portuguese spies such
as Niccolo da Conti (c. 1425) and Pero de Covilha (in 1487-1493) had managed to purloin copies of
Ming maps.” 48
It has been theorized that these maps may have resulted from the voyages of Admiral Zheng He.
However, this is highly unlikely since all five voyages undertaken by the adventurous Ming Dynasty
Admiral before 1418 were towards the South and West of China, exploring the lands of the South
China Sea and Indian Ocean. America is located directly east of China.49 So when was the Americas
mapped by the Chinese? The Ming Dynasty was particularly fascinated with reviving China's classical
period –the Zhou Dynasty era. Could the discovery of the ancient maps, used to produce this 1418
Ming Dynasty World Map, have come from the classical period they desired to emulate?
Urgent need to include this periods of Chinese colonization into our accepted history cannot be over
stated. Priceless treasures are being lost, looted, and destroyed for lack of understanding. And
because we have no story to give the Filipino people, we don't even know that this is happenning.
Spanish historians record that around 1500-1800 AD, people still remembered the colonization of
China over the entire Philippine archipelago in the distant past. They also noted that material
evidence of that event in our history was abundant on the islands.
These artifacts that have been presented are just some of the items left behind that tell the story of
our past. The bronze artifacts bear silent testimony, giving us length of times and dates and rank of
personages. Inscriptions found on the bronze artifacts, once translated, may yield great

enlightenment/clarity as declared by the Zhou Dynasty period bronze ritual wine vessel found in
Luzon (Image above). The Hu ritual wine vessel was used for burial purposes of dignitaries of rank
and wealth, why is it in the Philippines?
The abundance of Chinese ancient bronze on our islands are much much more than something
brought along then carelessly left behind by some random traveller. Artifacts may be found on almost
every Philippine island. They are buried under the ground, hidden by their owners, or even worn
proudly by our indigenous tribes.
Ancient bronze vessels found in the Philippines are beyond trinkets carried along by tourists. They
are items of great ritual and political significance to ancient imperial China. Filipinos find these
valuable artifacts on their lands with no idea of their cultural historical and monetary importance. This
is because we have not given the Filipino people the story behind their presence. Many take
advantage of our people's innocence and take away these treasures to sell in the black market. The
Philippines has been bleeding out national treasures for decades, yet how can we stem the flow,
when we don't even recognize our history?

References:
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1879
2. Greg Woolf (2007). Ancient civilizations: the illustrated guide to belief, mythology, and art. Barnes & Noble. p. 210.
3. Records of the Grand Historian - Scrolls 6, 28 of Qin Shihuang
4. “Nine Tripod Cauldrons.”Wikipedia. 2017. <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine_Tripod_Cauldrons>
5. “3 Reasons this Geochemist Believes Ancient Egyptians Built China.”CairoScene Team. 2017.
<http://www.cairoscene.com/BusinessAndPolitics/3-Reasons-This-Geochemist-Believes-Ancient-Egyptians-Built-
China>
6. The Project Gutenberg EBook of "The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898 - Volume 40 of 55 1690-1691 Explorations by
Early Navigators, Descriptions of the Islands and Their Peoples, Their History and Records of the Catholic
Missions, as Related in Contemporaneous Books and Manuscripts, Showing the Political, Economic, Commercial
and Religious Conditions of Those Islands from Their Earliest Relations with European Nations to the Close of the
Nineteenth Century". by Francisco Colin and Francisco Combes and Gaspar de San Agustin. 2009.
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<http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Myth/shang-arts.html>
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zhou.php>
10. <https://jp.pinterest.com/pin/301952349989183691/>
11. “Ritual Vessel (Fangyi).” Khan Academy. 2017. <https://www.khanacademy.org/partner-content/asian-art-
museum/aam-china-topic/aam-china/a/ritual-vessel-fangyi>
12. “Zhou Dynasty Bronzes.” ChinaOnlineMuseum.com. 2017. <http://www.chinaonlinemuseum.com/bronzes-
zhou.php>
13. Patricia Buckley Ebrey. “Bronzes from Count Yu’s Tomb.” A Visual Sourcebook of Chinese Civilization. 2017.
<https://depts.washington.edu/chinaciv/archae/2coubron.htm>
14. “Shang/Zhou Dynasty ca. 1600-256 BC.” Princeton University Art Museum. 2017.
<https://etcweb.princeton.edu/asianart/timeperiod_china.jsp?ctry=China&pd=Shang%7CZhou>
15. James Legge, trans.Shih King: Part III. Major Ode. The Second Decade, or that of Shang Min.06. The Khuan. 1879
16. “Ancient Chinese Coinage.” Wikipedia. 2017. <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_coinage>
17. James Legge, trans. The Shu King: Introduction. 1879
18. “History of Chinese Currency.” China Sage. 2017. <http://www.chinasage.info/money.htm>
19. Wilkinson, Endymion (2000), Chinese History: A Manual (2nd ed.), Cambridge, Mass., London: Harvard University
Asia Center.
21. “Explore Ancient Chinese Money.” CITS. 2017. <http://www.cits.net/china-travel-guide/explore-ancient-chinese-
money-.html>
22. R. Eno. “2.2 The Economy of Early China: The Treatise on Food and Money.” Indiana University: 2010.
<http://www.indiana.edu/~g380/2.2-Food_and_Money-2010.pdf>
23. James Legge, trans.Shu King: 05. The Books of Kau. 22. The Testamentary Charge. 1879
24. “Guo Bao Jin Kui.” China Museum. 2017. <http://www.chnmuseum.cn/tabid/450/Default.aspx?
AntiqueLanguageID=3661>
25. Gary Ashkenazy. “Three Hole Spades.” Primal Trek. 2012. <http://primaltrek.com/blog/2012/12/11/three-hole-
spades/>
26. Gary Ashkenazy. “Ancient Chinese Charms and Coins.” Primal Trek. 2016. <http://primaltrek.com/>
28. Percy Smith. “The Study of Chinese Coins.” The China Story. 2017. Australian Centre on China in the World.
10/6/17. <https://www.thechinastory.org/ritp/the-study-of-chinese-coins/>
29. James Legge, trans.Shu King: 05. The Books of Kau. 27. The Marquis of Lu on Punishments. 1879
30. “Gold’s Monetary Role in Ancient China’s Zhou Dynasty.” The Real Asset Co. 2017. <http://therealasset.co.uk/how-
to-guide/about-gold/background-gold-investing/gold-money/famous-uses-of-gold-money/zhou-dynasty-coins/>
31. James Legge, trans.Shu King: 03. The Books of Hsia. 03. The Songs of the Five Sons. 1879
32. James Legge, trans.Shu King: 05. The Books of Kau. 04. The Great Plan. 3.iii. 1879
35. Gary Ashkenazy. “Ancient Chinese Coin Exhibit at the Qi Heritage Museum. 12/2/14” Primal Trek. 2017.
<http://primaltrek.com/blog/2014/12/02/ancient-chinese-coin-exhibit-at-the-qi-heritage-museum/>
36. Stephen Tai. “Chinese Sycee History.” 11/20/2000. Sycee On Line. 2017. <http://www.sycee-on-
line.com/Sycee_history.htm>
37. Gary Ashkenazy. “State of Qin Banliang Silver Coin.[April 29, 2015]” Primal Trek. 2017.

<http://primaltrek.com/blog/2015/04/29/state-of-qin-silver-banliang-coin/>
38. “Silver Spade Coin.” Henan Museum. 2017. <http://english.chnmus.net/fortnightselection/node_6821.htm>
39. “Chinese Cast Coins: Ancient Chinese Coinage 255 BC to AD 221.” Calgary Coin and Antique Gallery. 2017.
<http://www.calgarycoin.com/reference/china/china2.htm>
41. “Chinese Cast Coins: Ancient Chinese Coinage 255 BC to AD 221.” Calgary Coin and Antique Gallery. 2017.
<http://www.calgarycoin.com/reference/china/china2.htm>
43. Mark Cartwright. “Silver in Antiquity.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. 2017. <https://www.ancient.eu/Silver/>
44. “Timeline for China to 1700.” Indiana University. 2018. <http://www.indiana.edu/~e232/Time1.html>
45. “Ming Dynasty.”Encyclopeadia Britannica. 2018. <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ming-dynasty-Chinese-history>
46. Carlos Quirino. Philippine Cartography, 1320-1899. Philippines: Vibal Foundation. Third edition. 2010. p 7
47. David Pratt. “The Ancient Americas: Migrations, Contacts, and Atlantis.” Americas1. 2011.
<http://davidpratt.info/americas1.htm#a5>
48. Gunnar Thompson. Secret Voyages to the New World: Nine true adventures from the forbidden chronicles of
American discovery.Seattle, WA: Misty Isles Press, 2006, pp. 154-165
49. “Treasure voyages.” Wikipedia. 2018. <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasure_voyages>

Chapter 5
Finding Tarshish
One can learn a lot from jigsaw puzzles, like a piece may be forced into place even if it doesn’t quite
fit, but then afterwards you are stuck. Other parts have difficulty going in and the full picture will never
be completed. Mysteries are like jigsaw puzzles. It is easy to get fixated on something and lose the
big picture. The mystery of locating the ancient land of Tarshish, important enough to be part of
Hebrew, Phoenician, and Assyrian historical records is a puzzle that many have tackled for over a
thousand years. Claims of finding Tarshish from as far off as Africa to Spain to the British Isles to the
Etruscans to Phoenicia itself has engendered much debate and arguments. But like a puzzle piece in
the wrong place, we can pound it in until it looks like it fits, or we can continue looking until we have
the complete picture with everything sliding smoothly into place.
Ancient Origins
The earliest mention of Tarshish is in the Hebrew Table of Nations in Genesis chapter 10. In it we also
find the beginnings of another name closely connected to Tarshish --Ophir. The Table of Nations list
the founding fathers of the various nations and the regions of the earth that became theirs, starting
from the sons of Noah who had survived the great Deluge. According to the scriptures, from the three
sons of Noah -Shem, Ham, and Japheth- the world was repopulated and filled. Tarshish and Ophir
were not brothers or closely related, aside from sharing the same great ancestor Noah, something all
humans shared. Tarshish was the son of Javan the son of Japheth, while Ophir was the son of Joktan
the son Eber the son of Shelah the son of Arpachshad the son of Shem.
Regarding the family of Tarshish we are informed that, “From these the coastlands of the nations
were separated into their lands, everyone according to his language, according to their families, into
their nations.”1 The implications are that the people of Tarshish made their homes along the
waterways of the world, adept at travelling on the rivers and seas as other nations would be in
journeying over land. Note that they are not described as a nation with coastlands, but that they
chose to live in the ‘coastlands of the nations’. Thus, we see that they would be perfectly happy living
alongside other nations as long as they were given the lands that were beside the waters.
Ophir was the father of another nation. “Now their settlement extended from Mesha as you go
towards Sephar, the hill country of the east.”2 Although we may no longer accurately determine the

location of the ancient Mesha and Sephar, there are still multiple clues to the land of Ophir contained
within this passage. It is apparent that Ophir was a people group who lived on the hills and, in some
translations, mountains. It may be inferred from the text that this family line that inhabited the
mountains and hills of the earth had moved eastward, towards the orient.
Another clue to Ophir’s identity may be the name of their father Joktan, “YOKTAN means: Variant
spelling of Hebrew Yoqtan, YOKTAN means "small."”3 Eber, Joktan’s father had named his first son
Peleg, meaning to split/divide, in commemoration that it was in his days that the earth was divided.
The naming of his second son must have carried some kind of literal meaning as well. Could it have
been that Joktan was physically small in stature and his father knew that he would father a race of
people that would be like him? If so, Ophir would be a nation of people with a small physical stature
living in the mountainous regions of the east.
Given what we have gleaned from the Genesis Table of Nations, it would be expected in the lands
known as Tarshish and Ophir, that it would be a land in the far east occupied by at least two very
different ancient people groups: a coastal community who travels through the waters with ease, and a
population of small stature who prefer to reside on the hills and mountains.
Tarshish and Ophir were descendants of two different sons of Noah, Japheth and Shem. Discovering
where their families migrated to in the beginnings of civilization would help us in finding the land that
they shared. Worldwide oral and written histories of ancient civilizations hold the story of the flood
survivors, and how through the families of the three sons of Noah, the world was filled once again.
Phoenician historian Sanchuniathon calls Shem ‘Betylus’, Ham ‘Ilus’, and Japheth ‘Atlas’.4 In the
Greek Sibylline Chronicles it was Titan, Cronos, and Iapetus.5 Vili, Odin, and Ve were their names in
Scandinavian myth.6 Hindu texts call the sons of the flood survivor Manu (Satyavrata), and his sons
were Sharma, C’harma, and Jyapeti.7
Ancient texts and maps hold the record of a world divided into three continents: Asia, Africa, and
Europe. Shem presided over Asia, Ham was ruler of Africa (a.k.a. Libya), and the land given to
Japheth was the continent of Europe. Naturally, the scope of these continents in antiquity, far
exceeded what falls under their current domain.
The Vedic Manu from India, who along with his three sons were preserved from the Deluge that
destroyed the earth and all that lived on it, divided the world amongst his sons. Manu was
“particularly fond of Jyapeti, to whom he gave all the regions to the north of Himalaya, in the snowy
mountains, which extend from sea to sea, and of which Caucasus is a part. To Sharma he allotted
the countries to the south of those mountains…”7 Tradition maintains that his third son, C’harma,
received the lands west of the Red Sea and south of the Mediterranean.

8 9
Ancient T and O maps divide the world into three regions according to the sons of Noah: Europe-
Japheth, Asia-Shem, and Africa-Ham. T and O maps usually place the orient/east on the top (#8).
The general regions of the dispersion is illustrated on the map to the right (#9).
Attempting to map the origins of mankind, researchers at the University of California-Berkeley used
the genetic markers left behind in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), and discovered that all humanity
came from a single ancestral family. Genetic markers also distinguish migrations of three family
groups that seems to correlate with the ancient T and O maps. “The mtDNA from these three families
acts as the starting point. The differences in races today point to three distinct “types” of people.
Much confusion has been caused because, while modern science understands that there was
originally one mother and father for all of mankind, they do not realize that it was these three families
that repopulated the earth after the Flood.”10
Interestingly, aside from the genetic footprint, the same three family groups from which all people
originated may also be distinguished through their languages. “If you divide the people of the world
into three groups, you will find that the languages of Africa, Asia and Europe have very different
structures—both in spoken and written form. This is, of course, due to three different migrations.”10
This seems to support the Genesis Table of Nations text which repeats three times that the division of
the earth was according to, “...their families, according to their languages, by their lands, according to
their nations.”11
Ancient Hindu texts tell us that Japheth (Jyapeti) had received the northern land from ‘sea to sea’ in
the regions that included the Caucasus. If we take this literally, the descendants of Japheth may have
migrated through the Northwestern lands and coastlands of the Mediterranean Sea all the way to the
Pacific coast of China.

The migration of the Chinese people from a central western region is captured in the character 遷
that means migration/move/transfer. It is composed of four characters: 辶 that indicates movement

from the west 西, over a big 大 division (radical for division). The families of Tarshish may have
travelled along with their kindred to inhabit the coastal regions facing the Pacific Ocean to the east.
Descendants of Shem son of Noah were traditionally said to have been given the southern lands east
of the Red Sea. From this we may infer that the families of Ophir settled in the mountainous regions
south of the Caucasus, travelling to the Southeast of Asia.
Additionally, we are told that the land of Ophir is located close to his brothers Sheba and Havilah,
family members who would most likely share similar physical traits along with their small build, “the
Kitab al-Magall (Clementine literature) and the Cave of Treasures holds that in the early days after
the Tower of Babylon, the children of Havilah, son of Joktan built a city and kingdom, which was near
to those of his brothers, Sheba and Ophir.”12
It is important that these literatures specified that it is Havilah son of Joktan son of Shem, because
the Table of Nations lists another Havilah in the lineage of Ham.
Havilah was the name of a prediluvian land with a great river that was notably rich in gold and
precious gems.13 The name Havilah may have been given to these sons whose portion of land was
similarly blessed with abundant resources of gold and gemstones.
The Biblical antiquities of Philo describes of the precious stones used by the Amorites for their idols
that had been imported from the land of Havilah (Euilath), “Now the stones were precious, brought
from the land of Euilath, among which was a crystal and a prase (or one crystalline and one green),
and they shewed their fashion, being carved after the manner of a stone pierced with open-work, and
another of them was graven on the top, and another as it were marked with spots (or like a spotted
chrysoprase) so shone with its graving as if it shewed the water of the deep lying beneath...And these
are the precious stones which the Amorites had in their holy places, and the price of them was above
reckoning.”14 Thus, we see that ancient Havilah was not only a source of many precious stones, but
also master stone craftsmen from ancient times, with the ability to produce open-work carving and
engraving.
India, that some scholars have claimed to have been settled by the family of Havilah son of Joktan,
has been a supplier of gold and precious gems to European and West Asiatic nations for many
thousands of years, experienced bustling trade during Roman times in many ports along its coast.

“Turquoise and Lapis Lazuli were shipped from Barbarikon and Agate (onyx) from Barygaza. The
port of Arikmedu was an especially important center of the gem and bead industry. The stones
worked by local artisans here included diamonds, sapphires, rubies, spinels, beryls, amethyst, citrine,
prase (a green colored jasper), rock crystal, agate, black onyx, and almandine and hessonite
garnets.”15
Havilah son of Joktan have been linked to the dark curly haired aboriginal tribes that live in the hills
and mountains of India, his brother Sheba to the inland indigenous tribes of Malaysia and Indonesia,
and Ophir to the Aeta residents of the mountainous Philippine regions. According to the Spaniards,
who wrote regarding the origins of the inhabitants of the Philippine islands, “And that this was really
so, and that the principal settler of these archipelagoes was Tharsis, son of Javan, together with his
brothers, as were Ophir and Hevilath of India...”16 The nations/kings of their brother Sheba also lived
nearby. Sheba and Tarshish are mentioned together in Psalms 72:10 (NASB). “Let the kings of
Tarshish and of the islands [coastlands] bring presents; The kings of Sheba and Seba offer gifts.”
This ancient song tells of how the Lord rules from ‘sea to sea’ all the way ‘to the ends of the earth’.
And to illustrate this, we are told that His rule would be from the desert nomads -- a possible
reference to the African continent on the South West --all the way to Sheba and Tarshish, implying
that they are located at the very ends of the far South Eastern portion of the earth.
Havilah, Ophir, and Sheba may have taken advantage of the much lower ancient sea levels, as
recorded in world mythology, by crossing over on land bridges that have since gone under the waves
of the sea. This land migration would have happened soon after the Tower of Babel event during the
latter half of the third millennium BC. Thus, becoming the first inhabitants of the Southeastern lands of
the new world after the Deluge. It is generally agreed that the first Philippine settlers were the
Negritos, described as, “...black negroes, most of whom have kinky hair, and very few have lank.
They are flat-nosed, and almost all of them have thick, projecting lips. They go totally naked, and only
have their privies covered with some coverings resembling linen cloths, which they draw on from the
back forward, and which are called bahaques.”17
It was noted that even from ancient times, the Negritos were masters of the mountains and its
environment where they were impossible to defeat, even at barely four feet in height. As the first
occupants of the islands, the Negritos may have had a sense of primary ownership. This was noted

by the Spanish colonizers that the Negritos “were accustomed to burst like an avalanche upon the
villages, and compel their inhabitants to pay them tribute, as if they were the lords of the land, who
were inhabiting it. And if the people refused to give it willingly, they killed right and left, collecting the
tribute in the heads of those who were decapitated…”17 The conquistadors wrote that the practice of
paying tribute to the Negritos continued, even after they had tried to govern the area, “...since the
Negrillos are the lords of the mountains which contain the most virgin forests, with woods of the
greatest value.”17
Migration of the families of Tarshish may have taken a bit longer. Aside from the lengthy travel by
land, they also needed to prepare to transport their population and cargo via the seas and rivers, in
order to reach the coastlands where they would begin building their nations.
One of China’s neolithic communities that scholars have grouped together as the Liangzhu culture,
developed in the Lower Yangtze River area along the Pacific coast. They built the biggest city in
China of that time period, revealing a stratified society with developed religious practices and military.
However, around 2200 BC the peoples that we call the Liangzhu Culture, composed of over 300
communities found so far, suddenly disappeared. Not even leaving a single tool used for their
sophisticated stone working craft behind. China’s most ancient historical chronicles makes no
mention of these peoples. Could it be because they were not considered part of the Chinese nation?
Could they have been a different nation or company of nations assigned to different lands who were
temporarily residing in Chinese territory as they prepared for the next leg of their journey? A journey
which they continued around 2200 BC.
The Liangzhu Culture and their lands, languages, and nations have been traced genetically to the
Austronesian and Tai-Kadai speaking peoples with high frequencies of Haplogroup 01 (Y DNA).18
Austronesia includes the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Taiwanese aborigines, East Timor, Cocos
Islands, Madagascar, Micronesia and Polynesia. They are also found in parts of Thailand, Vietnam,
Cambodia, Sri Lanka, Southern Myanmar, South Africa, and Hainan Island. And Thailand, Laos,
Southern China, Taiwan, Northern Vietnam, Hainan Island, and Northeast India have populations of
the Tai-kadai language speakers.
The fact that these peoples are genetically linked as one family group, but divided into nations by
languages, seem to lend credence to the claims of ancient texts that people were divided according
to bloodline and language and allotted their different territories.

The Chinese character for country 國 is an enclosure protected by a spear 戈 possibly representing
the rule of law/military with one 一 mouth 口 that may graphically portray one language.
The Liangzhu culture gathered together to build the biggest city in Chinese territory at that time,
which appeared to have been a pan-regional urban center where an elite leadership group ruled over
the various cultural communities. “The Liangzhu Ancient City is located in a wetland environment on
the plain of river networks between Daxiong Mountain and Dazhe Mountain of the Tianmu Mountain
Range. This ancient city is said to be the largest city during this time period. Its interior area is 290
hectares, surrounded by clay walls which had six city gates. Two gates were located in the north,
east and south walls. At its center was a palace site that spanned 30 hectares and there was also
evidence of an artificial flood protection design implemented within the city. Both of these
constructions are said to be indicators of the social complexity developing in Liangzhu at the time. A
granary may have been in place containing up to 15,000 kg of rice grain.”19
Establishing this large city took a lot of community effort and planning, yet there were very few older
artifacts found previous to the city’s construction, which has led scholars to speculate on why they
had built it. “The Liangzhu city-site is said to have been settled and developed with a specific
purpose in mind since this area has very few remains that can be traced back to earlier periods.”20
Could it have been constructed as a central planning zone in preparation for leaving to the lands in
which they would plant their own nations? If so, there was much to organize, such as the safe
transport by sea of several large populations, the advance preparations to make the areas they would
reside habitable, and ensuring that the supplies and food storage would be sufficient for the
communities before they could harvest from their new lands. Could it have been in this city that their
learned men developed innovations in the ‘Junk’ (i.e. bulkheads, sternpost rudders, flat bottomed
vessels, etc.) that remained unequaled by any other nation for thousands of years? These were ships
that increased safety, maneuverability, with the capability of transporting large cargoes of goods and
people over rivers and open seas.
Around 2,200 BC they packed up and left the Lower Yangtze River area, leaving very little behind.
“The Liangzhu Culture entered its prime about 4000 ~ 5000 years ago, but suddenly disappeared
from the Taihu Lake area about 4200 years ago when it reached the peak. There are almost no
traces in the following years ever found in this area.”21

“...Liangzhu Kingdom seemed to disappear overnight after 1000 years’ prosperity...Someone says
that it was washed away by floods. Someone says that it was destroyed by war. Someone says that it
was destructed by interior luxury and extravagance. Also, someone says that it did not disappear and
it hasn’t been discovered yet.”22
The people groups called the Liangzhu culture may have selected to migrate to tropical coastlands
with rich riverways that would support their way of life -- lands that were suitable for rice cultivation.
They may have been urged to move on by the changing climate of the Lower Yangtze River area.
“The climate in the Lower Yangtze 5000 to 4000 years ago was warm and humid, typical of a mid
subtropical zone climate, with the temperature was two to three degrees higher than today.”23
The Neolithic Liangzhu culture showed advanced knowledge in hydrological technologies for that
age, “The Yangzi river delta...was originally a swampy wilderness prone to constant flooding.
Painstaking labor was required to transform the swamps into productive farmland. First farmers had
to dig channels to drain the swamps, and then build dikes and irrigation networks in order to protect
against flooding and deliver water to the rice paddies at the appropriate times.”24
Liangzhu communities opted to live near coasts and rivers, and were most likely proficient in the use
of watercrafts. Boats, oars, fish and bird shaped artifacts, and wooden piers have been found in
Liangzhu archaeological sites. Liangzhu people groups lived in thatched roof houses elevated by
wooden stilts. They raised pigs, dogs, and water buffalo. They were fishing communities that
cultivated and ate rice as their primary staple.
Many of the ancient civilizations in the lands where the Liangzhu community genetic markers appear
were riverine polities, like the Sa Huynh culture, the Dong Son, and the Funan Kingdom of ancient
Vietnam and Thailand.25 These civilizations that grew on the river plains developed intensive rice
agriculture, and learned to control both river network and sea trade.
“By the end of the first century C.E., the area of present-day Vietnam,Cambodia, Thailand, and
Burma, the great river plains of mainland Southeast Asia, was divided among a number of regional
polities. Made fertile by the silts of regular and relatively gentle monsoon flooding, these plains were
very productive for rain-fed and increasingly irrigated rice farming.”25
These riverine civilizations were able to produce excess rice, as well as many other products to trade
with the merchant travellers from distant lands who docked on their riverside ports.

The origin of the second group of indigenous peoples scattered throughout the islands of the
Philippines was connected to those who had arrived by sea from the Northern regions. This would be
consistent with the descendants of Japheth, that myths and sacred texts tell us inherited the Northern
portion of the earth. The Spanish scholars saw this second group of indigenous peoples as a type of
‘mestizo’ or mixed breed with traits that were seen as similar to the Chinese or Japanese “For some
bear traces of being Japanese mestizos, as do the Tagabalooyes, as I am well informed by religious
who have had intercourse with them. Some are known to proceed from the Chinese; some from pure
Indians, and some from other nations, as is declared by the circumstances of face, body, color, hair,
customs, manner, and behavior…”26
Tarshish inhabited the coastlands and waterways, implying a knowledge of boat making, fishing, and
possibly trade, all qualities which this second people group exhibited.
“They live, as a rule, on the plateaus of the mountains, and at the mouths of rivers, and maintain
themselves by hunting and fishing, and some agriculture. Most of them trade, and barter wax with the
villages. These people are called Zimarrones, Zambals, Ylagas, Tingues,Tagabalooyes, [339]
Manobos, Mangyanes, and various other names, according to the difference of the sites where they
live.”26
Besides having distinctly different physical features and lifestyles to the descendants of Ophir, the
migration of the children of Tarshish, otherwise known as the Liangzhu communities, have not gone
unnoticed, partly due to the trail left by their sophisticated jade culture. And although they originated
from the Lower Yangtze River area, “These were non-Sinitic populations ancestral to many modern
Southeast Asians...About 2500 B.C., some of the people -who according to linguistic research were
speakers of early Austronesian languages - crossed on boats or rafts from Taiwan to Batanes and
Luzon to found the main component of the modern Filipino population.”27
Thousands of adzes, chisels, and other neolithic jade tools have been found on the Philippine
islands. This is particularly mysterious since the Philippines has no known indigenous resource of
jade. Interestingly, Liangzhu Culture manufacturing processes for jade is still largely unknown due to
the fact that no jade working tools have ever been found in any Liangzhu culture archaeological site 28
-- even in their Megacity. This could be seen as a clue that the Liangzhu culture communities had
packed away and brought along the tools that they would need to continue their jade culture. If their

communities had been destroyed by wars or floods or internal decay, their tools would not have been
absent from the sites of this jade working culture.
If the Liangzhu culture had indeed traversed the seas and rivers in an organized venture with culture
intact, then we would expect to find evidence of their sophisticated stone working and jade craft on
the lands to which they went. This is exactly what we find in the islands of the Philippines (refer to the
chapter on Philippine Jade Culture). Craftsmen of the neolithic Liangzhu culture community, did not
only leave DNA evidence, but abundant artifacts of jade and other precious stones in the Philippines
and other Austronesian and Tai-Kadai speaking nations, that may be dated back to 2000 BC.
In the 1990s, construction workers for the Carriedo Fountain in front of the Sta Ana Church in Escolta
Manila unearthed unusual artifacts, one of which was acquired by a collector who later realized that it
was a Zhulong Pig dragon made of volcanic black stone. The Zhulong Pig dragon has been found in
the Neolithic Hongshan Culture that shared similar motifs, forms, and some stoneworking
technologies (i.e. drillholes) with the contemporaneous Liangzhu Culture.
Escolta in Manila is located near the mouth of the Pasig River, that in ancient times served to connect
the Manila Bay with its extension Laguna de Bay. Geologists have discovered that Laguna de Bay
had been a saltwater extension of Manila Bay before the Diliman Plateau Uplift and recurring episodic
uplifts along the West Marikina Valley Fault around 3000 years ago, limiting the interaction of the
bays to the Pasig River. Laguna de Bay would have been an ancient safe maritime harbour that may
have become a haven for Liangzhu Culture settlements, especially since it was also abundant with
fertile arable lands perfect for rice cultivation. It is around these areas that Neolithic nephrite jade
tools and adzes have been found by Beyer and other archaeologists. “According to Beyer, the
presence of Early Neolithic stone implements only in Baras and Pililla river valleys was due to the fact
that Baras and Pililla have wide arable lands, which were suitable for agricultural ‘Early Neolithic
communities’ when they arrived in the area...” (Timothy James Vitales, “Archaeological Research in the Laguna
de Bay Area, Philippines”. <http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.692.1648&rep=rep1&type=pdf>)
Pasig River is the main entryway to Laguna de Bay, then it is quite plausible that a large ancient
Liangzhu Culture (Austronesian) settlement was situated at the entry point of this river. The
construction workers who were tasked with digging the foundation of the Carriedo fountain may have
struck onto a prehistoric graveyard of the 2nd millennium BC. Antiquarian Rafael Briones noted that if
the black volcanic stone material used to make the Pig dragon is shown to be indigenous to the

Philippines, it may be evidence that they did not only bring their artifacts but also their technologies
and rituals.

Hebrew scriptures may have called the peoples of the Liangzhu Culture ‘Tarshish’, an ancient
ancestral name for Tarshish the son Javan the son of Japheth the son of Noah. Genesis 10 tells us
that Tarshish became a forefather of the nations and language groups that would populate the
coastlands. The book of Psalms indicates that Tarshish is not a single nation but a company of
nations with many kings, “Let the kings of Tarshish and of the islands bring presents…”29 The
prophet Ezekiel calls Tarshish a ‘customer’ of the Phoenician seafaring traders, who paid for their
merchandise with silver, iron, tin and lead.30 All natural resources that are found in abundance in
many of the Southeast Asian nations. And it was Ophir (a.k.a Uphaz) --an ancient name that may
have been given to the Philippines, that paid with gold.31
It may have been the lineage of Ophir that arrived on the Philippine archipelago first, but since they
preferred to live in the mountains, while the people of Tarshish desired to reside by the coastlands of
the rivers and the seas, they may have easily come to a peaceful resolution. Thus the Land of Ophir,
became the Lands of Tarshish and Ophir.
Gateway to the Aurea Chersonesus

There is a lost land that recurs in the histories, myths, and traditions of India, Phoenicia, Israel,
Greece, and China. This missing piece of real estate was supposedly a part of a larger landmass that
the Greeks called Aurea Chersonesus, the Golden Peninsula where Chryse the isle of gold would be
found. China called it Chin Lin (Golden Neighbor) and a specific island within this larger area was
given the name Chin Chou (Gold Island). Similarly, Island of Gold would be the literal translation of
Suvarnadvipa of India found in Suvarnabhumi, the land of gold. Both Hebrew scriptures and the
Phoenicians called this land by its most ancient names - the lands of Tarshish and Ophir.
Today, the dictionary informs us that the area of ancient Aurea Chersonesus was “a peninsula of SE
Asia, extending south from the Isthmus of Kra in Thailand to Cape Tanjong Piai in Malaysia: consists
of SW Thailand and the states of Malaya (Peninsular Malaysia)”32 The Philippine islands form the
Northernmost part of the Malay Archipelago.
The region of the Aurea Chersonesus seems to also be the areas in which the brothers Ophir and
Sheba may have settled their families in the hills and mountains. These were the same lands in which
the descendants of Tarshish became kings of the coastlands and rivers.

Havilah of India, who settled near his brothers Ophir and Sheba, played an important position over
the Aurea Chersonesus. In the past, the Malay Archipelago was also designated Indian Archipelago,
East Indies, Indonesia, Asiatic Archipelago or Insulinde.33 The titles used for this area relay the
obvious weight of India’s role in antiquity in relation to the golden lands.
Historian Flavius Josephus wrote of Solomon’s joint trading venture with the Phoenician King of Tyre
to the land of Ophir. “...Solomon gave this command: That they should go along with his own
stewards to the land that was of old called Ophir, but now the Aurea Chersonesus, which belongs to
India, to fetch him gold. And when they had gathered four hundred talents together, they returned to
the king again.”34
Josephus stated that Ophir belonged to India. It would have been ridiculous to think that the larger
landmass, Aurea Chersonesus containing the island of Chryse, would be found inside of India.
Instead, Josephus probably meant that India held a special authority or role over those who wished to
travel to the golden isles.
The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea noted that there was regular active maritime trade between the
ports of India and Chryse. Details in the Periplus seem to point to a connection between the island of
Chryse and the Ganges river, since the Ganges was often mentioned in relation to the golden isle.
The Periplus tells us that the smaller sangara boats were not used, but the much larger colandia were
for “those which make the voyage to Chryse and to the Ganges…”35 The Periplus instructs the sailor
to head towards the Ganges river, where he would find Chryse directly to the east. “After these, the
course turns toward the east again, and sailing with the ocean to the right and the shore remaining
beyond to the left, Ganges comes into view, and near it the very last land toward the east, Chryse.”35
Furthermore, it tells us that,“And just opposite this river (Ganges) there is an island in the ocean, the
last part of the inhabited world toward the east, under the rising sun itself; it is called Chryse”35
The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (1st century AD) directs the sailor to the Ganges and the direction
of East from thence to the island of Chryse. The instructions on how to navigate the Erythrean Sea to
Chryse ends, and starts anew with directions from Chryse to ancient China located to the North of
Chryse. “After this region under the very north, the sea outside ending in a land called This (China),

there is a very great inland city called Thins, from which raw silk and silk yarn and silk cloth are
brought on foot through Bactria to Barygaza, and are also exported to Damirica (Tamil Land in India)
by way of the river Ganges.”35
Note that if one were to draw an eastward line from the mouth of the Ganges, as directed by the
Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, to the last inhabited island in the ocean, we hit the Philippines. Then,
from the Philippines, a line drawn North would hit China.
The Phoenicians, like the Egyptians who were also said to have traded with India and Chryse, were
familiar with travelling the seas hugging the coast lines and going into its rivers. It is possible that the
Ganges of India was the entry point or gateway from which they travelled the inland waterways,
perhaps going up Tibet, and through Burma, then down again through Vietnam and exiting through
the Gulf of Bandong in Thailand, that may have been identified with ancient Takkola.36 Remember
that the Periplus was a guide on travelling the Erythrean Sea and not a guide to the inland river
system, which would probably require the writing of another book. The Periplus tells us that from the
Ganges there was a way to reach and trade with China, but does not give details on that either.
Takkola was a port that was one of the centres of trade with ancient India mentioned in Kautilya’s
Arthasastra (Book II, Chapter XI).37 Many records of travel and trade between India and
Suvarnadvipa imply the existence of a direct water route that existed during that age through the
Ganges gateway, because it makes no mention of the long journey in the Erythrean Sea that would
necessarily pass through the Strait of Malacca.38
Roman Geographer Pomponius Mela (43 AD) gave directions to Chryse, which also included the
Ganges River. He described the people group that occupied the land between the Indus and Ganges
Rivers, then mentioned two more rivers called Colis and Tamus between which the coast runs
straight, and that, “...in the vicinity of Tamus is the island of Chryse…”39 Since Chryse is to the East of
the Ganges, then the Tamus river could have been a river that connected the South China Sea to a
place near the Ganges. The 1st century Roman geographer gives us an interesting description of two
people groups: inland between the Indus and Ganges Rivers lived dark skinned people who
resembled Ethiopians, and along the coastlands were a shy seafaring population that were skilled at
harvesting the bounty of the waters. 39 Would this have been Havilah brother of Ophir living inland,
while the kings of Tarshish settled along the coastlands?

The Ganges belonged to India. Whomever held control of that river, had control over the trade and
access to the golden peninsula and ultimately to the golden island. Like the ancient prediluvian land
of Havilah wrapped by a river, India’s control of the Ganges River gateway to the Lands of Gold
proved to be a very valuable asset.
The Aurea Chersonesus or Golden Land was separated from the West by hundreds of miles of
deserts and by impassable mountain ranges, which included Mount Everest. The Northern borders
were secured by the vast and powerful Chinese empire. And the eastern frontier was the Pacific
Ocean. The only viable way for the maritime Phoenicians to reach and trade with the Golden Land
was to travel through the Indian Ocean, enter through the Ganges River and access inside ports via
the inland rivers --a route that was still familiar to the travellers around 100 AD, as shown by the
Periplus of the Erythrean Sea. It was only around the end of the 5th century that the route through the
Strait of Malacca became the popular choice for maritime travellers, to the economic benefit of the
Srivijaya Civilization that controlled this narrow entrypoint.
The peak period of India’s maritime activity in the Indus Valley civilizations and ancient Tamils was
around 2250 BC-1950 BC. The start of that period was around the same time that the Liangzhu
culture communities disappeared from the Yangtze River Delta. The ancient Chera Kingdom in
Southern India, records entry taxes paid by passing ships. “...his ships sailed without any hindrance
bringing gold (to his exchequer). He also regulated that the ships of others did not tread waters in his
area. The practice of restricting the vessel movement, specifying territorial waters and collection of
money i.e, probably entry tax for the vessels to enter into his area for doing business prove the well-
established Port, Port Administration and taxation of the material period.”40
International maritime trade from ports of India in antiquity using gold as the currency of choice has
been going on for thousands of years. The first century Periplus of the Erythrean Sea listed some of
the nations that carried on a brisk trade from ports in India.
“Muziris was the most important port in the Malabar coast, which according to the Periplus,
abounded with large ships of Romans, Arabs and Greeks. Bulk spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems
were exported from the Chera ports to Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, Phoenicia and Arabia.”41

India in antiquity held three main maritime strongholds where they were able to maintain a steady
regulation of the ingress and exit to and from the Lands of Gold. “In ancient India, owing to the
geographical influence, nautical shill and enterprise seems to have been best developed in three
widely separated region of the country. These were Bengal, the valley and delta of the Indus, and the
extreme south of the Deccan peninsula, called Tamilagam.”42 Located at the coastal regions of Indus
Valley River Delta, Southern tip of India, and of course at the very mouth of the Ganges River
entrypoint to the Aurea Chersonesus.
Ships of Tarshish
Bible translators and interpreters have had some difficulty with the accounts of Tarshish. In some
verses it seemed to be referring to a people group on a specific land area, however in others,
Tarshish appeared to be describing a type of ship. King Jehoshaphat, desiring to venture to the lands
of Ophir as his ancestor Solomon had done, tried to build ships of Tarshish in Ezion Geber (ancient
Berenice) but failed in this endeavor.43 Ships of Tarshish were said to have sailed along with Hiram’s
Phoenician ships on the voyages to Ophir with King Solomon of Israel.44 The prophet Ezekiel wrote of
how the ships of Tarshish carried merchandise in the heart of the seas.45
2 Chronicles 9:21 (NASB) noted that, “For the king had ships which went to Tarshish with the
servants of Huram; once every three years the ships of Tarshish came bringing gold and silver, ivory
and apes and peacocks.” This verse makes it clear that Tarshish was both a land that they went to,
and a type of ship that was uniquely capable of travelling to that land. In Israel’s chronicle of this
economic joint venture, it seemed that although the Phoenicians may have had ships that had
travelled to Tarshish and Ophir with the ships of Tarshish, it was the ships of Tarshish alone that were
capable of making the regular three year journey. The same idea was recorded in 1 Kings 10:22
(NASB). “For the king had at sea the ships of Tarshish with the ships of Hiram; once every three
years the ships of Tarshish came bringing gold and silver, ivory and apes and peacocks.”
Document Number 98 of Documentos Del Archivo de Indias (1520-1528) is similar to the Periplus of
the Erythrean Sea in that it gives directions and information on ports and trade goods on the route to

Ophir (a.k.a. Chryse). In the section on China, a subheading of ‘Tarsis’ is written alongside a
description of a specific type of maritime vessel.
“...they have big ships that they call ‘junks’ that sail with three or four masts. The sails are very strong
and they are made so strong and attached so well with strong cables to the rigging that the ships are
able to transport all sorts of items such as silk to make beautiful and varied items like paños de Raso
and lots of items from China with silver and pearls to make porcelain vases… (more items follow)”46
The Fra Mauro Map (1450), made by a monk from the island of Murano near Venice, gives details on
the ‘junks’ that were capable of navigating the Indian Ocean, carrying the merchant traders and
merchandise to the West and back to their own lands.
"The ships called junks (lit. "Zonchi") that navigate these seas carry four masts or more, some of
which can be raised or lowered, and have 40 to 60 cabins for the merchants and only one tiller. They
can navigate without a compass, because they have an astrologer, who stands on the side and, with
an astrolabe in hand, gives orders to the navigator". (Text from the Fra Mauro map, 09-P25.)”47
The Fra Mauro Map included information on the the Aurea Chersonesus, the ancient kingdoms in
India, Burma, Thailand, China, Korea, Japan, Java and Sumatra. It also showed knowledge regarding
the major cities and rivers of Asia.
Illustration of Chinese “Junk” from Fra Mauro Map
48

The merchant adventurer Marco Polo, wrote in detail of the ships used by the maritime traders of the
13th century that sail from India to the western lands.
“We shall commence with a description of the ships employed by the merchants, which are built of
fir-timber.” 49 The timber that Marco Polo identifies as used for this ship, that plies the Indian Ocean,
called the ‘abete and zapino’ was not a tropical type, and would not normally be found in India.
Scholars believe it is possible that Marco Polo was describing a ship made in China that was used by
the merchant traders from India. Today we know that this special Nanmu wood that was abundant
South of the Yangtze River around the area where the Liangzhu culture had stayed in China, was
also found in Vietnam and Hainan Island --lands where Liangzhu culture communities moved to.
Regarding the inside of the ship, Marco Polo noted that,“They have a single deck, and below this the
space is divided into about sixty small cabins, fewer or more, according to the size of the vessels,
each of them affording accommodation for one merchant.”49 In the Latin Basle edition, the number of
cabins is said to be 40. Perhaps it would be more accurate to say as in the Fra Mauro Map details
that there were ‘40-60 cabins for the merchants’.
Following are more descriptions of the ship given by Marco Polo,

“They are provided with a good helm. They have four masts, with as many sails, and some of them
have two masts which can be set up and lowered again, as may be found necessary... Some ships of
the larger class have, besides (the cabins), to the number of thirteen bulk-heads or divisions in the
hold, formed of thick planks let into each other (incastrati, mortised or rabbeted). The object of these
is to guard against accidents which may occasion the vessel to spring a leak, such as striking on a
rock or receiving a stroke from a whale, a circumstance that not unfrequently occurs; for, when sailing
at night, the motion through the waves causes a white foam that attracts the notice of the hungry
animal. In expectation of meeting with food, it rushes violently to the spot, strikes the ship, and often
forces in some part of the bottom. The water, running in at the place where the injury has been
sustained, makes its way to the well, which is always kept clear. The crew, upon discovering the
situation of the leak, immediately remove the goods from the division affected by the water, which, in
consequence of the boards being so well fitted, cannot pass from one division to another. They then
repair the damage, and return the goods to that place in the hold from whence they had been taken.

The ships are all double-planked; that is, they have a course of sheathing-boards laid over the
planking in every part. These are caulked with oakum both withinside and without, and are fastened
with iron nails. They are not coated with pitch, as the country does not produce that article, but the
bottoms are smeared over with the following preparation. The people take quick-lime and hemp,
which latter they cut small, and with these, when pounded together, they mix oil procured from a
certain tree, making of the whole a kind of unguent, which retains its viscous properties more firmly,
and is a better material than pitch.”49
Marco Polo informs us of the crew needed to man this vessel.

“Ships of the largest size require a crew of three hundred men; others, two hundred; and some, one
hundred and fifty only, according to their greater or less bulk. They carry from five to six thousand
baskets (or mat bags) of pepper.”49
According to the Transpacific project, “These ships were superior to those used by Columbus to
discover the Americas.”50 And they explained why this was so in detail.
“Starting off first with a dugout canoe, the Chinese joined two canoes with planking, forming a square
punt, or raft. They built up the side, bow, and stern with planking to form a large, flat-bottomed
wooden box. The bow was then sharpened with a wedge-shaped addition below the waterline. At the
stern, instead of merely hanging a steering oar over one side as did the Western ships, Chinese
shipbuilders contrived a watertight box, extending through the deck and bottom, that allowed the
steering oar or rudder to be placed on the centre line, thus giving better control. The stern was built to
a high, small platform at the stern deck, later called a castle in the West, so that, in high seas, the
ship would remain dry. Thus, in spite of what to Western eyes seemed an ungainly figure, the
“Chinese junk” had an excellent hull for seaworthiness as well as for beaching in shallow water. The
principal advantage of these ships, however, was their great structural strength. In order to support
the side and the bow planking, the Chinese used solid planked walls (bulkheads), running both
longitudinally and transversely. They divided the hull of the ship into 12 or more compartments. This
produced not only strength but also protection against damage.
In terms of their rigging the Chinese junks were far ahead of Western ships, with sails made of
narrow panels, each tied to a sheet (line) at each end so that the force of the wind could be caught in
many lines rather than on the mast alone. Also, the sail could be hauled about to permit the ship to

sail somewhat into the wind. By the 15th Chinese century junks had developed into the largest,
strongest, and most seaworthy ships in the world.”50
But was this really a 15th century achievement, or as the ancient histories seem to tell us,
was it much earlier? Chinese history records that the ‘junk’ has been around at least by 200 BC. Few
people know that although China has been a nation since around 2000 BC, almost all historical
records before 200 BC had been destroyed. When Qin Shi Huangdi unified the Warring States in 221
BC, he approved Chancellor Li Hsi’s proposal, “that all historians' records other than those of Qin's
be burned...if anyone under heaven has copies of the Shi Jing [Classic of Poetry], the Shujing
[Classic of History], or the writings of the hundred schools of philosophy, they shall deliver them (the
books) to the governor or the commandant for burning. Anyone who dares to discuss the Shi Jing or
the Classic of History shall be publicly executed.”51
Upon conquering all his enemies (221 BC), the king of the Qin took on the title Shihuangdi. Most
often translated ‘emperor’, Shihuangdi actually means shi (first) huang (majestic) di (supreme being
worshipped by the Shang rulers). By taking on the title Shihuangdi, he had elevated himself from king
to the first of a line of supreme divine rulers. First Emperor unhooked himself from the traditional
concept of a leader, entrusted the position through ‘heaven’s mandate’, to become like god on earth.
Anything that would discredit his rule as the First Emperor had to go. And so all books on history,
philosophy, and poetry were burned. Scholars and defenders of these national literary treasures were
executed. First Emperor exiled his own son and heir who criticized his actions. This is why historical
records for the Chinese ‘junk’ go only as far back as 200 BC. It was the Chinese histories that was
most extensively destroyed in this purge, and perhaps even the few copies that may have survived
would have been lost in 206 BC when the Qin Imperial Palaces with its archives were captured and
burned. Another fire at the end of the Qin Dynasty consumed the national records. Thus, it may be
possible that the design of the ‘junks’ have been around longer than China’s records may show.
In March 2017, China Daily reported the archaeological discovery of over 200 boat shaped coffins in
Sichuan that were dated back to the Zhou Dynasty Spring and Autumn period (770 BC-476 BC), and
the Warring States Period (475 BC-221 BC).52 Boat coffins from this time period that have been
uncovered in seven other occasions give us clues to the significance of the waterways to these

ancient riverine civilizations. Aside from artifacts like bronze, iron, coins, weapons and pottery, several
glass eye beads, very much like the Phoenician core formed fused glass eye-beads, have been
found in the boat coffins, that the Chinese archaeologists believe were an exotic import item, possibly
through the 'Silk Road' trade.53 However, the Silk Road land international trade route began around
200 BC, making it unlikely to have been the path taken by these ancient imported beads.
The boat coffins were made from a rare type of 'Nanmu' Evergreen tree that were used for the
construction of Chinese boats. The unique qualities of the 'Nanmu' durable knotty softwood, not
reactive to humidity and temperature changes by way of expansion and contraction, made it suitable
for intercontinental travelling with exposure to extreme climate changes. The Chinese Junks that were
built with this special softwood would have been able to travel from the frigid northern climates to the
warm tropical zones, unaffected by extreme changes in humidity. The amazing preservation of these
wooden boat coffins that are well over 2,000 years old reveal the Nanmu wood's resistance to decay.
Once dried, this medium density wood shows minimal warping, does not change shape, and may be
polished to a mirror finish. 54 That these Zhou dynasty 'Lords' of ancient times would choose to spend
their eternal rest inside the boat-coffins made from this very special rare wood reveal the importance
of these type of maritime vessels, to their civilization.
The Chinese Junks or Ships of Tarshish, as the ancient civilizations may have called them, were
perfectly suited for the vessels needed by the maritime merchants of antiquity. It was these amazing
vessels with the ability to travel with ease in both rivers and seas, that connected the ports and
harbors of the Golden Lands (Vietnam, Burma, Tibet, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Korea and China)
with the Islands (Japan, Hongkong, Taiwan, Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines). And according
to ancient historical documents, it is this vessel that traversed the Erythrean Sea, the area
encompassing the Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf and Red Sea, in antiquity.
It is the Chinese Junks, that may have been called Colandia by the first century author of the Periplus
of the Erythrean Sea. This would be the very large vessels capable of sailing freely through inland
rivers and open seas to the island of Chryse (Ophir) carrying huge loads of merchandise and trade
goods. Describing several types of ships that frequent the ancient Indian port of Damirica (Limirike),

the writer mentions that, “...there are ships of the country coasting along the shore as far as Damirica;
and other very large vessels made of single logs bound together, called sangara: but those which
make the voyage to Chryse and to the Ganges are called colandia, and are very large.”55
These very large vessels, able to travel to and from Chryse and back to the Ganges, should have
also been able to travel with ease from the ports of India, to the Persian Gulf, and the Red Sea laden
with merchandise to trade.
What’s so Amazing about the Chinese Junk?

1. The Sternpost Rudder - Chinese junks were the first ships to use a sternpost rudder
mechanism to steer. It required less manpower, increased ease of maneuverability, and was
suitable for large vessel ocean travel. It could also be raised or lowered depending on the
depth of the water.
2. The Bulkheads - This design innovation that divided sections of the ship into watertight
internal partitions saved the ship from filling with water when the hull was breached, added
strength to the structural integrity of the ship, and saved the ship from sinking during typhoons.
3. The Multiple Masts - Using multiple masts carefully staggered, increased sailing quality and
speed, as well as allowing the construction of bigger ships. Marco Polo wrote in the 13th
century of ships with nine sails that had crews of upwards of 250 men. The ship of Admiral
Zheng He (1405-1433) had nine masts and was reported to be 400 feet long and 150 feet
wide.
4. Flat bottomed - Junks were sleek shallow hulled vessels capable of travel in both rivers and
the open seas. This was essential to travel through the riverine ports of the nations of the
Lands of Gold, as well as the open seas.
5. Materials - Chinese Junks were built from lightweight Nanmu softwoods that when properly
oiled and maintained could last over a centur y. The bamboo matting strengthened by bamboo
battens that divided the sails into horizontal panels were flexible yet sturdy, aerodynamically
efficient, less prone to tearing, and could be furled without complex rigging. The ships were
fast, easy to handle, and had the ability to sail upwind. Marco Polo also described an oil made
from quicklime, hemp and tree oil that worked better than the pitch used for coating Western
ships.
These Ships of Tarshish innovations may have originated from the planning phase in the Liangzhu
culture mega-city, then developed and improved upon by the nations that virtually lived on the waters
that served as their roads. It was hundreds to thousands of years before the West could catch up and

apply these maritime innovations. It was the Ships of Tarshish that made the steady sea route trade
between East and West possible in antiquity.
Why didn’t everybody just copy these innovations?

“Despite its utility, the junk remained a mystery outside East Asia and had little impact on Western
shipbuilding. The Chinese knew that the junk was an excellent design and guarded its secrets
carefully. Emperors passed laws banning the sale of junks to foreign buyers, and for a long time this
vessel allowed Chinese merchants to dominate Indian and Pacific ocean sea lanes.”56
Equipped with these advanced vessels, the Liangzhu culture community (a.k.a. Kings of Tarshish)
maintained friendly trade relations with their Austronesian and Tai-Kadai language speaking families
that had settled in different lands. Lead Researcher Hung Hsiao-chun of the Australian National
University of Canberra commented on their study of the South East Asian ancient jade trade,
“Fengtian jade was shipped to these workshops in southeast Asia, which dated from 500 BC to 100
AD. They were very small and they churned out these ornaments that were then exported to other
places...There was a very huge workshop in Fengtian, dating back to 3,000 BC,” Hung said, adding
that one of the earliest pieces of Fengtian jade found in the Philippines dates back to 2,000
BC...“Their seafaring methods must have been very superior, even back then,”57
Aside from Fengtian Taiwan jade, their seaworthy crafts may have journeyed over the rivers and seas
that connected the nations of the Lands of Gold laden with Nanmu wood, rice, spices, valuable
metals, silk, ivory, and precious stones.
Literary depictions of the large ships used by ancient Indian civilizations describe similar maritime
technological innovations that seemed to appear suddenly and inexplicably on their shores,
“...existing archaeological evidences do not go beyond c.2,000 BCE…”57 Ancient Vedic texts speak
of large ships meant for ocean travel, the use of multiple masts and sails, the use of astronomy to
direct the voyage as described by Fra Mauro Map, “the ship was navigated according the location of
the planets observed and thus, the sail was directed accordingly. In other words, the sail to the mast
was regulated with reference to the planets and thus the ship followed the required directions.”58, the
use of bulkheads as noted in the 15th century by Nicolo Conti, and the capacity to carry tons of cargo
and passengers.
“There was active foreign trade between Tamil Indian and the outer world at least from the time of
Solomon, i.e. about 1000 B.C. Roman historians refer to the commercial intercourse that existed
between Rome and South India. In the first century before Christ we hear of a Pandyan embassy to
Augustus Caesar. (refer to Periplus translated by Schoff p. 46).”58 The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea

also noted the active trade between the ports of India with the island of Chryse (a.k.a. Ophir). The
gold of Ophir was already well known in the Middle East, mentioned in the books of Job, 1 & 2
Chronicles, 1 & 2 Kings, Psalms and Isaiah. The book of Job, possibly one of the oldest in the
Hebrew scriptures may have been written around 2000 BC. If so, it seems that it wasn’t too long after
the relocation of the Liangzhu Culture communities in the coasts and riverways of the Aurea
Chersonesus, that they began to trade in silver, gold, and gemstones with the peoples of the Western
lands via the Ships of Tarshish.
The Ships of Tarshish were a powerful ancient tool for trade and transport. Unfortunately, it also
worked as a vehicle to carry large amounts of troops, supplies, and weapons which came to the
islands and riverine coastlands in order to conquer and colonize them. China may have taken
advantage of the innovations made in watercraft technologies, even perhaps adding a few of their
own, but the civilizations of antiquity recognized the original makers of these superior watercrafts as
that of the descendants of Tarshish. Thus, the vessels proudly bore the name --the Ships of Tarshish.
Around 1000 BC, the 柏舟 59 cypress wood boats sent by the Zhou Dynasty to colonize and seize
territories in the Lands of abundant silver and gold may have arrived to an unsuspecting community,
used to travellers and traders docking in their ports. According to the Zhou Dynasty Odes Of P’ei, the
encounters with the angry natives were fierce with multiple casualties on both sides. The soldiers had
to stifle their compassion for the hapless communities they were ordered to subdue through violent
armed force. Reinforcements from the mainland were needed to replenish soldiers killed in battle,
and to maintain occupied territories. The loss of their young men brought heartache for those they
had to leave behind. Evidence of Chinese colonization of the Philippines, beginning from the early
Western Zhou Dynasty, may be found in the jade and bronze that they had left on the islands.
China-Phoenician-Israel Connections
The lands of Tarshish and Ophir became known from the histories and chronicles of Israel. King
Solomon son of David, in partnership with Phoenician King Hiram of Tyre, embarked on maritime
trade ventures to the Lands of Gold. Texts tell of the Phoenician ships being built on the Red Sea Port
of Ezion Geber that had come under the dominion of Israel’s king at that time.

According to historian Flavius Josephus, “...the king built many ships in the Egyptian bay of the Red
Sea, in a certain place called Ezion-geber: It is now called Berenice, and is not far from the city of
Eloth. This country belonged formerly to the Jews, and became useful for shipping from the
donations of Hiram king of Tyre; for he sent a sufficient number of men thither for pilots, and such as
were skillful in navigation, to whom Solomon gave this command: that they should go along with his
own stewards to the land that was of old called Ophir, but now the Aurea Chersonesus, which
belongs to India, to fetch him gold.”60
Philo of Byblos (64-141 AD) was a Phoenician historian who compiled the earlier histories written by
Sanchuniathon and translated them into Greek. The records of the Phoenician-Israel trading ventures
were included in the Phoenician histories as seen from their point of view with details that matched
those from the Hebrew scriptures. Philo of Byblos quoted Sanchuniathon, that King Hiram had sent
800 camels loaded with timber to Ezion Geber for the construction of ten ships. 61 Because of the
historical figures, King Solomon of Israel and King Hiram of Tyre involved in the trade to Ophir, it may
be safe to deduce that it was already an active commercial center around 1000 BC.
The historicity of the Phoenician civilization reaching as far east as the Philippines is currently not
recognized. According to the Phoenicians.info website, “Nothing of a positive nature appears to be
known of any Phoenician settlement on the Red Sea, or in countries further east ; but, considering
the importance of Phoenicia's commerce in those parts, and the enterprise of its traders, it is by no
means improbable that such may have existed.”62 Such thinking as this remains the common
consensus, however, the statement that there is no evidence of Phoenician settlement east of the
Red Sea is no longer true. “It appears that the Persian Gulf had been opened out to Phoenician
navigation as three places were found there which bore similar if not identical names with those of
Phoenicia, Tylus or Tyrus, Aradus, and Dora (Strab. xvi. pp. 766, 784, comp. i. p. 42), in which were
temples resembling those of Phoenicia (comp. Kenrick, Phoenicia, p. 48).”63
The most logical way for Phoenician ships to have reached the Persian Gulf would have been by
launching from an accessible Red Sea port, such as that of Berenice. Then sailing down the length of
the Red Sea, they would have exited through the Gulf of Aden and into the Indian Ocean. From the
Indian Ocean, it would have taken as much effort to sail into the the Persian Gulf as it would to coast
along the shores of India that were full of exotic trade goods of high demand in the Western lands.

Phoenician ships would have passed numerous kingdoms of India, offering their various trade wares,
going down south to the Cape of Comorin and Ceylon (Sri Lanka), where the maritime Kingdom of
Tamil Nadu carried the gold from Chryse. Iron age archaeological evidence shows that the Tamil
Nadu had been carrying on Trade with the Philippines since 1000 BC, around the same time as
Solomon’s expedition. But the Phoenicians were middlemen themselves, bent on increasing their
profit margin. On they went until they reached the Ganges gateway to the Aurea Chersonesus (a.k.a.
Suvarnabhumi, Chin Li, the Golden lands), to travel the inland riverways that allowed them to to trade
even with the countries that had no seaports in the Erythrean Sea, like Tibet, Nepal, Burma, Thailand,
Vietnam and Cambodia. Continuing along the rivers on a route that empties in the eastern sea, the
Phoenician sailors would have easily reached the islands of the Malay Archipelago, including the
Philippines, due east of the Ganges. Fourfold evidence of this voyage through the river and seas of
the Aurea Chersonesus is discussed in the book Phoenicians in the Lands of Gold.
Scholars often overlook the fact that this was not merely an Israeli-Phoenician trade venture, but that
there was a third nation involved. A nation that at that time had gained control over the Southeast
Asian trade route and had brought the lands of the Aurea Chersonesus into submission. Using his
father, King Wan’s, concept of ‘universal rule’ 64 in a desire to bring all the lands beyond the seas
under the authority of the Zhou Dynasty, the Duke of Zhou may have convinced the emperor 65 and
his subjects to agree with his argument for colonization of the nations in the Lands of Gold.
King Solomon reigned over the nation of Israel from 970 BC-931 BC. The Western Zhou Dynasty
may have launched their campaign against the Golden Lands a little before 1000 BC, giving them
sufficient time to establish some form of colonial government and to dig mines all over the Philippines
to harvest abundant gold. Gold mines dating back to at least 1000 BC were found by the Spanish
conquistadors in the Philippines 66 that would be contemporaneous to the Phoenician-Israel gold
trade with the land of Ophir and Tarshish.
“In this island are many gold mines, some of which have been inspected by the Spaniards, who say
that the natives work them as is done in Nueva Espana with the mines of silver; and, as in these
mines, the vein of ore here is continuous. Assays have been made, yielding so great wealth that I
shall not endeavor to describe them, lest I be suspected of lying. Time will prove the truth.
--Hernando Riquel et al., on Island of Luzon, 1574 67

In a report written by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi regarding the Philippine islands in 1569, he noted that
gold was found in all of the islands, in the rivers and in the mines. All the natives whether freemen or
slaves had gold. The gold mines were leased out to foreign traders who arrived in their ships and
were allowed to work in the mines for a mutually agreed period of time. In this way, numerous foreign
ships came to the islands laden with goods, then returned to their lands laden with gold.
“More or less gold is found in all these islands; it is obtained from the rivers, and, in some places,
from the mines, which the natives work...we see that the land possesses much gold; for all men,
whether they be chiefs or not, whether freeman or slaves, extract and sell gold...Then, too, many
ships come every year to these islands...carrying back gold with them; yet, with all this regular
withdrawal of gold, the natives have always gold enough with which to trade...in some places where
we know that mines exist, the natives do not care to work them; but on the arrival of the foreign
vessels for purposes of barter, they strike a bargain with those foreigners and allow them to work in
the mines for a period agreed upon.”68
A letter written by Andrés de Mirandaola dated June 8, 1574 explained their disinclination to work the
mines themselves, “Because they say that their god orders them not to take out the gold, except on
the arrival of foreign vessels.” 69 This peculiar tradition would be explained in the light of gold mines
developed by foreign colonizers (gods/lords), with specific instructions to keep the gold supply at
peak levels for exploitation by their own vessels.
Who built these gold mines all over the Philippine islands? Gold has been mined in China since the
Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties. However, gold never became as important to China of antiquity as
the value given to jade and bronze --materials emblematic of distinction and status. Gold may have
been used for decorative purposes, and was seen instead as a means of international exchange with
the rest of the world who seemed to place great value to this yellow metal. The Chinese character for
gold was simply 金 jin, the same word used for most metals. China’s sentiment on gold is well
captured by this ancient proverb, "You can put a price on gold, but jade is priceless."70 Thus, the
ancient Chinese would happily trade in gold but not in jade.
Liangzhu Culture communities were mastercraftsmen of stone, the premier of which was the highly
symbolic nephrite jade used for religious and military rituals. The Western Zhou did not only
appropriate the gold resources of the land, but also the available human resources were put to work
in jade workshops. The level of jade craftsmanship reached a peak in the Zhou Dynasty period.

“During the Zhou Dynasty (1100-221 B.C.) jade pendants were very popular and the level of their
craftsmanship was unmatched in any future period.”71
Sometime around the first millennium BC the Philippine archipelago became the epicenter of jade
works in Southeast Asia.72 This could have been brought about by the Philippine colonization by
China during the Zhou Dynasty, when the Liangzhu Culture communities who had settled in the
Philippines were made to create miniature masterpieces of nephrite jade for the new government.
The royal court has given high priority on people’s living. Thrifty and simple life is cherished by the
royal families. The society is in a harmony atmosphere. Raw jade consumption is set to the minimum
since jade items are considered luxury. The most variety of jade artifacts in the Western Zhou
Dynasty is small size jades or jade plaque…”73
Nephrite jade, sacred to the Liangzhu communities who may have been called Tarshish by the
Hebrew scriptures, could be what the prophet Ezekiel described as the Tarshish stone gleaming at
the bottom of God’s throne. (Ezekiel 10:9)
China could have established a base government in the Philippines to closely monitor the gold mining
and processing. Although gold was not greatly valued in China, the Zhou Dynasty lords knew that it
was of great worth to many lands in the Western hemisphere. It could have been at the very start of
the first millennium BC that the enterprising Chinese conquerors collaborated with the Phoenician
merchants to trade gold to King Solomon (970 BC-931 BC) of Israel who was building a temple for his
God. Chinese colonists had the supply of gold, secured routes with military armed with bronze
weapons, and the Ships of Tarshish that could easily face intercontinental travel over the seas and
rivers of the world. The nation of Israel needed the gold, and had the resources to trade for it.
Phoenicia was the maritime merchants and tradesmen willing to work as the middlemen to make it all
happen. Like clockwork, every three years Ships of Tarshish came laden with tons of gold for the
temple and other trade goods.
The trading venture of Phoenicia and Israel was supported by the enterprising Chinese colonizers of
the Land of Ophir, who would have seen the lucrative benefits of trading with the wealthy Israel under
the wise rule of King Solomon. I Kings and 2 Chronicles both record that Solomon received 666
talents of gold in a year. The ancient talent was equal to the Babylonian talent of 30.3 kilograms = 1
talent. 30.3 x 666 = 20,179.80 kilograms of gold. Gold from Ophir supplied 420 to 450 talents of gold
every three years. 1 Chronicles 29:4 tells us that at least 3,000 talents of gold (upwards of a hundred
tons of gold) from the land of Ophir was used for the sacred temple built by King Solomon.

The lands of Tarshish and Ophir to Israel and the Phoenicians, Chryse to the Greek and Latins,
Suvarnadvipa in Vedic and Buddhist texts, was called the Islands of Zabag by the Arabs.
Alberuni (973 AD) equated Suvarnadvipa with Zabag and wrote that, “The islands of the Zabaj are
called the Gold Country because you obtain much gold as deposit if you wash only a little of the earth
of that country.”74 The Philippines has the second largest gold reserve in the world 75 and much of the
“gold deposits in the Philippine are found under the water table, requiring the sinking of submerged
pits, some 10 m deep, for their extraction.”76 Panning the earth along the rivers and waterways of the
Philippines has been an ancient practice that continues today.
The view held by many ancient writers was that the soil on the isle of gold was made of gold. Pliny
however, felt that it meant that the land had many gold mines, while Alberuni attributed the name of
the island to large gold reserves in the soil. India’s Puranas and Divyavadana describes the country
with mountains and soil of gold.77
The chronicler Pigafetta wrote that, “On the island [Butuan] where the king came to the ship, pieces
of gold as large as walnuts or eggs are to be found, by sifting the earth. All the dishes of the king are
of gold, and his whole house is very well set up."
Pigafetta goes on to describe the huge gold ornaments, gold dagger handles, tooth plating and even
gold that was used to decorate the outside of houses!”78
The natives had so much gold already that had been passed down to them from antiquity that Antonio
de Morga (1609) observed, they were not working too hard to get more gold. Pedro Fidalgo (1545)
recorded that the inhabitants of the island had so much gold that they were happy to exchange two
gold coins for a single silver coin. Numismatists call the Philippines pre-Hispanic coinage Piloncitos,
while the Spaniards called them granitos de oro. Piloncitos are solid pieces of carefully measured fine
gold stamped with what appears to be the baybayin “ma”. A Spanish account from 1586 tells us that,
“The people of this island (Luzon) are very skillful in their handling of gold. They weigh it with the
greatest skill and delicacy that has ever been seen. The first thing they teach their children is the
knowledge of gold and the weights with which they weigh it, for there is no other money among
them.”79 There is no other known civilization that had coinage in no other metal than gold.

Pre-colonial Philippines had carried on a brisk international trade, not only with the ancient
civilizations of the west, but also with neighbouring Asian nations. Remarking on the countries of Asia
that may have traded and settled amongst the natives, they listed, “...some people could have come
from other parts and kingdoms of India extra Gangem (such as Sian, Camboja, Cochinchina), and
from China itself, and even Japon,”80
Spanish scholars listed the neighbouring nations that were actively trading with the Philippines before
they had arrived. The kingdoms of India extra Gangem would refer to the lands which could be
reached through the inland waterways from the entrypoint of the Ganges. These kingdoms included:
Sian (possibly Siam, Thailand), Camboja (Cambodia), Cochinchina (Vietnam), and Mainland China.
International trade with Japan was also noted.
What would have caused such a frenzy of commerce and industry in the Philippine islands, located at
the very edge of the far east? It was noted in a New York exhibition of Philippine Gold that, “The
astonishing quantities and impressive quality of gold treasures recovered in Butuan suggest that its
flourishing port settlement played an until recently little-recognized role in early Southeast Asian
trade. Surprisingly, the amount of gold discovered in Butuan far exceeds that found in Sumatra,
where the much better known flourishing kingdom of Srivijaya is said to have been located.”81 The
brisk international trade was linked by the NY exhibition to the possibility that...“these merchant ships
traded for the natural resources of what early Indian texts refer to as Survarnadvipa, or “Islands of
Gold,” a geographic place name that scholars believe refers to the islands of Southeast Asia,
including Sumatra in Indonesia and nearby Mindanao and Luzon in the Philippines.”82
The Ophir trade route was a very important source of wealth for the kingdom of Israel, who seems to
have established multiple Jewish colonies along the way. In a general collection of documents
pertaining to the Philippines (1520-1528),83 that even contains Magellan’s logs, notes locations of
Jewish settlements that had been established along the trade route in India, Burma, Sumatra
(Indonesia), and Vietnam, whose purpose may have been to process the gold and other trade items
collected by the ships of Solomon as they came by on their three year journeys. Marco Polo,
merchant adventurer who travelled from Europe to Asia in 1271-1295, recorded the presence of
Jewish communities in India and China.84 Document No. 98 in the Documentos Del Archivo de Indias

mentioned large Jewish and Christian settlements along the ancient ports of Cananor, Calicut, Cochin
and Covlan of India.
There is in fact a long history and tradition of the existence of Jewish settlements from the distant
past in India 85 and Indonesia 86, with some stories relating to the lost ten tribes of Israel. This
tradition is strengthened by the early journeys of Christ’s apostles who had been commissioned to
reach the lost tribes of Israel.87 Bartholomew travelled east all the way to India, and brought the
Gospel of Matthew written in the Hebrew to the eastern settlements.
Eusebius wrote that when the Philosopher Pantaenus came to India he discovered believers with
Gospel of Matthew in Hebrew. “He wrote it in Hebrew, as primarily designing it for the use of his
countrymen; and strange it is, that any should question its being originally written in that language,
when this is so universally and uncontrollably asserted by all antiquity…”88 Bartholomew may have
travelled even further east had he not been killed in India.
The apostle Thomas went to India and beyond to the far East. “Having travelled through this
countries, he at last came into India. We are told by Nicephorus...he travelled a great way into those
eastern nations, as far as the island Taprobane, since called Sumatra,”89 The apostle Thomas
travelled during the 1st century AD and would not have passed through the Strait of Malacca . In
order to get as far east as Sumatra in Indonesia, Thomas would have passed the lands of the Aurea
Chersonesus through the rivers accessed from the Ganges gateway, and sailed onward to the islands
of Sumatra. He would have needed to stop at several ancient inland ports along the way, where
Israelite communities may possibly have been established. It is recorded that, “St. Thomas came first
to Soco-tora (Socotra, Yemen), an island in the Arabian sea, thence to Cran-ganor (Kodungallur,
India), where having converted many, he travelled further into the east…” 89
Evangelism of the 12 lost tribes of Israel was the unction of the twelve apostles, given by Christ
himself. And although the 12 tribes may seem lost to us now, the early apostles appeared to be
confident that their writings would reach them in the distant lands where they lived. The letter of
James begins with this greeting, “James, a bond-servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ, To the
twelve tribes who are dispersed abroad: Greetings.”90

After returning from his successful mission to the Far East of Asia, Thomas built a place of worship at
Malipur, the main city of the Kingdom of Coromandel, near the influx of the Ganges river. And why
would he build here? Thomas must have recognized that this was the main gateway into the Golden
Lands in antiquity. All maritime merchant travellers would have passed through this point, whether
going in or out, and would have found rest and necessary supplies from the bustling Metropolis. The
steady stream of traders and travellers would have carried the gospel message into distant lands.
Even Sagamo, Prince of that land who had first opposed Thomas, was converted as were many of
his subjects. Thomas was martyred by jealous Brahmans and his body was buried in the church that
he had built.
Don Alfonso Sousa, viceroy in India under John the Third of Portugal, told of brass tables with ancient
Jewish inscriptions that recorded the donation by King Sagamo of the piece of ground on which
Thomas had built the church. The Portuguese found many writings, ancient monuments, and
traditions that support these historical events when they first arrived on these lands. Marco Polo told
of the Kingdom of Koulam, India that was populated by Christians and Jews who spoke in the
Hebrew language. “It is the residence of many Christians and Jews, who retain their proper
language.”91
The descendants of Eber were called Hebrews 92 and presumably spoke the Hebrew language, like
the Patriarch Abraham who was also from the line of Eber. Solomon may have seen trading with
Ophir as interacting with a distant relative who may have spoken a similar tongue. This feeling of
familiarity and blood ties may have proven strong enough to cause some of the ten tribes of Israel to
take the journey and settle in the land of Ophir during the violent diaspora brought by the Assyrian
and Babylonian empires,93 and even before then. This would have been made possible by the steady
traffic of fleets of ships travelling to and from Ophir every three years from ports controlled by Israel.
The third and relatively ‘recent’ group of settlers in the islands of the Philippines were called the
Tagalogs. This people group still carried the remembrance of the lands they had migrated from. “That
the Tagalogs originated directly from the Malays, is proved (in the opinion of all) by their language,
which differs but little from that of the real Malays; by their color, and the shape of their faces and
their bodies; by the clothes and vesture in which the Spanish conquistadors found them; by their

customs and ceremonies, all of which resemble those of the Malays--of whom the Tagalogs
themselves said, and say always, that they are the true descendants.”94
This people group claimed that their ancestors “came from a district called Malayo; that is the origin
of all the Malays, who are scattered throughout the most and the better parts of all these
archipelagoes.”94 The Tagalog word ‘malayo’ literally means far away, and may have been their
predecessor’s way of reminding the succeeding generations that they were a great distance from
their homeland. This third people group are scattered along the best areas of the Philippine
archipelago along the riverbanks and coastal lands. The Spaniards saw them as a “...remarkable
class of people, and their domination, scattered throughout the many islands of this archipelago, the
chief of whom are the Tagalogs, Pampangos, Visayans, and Mindanaos.”94 It is in their language that
1,500 Hebrew root words are found.95
Dr. Victor Paz of the UP Diliman Archaeological Studies Program, noted the existence of legends in
Northern Mindanao, that a lost tribe of Israel may be found somewhere along the Agusan River.
Interestingly, the word ‘Tagalog’ stems from the description ‘Taga-ilog’, meaning the people who live
by the river. Descendants of the Israelites would naturally have chosen to live near the rivers and
coastlands in order to maintain the trade of gold and other merchandise with various maritime
civilizations. It is also in this Northern Mindanao region that possible Phoenician artifacts have been
found, including the distinctive Phoenician fused glass heads.
Visayans hold to the legend of the ten datus as their history,96 wherein the datus and their families
had travelled north from the southern part of the Malay archipelago in their balangays to find a
suitable land to settle in. According to the epic, they purchased Panay from the Negritos (a.k.a Aetas,
Atis) under King Marikudo and his Queen Maniwangtiwang, who had received gold, cloth and jewels
as tribute. The Atis (Negritos) sold the datus the plains and rivers, but kept the forests and mountains
which they preferred. The Negritos were apparently seen as the legitimate owners of the Golden
islands from ancient times. This peaceful transaction is still celebrated today in the Ati-Atihan Festival.
Thus, we see in the sequential arrival of the three different major indigenous peoples groups of the
Philippines, in alignment with the myth, traditions, and historical records of several civilizations
regarding the land of Tarshish and Ophir.

The colonization of the Philippine islands may have continued for hundreds of years, judging by the
variety of cast Chinese coins found here, from Zhou Dynasty coins to those of the Xin and Han
Dynasties. Phoenicians may have also built and defended their colonies on these isles. A son of a
general serving under 9th century BC King Pygmalion of Tyre is immortalized by the Nora Stone
inscription as having died in battle while fighting with his army in Tarshish.97
Like in the Reges Tharsis Psalm 72, where the King rules from sea to sea all the way to the isles of
the kings of Tarshish, “Esarhaddon, Aššur Babylon E (AsBbE) (=K18096 and EŞ6262 in the British
Museum and Istanbul Archaeological Museum, respectively) preserves "All the kings from the lands
surrounded by sea- from the country Iadanana (Cyprus) and Iaman, as far as Tarsisi (Tarshish),
bowed to my feet." Here, Tarshish is certainly a large island, and cannot be confused with Tarsus
(Thompson and Skaggs 2013)”.98 This prideful claim was made by the Assyrian King c. 681 BC-669
BC. Cyprus is a populous island in the Mediterranean Sea southeast of Greece. If as some claim,
Tarshish was located somewhere around the Mediterranean (i.e. Spain), then this would be a pathetic
boast indeed. It would also make no sense, since the scope of the land under the Assyrian Empire
would not have even been part of it, for it lay in the opposite direction. “During their zenith from 10th
century BC to 7th century BC, the Assyrians controlled an enormous territory that extended from the
borders of Egypt to the eastern highlands of Iran.”99
King Esarhaddon had a treaty with Tyre King Baal I, puppet king of the Assyrian Empire, who was
given control of all the main Phoenician ports including ancient Byblos and Sidon. Following is the
partially preserved treaty.
“Esarhaddon, king of Assyria... If a ship of Ba'al or of the people of Tyre (KUR.ṣur-ri) is shipwrecked
off the coast of the land of Pilistu (KUR.pi-lis-ti) or anywhere on the borders of Assyrian territory,
everything that is on the ship belongs to Esarhaddon, king of Assyria, but one must not do any harm
to any person on board ship, they should list their names and inform the king of Assyria... These are
the ports of trade and the trade roads which Esarhaddon, king of Assyria, granted to his servant
Ba'al; toward Akko (URU.a-ku-u), Dor (URU.du-uʾ-ri), in the entire district of Pilistu (KUR.pi-lis-te),
and in all the cities within Assyrian territory, on the seacoast, and in Byblos (URU.gu-ub-lu), across
the Lebanon (KUR.lab-na-[na]), all the cities in the mountains, all the cities of Esarhaddon, king of
Assyria, which Esarhaddon, king of Assyria gave to Ba'al ..., to the people of Tyre (KUR.ṣur-ri), in
their ships or all those who cross over, in the towns of Ba'al, his towns, his manors, his wharves,

which ..., to ..., as many as lie in the outlying regions, as in the past … they…, nobody should harm
their ships. Inland, in his district, in his manors…”100
Preserved on this Assyrian clay tablet inscription were the names of ten kings from the coast of the
sea and ten kings from the middle of the sea. At the time of King Esarhaddon, the Phoenician king of
Tyre controlled the maritime trade to their most distant of colonies, as far as the isles of Tarshish.
Thus, in a way, all the islands from the west to the far eastern ends of the earth paid tribute to the
Assyrian king.
After King Solomon died, Israel split into two and there was much strife and war. Israel’s trade with
China via the Ships of Tarshish seemed to have ended, shown by King Jehoram trying unsuccessfully
to build his own Ships of Tarshish. However, China may not have had too much trouble looking for
Western customers for the gold which was held at supreme value to these foreign lands. Hebrew
scriptures note that aside from gold from Uphaz (Ophir), their ships also traded in various other
metals. “Tarshish was your customer because of the abundance of all kinds of wealth; with silver,
iron, tin and lead they paid for your wares.”101
These were resources that were abundantly found in China and in the lands of the Aurea
Chersonesus. “...variety and abundance of natural resources including deposits of all metals used in
pre modern times: gold, silver, copper, tin, iron, lead, mercury, and zinc.”102
According to Herodotus (4.42), the Phoenicians were commissioned by Pharaoh Necho II (610 BC-
595 BC) to circumnavigate the African continent beginning from the Red Sea and ending in the Nile
three years later. This may have marked the moment when the Phoenician colonies of Carthage and
Cadiz discovered that there was a direct water route to Tarshish without having to launch from the
Red Sea ports that were often unavailable due to frequent wars and conflicts.
In a collection of early texts (1493-1898) regarding the origins of the Philippine peoples preserved by
Francisco Colin, Francisco Combes and Gaspar de San Agustin, the writer wonders which settlers
from ancient civilizations had arrived first on our isles, giving us an intriguing list.
“Now, then, I have said as much as there is to say of the origin of the Indians, if we speak of the first
and most remote. For to endeavor to determine the first settlers of these lands, whence and how they
came, whether they were Carthaginians, Jews, Spaniards, Phoenicians, Greeks, Chinese, Tartars,
etc., is reserved for God, who knows everything; and this task exceeds all human endeavor.”103
This scholar did not know the sequence that these civilizations had arrived, but that they had indeed
been part of the early Philippine precolonial history was not a question to him. Carthage (around 900

BC-146 BC) was a Phoenician Colony in the Mediterranean North African coast that was an important
trading empire of it’s age. Spain also had become home to the significant Phoenician colony of Cádiz
from around 1110 BC.104 The term Phoenicians would have been used in this case to refer to the
ancient city states along the coast of Lebanon (i.e. Tyre, Sidon, Byblos) from which the maritime
merchants had originated. The Phoenicians were known to have established coastal colonies and
trade partnerships with numerous civilizations, including the Egyptians, Jews, Etruscans and Greeks.
The colonies of Carthage and Cadiz may have taken advantage of the time when the Babylonian
Empire (c. 600 BC) launched attacks against the Phoenician city of Tyre that had been loyal to the
defeated Assyrian Empire. Taking the long route around the coast of Africa, they may have engaged
in lucrative trade with the lands of Tarshish and Ophir for several hundred years. Ancient Phoenician
core formed fused glass eye beads, mosaic glass beads, and fused glass heads are found on the
islands of the Philippines, along with many other evidences of their presence in the past.
Ancient maritime documents like the 1st century Periplus of the Erythrean Sea discuss the different
ports along the African coast on the way to Ophir. Likewise, the Spanish Documento Num. 98 (1520-
1528) begins with ports and islands of the African continent, before reaching Ofir (Ophir). It may have
been this long maritime route that the prophet Jonah had been willing to take from the port city of
Joppa, through the Mediterranean Sea and along the coast of Africa to reach the ends of the earth
--the isles of Tarshish --in order to run away from His God.
After a global rising of the sea levels (around 400 BC) which will be discussed in the next chapter,
Ophir may have been renamed the island of the Lequios. In the Documento Num. 98, under the
heading of Lequios is the subheading Ophir followed by these details: “ in front of this mentioned
China and its land, there are many islands in the sea and beyond these islands a land very large that
they say it is ‘tierra firme’ (land mass) and other islands where every year there used to arrive three
or four juncos (asian style ships) with white people that are big merchants and very wealthy and they
bring lots of gold in bars and silver and silk and lots of very good wheat and very beautiful porcelains
and other merchandise and they carry lots of pepper and the other things that the called chinese
carry. To those they call lequios and those of malac they say that they are better people and better
traders and wealthier and better dressed and more honest than the chinese of whom we still have no
news because they never came to malac since the portuguese went there.”105

This report was taken in Malacca (Malaysia), regarding an archipelago with many islands and some
considerably large land areas, that traded with both Malaysia and China. The Philippine archipelago
with over 7,640 islands with the larger land masses of Luzon and Mindanao strategically located in
the sea between China and Malaysia with a long history of trade relations with both nations, fits every
detail. The three or four Junks that they were using matches the type of vessel, Ships of Tarshish,
reportedly used in antiquity to travel to and from the land of Ophir (Chryse). The Lequios, white
merchants, described by others as bearded men, could have been the few surviving Phoenician
merchants who may have later settled and integrated with the general Philippine population. Trade
goods that were listed besides gold and silver, seem to be of Chinese origin and is consistent with
ancient merchants who acquired trade goods from one port to exchange at a higher value in another
land.
Charles Ralph Boxer wrote regarding the Lequios based on a narrative given by Tome Pires crown
factor in Malacca (1512-1515). “Lequios...The King is a heathen and all the people too. He is a
tributary vassal of the king of the Chinese. His island is large and has many people; they have small
ships of their own type; they have three or four junks which are continuously buying in China, and
they have no more. They trade in China and Malacca, and sometimes in company with the Chinese,
sometimes on their own. In China they trade in the port of Foquem (Fukien) which is in the land of
China near Canton. A day and a night’s sail away. The Malay’s say to the people of Malacca that
there is no difference between the Portuguese and Lequios, except that the Portuguese buy women,
which the lequios do not.”106
16th century Philippines was not a Christian nation and would have been considered heathens. Pre-
colonial Philippines had been a tributary vassal of Imperial China, that had a big population, specially
concentrated on the larger mainlands in Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. Historians have noted many
kinds of ships found in the Philippine islands. Many boats that were of local make and manufacture,
but there were three or four Junks, similar in number to the Junks noted in Documento Num. 98, that
were involved in constant trade with China and Malaysia. The day and half it took to sail from Lequios
to the port of Canton or the port Fukien would be around the right time for travel from the Philippines
to that port. Note that Fukien is one of the most common Chinese dialects spoken by immigrants from
China who have settled in the Philippines, indicating a long history of trade with that particular area.

One of the most interesting details given is the statement that, “there is no difference between the
Portuguese and Lequios” except for variances in values. Portugal and Spain were home to the
ancient Phoenician colony of Cadiz, that according to the Spanish scholars had been one of the
peoples who had come to precolonial Philippines in our distant past. Could the Lequios have been
descendants from the Phoenician colony of Cadiz bearing the same physical traits and speaking the
same language as the Iberian explorers but with much older values? Historian William Henry Scott
pondered over the unexplained abundance of Spanish speaking natives found in East Asia,
specifically in the Philippines, meeting the explorers who were supposed to have just ‘discovered’ the
islands. “When Monzaide took Vasco de Gama’s comrades ashore in India, he introduced them to
another interpreter: Is it likely that these were the only two men in Calicut (India) who could speak
European languages -- just waiting, so to speak, to be discovered?...And when Sebastian de Elcano
met Pazeculan in Borneo by sheer happenstance and then Uzman 4 months later, 2,000 kilometers
away in Tidore, what were the odds against their being the only two persons in South East Asia who
knew Spanish? These questions suggest that the presence of the Spanish-speaking slave on the
Luzon caracoa may not have been an isolated phenomenon. Perhaps further research on the
Mediterranean connection will provide the final explanation by exploring the question, just how many
people between Granada and Manila could speak Spanish in 1521?”107
Boxer continued the description of the Lequios, detailing the products of the land they come from,
craftsmanship in metalsmithing, and old time values.
“The Lequios have only wheat in their country, and rice and wines after their fashion, meat, and fish
in great abundance. They are great draftsmen and armourers. They make gilt coffers, very rich and
well-made fans, swords, many arms of all kinds after their fashion. Just as we in our kingdom speak
of Milan, so do the Chinese and all other races speak of the Lequios. They are very truthful men.
They do not buy slaves, nor would they sell one of their own men for the whole world, and they would
die over this.”108
The Philippines is blessed with abundant food from grains to all kinds of meats and fish. Phoenician
skill and technical knowledge in manufacturing all sorts of crafts, particularly metalsmithing.
Phoenicians were proponents of writing, who brought the alphabet to the world. Paper was one of the

Lequios trade items, which were surely put to use by the Phoenician craftsmen to draft their precisely
measured symmetrical designs. As all good businessmen, the maritime Phoenicians knew the
importance of honesty in ensuring long term customers, and loyalty to maintain the bond within their
group. Boxer mentioned that the Lequios “sell their merchandise freely for credit,” but have stern
collection policies. “and if they are lied to when they collect payment, they collect it sword in hand.”108
It was recorded that it took seven to eight days for the Lequios to get to Japan, which did not have
frequent trade with China because Japan had no Junks. The seven to eight day sail to Japan from the
Philippines was a good estimate of the time it would take for that journey. Lequios main trade goods
are listed as, “The chief [merchandise] is gold, copper, and arms of all kinds, coffers, boxes with gold-
leaf veneer, fans, wheat, and their things are well made. They bring a great deal of gold...They bring
a great store of paper and silk in colours. They bring musk, porcelain, damask; they bring onions and
many vegetables.
They take the same merchandise the Chinese take...they take a great deal of Bengal clothing.
Among the Lequios Malacca wine is greatly esteemed. They load large quantities...The Lequios bring
swords worth thirty cruzados each, and many of these.”108
The Phoenician penchant for human sacrifice that started with their ancestor Kronos (Ham) whom the
Phoenicians say sacrificed his own son, was still carried on by the Lequios.
“The Lequios are idolaters; if they are sailing and find themselves in danger, they say that if they
escape they buy a beautiful maiden to be sacrificed and behead her on the prow of the junk, and
other things like these.”108
Ferdinand Mendez Pinto who claimed to have been shipwrecked on the island of the Lequios, and
had given coordinates that led to the center of the Philippine islands, listed the Southern islands of
Asia that the Portuguese had colonized. “...we have conquered all along the Southern coast, as
Malaca, Bauda, Maluco, Sunda, Borneo, and Timor,”127 then Pinto listed the rich lands to the North
which he was urging Portugal to conquer. “And northwards, China, Japan, and Lequios…”109 Thus,
once again we are given directions to Lequios North of Malaysia and Indonesia. And if combined with
other directions from documents like the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, that we would find Chryse
south of China and east of the Ganges, then we are given no other choice but the Philippine islands.

What happened to the Lequios? There are some scholars who attribute their disappearance to the
first Governor-General of the East Indies, Miguel Lopez de Legaspi, whose own reports show his
fascination with the gold on the Philippine islands. It is said that the Lequios ships were Legaspi’s
favorite target since they were reputed to have always been full of gold. Another possibility was that
once the Portuguese conquistadores arrived, they may have ceased their merchant ventures in order
not to cause conflict with those they may have recognized as their own kind. The ancient Phoenicians
had a strict code of never going to war against their own. Still yet it is possible that the Lequios had
simply lost the battle against time, with their slowly decaying ships and disappearing culture. They
may have retired their vessels as they integrated with the local Philippine community. Or maybe it
was everything all together. The Lequios were gone. The last remnant of the ancient Phoenician
colony of Ophir, that had provided a great part of the gold of the world was no more. And the people
of the Golden island may have forgotten, but the past still speaks. Everyone leaves traces of their
passing, whether it be in the memories on those left behind or items that they could not take with
them after death or in the teachings they taught those who survived them.
In the Philippine archipelago we find that all the puzzle pieces regarding Tarshish and Ophir fall firmly
in place without needing to force them in. The evidence of ancient testimonies, historical records,
mythologies, and archaeological artifacts that match what we would expect from the bustling
international ports of the lands of Tarshish and Ophir are found on these islands. Finding Tarshish is
not difficult when we follow the specific directions given in many ancient documents that unanimously
point us to the direction of the Philippines.

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57. Tan Ee Lyn. “Ancient Jade Study Sheds Light on Sea Trade.” Reuters. November 20, 2007.
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58. K.V. Ramakrishna Rao B.Sc., M.A., A.M.I.E., C.Eng. (I )., B.L., “The Maritime Activities of the Ancient Tamils and
the Indus Valley Civilizations.” Paper submitted on International Symposium on Indus Civilization and Tamil
Language, Chennai. February 16-17, 2007. <http://www.allempires.com/Forum/forum_posts.asp?TID=20757>
59. James Legge, trans. The She King. Book III. The Odes Of P’ei. I.Pih chau. 柏舟. P.38-41
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id=3qe4AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT315&lpg=PT315&dq=philo+of+byblos+history+800+camels&source=bl&ots=tvIRp4IZPj
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63. William Smith, LLD, Ed. “Rubrum Mare.” Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography (1854). 2/7/17.
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64. James Legge, trans. The Shu King, Shih King, And Hsiao King.“16. The Prince of Shih. 3-4.” 1879
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67. Paul Kekai Manansala. Quests of the Dragon and Bird Clan. p229-230. Lulu.com. 2006.
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id=013dKNOV77oC&pg=PA229&lpg=PA229&dq=In+this+island+are+many+gold+mines,
+some+of+which+have+been+inspected+by+the+Spaniards,
+who+say+that+the+natives+work+them+as+is+done+in+Nueva+Espana+with+the+mines+of+silver%3B+and,
+as+in+these+mines,+the+vein+of+ore+here+is+continuous.+Assays+have+been+made,
+yielding+so+great+wealth+that+I+shall+not+endeavor+to+describe+them,+lest+I+be+suspected+of+lying.
+Time+will+prove+the+truth&source=bl&ots=3KFqJ5e073&sig=cXxAiUxfSRgIfjCjZV8u8gCwcDQ&hl=en&sa=X&re
dir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false>
68. Christine L. Diaz. The Other Philippine History Textbook. Manila: Anvil. 2009. P46-47
69. E.H. Blair. The Philippine Islands, 1493-1803, Volume III, 1569-1576.Project Guttenberg. 2004.
70. “Chinese Jade.” Facts and Details. 2017. <http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat7/sub40/item259.html>
71. Jeffrey Hays, “Chinese Art from the Great Dynasties.” Facts and Details. 2017.
2011. P38
73. Professor Mitchell Chen. “Western Zhou Dynasty(1122 BCE-771 BCE).” ExoticJades.com. 2017.
<https://exoticjades.com/2016/01/12/western-zhou-dynasty-1122-bce-771bce/>
History. Dacca: Asoke Kumar Majumdar. 1937. P.41
75. Ralph Jennings. “Trillion-Dollar Philippine Economic Goldmine Emerging from Murky Pit.” [April 5, 2015]. Forbes
Asia. 2016. <http://www.forbes.com/sites/ralphjennings/2015/04/05/trillion-dollar-goldmine-for-philippine-economy-
emerging-from-murky-pit/#7cccd7c33f26>
76. Lisa Spear. “Children in the Philippines Risk Their Lives in Underwater Goldmines, Report Says.” [September 30,
2015]. Time. 2016. <http://time.com/4055289/child-miners-philippines-gold/>
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78. Paul Kekai Manansala. “Philippine Civilization, Culture, and Technology.” 2016. WebArchive.org. 10/20/16.
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79. Ambeth R. Ocampo. Prehistoric Philippines. Philippines: Anvil. 2012. P48-49
80. CHAPTER IV. Of the origin of the nations and peoples who inhabit these islands. 30. The Project Gutenberg
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Descriptions of the Islands and Their Peoples, Their History and Records of the Catholic Missions, as Related in
Contemporaneous Books and Manuscripts, Showing the Political, Economic, Commercial and Religious Conditions
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83. Colección general de documentos relativos a las Islas Filipinas existentes en el Archivo de Indias de Sevilla. Tomo
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84. Ernest Rhys, ed. “The Travels of Marco Polo the Venetian.” Everyman’s Library. Archive.org. 3/6/17.
85. Weil, Shalva. (1991) "Beyond the Sambatyon: the Myth of the Ten Lost Tribes." Tel-Aviv: Beth Hatefutsoth, the
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86. Rotem Kowner. “An Obscure History.” Inside Indonesia. 2016. <http://www.insideindonesia.org/an-obscure-history>
87. Matthew 10:5-6
88. William Cave, D.D. Antiquitates Apostolicae: or, the Lives, Acts, and Martyrdoms of the Holy Apostles of our
Saviour… Vol.II. London: John Hatchard and Son, Piccadilly. 1834. pp 144-145
89. William Cave, D.D. Antiquitates Apostolicae: or, the Lives, Acts, and Martyrdoms of the Holy Apostles of our

Saviour… Vol.II. London: John Hatchard and Son, Piccadilly. 1834. pp 153-155
90. New American Standard Bible. James 1:1. CA: The Lockman Foundation, 1995
91. Ernest Rhys, ed. “The Travels of Marco Polo the Venetian.” Everyman’s Library. Archive.org. 3/6/17.
92. “What is a Hebrew?” YHVH.name. 2016. <http://yhvh.name/?w=1307>
93. “Ancient Jewish History: The Diaspora.” Jewish Virtual Library. 2016.
<http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Diaspora.html>
95. Isagani Datu-Aca Tabilog. “Philippines Ancient Biblical History.” Scribd. 2014. P39.
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96. Pedro Alcantara Monteclaro. Maragtas, History of Panay from the first inhabitants and the Bornean Immigrants
from which the Bisayans are descended to the Arrival of the Spaniards. Iloilo: Kadapig sang Banwa. 1907
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98. “Tarshish.” Wikipedia. 2017. <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarshish>
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should-know-about-the-assyrian-army/>
100.“Esarhaddon's Treaty with Ba'al of Tyre.” Wikipedia. 2017. <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esarhaddon
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101.New American Standard Bible. Ezekiel 27:12. CA: The Lockman Foundation, 1995
102.Edward L. Shaughnessy, ed. China. London: Duncan Baird Publishers. 2005. p172
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Cogan, Henry, trans. p.61 <https://archive.org/stream/cu31924011271826#page/n103/mode/2up>

Chapter 6
What Now?
“To foretell the destiny of a nation, it is necessary to open the book that tells of her past.”1
-- Quote inscribed in Fort Santiago, attributed to Dr. Jose Rizal
History cannot be changed. It is in the past where one cannot return and redo what has been done. It
is set, firmer than inscriptions on nephrite or bronze. What must remain fluid is our perception of what
had transpired. Theories and assumptions have to give way to new archaeological and scientific
discoveries, as well as ancient records of people who were actually there, that cast new light on the
events in ages hidden to us by the murky waters of time.
A nation needs its history. It is our history that makes us who we are. It is what we make with what we
are that allows us to move forward. It is our collective soul. Our pains and joys, our triumphs and
failures, it is what we have endured together as a people --our memories. It is the promise that as our
predecessors have survived in the past, we too shall overcome the trials that we face.
If history books need to be rewritten, it is only because they have been rewritten before. It must be
rewritten again, in order to return to our history before it was rewritten. A solid historical foundation
must be built, not by our colonizers, but by nationalists who do not fear the truth wherever it may lead.
Will we make mistakes? Of course. There is still so much to be discovered, so many mistakes to be
made. The challenge is for the succeeding generations to use their minds and think, and correct the
mistakes we make. Specially in the Philippines where much of our history may be buried under the
salty waves of the seas, it will require daring and dedicated men and women to brave the darkness of
the deep in order to bring light to our past.
Underwater archaeologist Dr. Robert Ballard has said that, “There's probably more history now
preserved underwater than in all the museums of the world combined. And there's no law governing
that history. It's finders keepers. Who’s the finder? A good guy or a bad guy?”2
Some feared that my study of Philippine prehistory in relation to China would find, as they claim, that
China had in fact been lord over the islands and the seas of Southeast Asia in antiquity. This is true.
But going back into remote antiquity, they were not. And we learn from history that China has as

much claim as Spain or Japan or America or any other colonizer over the islands and national waters
of the Philippines, which is, that they have no claim at all.
Going Back to Remote Antiquity

Ancient historical texts, myths, and sacred scriptures around the world are united in telling us that
after the Deluge that ended the first age, the world was repopulated and divided among the three
sons of Noah. The global flood that transformed the heavens and the earth was included as part of
China’s history by the Grand Historian- Sima Qian. In this regard, China joins the ranks of other
civilizations in antiquity that had preserved the records of the Deluge as part of their histories, like the
ancient Egyptians, Sumerians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, Hebrews, Greeks, Indians, and many more
nations.
After the flood, the historian Josephus tells us that the population was not too keen on splitting up into
their own lands. Instead they preferred to stay together and build one great city, united with one
language. The concept that there was only one language during the most ancient of times is echoed
in myths from every continent on earth from the East African Bantus to the Ticunas of the Brazilian
Amazon to the ancient Greek civilizations.3
"Before the flood, there was but one centre; for all the people lived together in one country, and spoke
one language."4 such is the story told by the North American Kaska Tribe.
Ancient Mesopotamian records in the poem Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, tell us that mankind
spoke one language in the past until a sudden event changed that situation.
“In those days . . . the whole universe, the people in unison, . . .
Enki, the Lord of abundance, . . .
Changed the speech in their mouths, and [brought?] contention into it,
Into the speech of man that [until then] had been one.”5
Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands in the Bay of Bengal believe that languages were given by
Puluga (God) after the Deluge, and that, “... his offspring became so numerous that their home could
no longer accommodate them. At Pūluga's bidding they were furnished with all necessary weapons,
implements, and fire, and then scattered in pairs all over the country. When this exodus occurred
Puluga- provided each party with a distinct dialect.”6

The Sibylline Chronicles tell of a tower built after a great Deluge,
“(And they all spoke one language, and resolved to mount aloft into the starry heaven; But on the air
the Immortal straightway put a mighty force; and then winds from above cast down the great tower
and stirred mortals up to wrangling with each other; therefore men gave to that city the name of
Babylon);-- Now when the tower fell and the tongues of men turned to all sorts of sounds, straightway
all earth was filled with men and kingdoms were divided.”7
The Book of Genesis tells us that after the Deluge, “... the whole earth used the same language and
the same words. 2 It came about as they journeyed east, that they found a plain in the land of Shinar
and settled there. 3 They said to one another, “Come, let us make bricks and burn them thoroughly.”
And they used brick for stone, and they used tar for mortar. 4 They said, “Come, let us build for
ourselves a city, and a tower whose top will reach into heaven, and let us make for ourselves a name,
otherwise we will be scattered abroad over the face of the whole earth.” 5 The LORD came down to
see the city and the tower which the sons of men had built. 6 The LORD said, “Behold, they are one
people, and they all have the same language. And this is what they began to do, and now nothing
which they purpose to do will be impossible for them. 7 Come, let Us go down and there confuse their
language, so that they will not understand one another’s speech.” 8 So the LORD scattered them
abroad from there over the face of the whole earth; and they stopped building the city. 9 Therefore its
name was called Babel, because there the LORD confused the language of the whole earth; and from
there the LORD scattered them abroad over the face of the whole earth.”8
For those who consider this story of the origin of languages a ridiculous fairy tale, here are some
measurable facts to ponder.
“The application of the Language Endangerment Scale to all known languages has revealed that a
total of 3,176 can be considered to be endangered. This is about 46% of all living languages,...
language death progresses at the rate of about one language in three months... The looming loss of
almost half of the world’s languages is sufficient proof for the “ongoing crisis of language loss," as
Campbell phrased it. The new findings also show that the rate at which languages die out has highly
accelerated in the last half century...Today 457 or 9.2% of the living languages have fewer than 10
speakers and are very likely to die out soon,... 639 of the languages known to have existed are
already extinct – 10% of all languages.”9
The languages of the world are steadily decreasing in number with an average loss of four languages
a year. Loss of languages is expected to increase in speed as it has done historically. Since
languages have a tendency to disappear rather than be spontaneously created, are we then to infer
that there was a point in time when all these languages suddenly appeared in abundance, and has

since began to lessen in number? Should we not then take a second look at the stories found on
every continent regarding the events that led to the diversity of tongues?
Plato records that each family was dispersed and given a portion of earth as their own, and in those
early days, civilization founders directed the people by directing their beliefs.
“So by just allotments they received each one his own, and they settled their countries; and when
they had just settled them, they reared us up, even as herdsmen rear their flocks, to be their cattle
and nurslings; only it was not our bodies that they constrained by bodily force, like shepherds guiding
their flocks with stroke of staff, but they directed from the stern where the living creature is easiest to
turn about, laying hold on the soul by persuasion, as by a rudder, according to their own disposition;
and thus they drove and steered all the mortal kind...”10
Likewise, Hebrew scriptures in Genesis 10 record the dispersion of the nations and their division by
lands and families and languages. Genesis informs us that Eber named his son Peleg to
commemorate that it was during his days that the earth was divided.
As the colonies established themselves and multiplied in the lands appointed to them, rulers
understood that the way to govern a people was not by sheer force, but by winning over their hearts
and minds. They discovered that when the devotion of the people had been won, then it was not
difficult to get them to do the tasks that you would have them do. This was accomplished by the early
founders through belief systems, which we now call religions.
Myth and lore tell us that many of the early founders of civilization saw the establishment of the right
faith and beliefs to be of utmost importance, like the Mesoamerican Viracocha who travelled from
land to land to ensure that the peoples were obeying the commands of God.
Some of the second age colonies kept the faith of Noah and the laws of Creator God, the unseen all
powerful, omniscient, omnipresent Lord of Heaven and Earth, who had created man, in His great
love, to rule over the earth.
The peoples of China started their civilization with a deep reverence for the invisible God and knew
that leadership over the people was a responsibility given by Heaven. Use and manufacture of idols
in China only began with the influx of Buddhism over a thousand years later. They also realized that
in order to rule the people, the sovereign must first have won their heart and soul. “The people are
not constant to those whom they cherish; --they cherish only him who is benevolent...A place of
difficulty is the Heaven-(conferred) seat. When there are (those) virtues, good government is realized;
when they are not, disorder comes...good government will surely lead to prosperity; to pursue the
courses of disorder will surely lead to ruin...The former king was always zealous in the reverent
cultivation of his virtue, so that he was the fellow of God.”11

Heaven ruling earth was not a uniquely Chinese concept in antiquity, King Nebuchadnezzar who
ruled the Babylonian Empire declared, “Now I, Nebuchadnezzar, praise, exalt and honor the King of
heaven, for all His works are true and His ways just, and He is able to humble those who walk in
pride.”12
The ancient Chinese saw all virtues, principles and laws as coming from Heaven. And rulers,
appointed by God to carry out Heaven’s will. “Heaven loves the people, and the sovereign should
reverently carry out (this mind of) Heaven.”13 The ruler had to remember that he had to answer to
Heaven for the things done while fulfilling the appointed duties. Heaven was not some ethereal
essence. Heaven loves, thinks, plans, decides, and acts.
Daniel, Hebrew prophet and royal advisor to empires, wrote about the God of Heaven, “It is He who
changes the times and the epochs; He removes kings and establishes kings…”14 In fact, according to
the records of the Book of Numbers, it is God who gave specific instructions through Moses regarding
the scope of the borders of the Nation of Israel. The Book of Numbers gives us very specific land and
sea references in order to correctly circumscribe the area that would belong to these people who had
just escaped slavery under Egypt.
“Your southern border will take in some of the Wilderness of Zin where it touches Edom. It starts in
the east at the Dead Sea, curves south of Scorpion Pass and on to Zin, continues south of Kadesh
Barnea, then to Hazar Addar and on to Azmon, where it takes a turn to the northwest to the Brook of
Egypt and on to the Mediterranean Sea.
“Your western border will be the Mediterranean Sea.
“Your northern border runs on a line from the Mediterranean Sea to Mount Hor, and from Mount Hor
to Lebo Hamath, connects to Zedad, continues to Ziphron, and ends at Hazar Enan. This is your
northern border.
“Your eastern border runs on a line from Hazar Enan to Shepham. The border goes south from
Shepham to Riblah to the east of Ain, and continues along the slopes east of the Sea of Galilee. The
border then follows the Jordan River and ends at the Dead Sea.
“This is your land with its four borders.” (Numbers 34:3-12, MSG © Eugene H. Peterson)
China also seemed to be aware of the allotment of land that had been assigned to them from the very
beginning of their nation. In the Book of Thang from Shu King (Classic of History) Ti Yao, 4th of the 5
kings before the Xia Dynasty (1600 BC-1046 BC), we learn of his earnest service to the peoples of

ancient China who lived in the land within the four seas 四海. In order to make careful accurate
astronomical observations in regard to signs and seasons, Yao assigned brothers from the Hsi and
Ho families to the four corners of the kingdom (North, South, East and West).
Second brother Hsi was appointed to the East, at a point of the land where he would be the first in the
kingdom to greet the sunrise. His home was Yu-i, the Bright Valley 暘谷, which has been identified by
some scholars as Tang-Kau in Shantung (red in map below).15 Shantung is located at the eastern
edge of China with coastlands reaching into the East China Sea. The East China Sea was seen as
the Easternmost boundary of China in remote antiquity.
16
Third brother Hsi was made to live in the South. Nan-Kiao (the Brilliant Capital), that has been said to
lie in the border of Annan 安南 (the pacified South) or Annam in northern Vietnam, the Southernmost
province of China during the Tang Dynasty.17 It’s more ancient name Jiaozhou 交州 (Cross State) may
indicate that this was seen as a borderline in ages past. The Brilliant Capital where third brother Hsi
resided was not part of Vietnam but was near their northern border. The Northern edge of Vietnam
may have been the inland boundary line created by the curve of China’s southern territory along the
South China Sea. The South China Sea was the Southernmost boundary of the land of China in
remote antiquity.
Second brother Ho resided in the Western end, the Dark Valley (昧谷/陰谷), where he would be at
the last part of their alloted land to see the daily sunset. Chinese character 谷 refers to a valley where
running water flows through.18 The Shan Hai Ching tells us that the sun and moon go to sleep at the
Jade Gate of Feng Chiu Mountain 豐沮玉門. The Kunlun Mountains that form the Western border of
China, range from the Pamirs of Tajikistan to the southern edge of the Tarim Basin. Two of the most
important sources of jade in antiquity where the Karakash River ‘Black Jade River’ and the
Yurungkash River ‘White Jade River’ which flowed from these mountains. The Tarim Basin, which
used to be an ancient endorheic inland salt sea, was the Westernmost boundary of China in remote
antiquity.

Third brother Ho was commanded to make his home in the North at the Sombre Capital to exactly
determine mid-winter season. Possibly ancient Krorän or Loulan 樓蘭 that had been inhabited since
1800 BC, located on the Northeastern edge of the Lop Nur basin. Loulan 樓蘭 (blue floor) is the
Chinese transcription of Krorän, a name that was used to refer to a city near Lop Nur as well as a
kingdom.19 Lop Nur Basin, like Tarim Basin, was an ancient inland salt sea that has dried up over the
millennia. Both Lop Nur and Tarim ancient inland seas were surrounded by bustling cities in antiquity.
The inland Lop Nur salt sea marked the Northernmost boundary of China in remote antiquity.
The four seas 四海 that marked the boundaries of the land belonging to the Chinese from remote
antiquity would be: East - East China Sea, South - South China Sea, West - Tarim Basin, North - Lop
Nur Basin. Claims by some scholars that these are mythical seas, don’t make sense in an age when
physical boundaries were given to nations using rivers, seas, mountains and other literal markers.
Ancient civilizations, nations, and even empires would speak of the scope of their territories by giving
point A to point B in literal physical markers. In order to give the length and width of the land, ancient
peoples would give physical markers at the four points of the compass, thus the concept of the
‘square’ earth as discussed in the first chapter. Why would the founders of Chinese civilization use
mythical points to define their land? It would be like saying our land ranges from the East China Sea
to the purple elephant and from the South China Sea to fairyland castle. It makes no sense.
During the Han Dynasty war with the Xiongnu (133 BC-89 AD), the Western Sea was identified as
Qinghai Lake and the Northern Sea was thought to be Lake Baikal. Lake Baikal to the far North is
located in Russia even past Mongolia. Qinghai Lake is the largest lake in China and is located 3,205
m above sea level and is closer to the central region of China.
20
Han Dynasty identification of the Western and Northern Seas are questionable since they lacked the
ancient historical records that were almost totally destroyed during the Qin Dynasty. As seen in the
previous chapter on Chinese bronze and other metals, even the ancient weights of currencies such
as the Liang 两 and Shu 銖 may have gotten confused by the imperial Han mints. It is only in the past

few hundred years that ancient texts that have been preserved and hidden have been uncovered and
translated. For example, the West or Western Regions (西域), when used by Chinese chroniclers
from 300 BC-800 AD, were sometimes used to specifically identify the area of the Tarim Basin in
Southern Xinjiang,21
Tarim Basin to the West of China is an oval basin with an area of about 1,020,000 square kilometers
in the Xinjiang region.22 Although mostly desert land today, it was an ancient endorheic basin -a
closed drainage inland salt lake ‘Sea’. The ancient Uyghur name Altishahr (six cities), imply that like
the Lop Nur, the Tarim Basin was bordered by at least six sizable urban centers. Tian Shan mountain
borders the Tarim to the North, and the KunLun mountains mark its Southern edge.
But then, even during this time this ancient inland sea would have shrunk considerably from what it
had been over a thousand years earlier.
“According to the China State Forestry Administration, the desert areas are still expanding by
between 2460 and 10,400km2 per year.”24 Hardest hit by desertification in China is the arid, semi-arid
and dry sub-humid areas in the northwest, northern and western parts of Northeast China. These are
the regions where the Northern and Western Seas that formed the borders of China in antiquity were
transformed into sandy desert basins. After the global Deluge, these Northern and Western inland
seas naturally began to dry up in the absence of natural climatic forces that could replenish their
waters. Monsoon rains from the Indian Ocean were blocked from reaching the Northern and Western
regions of China by the Himalayas and high Tibetan Plateau, while rain clouds from the East and
South did not reach this far inland. Over the millennia, the arid dry climate evaporated these inland
salt seas, leaving vast desert basins.
These four seas at the four points of the compass, circumscribes a very large land area. The scope
and breadth seems to match up with the modern borders of present day China whose population
numbers well over a billion individuals. During the period of remote antiquity with only a small fraction
of its current population, were China’s ancient ancestors exaggerating or was this land truly the area
allotted to their families as a people and a nation?
China in remote antiquity was called the land within the four seas. It was those who lived in the land
within the four seas that mourned Ti Yao for three years.25 It was the land within the four seas that Yu

the Great divided and arranged in accordance with his tasks. It was to the four seas that he directed
the flow of the excess waters in the land. And because of the favor of great Heaven, Yu received the
appointment of Ti (Ruler). “Suddenly you possessed all within the four seas, and became ruler of all
under heaven.”26 Thus, we learn that when rulership of ‘all under heaven’ was mentioned in remote
antiquity, it did not mean the whole world, only the domain that had been allotted by Heaven for that
nation to rule over. In the case of the Chinese nation, this area was the land within the four seas.
During this age, position in government was seen as a responsibility to protect the welfare of the
people the Ti served. “Carefully maintain the throne which you are to occupy, cultivating (the virtues)
that are to be desired in you. If within the four seas there be distress and poverty, your Heaven
conferred revenues will come to a perpetual end.”26 We also learn that the revenue or income of a
nation was cultivated by the leader from the development of his own people and land area, for this
was what had been assigned to them by Heaven. The colonization and subjugation of other nations
to support the ‘way of life’ of any other nation was never part of Heaven’s plan.
The land within the four seas was the designated area for China in remote antiquity. The
understanding that the Chinese nation belonged to one big family group is found in the proverb, “We
are all brothers of the four seas”.27 The Books of Hsia, the Books of Shang, and the Books of Kau
(Zhou) in the Shu King (Classic of History) refer to the land of China several times as the land within
the four seas.
Poets wrote of the land defined within the four seas at each point of the compass.
“...within the four seas; they penetrate everywhere.
It is said in the Book of Poetry,
“From the west to the east,
From the south to the north,
There was not a thought but did him homage.”’28
Beyond the Four Seas

The Sibylline Chronicles tell us that although the three brothers, Shem, Ham and Japheth, had sworn
to their father to maintain peaceful relations, this promise quickly went downhill as soon as the
patriarch Noah died.
“And each one having his own portion reigned and fought not; for a father’s oaths were there and
equal were their portions. But the time complete of old age on the father came, and he died; and the
sons infringing oaths stirred up against each other bitter strife, which one should have the royal rank

and rule over all the mortals; and against each other Cronus and Titan fought.”29
After hundreds of years of relative peace, when nations were given their portion of land to grow
where they were planted, some civilizations may have begun to look past their borders and coveted
what was not theirs. Perhaps when the urgent needs of developing the land and providing the
essentials to their people had been met, they may have started to invest more and more in their
military. Of course initially this could have been simply for defense and law enforcement. Yet as
weapons became more advanced and their strength grew, as did their population and their needs,
then they may have been emboldened to claim rulership over nations in order to possess both the
wealth and the manpower that was not theirs to take.
China’s first dynasty, the Xia (2000 BC- 1045 BC) that began with Yu the Great, was ended by Thang
who was the father of the Shang dynasty (1600 BC- 1046 BC). Thang claimed that the last Xia king
had lost his right to rule because of his tyranny and oppression of the people. And when the people
called upon heaven, “The way of Heaven is to bless the good, and make the bad miserable. It sent
down calamities on (the House of) Hsia, to make manifest its guilt. Therefore I, the little child,
charged with the decree of Heaven and its bright terrors, did not dare to forgive (the criminal).”30
Thus we see that the claim to Heaven’s mandate did not begin with the Duke of Zhou.
In fact Heaven’s mandate was the standard worldwide concept in antiquity. The nation of Israel
understood that it was Heaven who chose their kings and followed the ones anointed by the
prophets. Even leaders of great empires from the Assyrians to the Babylonians to the Medes and
Persians to Alexander king of the Grecian empire, all asked for and claimed Heaven’s mandate to
confirm their right to rule.
And although Heaven does raise up kings, Heaven also dethrones kings. As when King Saul of Israel
sinned against God and was replaced by King David, the Shang dynasty was in turn ended by the
Zhou dynasty that claimed Heaven’s mandate. The Duke of Zhou talked about Heaven’s patience in
waiting for the last Shang king (descendant of Thang) to change from his wicked ways, “...to see if he
would indeed prove himself the ruler of the people; but there was nothing in him to be regarded.
Heaven then sought among your numerous regions, making a great impression by its terrors to stir
up some one who would look (reverently) to it, but in all your regions there was not one deserving of
its favouring regard. But there were the kings of our Kau (Zhou), who treated well the multitudes of
the people, and were able to sustain the burden of virtuous (government).”31
The last Shang king Di Xin 帝辛 had gained notoriety for his decadence and wickedness. Heavily
taxing the people of the Chinese nation to support his orgies held by his ‘Wine pool and Meat Forest’

where a pool filled with wine that could hold several canoes had a central island with a tree of meats
stood.32 He was also noted for his cruelty and pleasure in the torture and pain of others, terrorizing
even his ministers and commoners alike. Di Xin 帝辛 committed suicide when he set fire to his palace
surrounded by his treasures. His life and reign are mentioned in the Confucian Analects and Three
Character Classic. The China he left behind for the new Zhou dynasty had suffered under many years
of oppression and misrule. Numerous rebellions had to be violently quelled, and the hearts of the
people had to be won once more.
Dan (旦), Duke of Zhou son of King Wen, was a man of powerful words and actions. For the ruling
class he wrote decrees and convincing speeches, for the masses he wrote odes and poetry, and for
the rebellious he led the armies to slay even his own brothers. “He smote Yen, and after three years
put its ruler to death. He drove Fei-lien to a corner by the sea, and slew him. The states which he
extinguished amounted to fifty”33
The Duke of Zhou became regent for the young King Cheng when his father King Wu died a few
years after the Zhou dynasty began. Proving his loyalty and faithfulness to the crown when he
handed the kingdom over to the young king when Cheng came of age. Possibly wanting to serve the
empire further by restoring the prosperity that was depleted under years of oppressive Shang
decadence and luxuries enjoyed by the elite, followed by numerous costly military expeditions to
maintain the peace, the Duke of Zhou pushed the limits set from remote antiquity in order to provide
the finances that would firmly establish their new dynasty.
Instructions of the Duke of Zhou for King Cheng, as he relinquished the administration of government
into the young man’s hands, revolved around the remembrance of the hard toil of their forefathers
that had brought about the good life enjoyed by future generations. He gave examples of Shang
kings, with long harmonious reigns, to emulate. Dan exhorted King Cheng to follow after the pattern
of King Wan, listen to the ministers and the common people, and to build within himself the values of
diligence and hard work --not giving in to the debauchery and self-indulgence that brought down the
last Shang king.34
The profound advice of the Duke of Zhou to his nephew is better understood in the light of the
address to the Prince of Shih (Duke of Shao) that begins with his worry about the fickleness of
Heaven’s mandate that had given the house of Zhou the rule that was taken from the Shang.
Unfortunately, “The favor of Heaven is not easily preserved; Heaven is difficult to be depended on.
Men lose its favouring appointment, because they cannot pursue and carry out the reverence and
brilliant virtue of their forefathers.”35 Duke of Zhou admitted that all he could do was point the way but
it was up to his young charge to choose the right path in order to maintain Heaven’s favouring decree
given to King Wan.

Dan called on Prince Shih (Duke of Shao) to become the sage adviser for King Cheng that every
good king needed by his side. He then listed well loved monarchs and the wise ones that had helped
them retain the virtues that Heaven desired. In this way, the Shang dynasty was able to last for
several hundreds of years. “The Duke said, ‘Prince Shih, Heaven gives length of days to the just and
the intelligent; (it was thus that those ministers) maintained and regulated the dynasty of Yin [Shang].
He who came last to throne granted by Heaven was extinguished by its terrors. Do you think of the
distant future, and we shall have the decree (in favour of Kau) made sure, and its good government
will be, brilliantly exhibited in our newly-founded state.’”35
The Duke of Zhou, coming to the point of his address to Prince Shih, asked him to receive the
appointment as the adviser that would always be at the side of King Cheng. In this area, the Duke of
Zhou, a man of action who was most often out on the field, would be deficient. However, there may
have been an even deeper reason for the Duke of Zhou’s speeches to King Cheng and Prince Shih
(Duke of Shao). It was almost as if he were preparing them for a time of his prolonged departure.
First he instructs King Cheng to avoid his biggest concern, and then he asks Prince Shih to make
sure the young king stays on the throne, giving Shih the title of the Grand-Protector / Grand-
Guardian.
The Duke of Zhou had first spoken to the Duke of Shao regarding ‘enlightenment’ received by his
father King Wan of ‘his high distinction and universal rule’ that began when Heaven gave the position
held by the Shang dynasty over to him and his descendants. Asking for the support of the influential
Duke of Shao, Dan insisted that, “We must both go on, abjuring all idleness, to complete the work of
King Wan, till it has grandly overspread the kingdom, and from the corner of the sea, and the
sunrising, there shall not be one who is disobedient to the rule (of Kau/Zhou).”35
In expanding the territory from the land within the four seas, to the very corner of the sea and the east
where the sun rises, the Duke of Zhou has expressed what his idea of universal rule meant. The
nations and lands beyond their borders and the islands of the seas would be brought by force to
submit to the rule of the Zhou dynasty.
In the Books of Zhou no.19. The Establishment of Government, Dan urges King Cheng to carefully
select his officials based on virtuous qualities in order to strengthen the foundations of their dynasty.
After which, the Duke of Zhou concluded his message on the establishment of government with a call
to the young king, presumably after his regency, to carry out a military campaign to extend the
territory beyond the borders of the four seas.
“Have well arranged ( also) your military accoutrements and weapons, so that you may go forth

beyond the steps of Yu, and traverse all under the sky, even beyond the seas, everywhere meeting
with submission:--so shall you display the bright glory of King Wan, and render more illustrious the
great achievements of king Wu.”36
The steps of Yu the Great were limited by the borders of the Chinese territory that had been defined
from remote antiquity --the land within the four seas. The Duke of Zhou called for a military expansion
of this allotted borders to bring the lands of the nations beyond the seas to submit to China’s
dominion. The Zhou dynasty mastery of bronze weaponry with their sharp strong deadly edges and
bronze protective armor gave their armies the offensive and defensive advantage over the mostly
peaceful and undefended nations. The colonization of the neighbouring nations may have been seen
as a necessary imperative in order to fill the coffers of the new dynasty, thus making sure that the
government of the imperial Zhou dynasty would be established financially.
It may have been during the reign of King Wen of Zhou 周文王 (1152 BC-1056 BC) that the
geographic survey of the Shan Hai Jing 山海經 (The Classic of the Mountains of the Seas) was
made. Books 6 to 9 of the Shan Hai Jing were entitled: the Regions Beyond the South Sea, the North
Sea, the West Sea, and the East Sea. These were beyond the land of China’s ancient borders.
The Classic of the Eastern Mountains, Book 4 of the Shan Hai Jing, along with Book 14, The Great
Wild East (The Great Eastern Wilderness) has been carefully studied by Henriette Mertz,
accomplished geographer and lawyer, which she found to be an accurate survey of several regions in
the American continent. Ms. Mertz concluded that, “...the Chinese "Classic of Mountains and Seas,"
which for the past 2,000 years has been accepted by the Chinese only as myth, is no myth but is
actually true;
That these two documents, faithfully preserved within the archives of China, furnish sufficient written
proof, that up to now has been lacking, of Chinese exploration in America, at a date as early as 2200
B.C.
That the remaining untranslated books of the Shan Hai King contain identifiable geographic locations
on the face of the earth, outside of China.”37
West is what is most often connected to the location of the American continent, but from the Chinese
perspective, it was land reached when crossing the Eastern Sea.
Along the path of the geographic survey made in antiquity, Ms. Mertz noted the presence of
undecipherable inscriptions carved in the rocks in North Dakota and Alberta, Canada that were older
than the earliest tribesmen could recall. She felt that further analysis of these inscriptions would
reveal an archaic form of Chinese characters --and she was right.
According to John Ruskamp, “...all of the study’s Chinese North American pictogram-glyphs have

been independently confirmed as having forms that match with known ancient Chinese scripts by no
less than five recognized and esteemed sinologists, all of whom have expertise in the evaluation of
ancient Chinese calligraphy.”38
Not only do the Chinese characters reveal their national origin, but possibly also the time in which
they had been inscribed on the rocks. “Keightley noted that the use of four symbols in each of the
Arizona cartouches conforms with a style used for writing poems in the Zhou era (1046–256 B.C.).”38
Many of the ancient scripts were arranged in groups of four characters.
“To date, Ruskamp has identified over 82 petroglyphs matching unique ancient Chinese scripts not
only at multiple sites in Albuquerque, New Mexico, but also nearby in Arizona, as well as in Utah,
Nevada, California, Oklahoma, and Ontario.”39 The type of script was identified as the Oracle Bone
Script used by the Shang to the Early Western Zhou Dynasty.
39
Photograph of Rock Inscriptions courtesy of John Ruskamp
The Zhou Dynasty Shijing (Classic of Poetry) uses a very brief four character line pattern for the
composition of the odes. Ancient songs recorded in the Shu King (Classic of History) reveal their
antiquity and authenticity by adhering to this ancient four character form. “All the earliest attempts of
the Chinese at poetical composition appear to have been of the same form, --in lines consisting of
four words, forming, from the nature of the language, four syllables.”40
Henriette Mertz mentioned that although most scholars accepted the tradition that the Shan Hai Jing
was to be dated to the time of Yu the Great, “A noted British Sinologist has assigned the approximate
date of 10th or 11th centuries BC to the Shan Hai Jing, stating however, that while its antiquity was
certain, the date was disputable.”41 We are not privy to the information that gave him this date that
matches with both the type of script and poetic form of the ancient petroglyphs found in North
America, since the characters had still been undeciphered at that time. But it seems to strengthen the
idea that this ancient geographic survey was made either under the imperial order of the late Shang
dynasty or maybe under the State ruled by King Wen of the Zhou. The foundational vision for world

domination may have began from the ancestors of the house of Zhou nearing the end of the Shang
Dynasty, and the torch was carried on by Dan (the Duke of Zhou).
Archaeologist Tang Jigen, Chinese expert on the Shang Dynasty recognized ancient motifs, forms,
crafts, and chinese characters present in pre-Incan artifacts, including the distinctive Taotie. Although
first observed by Tang Jigen in Chavin iconography, “These and other representations- according to
Chinese scholars- extend to the Mochica, Nasca, Paracas, and even the Incas, where it is also
possible to recognize ancient Chinese characters in ceramic, artifacts, tunics, tapestries, and
geoglyphics. In all cases, the strokes are arranged and linked to the concept of power.”42
The Chavin with its advanced culture and bronze technology, suddenly appeared and flourished in
South America around 900 BC. The start of Chavin civilization coincides with the rise of the Olmec
civilization along the Gulf of Mexico, that has also been linked by scholars to Chinese influence.
“How the Chinese got to the Olmec area is uncertain, but investigators have made comparisons of
Olmec art, ritual practices and societal structure with the ancient Chinese. The use of jade, for
example, which was never used before in Mexico, began at this time. So did writing and a structured
kingship.”43
The Shan Hai Jing 山海經 (The Classic of the Mountains of the Seas), like the geographic surveys in
the Boxer Codex made over a thousand years later, was not an innocent exploration of adventurers in
search of the earth’s wonders. They were surveys that carefully noted natural resources, geographic
points, and data on the peoples of the land (including religious beliefs) in preparation for conquest
and colonization. These were expensive expeditions for which their financiers expected lucrative
returns.
And it seems that the profits made from the subjugation of various nations was enough for the secure
establishment of the Zhou Dynasty. After reigning 37 years, King Cheng (1042 BC-1006 BC) called
his ministers and officers at his deathbed to give them this charge. “The former rulers, our kings Wan
and Wu, displayed in succession their equal glory, making sure provision for the support of the
people, and setting forth their instructions...and the great appointment (of Heaven) was secured.”44
Earlier, the Duke of Zhou had linked the ‘bright glory of Wan and Wu’ to the military expansion of their
borders and the bringing into submission the lands beyond the four seas.
King Kang of Zhou (1005 BC-978 BC) who had succeeded his father King Cheng to the throne
confirmed that it was truly the vision of kings Wan and Wu that had brought financial security to the
new dynasty.

“The former rulers, Wan and Wu were greatly just and enriched (the people)...Pushing to the utmost
and maintaining an entire impartiality and sincerity, they became gloriously illustrious all under
heaven...Thus (did they receive) the true favouring decree from God, and thus did great Heaven
approve of their ways, and give them the four quarters...Then they appointed and set up
principalities, and established bulwarks (to the throne), for the sake of us, their successors.”45
Suddenly the imperial dominion was no longer limited to the land within the four seas. King Kang saw
his rule as over the four quarters - North, South, East and West. Lands where they had established
principalities, frontiers, outposts and strongholds to maintain their positions in the colonies. According
to Carlos Quirino, the Philippines appears in the old Chinese map 'Map of the entire empire and
frontier [countries] with the capitals of the successive dynasties' made in 1402, based on older maps.
His ministers reminded the young King Kang that it was essential to “Maintain your armies in great
order, and do not allow the rarely equalled appointment of our high ancestors to come to harm.”45 A
charge similar to that given by the Duke of Zhou to Kang’s father King Cheng to have his armies well
arranged in order to bring the lands beyond the four seas into submission to the Zhou empire, seen
as the great appointment of Heaven given to their ancestors kings Wan and Wu.
And how did Wan and Wu enrich the people and provide the finances to establish the new dynasty?
The Books of Zhou tells us that upon receiving Heaven’s decree that had passed on to them from the
Shang dynasty, “...Wan and Wu of our Kau (Zhou) grandly received the same, and carried it out,
manifesting their kindly government in the Western regions.”45
When China referred to the Western regions in ancient times, it was often to refer to the Western Sea
(Tarim Basin) and the lands beyond that Western border set in remote antiquity. This has become
evident in the title of the books of the Shan Hai Jing. In the Shu King, when indicating an area of the
land within the four seas, the reference would be similar to that of the charge of Count Wei who was
given the “Eastern part of our great land.”46
If kings Wen and Wu had gone past the Western border of the Western Sea (Tarim Basin), then
evidence of China’s incursion during this period should still be found. “According to Sinologist Victor
H. Mair: "From around 1800 BC, the earliest mummies in the Tarim Basin were exclusively
Caucasoid, or Europoid." He also said that East Asian migrants arriving in the eastern portions of the
Tarim Basin around 3,000 years ago…"Modern DNA and ancient DNA show that Uighurs, Kazaks,
Kyrgyzs, the peoples of central Asia are all mixed Caucasian and East Asian. The modern and
ancient DNA tell the same story.””47 Around 3000 years ago would have been approximately 1000 BC,
that they began to find the DNA of mixed Caucasian and Sinitic ancestry in burials. If we allow the

time for intermarriage and the growth of children to adulthood, then we come very near to the
beginning of the Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC).
The Western regions they controlled had an abundance of precious natural resources that were of
great intercontinental trade value. The timing of the sudden influx of Chinese mingling into their
civilization, coincides with the ‘kindly government’ extended by Wan and Wu over the Western
Regions. The wealth of the cities around the Western Sea (Tarim Basin) would have gone a long way
in enriching the imperial coffers and possibly provided a secure financial foundation for the new
dynasty, funding their continued military expansion and colonization of distant lands.
“It is only one who is thoroughly acquainted with the evils of war that can thoroughly understand the
profitable way of carrying it on.”48 --The Art of War by Sun Tzu (6thC. BC)
Around 1000 BC, it seems that China was not the only civilization that was sending out exploratory
expeditions and colonizing nations. The Phoenicians, the Egyptians, the Tamil Nadu of India to name
a few, were also in a similar mode of world domination. Archaeology, artifacts, and genetic evidence
are just part of the footprints left behind, such as a votive sword discovered in Georgia, North America
with Shang to Zhou Dynasty motifs.
49
The ancient votive sword was found not far from two Olmec style carved stone pendants.
“It may not be coincidental the Olmec, during their Middle Formative period (900-300 BC), mastered
the difficulties of shaping and drilling Jade (a stone so hard that it cannot be worked with steel tools),
with abrasive materials into small ornamental and votive pieces. The similarities of Chinese-Olmec
art is quite telling and for those interested, an excellent comparison is presented in Art and Ritual in
Early Chinese and Mesoamerican Cultures , Santiago Gonzalez Villajos, 2009.”49
In the Grand Canyon, John Wesley Powell (1872-1896) under the United States Geological Survey,
reported an estimate of around 50,000 Egyptians who may have lived in the area in the past. 50 The
Native American Hopi nation that lives in the Grand Canyon are said to have a large number of

Egyptian words in their language.50 Respected men and women from the academic community have
theorized that the early visitors of the New World may have included Egyptians, Phoenicians, Celts,
the peoples of South East Asia, and China. The Vikings have already archaeologically been proven to
have arrived in the American continent 500 years before Christopher Columbus.
However, the Americas was not the only popular destination for ancient colonists, Australia also has
its share of remnants left behind by civilizations that current history does not allow to have ever made
contact. On the hills overlooking Woy Woy in Australia there are two sandstone walls roughly 15
meters long covered in Egyptian hieroglyphs that according to the story it tells, were written by a high
official under the instructions of the ship’s captain. “The scribe is speaking for his Highness, the
Prince, from this wretched place where we were carried by ship. The expedition's leader, is described
in the inscriptions as the King's son, 'Lord Djes-eb', who came to grief a long way from home. The
hieroglyphics sketch his journey and his tragic demise.”51
Queensland Egyptologist Ray Johnson who did the transcription of the Kariong hieroglyphs, claimed
that it marked the burial site of Lord Nefer-ti-ru who died of a snake bite on an expedition with his
brother, Nefer-Djeseb, along Australia’s east coast.52
The date of around 900 BC for the Egyptian incursion to Australia is implied when,
“In 1875 the Shevert expedition retrieved a mummified corpse and an example of the canoe used in
funerary rites from Darnley Island. World renowned medical scientist Sir Raphael Cilento who
examined the corpse stated the incisions and method of embalming to be the same as those
employed in Egypt during the 21st to 23rd dynasties over 2900 years ago.”53
Egyptians travelling to Australia in the first millennium BC is plausible, considering that there are
western maps as far back as the 3rd century BC that already have the continent on it. “Australia
appears under the name of "Antoecie" on the famous spherical world map of Crates of Mallos, even
appearing on the Greek map of Eratosthenese in 239 BC. It seems fairly certain that the maritime
civilizations of antiquity were quite capable of extensive ocean voyages, particularly the early
Egyptians, as evidenced by Giza's remarkable Tomb of the Boat.”53
Perhaps the most prolific colonizer of the ancient world, the maritime Phoenicians, have left their
mark in the Australian continent as well. A study of the Sarina Sites in Central Queensland, Australia
has yielded numerous artifacts as well as petroglyphs of Phoenician writing, “These occur in
cosmopolitan fashion in Ogam, Phoenician...all over the Australian continent and the Pacific. The
scripts have been dated to the era around 1000 BC.”54

Evidence of the ancient Phoenicians’ travel through the Indian Ocean, passing through the rivers of
Southeast Asia, and onto the land of Ophir is discussed in detail in the book “Phoenicians in the
Lands of Gold”. Abundant Phoenician artifacts may be found on the islands of the Philippines. The
seafaring Tamil Nadu of the coast of India also left its mark on the Philippine islands in the form of
myths, odes, and iron artifacts that date back to 1000 BC.
China’s campaign to colonize the lands beyond the four seas appears to have lasted for many
centuries. After the death of Dan, the Duke of Zhou, his successor was introduced in Book 21 of the
Books of Zhou as Kun-Khan (Prince Khan). Strangely, little is known about Kun-Khan and the texts
do not contain any implication that he is Dan’s son or close relation. Also, with all the apparent
importance of his position and region of rule, scholars seem to “know nothing of any territory with
which he is invested.”55
Actually, the territory ruled by Kun-Khan has not been found in China, because it probably was not
anywhere within the four seas. King Cheng made it clear where Kun-Khan was to rule, taking over
the role previously filled by the Duke of Zhou. “The king spake to the following effect:--’Kun-khan, it is
you who are possessed of excellent virtue...you can display these qualities in the exercise of
government. I appoint you to rule this eastern border.”55 And the Eastern Border of imperial China
was no longer within the four seas, for at this time they had expanded it through military expeditions
and subsequent colonization of various lands. Thus, the Eastern Border would have been a vast and
expanding domain that may have extended North and South past the East China Sea.
King Cheng ruled the Zhou Dynasty for 37 years, and yet nothing of his reign is known from the time
he appointed Kun-Khan until his death, except for Sima Qian’s record of the minting of a round coin
with a square hole. Could those two acts have been considered the most significant in his reign?
Could the appointment of Kun-Khan and the coin have been connected with the military expansion
and colonization of the lands beyond the four seas?
China museums have found only two and a half (one intact, one broken, and one with only the top
portion) of the round coin with the square hole, the Guo Bao Jin Kui 國寶金貴, that some scholars
think may have been the one mentioned in the histories.
“Paleo-numismatists argue that it was currency in the Wang Mang period, but many historians hold
that it was part of a tally mentioned in the histories.”56
Dozens of these coins have been excavated in the Philippines. We just have no idea what they are
since they are very difficult to identify because of their rarity, and also because the Philippines had no
currently accepted historical contact with China at this early point in antiquity.

King Cheng’s address to Kun-Khan seemed more like an appointment to a separate government,
where he would have to learn how to make his own rules. Khan was to submit his plans to the king,
and when approved, he would enact them backed by the emperor himself.
“In revolving the plans of your government, never hesitate to acknowledge the difficulty of the
subject. Some things have to be abolished, and some new things to be enacted; --going out and
coming in, seek the judgment of your people about them, and, when there is a general agreement,
exert your own powers of reflection. When you have any good plans or counsels, enter and lay them
before your sovereign in the palace. Thereafter, when you are acting abroad in accordance with
them, say, “This plan or this view is all due to our sovereign.””57
King Cheng promised Kun-Khan that should he fulfill his duties well, “Then shall I, the One Man,
receive much happiness, and your excellent services will be famous through long ages!”57 Obviously
Kun-Khan had a very important role to play, one that affected the empire and would be remembered
for a very long time. Strangely, no one even seems to know where and what he was supposed to do.
Internal clues within the text tell us that the rule of Kun-Khan included the Yin, Zhou Dynasty’s name
for the Shang. There were numerous relatives and clan members of the Shang Dynasty, that could
and did make trouble for the new dynasty. An ancient ‘humane’ way of dealing with this issue would
be the displacement of this population and make them a useful part of the colonization process. This
type of subjugation was practiced by both the Assyrian and Babylonian empires. The Chinese empire
needed Chinese people to occupy the conquered lands, Shang families were a logical choice, making
them part of the solution instead of the problem. Colonized lands received an influx of defeated
Shang dynasty families who may have been at the forefront of the new frontiers. These royal families
would have brought with them their precious bronze vessels that symbolized their religious and
political power, their jade emblems of rank and authority, and their cash coins to begin anew.
Historian and Numismatist Boyet Manuel encountered numerous Chinese artifacts of this nature in
his journey to uncover the events of Philippine prehistory. He told me of porcelain vases from the
Philippines that had been sold to China and are now on display at National Museums of China, about
ancient Zhou Dynasty Spade and Knife coins frequently appearing in the Philippine antiquities
market, and about numerous Shang and Zhou Dynasty bronze vessels excavated on our islands.
But before the stories becomes too incredible to believe, here are images of a few of the bronze
vessels found in the Philippines that are unmistakably from China in antiquity. Philippine bronze
vessels are the larger pictures on the right side.

Many of the bronze vessels have seals and writing with the ancient bronze script 金文 used by the
Shang and early Western Zhou Dynasty. The Chinese characters give important historical insight, and
greatly increases the value of a vessel for posterity. Following is a bronze Hu ritual wine storage
vessel found in Luzon, bearing the style of the Western Zhou Dynasty that has over 200 characters
inscribed on its surface. These type of wine vessel were used for funerary rituals in honor of the
deceased ancestor. The bronze vessels we are discovering in the Philippine islands are not trinkets
or tourist items that may have been carelessly left behind. Artifacts on the archipelago are priceless
treasures that were symbolic of wealth, power, and authority.

The Duke of Zhou was the man that Confucius held in great esteem. He was a prolific writer of
multiple genres, from letters of State in the Books of Kau (Shu King) to the poignant odes of the
Shijing. Honoring ancestors and authoring rites, rituals, and the music that accompanied them, the
Duke of Zhou was the warrior, statesman, and artist that established China's longest dynasty.

When they had first encountered these bronze vessels, Antiquarian and Numismatist Eddie Chua
considered the idea that they may have been loot left over by the Japanese soldiers who had to leave
in a hurry at the end of World War II. But his mind changed when a friend of his from Central Luzon
contacted him after finding a bronze spearhead/tool, when he was digging up the foundation to
extend his home. Mr. Chua recognized the form and style used in ancient China. This made him
think. If these bronze artifacts were just recently pillaged, then why were they buried underground?
“Paano nangyari iyon?” he asked.
In fact, numerous bronze artifacts from Chinese antiquity may be found from Luzon, Visayas, and
Mindanao. This tells us that the Chinese government may have been able to spread over the entire
nation through the centuries. The value of these artifacts have been recognized by antiquities dealers
who have smuggled out much of our history in the world black market for the sake of profit. The
Philippine government cannot stop the flow of antiquities out of our country, which we don’t even
recognize we have.
One of the largest collection of ancient bronze vessels were found in a junk shop that in almost half a
century of operation had obtained these artifacts, brought to them by individuals who had found them
and were selling them as scrap metal. Liking the way they looked, the proprietor had kept them
herself. Fortunately for the Philippines, these bronze vessels, key to our historic past, were saved
from disappearing forever without our nation even knowing what we had lost.
King Cheng, son of King Wu, was succeeded by his son King Kang who reigned 26 years. There is
barely any information about Kang’s reign except for one of the Books of Kau in the Shu King where
he appointed the Duke of Pi to the position Kun-Khan had held. This was the same position originally

held by King Kang’s grand-uncle, the Duke of Zhou. From King Kang, the Duke of Pi received the
appointment to “protect and regulate the eastern border.”58 The Duke of Pi was to continue the legacy
began by the Duke of Zhou and was charged to “Define anew the borders and frontiers, and be
careful to strengthen the guard-posts through the territory, in order to secure tranquility (within) the
four seas.”58 The word ‘within’ has been added to the translation for clarity, but is it possible that King
Kang was actually referring to the lands beyond the four seas when describing the territory appointed
to the Duke of Pi? The map Hun-i-chiang-li li-tai-kuo-tu chih t'u has earned the rank as the most
valuable cartographic document in East Asia made in 1402, based on older maps. It claims to be a
map of the Chinese empire and its 'frontiers', that includes the Philippines.
King Kang, in his address to the Duke of Pi, speaks of the work that the Duke of Zhou had
accomplished with the Yin (Shang). As assistant to the emperors, he had tranquilized and established
the kingdom, relocating the people of Yin (Shang) to a place where he could oversee and positively
influence them. “Cautiously did he deal with the refractory people of Yin, and removed them to the
city of Lo, that they might be quietly near the royal House, and be transformed by its lessons.”58
It is apparent that the Duke of Zhou’s rule, as well as Kun-Khan’s, had a lot to do with the relocated
Shang families, who even after so many years still seemed to revel in their decadent lifestyles. “Now
the officers of Yin had long relied on the favor which they enjoyed. In the confidence of their prideful
extravagance they extinguished their (sense of) righteousness...Although their lost minds have (in a
measure) been recovered, it is difficult to keep them under proper restraint.”58 The relocated Shang
colonists may have still tried to maintain their luxurious royal lifestyle full of pomp and splendour. This
would have meant abundant bronze and jade artifacts which would have symbolized their great
power and wealth. In a way, their extravagance would leave an abundance of this type of artifacts for
future generations to discover.
Inscriptions on Bronze artifacts from the Early Western Zhou Period “...tell us that numerous different
clans, including the original inhabitants and immigrants, settled in newly established vassal states
during the Early Western Zhou Period.” Scholars are in aggreement that “...there was a massive
migration over a large geographical area, involving a large population, including many Shang and
Zhou elite clans, during the Early Western Zhou Period...” (Xiaoneng Yang. Reflections of Early China: Decor,
Pictographs, and Pictorial Inscriptions. Seattle & London: The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, in association with the
University of Washington Press. 2000. pp142-143)
Similar to his father King Cheng, King Kang ends his address stating that the work of the Duke of Pi
would bring much happiness to the empire, and in fact would be key to establishing the power of the

Zhou Dynasty forever, making the Duke of Pi someone who would be remembered by history. “...and
I, the little child, will long enjoy much happiness. Thus, O duke, there in Khang-kau will you establish
forever the power (of Kau), and you will have an inexhaustible fame.”58
Khang-kau has been considered to be a name for the new or ‘lower’ capital of Lo that was mentioned
earlier, which some scholars have assigned to a city in China. But the text seems to indicate a place
that was of much greater significance, a place where the very future of the Zhou Dynasty rested on. A
region whose rulers would have reknown throughout the ages. A place so important that if nothing
else is recorded regarding the reign of the emperor, it was sufficient to just include the fact that he,
the Son of Heaven, was the one who appointed the ruler of this important domain.
The 史墻盤 Shi Qiang Pan is a bronze ritual vessel, considered to be one of China's most valuable
National Treasures, that has captured Western Zhou Dynasty history in 284 characters arranged into
two sets of 9 lines. Cast during the reign of King Gong (922-904 BC), it was excavated from Shaanxi
in 1976. It tells of the Mandate of Heaven given to King Wen and his descendants, how King Wu
defeated the Shang and 'campaigned far' to the East, and how King Zhao 'campaigned and struck' to
the South. Historical record of Shi Qiang Pan seems to confirm the quest of the Zhou Dynasty to
conquer distand lands in the name of 'peace and enlightenment'.
An excerpt from the Shi Qiang Pan calls the Zhou Dynasty king the “...Guardian of the peace, this
Son of Heaven, he carries forth the lasting merit of Wen and Wu; may he live forever as a standard
for all above and below, as a beacon for those far and near, shining without end. May Di (god) on
High watch over the Son of Heaven, and protect his receipt of the Mandate. With many blessings and
fruitful harvests, may there be no distant tribes or Man peoples in the South who do not come to
acknowledge his suzerainty.”(Robert Eno, trans.2012)
The use of the word 'suzerainty' rather than 'sovereignty' is significant. The English Oxford Living
Dictionaries defines suzerainty as “A position of control by a sovereign or state over another state
that is internally autonomous.” In other words, they are lands that may not be part of the kingdom, but
may have become subject to it as vassal states. Could the reference to the 'South' mean the frontiers
of China (i.e. Philippines to the south), and its ever expanding borders?
A similar Pan ritual bronze vessel has been found on the Philippines bearing the same 284
characters arranged into two sets of 9 lines as the 史墻盤 Shi Qiang Pan. It is heavily weathered
and corroded but the X-ray of the bronze Pan reveals the script cast into the vessel in ancient times.

It seems that the first millennium BC was an age when colonizers reached across the globe, breaking
the boundaries set from antiquity, in order to enrich their own civilizations through the oppression of
other nations. Sometimes these colonizers would work with one another for even bigger profits,
sharing technologies (i.e. metals, glass, etc.), and establishing trade networks. This was evident
when Phoenician King of Tyre and Israel’s King Solomon connected with the ‘Ships of Tarshish’
(colonized at that time by the Zhou Dynasty, China) to bring back gold from the land of Ophir.
Phoenicians were also recorded to have teamed up with the Egyptians on voyages of exploration and
trade. Tamil Nadu merchants were plying their trade all the way to the West Asiatic regions. In the
race for wealth and power, it was a small world after all.
End of the Colonizers

The question should no longer be “Did they really do this?”, but instead “How did it end?” An ending
so traumatic that it would leave a form of global amnesia, that leaves us wondering about the
mysteries of the scars left behind by an age that we could barely remember. According to ancients
texts and world mythology, there has been four times when global catastrophes had rebooted
civilization into new ages - making a total of Five Ages. Hindu Vedic scriptures call these periods
‘Yugas’, Buddhist scriptures call them ‘World Cycles’, the Greek Hesiod named them the ‘Five Ages
of Man’, the Aztecs carved the story of the ‘Five Suns’ in stone. Scriptures call them days and times,
yet no matter what they are called, it is evident from the records of our predecessors that there were
times when civilizations had been ended all over the earth by earth shaking events and mankind had
to start again from scratch.
The Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC-256 BC) held its power for almost 800 years, making it the longest ruling
dynasty in China, possibly even the world. This Dynasty was so well established by their
predecessors, that it had to undergo two of the civilization ending catastrophes before it fell to the Qin
Dynasty. Sometime around 750 BC-600 BC worldwide records tell of ‘terrors from heaven’, changes
in the orderly movements of the celestial bodies that had dramatic effects on planet earth. There were
droughts, earthquakes, bad harvests, and pestilence that went on for decades.
An ode in the Shijing (Classic of Poetry) from c. 700 BC, laments the injustice and cruelty of the king
and his ministers that has caused heaven to pour out disasters on the land. “Great Heaven, unjust, Is
sending down these exhausting disorders. Great Heaven, unkind, Is sending down these great
miseries. Let superior men come (into office), And that would bring rest to people’s hearts...O
unpitying great Heaven, there is no end to the disorder! With every month it continues to grow…”59

Another ode in the Shih King bemoans the celestial disorder and the resulting calamities on the
earth. “The sun and moon announce evil, Not keeping to their proper paths. Throughout the kingdom
there is no (proper) government, Because the good are not employed. For the moon to be eclipsed is
but an ordinary matter. Now that the sun has been eclipsed,--How bad it is!
Grandly flashes the lightning of the thunder...The streams all bubble up and overflow. The crags on
the hill-tops fall down. High banks become valleys; Deep valleys become hills. Alas for the men of
this time!”60
These ancient writers seem to be describing unusual celestial behavior with corresponding effects on
the planet (i.e. catastrophic earthquakes, anomalies in the waters). But these were just the beginning
of the destruction, for what brought an end to many civilizations of that period from approximately
around 700–650 BC was what many ancient civilizations have described as a rain of fire.
The Buddhist scriptures tell us that it was a fire of unusual qualities. An oil like substance is described
that leaves no ashes but burns as long as any part of it remains. It does, however seem to cause a lot
of dark smoke, enough to cover the skies and block sunlight.
“This fire does not go out as long as anything remains; but after everything has disappeared, it goes
out, leaving no ashes, like a fire of clarified butter or sesamum oil. The upper regions of space
become one with those below, and wholly dark.”61
The Mayan Popol Vuh recounts a great inundation of a sticky substance from the dark skies that
burned with fire, even above their heads, at a time when almost all peoples were annihilated. The
Manuscript Quiché described it as a rain of bitumen.62 Bitumen is an ancient term for oil based
substances like petroleum.
The nomadic Tunguls of eastern Siberia and the Voguls of the northern Urals, both have ancient
myths of God sending a sea of fire from above whose flames burned for seven years. The earth was
burnt up and few people survived the inferno. The Rig Veda points to Agni, planetary god Venus, as
the source of the fire water. A hymn in praise of Agni who sent the fire water to the high places of the
earth, we read, “Oh Fire, whom the waters, the mountains and the forests carry as the child of truth,
you are enkindled with force by men on the summit of the Earth. You have filled with your radiance
both the worlds and stream with smoke in Heaven.”[vii]”63
The Alexandrian philosopher Philo (25 BC-50 AD) wrote regarding the end of the ages based on his
understanding of natural history that, “When the agent (of destruction) is conflagration, a stream of
heaven-sent fire pours out from above and spreads over many places and overruns great regions of

the inhabited earth.”64
The Chinese ministry of fire star-gods is headed by Lo Hsüan, who is called the ‘Stellar Sovereign of
the Fire Virtue’. Lo Hsüan rode a horse that snorted fire and whose hooves flashed with fire. There
was a time when, “Lo Hsüan suddenly changed himself into a giant with three heads and six arms. (In
one of his hands he carried)... a gourd containing ten thousand fire-crows…”65 It is said that when
this star-god pours out the fire-crows from his gourd, he is able to set the whole country ablaze. Black
shiny crows streaming out from the heavens, and setting the world on fire sounds like another version
of other ancient records that tell of the dark fire water.
The mythical transformation of Lo Hsüan into a giant may imply that celestial bodies may have come
uncomfortably close to planet earth, making them appear monstrous in proportions. This same giant
size is described in the Norse Ragnarok myth as Surt the fire giant that would burn down the walls,
homes, and bridge of Asgard. Perhaps the flaming celestial bodies may even have appeared to those
on earth, like the heavens itself were on fire.
Recently, the established idea that earth’s petroleum supply had organic origins has been questioned
by scientists and geologists, “...although an organic origin of primordial Archaean petroleum is
possible, it is far more natural within the non-organic framework. In recent years, the non-organic
theory has been gaining wider acceptance.”66 In other words, it has been proposed that our so called
fossil fuels, may not have come from fossils at all.
When Immanuel Velikovsky proposed in 1946 that much of the earth’s petroleum pools may have
come from close encounters with the planet Venus, he daringly ventured to speculate that Venus
would be found to have a thick hydrocarbon (petroleum) gas and dust laden atmosphere. No other
scientist of his time imagined that such an environment would exist on Venus, until mankind
discovered years later that such was indeed the case.
Catastrophic events, such as when two planetary sized celestial bodies get dangerously close to one
another, may cause volatile mixing of magma molecules that in turn may cause blending in its
chemistry, producing new compounds. “The primary result of this kind of mix is more silicon dioxide,
which is silica, which is more crust, and a thicker crust. The byproduct is the polymerization of
hydrogen ions and carbon ions into hydrocarbons, which is done at temperatures similar to cracking
plants. The byproduct is hydrocarbons...petroleum...which gathered in pools.”67
World myth and lore seem to indicate that the planets Venus and Mars experienced a number of
close violent flybys. Planet Venus, with a crust that appears to be completely resurfaced by intense

volcanic activity and a thick hydrocarbon laden atmosphere, shows evidence of these catastrophic
events. “Venus also experienced much internal mixing at the molecular level. Hence it is probable
that within and just below the crust of Venus...lie large pools of hydrocarbons, or petroleum.”68
Celestial bodies with abundant flammable hydrocarbons remain unignited as long as they are
deprived of oxygen. But once exposed to an oxygen rich atmosphere like earth, they begin to burn.
Cometary tails composed mostly of hydrogen and carbon gases, “or vapor of a composition of these
two elements, enter the atmosphere in huge masses, a part of them will burn, binding all the oxygen
available at the moment; the rest will escape combustion, but in swift transition will become liquid.
Falling on the ground, the substance, if liquid, would sink into the pores of the sand and into clefts
between the rocks; falling on water, it would remain floating if the fire in the air is extinguished before
new supplies of oxygen arrive…”69
Planet Venus in its cometary phase and erratic orbit may have come dangerously close to planet
earth, delivering a large amount of fiery hydrocarbons in sticky black liquid rain. To the Chinese,
Venus may have looked like a gigantic gourd pouring out ten thousand fire crows. To the Indo-Aryans,
it looked like the god Agni’s fire being carried by the waters and filling the heavens with smoke. To the
Siberians tribes, it was a deadly black rain of fire. To those in the Americas, it was a bowl from heaven
pouring streams of fiery bitumen. In Mesoamerica, it was Quetzalcoatl destroying the world with fire.
Several Hebrew prophets agree that on the day of the Lord that ended the age with fire, the day
turned into night. Micah tell us that, “...the day will become dark over them.”70 Joel claims that, “...The
sun will be turned into darkness....”71 Jeremiah the prophet called it, “...a destroyer at noonday…”72
Day turns into night as the dark dusty hydrocarbon laden clouds that surround Venus, and trail behind
it in its cometary tail, blocks out the sunlight.
The Ragnarok myth talks of the Midgard Serpent coming from the celestial deep to splash waves of
deadly poison on earth. Venus with its long dark cometary tail was commonly portrayed in global
myth as a serpent. During the fiery Ragnarok destruction, she is a serpent that splashes and sprays
waves of death dealing liquid to mankind. Since we are told that in Ragnarok the world goes up in
flames, than we may assume that it is some kind of flammable fluid. “The mighty Midgard serpent will
be emerging from the turbulent sea and engulf the Vigrid plains, while it splashes its tail and sprays
poison in all directions, causing huge waves crashing towards the land.”73
But the fire water was just one of the weapons of this celestial body, the ancients describe several
more. The Chinese star god that transformed into a giant had six hands and,

“... In each of his hands he held a magic weapon. These were a seal which reflected the heavens and
the earth, a wheel of the five fire-dragons, a gourd containing ten thousand fire-crows, and, in the
other hands, two swords which floated like smoke, and a column of smoke several thousands of li
long enclosing swords of fire.”74
These weapons may refer to other ways that celestial visitors could wreak havoc on our planet. Large
flaming cometary pieces breaking off from the main body, some pieces may be pouring out fiery
hydrocarbons, others like swords cutting down strongholds and armies with its impact. Destruction
may have also been caused by poisonous gas, thunderbolts, and explosive smaller pieces igniting
fires mixed with hydrocarbons in its cometary tail lighting up a global wildfire.
Comets were often described as swords during ancient times. “the elongated comet looked like a
fiery sword blazing across the night sky, a traditional sign of war and death. Such a message from the
gods could only mean that their wrath would soon be unleashed onto the people of the land.”75 The
Chinese describe this star god as the bearer of multiple swords at its sides and in its tail, possibly
cometary fragments that had broken off from the main body.
South American mythology is rife with stories of fiery age ending destruction. The UCLA collection
has 60 myths that tell of a great fire that destroyed mankind.
“It is not unexpected that myths of devastating mass fires are identified. What is surprising, however,
is the stated cause of the mass fire for each region. In the nine myths actually specifying a cause for
the fire...all point explicitly to a cosmic rather than an earthly cause. This link with the sky is even
implicit in several of the remaining 51 myths:
“The fire when it burned everything here on the earth, was made by Fitzokojie [a creator demiurge
present at the great flood, the great fire, and the sky fall events]; he did the burning. He alone did it.
The entire earth was burned, even the water in the lagoons. Even the sky burned” (Wilbert &
Simoneau 1987a, p 84).”76
The Mataco tribes tell of a big black cloud from the south that rained drops of fire. Other tribes tell of
how the sun’s feather headdress falls to earth like a wheel of fire causing major wildfire, and burning
even sand.77 The peoples who survived the end of the third age tell a unified story with similar
descriptions of cosmic events that led to the end of that age.The Maori of New Zealand have an
ancient myth of when Tamatea came and set fire to the land causing the extinction of the Moa, a large
bird species thought in the past to be a mythical creature. They described the fire as not the same as
their ordinary fire and said that it came from Rongi (the sky).78

Traces of hydrocarbon residue (Retene) in the iridium rich clay layer of deposits laid down by cosmic
impacts have been found by geologists at numerous sites. “Retene can occur when coniferous trees
are burnt when forest fires occur after a comet impact. On the basis of the huge amount of soot found
in this boundary deposit, some scientists believe “that there was a global firestorm that burned all of
the world’s forests.””79
In MesoAmerica, the mighty Olmec Civilization in the highland plateau city of San Lorenzo
experiences a sudden dramatic decline dwindling to little or no population until it was recolonized in
600 BC - 400 BC.80
After the catastrophic third age ending destruction, Isaiah describes a level ground where everyone
who remains may begin again with a fresh start.“Behold, the LORD lays the earth waste, devastates it,
distorts its surface and scatters its inhabitants. 2 And the people will be like the priest, the servant like
his master, the maid like her mistress, the buyer like the seller, the lender like the borrower, the
creditor like the debtor. 3 The earth will be completely laid waste and completely despoiled, for the
LORD has spoken this word. 4 The earth mourns and withers, the world fades and withers, the exalted
of the people of the earth fade away. 5 The earth is also polluted by its inhabitants, for they
transgressed laws, violated statutes, broke the everlasting covenant. 6 Therefore, a curse devours the
earth, and those who live in it are held guilty. Therefore, the inhabitants of the earth are burned, and
few men are left.”81
Many of the cruel and wicked nations who have ruled and oppressed the peoples of the earth were
gone and survivors learned how to live with others equitably. In the absence of the warring power
hungry rulers, peace was established. The nations that had terrorized the world with their wars have
been annihilated so completely that generations to follow will soon forget that they had even existed.
The Assyrians, Hittites, and Canaanites are just a few of these mighty peoples that were thought to
have been fictional entities before archaeology gave them flesh and blood.
“...For when the earth experiences Your judgments

The inhabitants of the world learn righteousness...
Indeed, fire will devour Your enemies.
12 LORD, You will establish peace for us,
Since You have also performed for us all our works.
13 O LORD our God, other masters besides You have ruled us;
But through You alone we confess Your name.
14 The dead will not live, the departed spirits will not rise;

Therefore You have punished and destroyed them,
And You have wiped out all remembrance of them.”82
During the beginnings of the ‘heavenly terrors’ the timeline of the Zhou Dynasty is split into the period
of the Western Zhou Dynasty and the succeeding Eastern Zhou Dynasty. King You of Zhou became
the 12th and final Western Zhou king when he insulted his queen by replacing her with a concubine.
Her father the Marquess of Shen rallied his forces and partnered with barbarian tribes to kill the king
and loot the Western capital of Haojing.
“...King Youwang (reign 781-771) was killed by the Doggy Rongs at the foothill of the Lishan
Mountain and capital Haojing was sacked. The Rongs who stayed on at Lishan were called the Li-
rong. The Rongs moved to live between the Jing & Wei Rivers.”83
King Ping son of King You became the first king of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, when nobles from
states of Zheng, Lü, Qin and the Marquess of Shen rallied to support him while moving his capital
east to Luoyi since the Quanrong had overrun the capital of Haojing. “Lord Qin Xianggong was
conferred the old land of Zhou by Zhou King Pingwang (reign 770-720). Zhou King Pingwang
encouraged the Qin Lord to drive out the Quan-rongs.”83
The Spring and Autumn period (771 BC-476 BC) of the Eastern Zhou dynasty, marked the breakdown
of China’s feudal system. Dozens of states ceased to exist (650-550 BC) and slaves that were
previously subjugated to the nobles to work the land and defend it from nomadic northern tribes, were
suddenly set free to become the peasant farmers of this period. Where were the feudal lords and
their private armies who would have prevented such an uprising? Vassal states began to obtain
regional autonomy in disregard of the king and fought wars amongst themselves, barbarian tribes
continued to plague the nation, and invasions from neighbouring countries were indications of the
Zhou Dynasty’s loss of control over the nation.
There is a Chinese myth from the Eastern Zhou dynasty, of a monster god named Kiu who lives in the
celestial deep towards the east. Kiu shone bright as the moon and the sun, and looked like a single-
legged ox --the bull was often used to represent the celestial gods due to the horn-like appearance of
the coma, while the one leg and gray color could represent its smoky cometary tail.
“Kiu was said to be a divine beast who lived on Mount Liubo (liubo literally means “flowing wave”) in
the East Sea. It looked like an ox but was gray, hornless, and one-legged. Whenever it came out or
dived into the sea, a storm would follow. Its light was like the sunlight and moonlight, and its sound
was like thunder. Later it was caught and killed by Huang Di (Emperor God), who made a drum by
using its hide as a cover. When struck with the bone of the thunder God, the drum made a sound that

could be heard over 500 miles away.”84
This drum was used by Huang Di (Emperor God) to battle and win, against the god of war and
military weapons, in order to reveal His power to the whole earth. It seemed that when the chief
divinity controlled the powers of Kiu and the Thunder God - possibly planets Venus and Mars, He
used them to send a powerful message to the warriors of the world.
In Minor Odes of the Shijing, we are told that in the Decade of T’ung Kung when states came to an
end, it marked the end of other things, “When that in the Te too ceased, such numerous hosts
passed away...When that in the Yew kang ceased, the active and passive powers of nature failed to
act in their proper way...When that in the Yew e ceased, all things were turned into disorder...the
States fell off from their allegiance...and the wild tribes on every side made their incursions, each
more fiercely than another, so that the Middle kingdom was exceedingly reduced.”85
Decimated by both nature and human forces, China of antiquity had suffered a blow to its military
might that made it difficult to defend itself internally, much less continue its outward expansion. The
Odes name King Seuen as the one who had sent out corrective expeditions to reverse the situation of
the empire. “In the Keu kung we have King Seuen bringing back the ancient prosperity, within the
kingdom, reformed the government, and he punished the wild tribes beyond it. He restored the
boundaries of Wan and Woo. His chariots and horses were in good repair and condition. All the
weapons of war were abundantly provided. He again assembled the feudal princes in the eastern
capital…”85
With the mention of restoring the boundaries of Wan and Wu, which would include the regions
beyond the four seas, we realize that this Eastern Zhou Dynasty king was able to muster enough of
their forces and replenish weapons to forcefully reestablish their authority over the colonies in the
distant lands beyond the seas. Eastern Zhou Dynasty Copper Spade coins have been found through
the years, scattered over the islands of the Philippines. China of antiquity had been shaken but was
able to recover from the fiery destruction.
Plato writes of multiple recurring destructions of mankind interspersed with long intervals of time, and
according to him, the most severe destructions had been caused by fire and water. Plato even went
so far as to note that, “those who live upon the mountains and in dry and lofty places are more liable
to destruction by fire, while those who dwell by rivers or on the seashore by water.”86
The Miao people of China have a song they chant that echoes the claims of Plato regarding
catastrophes caused by fire and water.

“Heavenly King made heaven and earth…
Who came to the bad disposition,
To send fire and burn the hills?
Who came to the bad disposition,
To send water and destroy the earth?
I who sing don’t know
Zie did. Zie was of bad disposition
Zie sent fire and burned the hill;
Thunder did. Thunder was of bad disposition,
Thunder sent water and destroyed the earth
Why don’t you know?”87
If Imperial China was able to reestablish its authority after this catastrophe, how did the Philippines
escape the grasp of the ancient colonizers who may have lorded it over the islands for hundreds of
years? The book of Ezekiel tells us that it was God who broke the yoke of the powerful oppressive
nations, specifically the Phoenician city of Tyre, by burying the superpowers of the coastal lands
under the waters of the sea.
17 They will take up a lamentation over you and say to you,
‘How you have perished, O inhabited one,
From the seas, O renowned city,
Which was mighty on the sea,
She and her inhabitants,
Who imposed her terror
On all her inhabitants!
18 ‘Now the coastlands will tremble
On the day of your fall;
Yes, the coastlands which are by the sea
Will be terrified at your passing.’”
19 For thus says the Lord GOD, “When I make you a desolate city, like the cities which are not
inhabited, when I bring up the deep over you and the great waters cover you...88
The ships described by Marco Polo were affected by the changing of the earthscape caused by the
violence of the sea sometime in the distant past. He had been informed by the people of the land

that, “...In former times they were of greater burthen than they are at present; but the violence of the
sea having in many places broken up the islands, and especially in some of the principal ports, there
is a want of depth of water for vessels of such draught, and they have on that account been built, in
latter times, of a smaller size.”89
Vessels of this type were much larger in the past ages, but changes in the landscape caused by the
‘violence of the sea’ had caused them to adapt. Could this be in reference to the catastrophic rising of
the sea levels around 400 BC that submerged the ancient Egyptian port of Thonis, and caused the
Mesoamerican Chavin and Olmec to end? East Asia was hard hit as Japan’s Jomon civilization
ceased, as did the Lapita that was buried deep in the sea. Multiple myths from Micronesia all the way
to Australia relay the story of this cataclysm that transformed fertile valley and coastland into seas,
and mountains into islands.
Egypt suffered severe losses as several of its prosperous port cities along the Mediterranean coast
were submerged beneath the sea. The underwater ruins of the cities of Heracleion (Thonis),
Canopus, and possibly one more city in what had been Egypt’s Nile Delta were discovered in 2000 by
an expedition of the European Institute for Underwater Archaeology led by marine archaeologist
Franck Goddio.90
A monumental statue from Thonis Photo: Christoph Gerigk. Franck Goddio/Hilti Foundation.
The underwater cities, currently located 6.5 kilometers from the modern coastline, were important
commercial hubs in the ancient Mediterranean coastline. Marine archaeologists are studying over 60
ancient Egyptian ships, 700 anchors, and numerous other artifacts. “‘The survey has revealed an

enormous submerged landscape with the remains of at least two major ancient settlements within a
part of the Nile delta that was crisscrossed with natural and artificial waterways,’ said Dr Damian
Robinson, Director of the Oxford Centre for Maritime Archaeology at the University of Oxford.” 91
The port city of Thonis (Heracleion to the Greeks) was the official entry point to the Nile where cargo
from various lands were unloaded, taxed, and transferred to Egyptian ships that carried it along the
Nile. “The city was once the official port-of-entry for Egypt, somewhere around 664 to 332 BC.”92
Thonis may have become one of the biggest commercial centers that enjoyed the prosperity and
abundance of the fourth age. How and when these cities ended up under water remains a mystery to
conventional history.
Thonis appears to have been no longer existent when Alexandria was founded in 331 BC along the
Mediterranean northern coast of Egypt. Yet Herodotus writes about the bustling port city of Thonis in
his work published in 425 BC as the warden, port of entry, to the Nile river and consequent access to
trade with the nations in those areas. “He came to Egypt, to the mouth of the Nile called the Canopic
mouth, and to the Salters’. Now there was (and still is) on the coast a temple of Heracles … They laid
this accusation before the priests and the warden of the Nile mouth, whose name was Thonis.”93
Thus, narrowing down the time to 425 BC when Thonis was still above the waters, and 332 BC when
it was gone --around the time world mythology tells us there was a catastrophic rising of the sea
levels.
On the other side of the planet, people groups from Taiwan and eastern Asia, called the Lapitan,
migrated and settled in Micronesia and Polynesia. “...by 500 BC they had created numerous
settlements throughout the Pacific islands. Incredibly skilled fishermen and sailors, the culture is also
known for their very distinctive pottery.”94 A type of pottery not found in Samoa until ferry line
expansion workers inadvertently discovered them on the seafloor off the coast of the island of Upolu
in Mulifanua Bay. Over 4,000 pieces of distinctive Lapitan type pottery, indicate that a large ancient
village was located under the waters of the Pacific. During the time that the village was inhabited, it is
believed that it may have been a coastal town built on sandy beaches. “The village discovered at
Mulifanua Bay was one of the most advanced Lapita settlements, which we know because this is the
only dig site where decorated pottery has been found. It’s also the oldest one we know of. The

pottery has been dated to about 800 B.C.—500 years older than other sites.”95
No one knows how many more villages could be buried in the depths of the sea, but it is possible that
there is much more to be discovered and learned. Currently, “More than two hundred Lapita sites
have since been uncovered, ranging more than 4,000 km from coastal and island Melanesia to Fiji
and Tonga with its most eastern limit so far in Samoa.”96
96
These islands are located off the northeastern coast of Australia, across the Coral Sea. Myths from
tribes in Australia’s northeastern coastline tell of a river that flowed into the sea from Fitzroy island
which had in the past, been part of the mainland that had stretched all the way to the Great Barrier
Reef.97 What would the implications of the catastrophic rising of the sea levels, captured in Aboriginal
myth, have had on the Lapitan villages that were built on the low lying coastlands? Could the islands
of Micronesia and Polynesia, like Fitzroy island, simply represent the mountain peaks left after the
disaster?
Myths from Micronesia and Polynesia seem to tell us just that. “Legends of a great flood in which a
multitude of people perished are told by the natives of those groups of islands which under the
general names of Polynesia and Micronesia are scattered widely over the Pacific... in ancient times
Taaroa, the principal god... being angry with men on account of their disobedience to his will,
overturned the world into the sea, when the earth sank in the waters, excepting a few aurus, or
projecting points, which, remaining above its surface, constituted the principal cluster of islands.”98
The cataclysmic rising of the waters buried coastal civilizations around the world so extremely, that
we do not even know what they really called themselves. Lapita, Jomon, Olmec and Chavin are all

just names given by the academic community in order to identify them. Around this time, the powerful
Indian Tamil Nadu maritime civilization’s seafaring activities also came to an end.
Legends are told of the city of Dwaraka that was swallowed by the sea, “As in the case of
Dwaraka...initial findings at and off Poompuhar, at the mouth of the Cauvery, show that there may
well be a historical basis to this legend: apart from several structures excavated near the shore, such
as brick walls, water reservoirs, even a wharf (all dated 200-300 B.C.), a few years ago a structure
tantalizingly described as a "U-shaped stone structure" was found five kilometers offshore, at a depth
of twenty-three meters; it is about forty meters long and twenty wide, and fishermen traditionally
believed that a submerged temple existed at that exact spot.”99
It may have been many hundreds of years before the seas were once again mapped and trading
ports established. During which many lands became the stuff of myths and legends.
However, the explorers of our age did not think of Ophir as a mythical land. Marco Polo believed that
Ophir would be found east of India near the island of Japan. And when Italian explorer Sebastian
Cabot left in 1526, his mission included “to search for a route to Tarsis and Ophir, Oriental Cathay
(China) and Japan.”100 Perhaps, they could have had access to ancient documents left by their
ancestors, for Italy, Portugal, and Spain had all been Phoenician colonies in antiquity.
Ancient Phoenician port cities of Tyre and Sidon along the Lebanese coast, which were major
launching points of these maritime traders, seem to also have suffered from the rising sea levels.
“Tyre, which was once an island, has been joined up to the mainland by silting, while much of the old
land has sunk beneath the waves.
But whereas these major geographical changes were roughly known, no one knew the exact shape
of the old coastline, which would in turn reveal the positions of the ancient harbours themselves.”101
Just how much of the Phoenician civilization lies underwater is only recently coming to light. “In the
1930s, for example, the French archaeologist and pioneer of aerial photography Antoine Poidebard
claimed to have found the location of the southern harbour of ancient Tyre, which is now submerged.
But recent work suggests that he instead found an urban part of the old city, rather than a port”102
Could this global catastrophe have played a major role in ending the ancient Phoenician civilization?

Plato (428 BC - 348 BC) who would have lived through this catastrophe wrote in the Critias (111.b)
“...but the earth has fallen away all around and sunk out of sight. The consequence is, that in
comparison of what then was, there are remaining only the bones of the wasted body, as they may
be called, as in the case of small islands, all the richer and softer parts of the soil having fallen away,
and the mere skeleton of the land being left.”103
Sea level rose so suddenly that 64 ships with their gold and cargo have been found still in the
harbour of Egypt’s primary customs port of Thonis, that was replaced by Alexandria in 331 BC after it
had gone under the sea. The land of Ophir, possibly an ancient Phoenician harbour city, likely
suffered the same fate as the coastal civilizations already mentioned. Because of the quantity of
Phoenician type artifacts found washed up on the shores of Butuan and Agusan, it is possible that the
remains of the coastal colony called Ophir along with its ports and urban centers would be found by
marine archaeologist several miles into Butuan Bay in the near future.
Encroaching sea levels transformed mountain tops to coastal land, leaving only scattered remnants
of what may have been formidable and powerful civilizations of great wealth and pomp. The Chinese
colonial government may have set up their base of operations along the rivers and coastal lowlands,
that were swept under the waves of the sea during this sudden cataclysm that shattered the strength
of powerful oppressive nations around the globe.
What remained of Ophir may have been called Lequios. It had been proposed that this name may
have been derived from the Hebrew ‫ לַקק טט‬laqat: to pick or gather up, glean.104 Appropriately
describing the survivors who had to start over, picking up or gleaning the things that were left behind.
Though remaining land still had some of the ancient gold mines and gold reserves, much of what had
been, now lay under the salty sea. The ruins of Ophir will most likely be found by marine
archaeologists, similar to Egypt’s Thonis, several miles from the current shore. The archipelago that
remained still retained an abundance of gold on its fertile lands. But the survivors called it by a new
name - the islands of the Lequios.
Tome Pires wrote in the 1500s of the countries in Eastern Asia, in cluding Japan, Borneo and a land
called Lucoes (Lequios) that was ten days sail from Borneo. “The Borneans go to the lands of the

Lucoes to buy gold, and foodstuffs as well, and the gold which they bring to Malacca is from the
Lucoes and from the sorrounding islands which are countless...” 105
Carlos Quirino considered Tome Pires' account of the Lucoes to be the first European reference to
the Philippines. He noted that the Philippine archipelago was called “by the Indians Lucon, from the
principal island which is calle Lucon (Luzon).”105
In the Maris Pacifici Map by Abraham Ortelius (1608), the Philippines still bore the name Islas de
Lucous, above its newer name Philippinas.106
The catastrophic rising of the sea levels divided the Eastern Zhou Dynasty period into the Spring and
Autumn Period (771 BC-476 BC) and the Warring States Period (475 BC-221 BC) when they lost
control over the various feudal states and the king became a mere figurehead.
During the Warring States Period, different Chinese states may have tried to reestablish some kind of
authority over the colonies. Ancient coinage from various states during this period are periodically
found in the Philippines. The Qin Dynasty that succeeded the Zhou Dynasty was short lived and
busied itself with internal affairs and large scale projects at home (i.e. Great Wall, Royal Tomb, etc.).
Although the global catastrophes had been able to end the strong hold of the Zhou dynasty, it was not
able to remove the lust for wealth and power. Rulers of the Han and Xin Dynasties seem to have tried
to implement the use of their coinage in the Philippines, but were unable to bring back the Zhou
Dynasty glory days. Their failure to reestablish their colonial rule may have once again been
connected to 'Terrors from heaven”.
Mythology tells the story of celestial creatures, smaller in size, that attempt to 'eat' the sun and moon.
These myths are found in Hindu, Egyptian, Hebrew, Korean and Chinese civilizations, as well as in
the Pacific islands and the Americas. The Egyptians saw Apep, snake demon of darkness and chaos,
trying to blot out the light of the Sun. India and many Asian nations saw the smoky Rahu trying to
swallow the Sun in dark clouds. In the Americas, both the Incas and Peruvians have myths of the
celestial serpent that tried to eat the Sun. All over the Philippine islands the tales of Bakunawa, the
celestial serpent with his enormous head, burning red tongue, and smoky gray wings, who tried to
swallow the heavenly lights may be found. The ancient Chinese tell the stories of when the dragon
tried to eat the sun and the moon.
These myths on the disappearance of the Sun and the Moon have been connected to astronomical

eclipses. What else could they be? Stories of fanciful monsters were mere superstitious beliefs used
to explain things that ancient peoples couldn’t possibly understand, such as how an eclipse occurs.
There is however, a major flaw to this reasoning. Ancient civilizations understood, recorded,
calculated and predicted a great deal of astronomical information - including eclipses. China’s Shu
King tell the story of two astronomers who were executed in the 3rd Millennium BC because they
failed to predict an eclipse. The emperor and the people of China knew even at that early time that
eclipses were part of the predictable celestial mechanics that govern the heavens. The same goes
with the ancient civilizations of Egypt, India, Babylon, and the peoples of Mesoamerica.
Pontius Pilate, Procurator of Palestine and Phoenicia, wrote to Caesar making a report 107 on Jesus
whom he had crucified (approximately 30-35 AD). Tertullian’s Apologeticum (197 AD) twice mentions
the report made by Pilate to Tiberius. In the third hour of the night (Roman time = 6 am), resurrection
morning, Pilate reported witnessing loud sounds from the skies and a Sun shining seven times
brighter than normal, accompanied by a moon that shone as bright as the Sun. The exact event was
foretold by the prophet Isaiah to mark the healing of the bruise - the return to life of the promised
seed of the woman. The prophet Isaiah wrote that this celestial display would happen when the
‘bruise’ inflicted was to be healed. The serpent was to ‘bruise’ the heel of the seed of the woman as
he crushed its head (Genesis 3:15).
“The light of the moon will be as the light of the sun, and the light of the sun will be seven times
brighter, like the light of seven days, on the day the Lord binds up the fracture of His people and
heals the bruise He has inflicted.”108
The battle was fought between the serpent and the Son of Man, and only one rose victorious from the
grave. Likewise, the book of Enoch tells us that after the great eternal judgement takes place, “...all
the powers of the heavens shall give sevenfold light.” (The Book of Enoch, Section V. Chapter 93.16)
It is astronomically impossible for this to happen to the actual Sun and moon, but the people of
antiquity may have been recording eyewitness accounts of two blazing celestial bodies passing very
close to planet earth. One much larger than the other, thus mimicking the familiar relationship of the
Sun and Moon.
Hindu tradition informs us that the fiery Rahu (linked to the Sun) is accompanied by the lesser snake
demon Ketu who is specifically linked with the moon in Vedic texts.109
Norse mythology tell of the celestial wolves Skoll and Hati who pursue the Sun and the Moon. These

wolves also played an important role in the chaos and age ending destruction of Ragnarok, the fiery
end of the third age.110
Korean myth gives the story of the fire dogs from the dark land in the skies. The fire dogs sent from
the darkness try to steal the light of the Sun and the moon, but end up spitting it out.111 These fiery
dogs that came from the sky kingdom of darkness are linked by myth to the Sun and the moon. Could
this myth from Korea be describing a time when the lights of the Sun and the moon were eclipsed by
the light of these much nearer blazing celestial bodies, following a period of extended murky
darkness?
The Dayak tribes of Borneo hold to the myths of the Aso dragon (Dog Dragon) that has come to
represent a divine protector. The dog dragon is proudly worn by the tribal leaders as ear weights,
pendants and other ornaments, often crafted in bronze. These aso dragon bronze artifacts are also
abundantly found in the Philippines. They have often been labeled 'Tribal Crafts' without answering
the question, just where did these tribes learn the technology for working with bronze?
Following are some Aso dragon ornaments found with numerous other Aso dragon themed bronze
artifacts that were excavated from Mindanao, Philippines. The Aso, literally translated as 'dog',
combines the attributes of a dog and dragon to create this mythical figure popular among the tribes
from ancient times. Aso dragon was a powerful protector worn by the tribal elite, representing the
status of the wearer.

The bronze ornaments, featuring the Aso dragon, excavated from Mindanao graphically portray the
story of what this little celestial creature had finally accomplished. The ancient craftsmen may have
created these miniature masterpieces in commemoration of their deliverance from their long
servitude to foreign colonial powers.
Chinese survivors may have integrated with the locals and carried on trade with the mainland, mostly
via the nearby ports of Fujian (Fukien) and Guangzhou (Canton). During the latter dynasties,
Philippine - China relations went into various phases as tributary, trade partner, and friend in different
periods. It wasn’t until the Song Dynasty that they were once again able to enforce Chinese coins as
an international currency. “...in the late eleventh century, the imperial mints issued more than six
billion coins per year, and Chinese coinage also served as the principal currency in Japan, Korea,

and Southeast Asia.”112 Second emperor of the Ming Dynasty established a short lived rule over the
Philippines, which ended soon after the Yung Lo regime.
Ironically, over a thousand years later, it was China that was in danger of being colonized by the
aggressively expanding Western nations that were seeking to enlarge their own boundaries.
Philippine national hero Jose Rizal made this observation in the 1800s, “China will consider herself
fortunate if she succeeds in keeping herself intact and is not dismembered or partitioned among the
European powers that are colonizing the continent of Asia.”113 China did not become a colony of a
foreign land, however, they still bear scars and memories of that painful time in their history.
Oppression of peoples to enrich the privileged few was never part of Heaven's will. Many mighty
civilizations have claimed that they were doing so under the auspicious of the divine, but the fact that
their grasp over those who were unable to defend themselves had been so firmly broken, time and
again, reveals Heaven's true will.
Currently accepted history, taught in schools, create more questions than answers. The mysteries are
growing in number. Change is needed before we lose the trust of a thinking generation that sees
through the holes in the story we have been handing them regarding their history.
The global amnesia of the past events that had taken place on our planet is a testament to the
magnitude of the catastrophies able to wipe out even the memory of them. Remnants of the past
being uncovered by archaeology and science, seem to affirm the fragments of ancestral memories
captured in world mythology. History bears witness that there is a being who fights for the weak and
sets things right in His time. And it doesn't matter if we call Him God or Shangdi or Jehovah or
Ahuramazda, He is real. And He is actively involved in world affairs.
If you are interested in learning more about the history of the world according to our predecessors,
you may read the book 'World Myth or History?'.

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55. James Legge, trans. The Shu King, Shih King, And Hsiao King.“05. The Books of Kau. 21. The Kun Khan.” 1879
56. “Coin with inscription ＜em>Guo bao jin kui zhi wan＜/em>.” China Museum. 2017.
<http://www.chnmuseum.cn/tabid/450/Default.aspx?AntiqueLanguageID=3661>
57. James Legge, trans. The Shu King, Shih King, And Hsiao King.“05. The Books of Kau. 21. The Kun Khan.” 1879
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of Pi.” 1879
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Decade, or that of Khi fu. 03. The Kieh Nan Shan” 1879
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Decade, or that of Khi fu. 05. The Shih Yueh Kih Kiao.” 1879
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texts.com/cfu/mlc/mlc10.htm>
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9/16/15. <http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/aug25/articles7.htm>
67. C. Warren Hunt, Environment of Violence. 1990, Calgary, Polar Publishing, p. 156 ff. Silanes are silicon hydrides.
68. Donald W. Patten, Samuel R. Windsor. The Mars Earth Wars. Chapter 8. Seattle, WA: Pacific Meridian Publishing
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70. New American Standard Bible. Micah 3:6. CA: The Lockman Foundation, 1995
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texts.com/cfu/mlc/mlc10.htm>

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77. Luigi Piccardi, W. Bruce Masse. Myth and Geology. London: Geological Society of London. 2007. p 196
78. T.H. Worthy, Richard Holdaway. The Lost World of the Moa: Prehistoric Life of New Zealand. Indiana University
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79. Jeffrey Goodman, Ph.D. The Comets of God. Tucson: Archaeological Research Books. L.L.C. 2011. p 207-208
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82. New American Standard Bible. Isaiah 26:9-14. CA: The Lockman Foundation, 1995
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84. Lihui Yang, Deming An, Jessica Anderson Turner. Handbook of Chinese Mythology. Oxford University Press. 2008.
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86. Jowett, Benjamin, trans. “The Dialogues of Plato: Timaeus.” The Great Books Encyclopedia Britannica. 1952
87. E. T. C. Werner, Myths and Legends of China. London: George G. Harrap and Company, 1922, pp. 406-408.
88. New American Standard Bible. Ezekiel 26:17-19. CA: The Lockman Foundation, 1995
90. Noah Weiner. “Thonis—A Major Egyptian Port Swallowed by the Sea.” Bible History Daily. 2015. Biblical
Archaeology. 11/6/15. <http://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/ancient-cultures/ancient-near-eastern-world/thonis-
a-major-egyptian-port-swallowed-by-the-sea/>
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<http://www.urbanghostsmedia.com/2015/01/10-lost-underwater-cities-ancient-world-sunken-civilisations/>
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94. Debra Kelly. “10 Lost Underwater Cities of the Ancient World.” Urban Ghosts. 2015.
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<https://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/vimanas/esp_vimanas_11b.htm>
100.Harry kelsey. The First Circumnavigation: Unsung Heroes of the Age of Discovery. Yale University Press. 2016
101.Philip Ball. “Long-lost Phoenician Ports Found.” Nature. 2017.
<http://www.nature.com/news/2006/060102/full/news060102-11.html>
102.El Amouri M., et al. Bull. d'Archéol. et d'Architect. Libanaises, (in press) (2005). From Philip Ball. “Long-lost
Phoenician Ports Found.” Nature. 2017. <http://www.nature.com/news/2006/060102/full/news060102-11.html>
103.Plato. Critias. 111.b. C. 4th century BC
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105.Carlos Quirino. Philippine Cartography:1320-1899, 3rd. Edition. Philippines: Vibal Foundation. Pp14-15
106.Carlos Quirino. Philippine Cartography:1320-1899, 3rd. Edition. Philippines: Vibal Foundation. Pp18-19
107.Alexander Walker, trans. Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 8. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A.
Cleveland Coxe. (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886.) Revised and edited for New Advent by
Kevin Knight. <http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0809.htm>
108.New American Standard Bible. Isaiah 30:26. CA: The Lockman Foundation, 1995
109.Luigi Piccardi, W. Bruce Masse. Myth and Geology. Geological society of London. 2007. P30
110.Dan McCoy. “Sol and Mani.”Norse Mythology for Smart People. 2016. <http://norse-mythology.org/sol-mani/>
111.James H. Grayson. Myths and Legends from Korea. Routledge. 2012. P 253-254
112.Edward L. Shaughnessy, ed. China. London: Duncan Baird Publishers. 2005. p74
113.“Jose Rizal.” BrainyQuote. 2017. <https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/quotes/j/joserizal664787.html>

Addendum
This section includes additional information on some topics not fully discussed in the general body of
text. Most of these will revolve around a fascination with beads found on Philippine soil.
Ceramics
Perhaps there are those who may be wondering why ceramics was not included as a proof of China’s
presence in Philippine prehistory. This is not because there are no evidence of ceramic or porcelain
nature. On the contrary, there are already so many studies on ceramic and porcelain that are already
existing that I had decided to take the road less travelled. But since most research on ceramics and
porcelain begin from around the Han Dynasty, I would like to share briefly on the proto-ceramic/proto-
porcelain period of China in remote antiquity.
Chinese traditions and ancient texts attribute the introduction of pottery to the legendary rulers
Shennong (Divine Farmer) and his son Huangdi (Yellow Emperor). “The legendary Yellow Emperor
Huangdi is credited with personally supervising the imperial kilns.”1 Archaeology confirms the high
level of pottery that Neolithic China was producing by the third millennium BC.
Even from its earliest periods, China has been shown to have used Caolinite stone in the production
of proto-ceramics. Caolin is abundantly found in China and has a fine white appearance when
purified and cleaned.
“Preparation of raw clay started from removing impurities and litter: clay would be put in water and
stirred up, the heavy part of clay sinking down, and the litter floating up. The cleaner it was made, the
better was the quality of future ceramic mass. In order to decrease clay shrinkage losses while
drying, and to prevent vessels cracking while baking, they would add quartz sand into the mix, as well
as finely ground shells of pearl oyster, talc, and chamotte. Then, future pottery was shaped by hand
without using a jigger: out of clay strips which were rolled into circles in accordance with the width of
the future item, building one upon another (strip ceramics).”2
Pottery was smoothened and polished then soaked in a liquid clay solution, then at times covered
with engobe after drying --a predecessor of glaze. Finishing of the pottery could include painting with
geometric and natural patterns (i.e. flowers, plants, animals, people). Tools would sometimes be used
with monochrome pottery to etch in designs and model the form.
Following are a collection of proto-porcelain beads made from a mixture of Caolin and other
elements. Irregularities in each bead suggests the shaping by hand from clay strips which were
layered then polished for a smooth surface.

Although highly weathered, images that appear to be of various patterns, including flowers, plants,
animals and people have been painted on the white tubular beads that bear traces of a primitive
glaze. The two pumpkin shaped red coated beads seem to have their forms shaped by hand using a
tool. These also appear to have been made from clay strips rolled into circles then formed and
polished, they were dipped in a reddish monochromatic primitive glaze (engobe?) that covered most
areas except for their flattened bottoms which remained Caolin white.These proto-porcelain beads
were excavated from the Philippines.
A rare ceramic vessel that imitates the appearance of treasured bronze ritual vessels were found by
archaeologists in prestigious tombs of the Shang Dynasty's last capital, An-yang. The Early Western
Zhou Dynasty has been noted for the way they maintained the motifs, style, and forms used by the
preceeding dynasty. Following is a ceramic tripod ding with traditional designs in relief, including the
word 福 'blessing' in its ancient script. This ceramic tripod ding vessel that was unearthed in the
Philippine islands appears to have lost its handles, however the joints where the handles had been
previously attached is clearly shown. One of the legs has obviously been damaged and rough repairs
had been made in the past.
The presence of this type of rare ceramic vessel used in China's ancient dynasties to honour graves
of their princes, would indicate the possibility that such highly esteemed leaders from China, may
have found themselves laid to rest on Philippine soil. And a reason for such a thing to occur would be
that their jurisdiction in ages past included these lands.

Dzi Beads
The Boxer Codex describes a black and white stone bead that was of great value to the ancient
Filipinos. In the book Phoenicians in the Lands of Gold, the beads commonly called Dzi were
identified as these mysterious beads that may be found among the Philippine tribes.
“Dzi (pronounced Zee) is a Tibetan word used to describe a patterned, usually agate, of mainly
oblong, round, cylindrical or tabular shape pierced lengthwise called Heaven's Bead (tian zhu) in
Chinese.”3
Patterns on these valuable and rare beads may be linked to the Proto-Canaanite alphabet used by
the seafaring Phoenician merchants from before 1000 BC. Following is a chart that shows the
alphabet side by side with Dzi bead motifs familiar to Asian nations, particularly China. The mystery of
these Dzi beads include who made them, how they were made, and when they were made. The
controversial nature of these beads make them some of most sought after and highly valued
collectible beads in the world.

Dzi beads may be another clue to ancient contact between China and Phoenicia.

Cornerless Cubes
What is a cornerless cube bead? Simply put, it is a cube shaped bead with its corners shaved off to
create more facets --a total of 14. This became a popular bead shape sometime in the 1st millennium
BC to around the first millennium AD.
“Glass cornerless cubes are known from many sites in Europe and the Middle East, especially from
Roman times through the Early Islamic period (ca. First century B.C. to ca. A.D. 1200).”4
Most glass cornerless cubes had been produced by winding and paddling the hot soft glass on a
metal rod into shape, but the analysis of two cornerless cube glass beads from ancient Egypt show
that they had been ground into shape with the perforation hole drilled. “These facts suggest that
stone might have been the original cornerless cube material.”4
Peter Francis lists cornerless cube beads under ‘Beads whose Origins are a Mystery’. Glass
cornerless cubes have been found in the Philippines, Thailand, and in Indonesia, most often in light
green or dark blue translucent glass.
Following are images of ancient cornerless cubes made from various stones excavated from the
Philippines which could be representative of the predecessors of the glass beads, giving credence to
the idea that this particular bead shape may have had Indo-Pacific origins.
Nephrite jade cornerless cubes with cleaving veins and differential weathering reveal in itself the
evidence of its antiquity. Each of these beads have 14 facets but lacking in perfect symmetry, possibly
the rough beginnings of this shape. All the cornerless cube beads shown above have ancient drilled

perforations that go in from both ends and meet at the center. Aside from nephrite jade, other
materials include agate, feldspar, liuli glass, and onyx (not shown).
Glass Beads
Beishi text written in the 7th century AD informs us that it was during the reign of Emperor Tai Wu in
the 5th century that the technology for the manufacture of man made glass was introduced to China
by traders.5 “However, the earliest archaeological evidence for glass manufacture in China comes
from the late Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC to 221 BC).”6
Gravesites from the Zhou Dynasty Spring and Autumn period to the Warring States period have
yielded polychrome eye beads that were imported from the West. Speculation that these glass
imports had arrived through the Silk Road is highly unlikely since the Silk Road would not be
established until the Han Dynasty, several hundred years later. It is more plausible to consider that
these beads had come into China via the pathways of the seas and rivers. This concept becomes
even stronger when we consider that many of these ancient eye beads were found along cities near
rivers, inside wooden boat shaped coffins.
7
Polychrome eye beads, Zhou Dynasty
Compare these Zhou Dynasty polychrome eye beads, with some eye beads found in the Philippine
islands. The similarities in forms, styles, motifs and even the methods of manufacture are difficult to
ignore.

These polychrome eye beads, that appear to be very much like those archaeologically found in Zhou
Dynasty graves, were uncovered in the Philippines. Could they be further evidence that the
manufacturers of these beads, that were imported and treasured by the Chinese Lords, had travelled
through the waterways of the world?
During the first millennium BC, the technology of glass manufacture was a highly guarded trade
secret, veiled in mysticism and ritual by the seafaring Phoenician tradesmen. The craft of making
glass of various colors and combining the minerals at the right temperatures was mastered by the
Phoenician merchants, who used this technology to create highly valued glass beads and ornaments
for use in trade with various distant lands. The manufacture of glass was such a mystery that made
glass worth as much as rubies and other precious gems. Thus, we often find Phoenician made glass
of this period ensconced in gold.
In ancient times, beads were a form of international currency used for trade. Glass beads were
particularly valuable as a rare curiosity to trade with tribes who lived in very rich lands with abundant
resources of gems and precious metals. This was the case in the Philippine islands, rich in gold,
silver, and other precious gems. Beads were used as a type of currency in the Philippines from
antiquity, all the way to the early 20th century according to Edgardo Masferre.
“Beads were very precious items to all mountain people. Some heirloom beads were worth as much
as two carabao, and were imported to the Philippines several centuries ago. Each type of bead was
named. Beads that Masferre’s father once imported for trading purposes...”8
Venetian beads, produced from the 15th to the 19th centuries, were a popular trade item among the
tribes. Many of the Venetian motifs and bead designs were inspired by the ancient Phoenicians who
had colonized the Western Mediterranean regions in antiquity. Therefore, we learn that although

tribes do make their own beads from indigenous materials (i.e. crocodile teeth, corals, shells and
stones), most of their most treasured beads are those traded from far off lands, made with
technologies that they did not possess. Understanding this fact will help in understanding the problem
with identifying object possessed by tribal groups as tribal art.
When trying to identify the origins of various beads excavated from Philippine soil, I came across a
strange first question from the scholarly community. Even before analyzing the beads themselves,
they asked where they were found. I found this strange because just because it was found
somewhere doesn’t mean that it was made there. But then the reason for this line of questioning
became clearer, the more I studied ancient beads. It is because some beads found among the tribal
groups of Southeast Asia are virtually indistinguishable from those known to have been made by the
ancient Phoenicians. The same core formed fused glass method of manufacture. The same motifs.
The same styles and decorative methods and patterns. The same mosaic glass technologies. And yet
the problem is the mystery of how they got to lands that current scholarship will not allow the
Phoenicians to have ever travelled to.
If the collection of beads shown below had been found in West Asiatic lands or the Mediterranean
civilizations, they would have immediately been identified as core formed fused glass made by the
ancient Phoenicians. But these were found in the Philippines, and would therefore be labelled a
mystery or tribal crafts. How one of the most closely guarded trade secrets of the ancient world ended
up as tribal art seems to be a greater mystery to me.
The problem is that we allow assumptions to be of more weight than facts. Such is the historic
assumption that the Phoenicians never reached Southeast Asia, ignoring the abundant textual and
archaeological evidence of such events. Some evidence of the Phoenician journeys to Asia is
discussed in this book as well as in the book Phoenicians in the Lands of Gold.

There are some who may recognize the hooked bronze dragon ornament pictured with the bronze
phoenix in the chapter on China’s Bronze Age in the Philippines as Borneo tribal art. Many type of
bronze/brass Aso Dragon ear weights are found in this similar style among the Dayak tribes of
Borneo. However, my question would then be, “Who brought bronze technology to these tribes?”.
Bronze is an alloy of copper and other metals, and its discovery and use was one of the scientific
breakthroughs of ancient times. Why didn’t they just use silver or gold which is an abundant resource
on nearby lands?
Labelling these glass and bronze artifacts and more as 'tribal art' makes one wonder how ancient
technologies that represented peaks in scientific advancements for highly esteemed powerful
civilizations, could simply be dumped together and ignored when amongst indigenous peoples. The
'tribal art' label seems to conveniently deflect the need to answer the basic questions of who, what,
where and how.
The bronze on this ancient hooked ornament has developed a brown patina over a long time of
exposure to the Philippine soil. It was excavated along with other Zhou Dynasty artifacts, including
coins and jade. Could this suggest that the motif of the bronze dragon used by the powerful elite was
introduced to the tribes who use such bronze ornaments for the high ranking members of their tribe?
What do you think?

References:
1. “Porcelain and Ceramics of China.” ChinaSage. 2017. <http://www.chinasage.info/porcelain.htm>
2. “From the History of Chinese Porcelain.”Moychay.com. 2017. <https://moychay.com/articles/kitajsky_farfor>
3. Mobii. “The Myth and Mystery of Tibetan Dzi Stone Beads.” Bellatory. 2017. <https://bellatory.com/fashion-
accessories/The-Myth-and-Mystery-of-Tibetan-Dzi-Stone-Beads>
4. Peter Francis, Jr. Asia’s Maritime Bead Trade: 300 BC to the Present. USA: University of Hawai’i Press. P110-111
5. Joseph Needham. Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4. Physics and Physical Technology. Pat I. Physics.
6. “Ancient Chinese Glass.” Wikipedia. 2017. <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Chinese_glass>
7. https://ancientpeoples.tumblr.com/post/51729973752/glass-beads-600-bc-ad-200-zhou-dynasty
8. Jill Gale de Villa. E MASFERRE: People of the Philippine Cordillera, Photographs 1934-1956. Philippines: Devcon I
P Inc. 1988. p164
Special Thanks to my five children and loving spouse who supported me and allowed me to take time
to do my research, my father and mother who taught me to love the Philippines, my brothers and
sisters, Victor Paz, PhD (University of the Philippines Diliman, Archaeological Studies Program), John
Micsic, PhD (Southeast Asian Studies, National University of Singapore), Mr. Coty Inidal (Manager,
Treasures of Time and Fine Antiques), Neil Loyola (Cultural Property Division, National Museum of
the Philippines), Giovanni Bautista (Researcher/Archaeologist), Bryan Ferrer and Emelev Cabrera
(Administrative Officer II, CPRD National Museum), Boyet Manuel (Numismatist/Historian), Eddie
Chua (Numismatist/Antiquarian), Rafael Briones (Antiquarian), Timothy Boyle (Missionary/Author),
Translators at Reddit.com, Jason Miller, Gumpal and Tirona families, and all my friends and family
who inspired me to go on.
Copyright 2017, J.G.Cheock

email: j.g.cheock@gmail.com

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CHINA Myth or History?

Chapter 1 Ancient China in World Context 1

Chapter 2 Philippine Jade Culture 35

Chapter 3 Liuli Glass (China's Lost National Treasure) 74

Chapter 4 Discovering the Bronze Age of China

Chapter 5 Finding Tarshish 133

Chapter 6 What Now? 177

Ancient China in World Context

China: Myth or History? 1

China: Myth or History? 2

A similar creation story from God’s mouth can be found in Africa.

China: Myth or History? 3

China: Myth or History? 4

China: Myth or History? 5

tempter 魔 (demon/magic/tempter) is portrayed by two trees 木木 with the 鬼 (devil/demon) hidden

China: Myth or History? 6

China: Myth or History? 7

China: Myth or History? 8

China: Myth or History? 9

China: Myth or History? 10

China: Myth or History? 11

Below, we find Yu making a report of what he had done.

China: Myth or History? 12

According to the Lugal-e Tablets,

China: Myth or History? 13

China: Myth or History? 14

China: Myth or History? 15

China: Myth or History? 16

China: Myth or History? 17

The Division of the Nations

China: Myth or History? 18

China: Myth or History? 19

China: Myth or History? 20

mouth 口 that may graphically portray one language.

Xia, Shang, Zhou Dynasties and Their Territories

China: Myth or History? 21

China: Myth or History? 22

China: Myth or History? 23

China: Myth or History? 24

A. 柏舟 84 Cypress Wood Boats

1 汎彼柏舟. Those cypress wood boats floating about

2 亦汎其流. Also floating in its stream

3 耿耿不寐. My mind is burning (bright), sleepless

China: Myth or History? 25

5 徵我無酒. I was drafted without wine

8 不可以茹. Not able to bear/take it in

9 亦有兄弟. Also have brothers

11 薄言往愬. Words are weak (not strong enough) to communicate

12 逢彼之怒. The fury of those we come upon

13 我心匪石. My captive/stolen heart (has become what it was not) -a rock

14 不可轉也. Also not able to turn around

15 我心匪席. My captive/stolen heart (has become what it was not) -a mat

16 不可卷也. Also not able to roll up (sweep off, answer back)

17 威儀棣棣. Manner and conduct completely correct, powerfully held in check

18 不可選也. Also not able to make a choice

19 憂心悄悄. Quietly (secretly) the heart is worried

20 愠于群小. Resentment/indignation from crowds/herds of the small

21 覯閔既多. Feeling compassion for the many already unexpectedly encountered

22 受侮不少. Received not a few insults

23 靜言思之. Words pondered over in the stillness (calm)

24 寤辟有摽. A sign is provided

25 日居月諸. Occupy in a day, Everything (Everybody) in a month

27 心之憂矣. The heart’s grieving/worries carries on

29 靜言思之. Words pondered over in the stillness (calm)

5 之死矢靡他. Death’s arrow will extravagantly waste them

12 之死矢靡慝. Evil thoughts of death’s arrow extravagantly wasting them