HA N D B 0 OK S for S tu d ents a nd Gener q lfi ea d er s .

fi —c — M — h

A HI G HE R ”

ENGL I SH GRAMMAR

A L E X A N DE R B A I N, L L D . .

P r ofessor of L oaz c i n the Uni ver si ty of A b or deen

'
'
.

N E W E DI T I ON
R E VI S E D AN D E N L A R GE D

N E NV Y OR K
HE N R Y HOL T A N D C OMP A N Y
1 880
 P R
INTE R .

15 Vandew ater St N Y
.
 PREFACE TO THE FI RS T

THE p resent w ork has b een c omp osed w ith more p ar

t icula r refere nce to t he class of E nglish C omp osit ion

( a tta ched t o the C ha ir of L ogic ) in the U niv ersity of

Ab erd een .

W hile av a iling myself of the b est w ork s on the

E nglish L anguage ,
I ha v e k ept stea dily in v ie w t he

follow ing p la n .

Under E tymology, the three dep artments : 1 st , C lassi

fication of W ord s or t he P a rts of S peech ; 2 nd , I nfiex ion ;
3 rd , Deriv a tion, have b een se ara tely
p d isc ussed . This
met hod I think b etter a dap ted for c onv eying g m
ram a

t ical informa tion t han t he old er one, of exhaustin

g
successiv ely each of the P arts of S p eech in a ll its
relat ions.

The p ractice of ex pla ining the p recise meanings of

the freq u ently recu rring w ords of the la nguage, such as
ronouns, a rt ic les, d istrib uti v e a dj ectiv e s, p rep osit ions,
p
j
a nd con u nc tions, has here b een system a tica lly follow ed
out . W ord s of t his d e scrip t ion a re not numerous .

B elonging ke
a li to j
all sub ec t s a nd all st yl es, t hey are

the v ery hi nges of c o mp osit ion . The exp la na t ion of

t hem, so long as it is c onfined to a small co mp ass, is a

p ro
p er of
fice of the gra m marian, al though t herein he
may see m to intr ude a little on the p rovince of t he
le xicograp her .

5444l 6
 PR E FA CE .

0 0
:
Animiiaf pla
n is ca rrie d out in the sec ond
p art of

Et y m elé o yf— o
l nfiex ron Thus, t he meanings of t he
d iffereri t incods
a

a nd of the v erb a re ex l ained a s

’

te nses p
a ccura tely a s the w riter s
’
kn
ow l edge w ou ld ena b le him .

A lmost all the new er g m

ram ars r ecog nise the ex
p ed iency

of t his cou rse .

S o w ith
g re a rd to Deri v ation, the m eanings of the
si nificant
g p refix es an d suf
fixes a re stated . Und er this
hea d, such a n accou nt
has b een giv en of the sources of
the E ngl ish v ocab ulary, as in a grea t meas ure t o dispense
w ith an E tymological dict ionary .

One ad v antage of the p l a n now d escrib ed is the

si mplifying of S ynt a x, w hich, w hen freed from a ll

m atters rel at ing t o t he mea nings of w ords a nd of inf

lex
i ons, m a y fal l entirely und er t he three hea ds of C oncord
Gov ern ment, a nd Ord er or A rrangement of w ords 5 this
last p a rt b eing w hat i n our la nguage most req ui res the
c a re ful a ttention of t he p upil .

F or t he sak e oft he a ccu ra te d efinition of the P arts of

S pe ech, as S yntax , the recently
w ell as for G eneral
i ntrod uced syst em of t he A nalysis of S ent ences is fully
ex p lained . On this sub ect j t he method giv en b y Mr .

O . P M ason has
. b een p rincip ally follow ed .

A short account of the E nglish Alphab et is p refix ed,

b ut Orthography a t large is not enter ed on in this w ork .

The s ub ect s of j P rosody ,

F igures of S p eech, a nd S tyle,
a re al so reser v e d , it b eing p urp osed t o incl ude them in a
sep ara t e manual of R het oric .

I n t he d iscussion of the idioms and constr uctions of

the l a ngu age, this grammar cont ains one n ov el ty of i m

p ortance, namely, the explana tion of the p recise uses of

 PRE F A CE . V

the rela t iv es, That,

’ ‘
W ho ,
’
and
‘
W hich ’
. The d is
‘ ‘ ’
tinc t ion b et w een hand , and w ho a nd
’
tha t on the one

w hich on t he ot her, w as cl early rceiv ed by ou r

p e

idioma t ic w riters up t o the beginning of the la st century ;

b ut ow ing to a n u nfort una te misap p rehension as to t he

p ec uliarly E ngl ish id iom of t hrow ing a

p re
p osit ion to
‘
l ittle
’
t he en d of a c la use, the rela tiv e that is now v e ry
‘ ‘
m p loyed in b ook mp osition, w ho w hich b e ing
’ ’
e co a nd

made to serv e in i ts stead . F or my first k now ledge of

the r eal d ist inction I w as indeb ted , more t han tw enty

years a o,
g to a co mmunica tion from Dr Thomas . C l ark ,

t hen of Ma rischal C ollege .

I n t he p rep arat ion of this grammar my ack now

le dgm ents a re m ore esp ecially due t o Mr C P M ason . . .

lish Gr a mma r D r A n u s Ha nd book o the E n lish

( g
E n
), g ( f .
g
Tong ue) , Mr E rnest A da ms ( E lements of the E nglish
.

D r L a t ham s W ork s, Dr Charl es W Connon

)
'

L a ng u a g e ,
. . .

sh Gr a mma r Dr C rom b ie E ty molo

( E ngl i
) ( , gy a n
.d S ynta x
;

ofthe E ng l ish L a n u a e D
g g ), r . M orell ( E nglish Gra mma r ) ,

Mr 0 . Allen F erris ( E nglish E tymology) ,

. Mr T K erch . .

e v er Arnol d ( E nglish Gra mma r ) , R ev A . . J . D D Orsey

’

.
’

E
( gn l ish Gr a mma r , Chamb ers s C ourse) Mr B randon ’

, .

T urner ( E nglish Gra mma r ) Mr M a tt hew Harrison ( The , .

E ng l ish L a ngua ge) and Mr Henry H Breen ( llI od er n

,
. .

E ngl i h L itera tur e)

s I a m a lso much ind eb ted t o a n out
.

l ine of English G ra mm ar in Cha mb ers s I nforma tion

’
,

for the P eop le, w rit ten b y Dr A nd rew F indlater, E d itor .

Cha mbers s E ncycl0p ced ia

’
of .

A BE R D E E N, N ovember , 1 8 63
 P REFACE TO THE PRES ENT EDI TI ON .

IN rep rinting the G rammar

for the p resent edition,
the typ ogra p hy has b een remod elled in su ch a w ay a s
t o facilita te t he rea dy a p p rehension of the learner At .

the same t ime ,

the matter has u nd ergone b oth rev ision

and enla rge ment . The ef

fect of the cha nges ha s b een
t o increase the b ulk b y c onsid erab ly ov er one -
half .

I n carrying out the ina l d esori

i n of t he w ork , as
g g
stat ed in the foregoing P reface, many additional
ex a mp les hav e b een introd uced to ill ustrate the
numerou s p hases of our gramma tical forms a nd idiom s .

This I consid er t o b e the most t horoughly p ra ctical m

ai

of a n E nglish G rammar .

The chief p art of t he extension, how ev er, is in

rela tion t o t he hist orical d ev el o ment ofour ram ma tical
p g
e u li rit ies Th reat a d v ance i n t he hist orical stud
p c a . e g y
of E n li sh in i t s v arious form s, from the ol dest w riti ngs
g
d ow nw a rds, has b een sed ulou sly t ur ned t o a ccount .

P rob ab ly none of the most imp or ta nt a u t horities hav e

b een ov erloo k ed . Thr oughout t he w ork , ac know ledg
ments for p articul ar suggestions are made as they occur .

W hile it w ould b e endless t o not e ev ery source of

information, it is necessar y to singl e outfor general
ac k now ledgment the help that has b een a t all stages
deri v ed, w hether d irectly, or b y w ay of suggest ion,
v iii P RE FA CE .

from the w ork s of Dr R ichard

. M orris . Among the
o the r
p io n E arly E ngl ish i nv est iga tion a n
eers of d of .

hilolo ical research a t l arg e , ha v e t o b e m entioned

p g
P rofessor W hitney Mr P eile Re v W W , .
,
. . . S k ea t, an d
M r H S w eet
. . The German w riters
. on E ng lish
Gra mmar ha v e nec essarily b een inclu d ed a mong t he
a uthorit ies . N e v er thel ess it w as incumb ent t o a v oid

ov erloadin t he w ork w ith this cla ss of illu stra tion, a nd

g
to sel ect onl
y t hose m ost fitte d for t he st ud ent of t he
‘

Higher Gra m mar . W hether t he l ine has b een p rop erly

d ra w n, must b e j udged differently b y d ifferent p ersons .

To d o the most for t he p up ils, w ithi n give n l imit s, is

t he ob ect a imed a t
j a nd the cla ss of u
p p il s
p rinci ll
y p a

a d d resse d are those t ha t d esire, ab o ve a ll other t hin s ,

g
to receiv e ai d in a t tai nin
g t he
p o w er of E nglish
C omposition .

S ince the G rammar first ap peared I ha v e p ub lished , ,

in a d d ition t o a M a nual of Rhetor ic a nd C omp osition ,

t w o sepa ra te Gra mma t ical w ork s one A F i rst Gram —

mar, prep ara tory to t he st udy ofthe p resent the other

—
A C omp ani on t o the Higher Grammar I n t he .

p resent re v ision, care has b een tak en t o k eep the w ork

in its p rop er p la ce, in r elat ion t o these t w o .

A v ery imp ortant a dj unct to Gra mma tical tea ching,

a ccord ing to my c oncep t ion of
is p rov ided in ait ,
b ook , ent itle d F i rst W ork i n E ngl ish L
recent ( on
g
mans) , b y Mr A F M urison, formerly E ngl ish M aster
. . .

i n the Gra mmar S chool of Ab erd een This b ook is a .

ha ppy comb ination of Gra mm ar p rop erly so c alled , ,

w it h an exhib it ion of t he w ealth of the language in

E q ui v alent F orms . I t may b e ta ught b oth in a d v a nce

 P RE F A CE .

of the G rammar and a long w ith it ; a nd, in either

c ase, w ill l argel y p romote the final end of a ll inst ruo

t ion i n E nglish— to giv e t he p up ils a mastery of their
ow n langu age .

A B E R D E E N , Ja nu a r y, 1 8 79 .
 TAB L E OF C ON TE N TS .

THE AL P HA B E T .

1 3 V ow el S chem e
-
.

4 Consonants
.

E TYM OL OG Y .

T HE S E N TE N CE .

S p eech 18 m a de u p ofS ent ences .

Usu al form o f S ent ence, of a n a ffirma t ion or a d enial .

b
A S ent ence consist s of a S u j ect a nd a P red ica t e
k
The na ed S ent enc e — T he . N U
O N a nd t he V E RB
The P red ica t e enla rged b y a n O ect bj .

bj
The S u ect a nd t he Ob j ect enla 1 ged The ADJ P CT I V E .
-
‘

The P red icat e enlarged b y t he ma nner of t he act ion .

The A E DV RB
v b M
Ad er ial P hra ses — a ny w ord ed Ad er s - v b
The Ad v e i b ia l P hrase yields t he P E P OS T O R I I N ’

T wo S entences u nit ed b y a connect ing w ord The .

CON J UN
CT I O N
The S u ect or t he Oh
bj j ect g i en y a W ordv b
f r e e rence O f
— The RO O P N UN
THE P AR T S OF S P E E CH .

THE N OUN .

i
t
-3 . Defi nition Of t he N oun
h
v . Cla sses of N ouns
. I P R OP E R
.
, S I N GU L A R , ME A N I N G
L ESS
‘
I I CO
U . . MM N
O , GE E A L , S I G I F I C N R T o ns N AN N u
bj
Q S ingul a i O ect s u 1 t h S igni ca n t
. am es fi N
Q CL A S S N
a mes a re Genera l a nd S i ni ca nt
g fi
O
O I I I COL L E CT E . IV N
ouns
O I V MAT E AL
C . RI N
ou ns

1 0 V A S T A CT
. . B R N
ou ns
1 1 Ab st 1 a ct
. N
ouns m ost ly d eri ed rom Ad ect i es v f j v
1 2 Ot hei A st ra c t
. b N
ouns or med f1 om V er s f b
1 3 A stract
~
. b N
ouns a xe b y 11 a t u1 e S in ula
g
x ii TA L E B OF CO N TE N TS .

Uses of the N oun . P AGE

14 . I n it s t yp ical ap pl ica t ion, t he ou n nam es t he S ub N

j ect ’

15 . The N oun someti mesEom l et es t he p Predic ate

The oun N fo ming P rep osit i n l

I S used i n r o a P hra ses
17 . The oun N fr qu ntly ct s s n A dj ct ive
e e a a a e

S u bstit u tes for the N ou n .

18 . The P ronoun r eg ularly t a es t he pl a ce Of t he k N oun

19 . j v
Ad e ct i es a r e O t en t u rned i nt o f
ou ns N
20 . I fi v
The n nit i e of t he V e 1 b 1 s su sta nt ially a b N oun
21 . v v b
E en Ad e r s occa sionally a p p ear a s ou ns N
22 . A N
oun Cl au se 13 t he ul l est e ui a l ent t o a
q f v N oun
T HE P RO N OUN .

1 The P ronoun 1 s a r ela t iona l w ord

.

2 Cla sses of P r onouns I The P E S O A L

.
—
. R N
3 I I DE M ON S T RA 1 1 V E
. .

4, 5 . He ’ ‘
S he
’
.

‘
6 Meaning of l t
’

i
.

( 1) B k
ac w a rd or Retr osp ect i e R< erence Of
‘ ’
t v f
( 2 ) F O1 w a rd or A nt icipa t i e Re erence v f
( )
3 Th e V a u e or
g nd e nit e Refe1 enc eI fi
t
o

F urthe1 genera l e a mp les of t he u ses of i‘ ’

x
7 They
’

tv
. .

‘
8 The Dem onst ra i es T his and That
’
.

9 I n defini te P 1 omenns
’
. They One
1 0 R eflexi v e P ronou ns b y mea ns of sel
.
’
f
1 1 15 I I I
-
. TE OGA T
. I N RR
E P ronouns IV
1 6 I V RE L A T E P r onouns
. . IV . .

v
1 7 A Relati e P r onoun in ol es t he p ow er of a conj unc
. v v
t ion
18 . b
W ho I S est a p plied a s co ordinat ing
f
W ho is r eq u ent ly used a s rest ricti e v
19 . W hich is similarly employed o

W hich may re er t o a w hole st at ement f

W hich in app arent re erence t o p ersons f

“
.

w hich
20 .
‘
Tha t is t he p rop er Rela t i e of Rest ric t ion v
P rop osed limi ta t ion of t ha t t o t his sp e cial m eaning
21 . W hat a nd it s comp ou nd s
’

22 -
. b
2 8 S u st it ut es for t he P rop er Rel a t i es v .

‘ ’
w he1 e w hence , w hi t her
29
. .
‘
The Comp ound Rel at i es : w hoe ver , v ’

'

30 . F x
u rt her e a m p les ofRel a t i e Const 1 u ct ion v
31 . The P1 onoun sa es t he rep et it ion of a v oun Other N .

‘
mod es of sew ing t w sa m e end
 TA L E B OF CON TE N TS . xiii

P A GE
THE ADJECTI V E .

1 . j v
The Ad ect i e li mit s t he a p pl ica t ion o fthe ou n N
2 . T he Ad ect i e I n lea j v
a s a d ist in f
g uishing m a r k
3 . Classes Of A d ect i es I P R ON OM I N A L j v —
.

4 5 P rono minal De monstI a t iv e Ad j ec t i es

. v
P ronominal nt err og a t i e Ad ect i es I v j v
P ronominal Rel a t i e A d ect i es v j v
P ronom inal P ossessi e Ad ect i es v j v
II j Ad ect i es exp 1 essing
. v
UA T T Q N I Y
10 Q ua ntit y I n Ma ss 0 1 ul B k
N
.

11 . Q ua nt it y 1 11 um er N b
Defim t e umera l Ad ect i es —
j v
12 . I fi
nd e nit e N j v
um era l Ad ect i es
13 . v N j v
D ist ri b u t i e umera l Ad ect i es
14 . I I I A d ect i es of U A L T
. j v Q I Y
15 . R
P OP E Ad ect i es R j v
The A r ticles .

18 . The —
I ts va riou s mea nings

S u bsti t utes for the A dj ecti ve .

f
The ullest eq ui al ent is t he Ad ect i e Cl a use v j v
The P a rt ici pia l P h rase, if short er , is e u a lly u se ul q f
The P rep osit iona l P hra se is st ill m ore cond ensed
The N
ou n em pl oyed a s a n A d ect i e j v
Nou ns a nd P ronouns i n t he P ossessi e orm v f
v b
Ad er s a nd P rep osit ions are occasional su st itu t es b
Co or di na ti ng or P r edi ca te A dj ecti ves.

25 . j v
The Ad ect i e as compl ement of ncomp l et e V er I b
26 . This u sa ge show s t he Co ord inat ing a p pli ca t ion -

27 . B y cond ensa t ion, co ordina t ing A d ect i es may b e j v

p re ed t o nou ns fix
THE V ERB .

The V er necessar t o P redica tion b y

b
Cla sses of V er s I T AN S T E — R efleazi ve -
. R I IV .

b
Recip r oca l V er s
lI IN R N I IV
T A S T
. E V e1 s b
I v
ntr nsiti e w it h p rep osit ion tr eat ed a
a s Transit i v es
I II Incom p l et e, Ap p osit ion, or Cop ul a V er s
. b
6 A uxi li a r y a nd I mp er sona l V er s
. b
Ot her p ans ofS p eech used as V er s b
xi v TA BL E OF CO TE N N TS .

P A C-E
THE ADV E RB .

1 . L imit s or modifi es t he mea ning of V erb s, Adj ect ives,

or other Ad v bs
er . B ut of P r ep osit ions, only a
pp a r

ent l y

v b v
2 Ad er s d i id ed int o S imp le a nd Relat i e
. v
3 . I v b
A d er s ofP L A CE
.

v b x
4 A d er s e p ressing Rest m a P la ce
.

5 , 6 Mot ion t o a P la ce, a nd h e m a p la ce

.

71 1
-
. II
A d er s d enot i ng T
. v b
E — T im e P r esent IM
P a st , F
ut ure ; D u rat ion, Rep e ti t ion
12. III v b
Ad er s sig ni yi ng D E G E E or ME A S U E
. f R R
1 3 I mp o1 t a nt Ad v e s of Comp a r ison — S O As, Tha n,
.

The, Too, & c . O

14 I V
. . B I F
EL E , D S E L E , a nd U CE T A I B I F
T N R IN Y
1 5 V CA U S E a nd E F F E CL i ncl uding I nsti um enta lity
. .
‘

1 6 V I MA
. E R or
. UA L T NN Q I Y
v b
Ad er s o f Ma nne r t ra ns erred t o e p ress Degree f x
v b f
1 8 A d e r s or med ro m P a rt ic ip les
. f
S ubsti tu tes for the S imp le A d v er b .

19. v b
Ad er ial P hra ses a nd Cla uses
20. Other P a rts of S peec h u sed a s A d er s v b N ou ns, P ro
j
nouns, Ad ec ti es, V er s, P rep osit ions v b
THE P REP OS T O I I N .

P rep osit ion d efi ned

P rep osi t ions co u esp onding t o ca se- end ings
OI I t s mea ni ngs
.

TO o o

F OP 0 o

Fr o m
By .

W it h ’
.

P rep osit ions of P L AC F I .

P 1 ep os1 t 10 ns of Re st i n a pl ace
1 2 Mot ion w it h d irect ion, a nd P la ce and irection
. d
II P 1 ep osit ions of T E
. IM
III A GE C. N Y
I V E ND .

V RE E E CE
. F R N
R
V I S E P A AT O and E X CL S O
. I N U I N
VII I N IN
CL . AT O a nd Con o rmit y I N f
V I II V R
A E S O . I N
21 I X S . UBST T T O
. I U I N
X P OS S E S S O , a t erial . . I N M
The Prep osition dist inguisheé from t he Ad er r
v b
 TA B LE OF CO N TE N TS . XV

P A GE

THE CON J U N CTI ON .

The ConJ j unct ion defi ned

Div ision Of Conj unct ions a s CO ordina ting and Sub or
dina t ing
I Co ORD N AT N G Conj unct ions ; t heir charact er
. I I ‘
Cumulat iv e Conj uncti ons : rep resent ed b y and
’

"
Ad v ersa ti v e Conj unct ions : ( a ) E x cl usi v e else

St e.

‘
( b) Alternat i e ev
it h er —
or , 810 .

v
( c) A rresti e : b ut , 81 0
’

‘
.

I v j
lla t i e Con u nct ions : a s there ore
’
f
II . SU O B RD I N I NAT G Conj unct ions : t heir charact er

(1 . j
Con unct ions of Rea son a nd Ca use
(2 ) S u pp osi t io n, Con d i t io n ,
or uali ca tion 0 Q fi
(3 . E nd Or P urp ose, P reca ut ion
Ti me 0 o

THE I N TE RJ E CT I ON —
EX CL A M AT I ON
I N F L E X I ON
I N F L E XI ON OF N OUN S .

GE N D E R .

1 . N atural Gender G nde f ll ws S x Gender

. e r o o e .
—
Mas
ul in F minin N ut Common
c e, e e, e er ,

2 P urely Gra mma t ical Gend er

Gend er dist inguished b y empl oying dif
.

3 . ferent w ords
4 . B y P re es fix
5 . B y Su es ffix
6 . P oet ical Gender . I
nanima t e o ect s p ersoni ed bj fi
7 P r c nou i s a nd t he Gend er of ouns The Common N
é é
. .

en er . 0 o 0 0

N UM BER .

Me g anin S iof
ng u N umber
l a r and P lural :
f
Usual orma t ion of the P lu 1 al
b
O sol et e modes of orming t he P lural f
N v
ouns ha ing t he sa m e orm in ot h num ers f b b
F
Many oreign w ord s ret a in t heir origina l P lu ral s
S ome N v
ouns ha e t wo Plu ral s, wi th sep ara t e m ean
ing s
7 . The P l u1 a l somet imes d i ers in mea ning rom t he ff f
S ingul ar
S ome N
ouns ar e u sed onl
y I n the P 1111 al
f
S ome P l ura l orms w e const rued a s si ng ul ar
XV I TA BLE OF CO TE N N TS .

10 A few S ingul ar orms are t reat ed as P lu i al

. f
1 1 P 1 op er N ouns somet imes ecome P lural b
Ma t erial and Ab st i a c t ouns are nat urally Singu
.

N
l a r : sp ecial p lural ca ses . ’

14 . N
ou ns of M
ul ti t ud e : singul ar orm, p lural cons t rue f
t ion
1 5 Omission oft he Art icle a sign oft h e P lural
.

1 6 S ign of t he P lural som et imes disp ensed w ith

.

1 7 S p e cial meanings of t he l
. al .

F
orma t ion of t he P lu ra l ofComp ound ouns N

1 . M
ea ning of Ca se

2 Cases 1 n E nglish
P
.

F
3 General orma t i on of t he ossessi e
. v
‘ ’
4 The s of t he P oss essi e oc ca siona lly d rop t
. v
5 The P ossessi e orm a t ion 1 n Com pound
. v f ouns N
v
The P ossessi e I nflexion limited to cert ain cl asses of
N a mes
7 . the inflexion of p ersonal p ossession
s —

8 . Remna nts of Case infiexion in p ronouns a nd-

ad v erbs
I N F L E XI ON OF P RO OU N NS .

h E x t ent oft h e I nflexion of P ronouns

s P E R S ON A L P R ON OU N S declined
n
. .

a The DE M ON S I R A T I V E S
. .

m T he Reflexi ve P 1 onou ns formed b y ‘self ’

w
. .

o . Th e TEI N RROGA T ES IV
h
s . The RE L A T I V E S
b
S u st it ut es for Rel at i e I nflexions v
I
« N f
ouns a t er P lural P ossessi e P ronouns v
I N F L EXI ON OF ADJ E CT I V ES .

Adj ectiv I nfl t d f D gr e Comp ri n

es ec e or e e —
a so

P i ti v C mp
os e,t iv nd S up l t iv D g es
o ara e, a er a e e re

C t in M difi t i n n S p lling
er a o ca o s 1 e
‘ "a nd
Comp ari son b y help of more most
’
.

F f
orm s m 4 307 rom L a t in, p a rt ia l comp ara t i es
’
v
I f
rregu l a r a nd De ec t i e Cornp a 1 i son v
b v
Dou l e Comp ara t i es a nd S uperl a t i es discouraged v
j v f
Ce1t a in Ad ect i es, r om t hen mea ni ng, a re not com
a r ed
p
b v
Rou nda out eq u i al ent s t o a su p erlat i e orm v f
v
Rel a t i e Appl ica t ions of Co1np a1 at 1v e a nd S up erl at i e v
E minence or nt ensity e p ressed I x
 B
TA L E or CON TE N TS . xv ii

P A GE
I N F LE XI ON OF ADV E RB S .

l, 2 . Regul ar a nd I gul
rre C mp ri n fAd v erb s
ar o a so o

I N F L EXI ON OF V E R S B .

v
The ari ous Rela t ions of t he V er b
The c orrespond i ng I nflex ions
I
V O C E A cti ve a nd P assi v e
Moon I nd ica tive, S u bj uncti ve, I mp er a t i ve
I nfini ti ve
O

Ger u nd o

TE N s E S t rong a nd w ea
. orms kf
P 1: P S ON a nd
4
U E N MB R
The E nglish V er u nd e1 n oes fe w cha ng es b
j
Con uga t ion of t wo ind s k
Old 0 1 S t i ong, .

w ed k '

ju
0

x
E a m ple of S t rono g or Old Con ga t ion
x
E ample of Wea k or N ew Con uga t ion j
T he A uxi li a ry Ver bs .

1 4 The Auxilia 1 y V er s b
l
. .

B e : its f0 1 m s, a nd how it he p s
’

Ha e ’
l ts f v
0 1 ms a nd how i t hel s
p
‘
1 7 S ha ll a nd W il l con uga ted
.
’
j
‘ ‘
1 8 2 5 Mea nings of S ha ll a nd Will ’ ’
. .

‘
26.
‘
S hall a nd W i ll in nt erroga t i e S entences
’ ’
I v .

‘
2 73 0 S hould a nd W ould ‘
’ ’
.

31 Do
’
f
i t s or ms, and it s a ppl ica t ions
d e
.

‘
3 2 36
-
May a nd Can
. t heir orms, a nd iffer nce f of

u se
3 73 9 Must Ought o
’ ’
G ’

ma de up b y help
. . . .

40 Comp let e scheme of t he V er

. b as of
Au xilia l ies

Mea ni ngs ofthe Fl oods .

41 44 . M eanings of the S ubj unctiv e Mood in S ub ordin

ate Cla uses
45 . I n P rincip a l Clau ses .

46 . The n niti e I fi
E 1 roneou s v . use of t he p er ect f form

4749 -
eanings oft he P resent nd e nite
. M I fi
5 0 P re se nt P rog ressi e, mp er ec t o r ncomp let e
. v I f . I
5 1 , 5 2 P ast nde nit e . I
P a st P rogressi e fi . v
xv iii TA L E B or CO N TE N TS .

53 P er fe< t
s
. .

Passive V The hou se

.

54 . P rog1 essiv e Ten es of the oice :

is uild ing
’
b
55 . Ap parent p a ssi e of nt ra
‘
v I nitiv
s e V e rb s : has come
is come
’
a nd

The S tr o ng Conj u ga tion .

5 6 I ts sp ecial orms
. f . f
P rinc i ple o f ollow ing cl a ssi fi ca tion 1 90
5 76 1 Cl assi ed lists
-
. fi of Old or S t rong V er s b ib.

The Woa k Conj uga t ion .

62 . I t s sp e cia l orms f
63 . fi
Classi ed lists of N ew or W ea k V erbs

DE RIV ATI ON .

S OURCE S OF E N GL I S H W ORDS .

1 . b
E ngl ish V oca ula ry has t wo pr incip al sou rces— Anglo
x
S a on a nd L a t in, a nd a nu m b er of m i nor sou rces
2, 3 . I
nt rod uct ion o f t he cl a ssica l el ement During . I .

t he Rom a n occ upa t ion o f t he isla nd

4 . II . f
A t er t he i nt rod uct ion of C hristia nity
5 1 11 A t er t he
. . f
orm a n c o n uest
q N
f
6 I V A t er t he Re i al of L ea rning
. . vv
7 Celt ic w ords
.

8 S ca nd inav l a l1 w ords
.

9 Dut ch, Ge1 man, a nd lemish w ords F

h
.

1 0 V\ o1 d s recent ly i nt rod u ced fi om t he renc

. F
11 24 . I
t al ia n, S pa nish, P ort ug u ese, hV a llo o n, S wiss, Tur

:
3

ish, A ra ic , Heb 1 ew P ersia n, Hind u , Mal ay,

k b
Chinese, P olynesia n A m erica n .

2 5 I V ord s d eri ed rom P e1 sons

. v f
26 f1 on1 P laces
l
.

2 73 4 Rul es for d ist ing uishi ng

. at i e rom Cl a ssica N v f
w ord s, a sed on t he borm F
N v
a t i e w or d s a re fart he1 d ist i ng u ished b y w ha t t he
y
d enot e
36 . N
a mes of Ki nc h ed, Hom e, a nd a t u ral eel ings N F
3 7 N a m es of fa 1nilia 1 O e c t s a nd Mo ement s
.
'
bj v
38 N
1 mes of comm o n nd u st ry I
v
3 9 Ci il a nd Re lig io us nst i t ut ions I
40, 4 1 N
a t i ona l P 1 0 v erb s
. n ect i e a nd S a t ire . I v v
bj
42 P a rticu lar O ects a s opp osed t o t he Genera l or Ab
.

st ra ct 0

43 45-
E xcep tions
 B
TA L E OF CO N TE N TS .
“ xix

P AGE

M P OS I T I ON W ORDS
‘

CO OF .

1 . Tw o k inds of Compou nds

2 . P i efixes of Home Oi igin

3 . P i efixes of Cla ssic 11 O1 igin
4 . L at in P i efixes, and rench m odi F fic a t ions

5 . Gree P re es k fix
D E R I V A T I ON OF . T HE PA RT S OF S P E EC H .

N
S ome ou ns a re p ri mit i e , or not d eri ed rom others v v f
v N f
Deri ed ouns w hence orm ed , a nd how
I N . v f
ouns d eri ed r om ot her N v
ouns b y a ri ous m eans

II N v f j v
ouns d eri e d rom A d e ct i es
.

III N v f
ou ns d eri ed rom V er s
. b
v j v
Deri a t ion of Ad ect i es I F romN ouns .

II F j v
r om ot her A d ect i es
.

III F b
rom V er s

N
.

v
Deri at ion of V er sb I F r om ou ns .

16 II F. j v
r om A d ect i es
. III F i om ot her V e1 s . . b
v v b fl j
Deri a t ion of Ad er s : chie y from Ad ect i es a nd v
N ou ns
Deriv a t ion ofP ep osit ions r

D eriv t ion of Conj unct ions

a

D iv at iv s ex p essing N egat ion

er e r

M odifi ed F orms
COM P OU N D W ORD S .

Descript ion and E x mp les a

Comp o it ion of N u ns s o

Com p sit i n of A dj ect iv es

o o

Comp o ition ofV e b s r s

Comp osit i n of Ad v e b s o r

Comp osition of P 1 ep os1t 10 ns

S imulat ed Comp ound s, a nd Comp ounds 1n disgul se
I

S YN TA X .

T HE A N AL YS I S OF S E N TE N CES .

1, 2 . P art s oft he S ent ence . Div ision of S ent ences

T HE S IMPL E SE N T E N CE .

p
3 5 The S im l e S ent ence a nd it s enl a rgem ent s
.

bj
6 The S u ect and t he O ect : t heir v a i i ous orms
. bj f
7 E nl a1 c ement s 0 1 Ad unct s of S u ect or O ect
. j bj bj .
XX TA B LE OF CO N TE N TS .

P lur ality ofAdj uncts at one t ime

T he P redica t e sim p le a nd com p le x form s
N
The form of ega t ion is p ar t oft he P re d icat e
Tra nsitiv e P red ica te comp l eted b y Obj ec t
P red icat e enl arged b y A d v erb or Ad v e rb P hrase
V a rious forms of t he Ad v e l b ia l P hra se
A b solu t e Const ruc t ion oft he P a rt icip le
I mp ersonal u se oft he P a rt icipl e
T HE CO M P L E X S E N T E N CE .

N Comp le
a t ure of t he e e ce x S nt n
k b
Three ind s ofS u ordi nat e Cl auses
1 7 T he N oun Cla use
.

1 9 The A dj ect iv e Cla use

.

The A dver b ia l Cla use

Cont ract ion oft he Ad v erb ial Clause
T HE CO M P OU N D SE N T EN C E .

22 . N Comp ou nd S ent ence

a t ure o ft he

23 . Cont rac ted S ente nces I 1 1 egula r Cont ra ct ions

.

E X AM P L E S OF AN AL YS I S .

I
S I \ RL E SE N T E N OES .

24 . M
ethod of p r oceedi ng
x
2 5 3 7 E a mpl es ofS imp le
. Sent ences
C OM PL E X SE N TE N CE S .

b
3 8 S u ordinat e Cla uses a nal ysed sep a ra t ely
.

-
. x
3 9 48 E am pl es c ont aining oun Cla u ses N
x
49 5 4 E a mp l es cont a i ning Ad ect i e Clauses
-
. j v
x
5 5 6 1 E a mp les cont a ining A d er ia l Cla uses
-
. v b
C OM P OU N D S E N T E N CE S .

62 . The p a rt s t o b e analysed sep a ra t ely

CO T N R A CTE D SE N TE N CE S .

6 3, 6 4 E . x a mpl es
I I
E L L P T CA L SE N T E N CE S .

65 These mu st b e
. ex p ressed in full
66 78 E a mp les
-
. x
N
CO CORD .

1 . General P rinciples . Concord i mpl ied und er Et ymo

logy o o 5 J a
 TA BLE OF N N TS
CO TE . xxi

CO N CORD OF S U BJ E CT AN D VE RB .

General Rul es Ca uses oferrors

.

Conco1 d of Collect iv e N ou ns
.

P lu ral form w it h S ingular m eaninog t ak es S ingula r V er b

4 S ingular N ouns cou p led b y a nd t a k e a P lu ral V erb
‘ ’
.

E x cep t ions a nd P eculia rit i es

‘
5 S ing ula1 N ouns connect ed b y or or nor t a k e a ‘ ’ ’
.

S i nogula r V erb
6 W hen t he S ubj ect is a R
. elat i v e P ronoun, w e must

l oo k t o t he Ant ecedent
Concord of P ronouns ofd if fexent P ersons
W hen the P redica t e 1s co mpleted b y a oun, t he N sub
j cet may b e a mb iguous
N RD
CO C O OF A D J E CT I V E AN D OF P R ON OU N W I T H N OU N .

9 Concord
. of t his and t hat
10 Concord
. of t he D ist rib utiv e Ad j ectives
e v ery 85 0 .

A Common Gender p ronoun of 3 rd p erson wa nt ed

CO CO N RD OF TE NS ES .

11 . Cont emp ora neous a ctions a re sta t ed in the sam e Tense 311
P rincip al a nd S ub ord inat e Tenses must not confl ic t ib .

S p eciality of t he P resent I ndefi nite ib .

1 . M ea ning of Gov ernm ent

2 N
P ossessi ve of oun or of P ronoun p recedmg oun or
. N
I nfi nit iv e
3 Gov e1 nment of T
.
ra nsit iv e V ei b s and ofP re osit ions
p
4 The forms I t I S I , I t 1 3 me
’
.

5 Othei cases of Obj ect iv e, w here

. om inat iv e 1s exp ect N
ed .

OR DE R OF W ORDS
1 . M ost
general p rincipl e ofOrd er

S U B J E CT AN D V E RB .

2 . General Rule E x cep t ions

.

Compl ement fol low s incomp let e P redicate V erb

 TA B LE OF CO TE N N TS .

I ’A GE
V E RB AN D O J E CT. B
3 . Rul e and E x cep t ions

N OU N AND A D J E CT I VE .

Rule E ec t ions
. x
The thr ee rst , andthe
‘ ‘
’ ’
first three
5 . P lacing oft he Art icl e

P R ON OU N AN D A N T E CE D E N T .

6 . v
E ery P ronoun shou ld ha e a d ist inct Ant eced ent v
x
Rules of P ro imit y a nd of mp ort a nce I
f
Con used re erence f
P L AC I NG OF T HE A DV E RB .

7 General Rul es
.

’
8 . P la cing of only
9 . N ot b ut only
—

10 N ot only b ut also
mp er ect Negat ibn
.

11 .
‘
P la cing of not
’
. I f
‘ ’
12 A t least
Other e a mpl es ofm isp l a ced Ad er ial Ad uncts
.

13 . x v b j
I N G OF P L AC P R E P OS I T I ON S .

14 . Gen l Rul wit h E x pt i n

era e, ce o s

P L A C I N G OF C ON J U N CT I ON S .

15 . M m be s of d u bl m mb d nj un t ions
e r o e- e ere co c to be
p la ced i n corre sp ond i ng p o sit ions
-
. I I
1 6 18 E L L P S S , P L E O A S , and P A E N M R NTH E S I S , as p ro
cesses of S ynt a x
OF P U R I TY .

B A RB A R I S M
S OL E CI M S

I M R OP R I ETY
P . 1 . I n si ngl e w ords
2 . I n ph rases
L ist ofS C OTT C S I I MS
P U N C TUATI ON .

The CO MM A
The S E M I COL ON nd th COL ON
a e

The P E R I OD F UL L S TOP Ot her P OI N TS

or .
 TA B LE OF N
CO TE N TS ; m m
.

P AR S I N G 3 .

1 . P arsing for P arts ofS p eech a nd I nfl x ion

e

2 . P a rsing for Deriva tion

3 . P a rsing for S ynt a x

E XA M P L E S ofE RR ORS ,
f
a nd ofin eri or forms
AP P E m .

I Celt ic w ords
.

v
I I S ca ndi na ian w ords
.

I l l Ot her Teut onic w ord s

.

IV . M
onosyl la b les of Classical orig in
 E NGL I S H GRAMMAR .

THE A LP HA B E T .

l T he
. A lp ha b e t is the collection of w ritten
cha racters or s mb ols re resentin t h im l t i u
y p g e s p e a r c

la te sound s .

b
The Engl ish Alp ha et contains t w ent y six chara cters, Or -

i
x
let ters, b ut t he sound s t o b e e p ressed a re st ll m or e num erou s .

M v v v
oreo er, a s se eral sound s ha e d up lic a t e l et t ers, t he a a il a l e v b
f
chara ct ers a re rea lly ew er t han t wenty six -
.

2 Ar ticulate sounds are cla ssed in t w o div isions as

'

v o w e ls a nd c o ns o na nt s .

v
A ow el sou nd ( F r v oyelle, L at vocd lis, sounding ) is v 0 1ce
. .
’

f
issuing rom t he mout h cl ea r a nd ree ; a sound t hat ca n b e f
utt ered al one , a s a h, cc, 00 a ny . If
a r t of t he m out h g et in

t he wa y a nd chec k
t he utt era nce, t e new sound is ca lled a
‘ ‘
The na me consona nt ( L at con, t ogether ,
’
consona nt sound . .

sona nt
‘
sou nd ing v
w a s gi en a s i ndica t i ng t hat t he p eculia r
sou nd cannot b e p rod uced a l one, b ut only t oge ther w i t h some
v ow el .

‘
V ow el s a nd consona nts, though t heir distinct ion is of t l e
highest i mp ort a nce in p honet i cs, are b y no means sep a ra t e a nd
ind ependent syst em s, b ut only p ol es, as it w ere, in o ne unit a ry
bf
series, a nd w it h a d ou t ul or neut ral t er ri t ory et w een t he m b
t hey are simply t he op ener and t he cl oser sounds of t he al pha
b et ic syst em ( W hit ney)
1

3 . T he V o w e ls .
-
The Characters av a ilab le for the
v ow el sound s are fi ve, —
a , e; i, o, u .

I
 THE A P L H AB E T .

When vi e éo 1 ’
lfa ek
‘
l the history
'

o
e .
r 111 of our alphab et a s

fa 1 as we can, w e find t hre e e a rl

y v o w e ls , from
w hich the others hav e co me b y v ario us m od ifications .

These a re : a ( which has een d ou l ed , or lengt hened, i n

‘f ’ ‘ a her
. b b
ar , t f
, &c
’
a nd w hi ch i s st ill . ep t in S cot ch a nd k
German man i ( as i n i t, b i t, fi t, a nd u ( a s I n
‘
u ll , b ’

‘
f
u ll ,
’

‘
a f
a ther , S cot a nd Germ
’
ma n is t he sound heard w hen
. .

v
oice issues unim ed ed
p f
rom o en m ont h a nd t h 1 oa t , t he
p ac b k
o f t he t on ue
g ein b
g d ra w n w ell d ow n ; i ( eet , fi t ) is p rod uced f
w hen t he t ongue i s ra ised al most t o t he mi d d le of t he p a la te ;
u (f ool , f g f
u ll ) i s t hen or m ed b y a a in w i thd i a w 111g t he t ong ue a

“f
l i tt le a nd rounding t he l ip s .

The u nion ofa a nd i p roduces t he diphthong hea rd I n

”
i ne ,
’
f
‘
mi ne — w hat w e call l ong i et w e en a a nd i is e ( a , e) , B
hea rd i n t hey , p a i n , ‘ ’ ‘ ’ ’
a te ,
‘
then en t he l ong sou nd
b
e ing really a d ipht hong et w een a a n
‘
B
t his (3 is a, i n b a t ,
.
’

S imila1 ly, etw een a a nd u st an

‘ ‘
ca t ,
‘
’
fa t , ma n
’ ’
ds o b
b
( not e, o ey) ; t he sound eing I eal ly a d ip ht ho_ ng A nd et‘w een b . b
a a nd t his 0 st a nd s t he l ong sou nd ca ll i t 6 — hea rd i n a ll ,
‘ ‘ ‘ ’
t he corresp onding short sou nd is hea rd
’
A ustria , a i tst ere

“
‘ ’ ‘ ’
i n wha t , not .

ll ( b u t , cu t , & c I s p ro a ly a g” ut tural
. bb
ow el, t hou gh r a t her v

“
ind e nit e :fi t he sp eci c q ua lit y of i t , sa ys P rofi W h it ney, f.

13 d ue t o a dimming a c t ion a long t he whole mou t h a t her t ha n

”
l
a n ap p roach a t a d e fini t e p oint or p oint s, a nd it is t hu s a
d uller ind of a k ” W hen ol low ed b y r ( hu rt, u rn) u seems
. f b ,

f
t o m odi y it s sound ; a n a p p a rent change p ro a ly d ue t o t he b b
p ec uliar p ronuncia t ion of t he r .

Tak ing the v ow els a s w e find them

in use, a p ra e
t ica l p ho ne t ic re p re s e nt a t io n might b e a rra nge d
a s foll ows .

A ccented Vow els — A ow el sound, u t tered clearly a nd w ith

. v
st r ess o f v
oi ce, i s sa id t o b e a ccent ed .

The accent may all eit hei on t he ow el a lone, or on t he f v

v ow el t oget her w it h a consona nt ne t oll ow i ng it x f .

é , é , f, 6 , ll , ma y rep resent the lo ng v l sou nds

' ’

heard in la g, lee, lie, lo "

.

‘
loo ‘ ’
.

These e x emplify such a s rece ive the a ccent e x cl usiv el

y on t he
v o wel .
 V OWE L SC HE ME .

h, e, l, b , l] , may represent the s ho rt v ow el sounds

in sa t, set , si t, not, nut

x f
These e empl i y su ch as recei e the a ccent on t he consonant v
fol lowing a s w ell a s on t he ow el v .

I
nd ep end entl y of t he d i ferent ind of a ccent, t hese t en f k
vow el s a r e ea ch dist inct rom t he ot hers ; t hey ma e u
p t en f k
sep ara t e v
ow els .

é , i, 0, m ay rep resent the v ow el sounds heard in

’
b een, p rid e, pull .

I n some w ords t he a ccent ed l ong v ow el sounds are p ronounced ;

f k
w it h orce, q uic ly, a nd so a s t o i ncl ud e i n t he a ccent a conso
na nt t ha t comes a t er t he ow el f v
This hap p ens in t he case of .

t he fif
t h long ow el v ‘
in se eral word s, a s in pu ll , u ll ,
’
v f
c ompa red w it h
‘
p ool, ool
’

; w hi f
ch m ay b e sym ol ised t hu s : b
p fil ffil , p ul, fii l
The second l ong v oVVel é und ergoes
k
a li e cha ng e of a ccent i n t he w ord een w hi ch is p ronou nced b
b én p ro a l
y t b b
oo i n se eral ot her w ord s ; b ut t his v pa rt icul ar
form of a ccent ha s not b
een m u ch st u d ied heret o ore The f .

‘
t hi rd l ong ow el vi ecomes b
1 t hat i s t o sa y, car ries it s
x
a c cent t o t he ne t consona nt , a s i n t he w ord p ri d e comp ared
w it h t he w ords p ry p ried w hich t hree w ords m ay b e sym
b olised t hus : ‘
i d i p ri d Th e l i h p ens w it h t his
’
k
hb
r p r e a
p , , .

v ow el in a good m a ny w ord s b ut as yet no ca re a s een ta en k

to d iscri minat e syll a les th us a ccent ed b .

6 and a may represent

—
the v ow el sounds heard in
( m ( m) f
’
sa w so ught so25
) p a l p i
r ,
d r .

v
Accent ed short ow el sound s ha e t he ow el sound p rolonged, v v
in cert a in w ords, w it hout any of t he a ccent a l ling on a ol l ow f f
ing consona nt This ha p p ens p a rt icula rly in t he case o f
.

f v
t he ou rt h of t hose ow el s, as m ay b e seen 0 11 com pa ring t he
‘
w ord s sot , sa w sou ght ( w hich ma y b e sym olised sot, $ 6
,
‘ ’
b
‘
a is not p rolonged ; b ut t he ol d er a nd road er a
’
b
‘
rema ining i n S e a nd Germ . Sc ca n , Germ
’
a nn , . .
’
. k
.
‘
& c , is p rolonged i n fa ther, a i r, a rt & c f .

The ot her t hree a ccent ed short ow el sounds ( e, i , a) are not v

thus p rol onged, e cep t ing é x
w hich occasional ly ecom es é b
as in t he e pression x eri w el— v é ri v
V owels u na ccented — éi, é , l, 5 , ii , may resp ectiv ely
.

’
sta nd for the v ow els a , é, i , o, i i, w hen o ut of accent
'
-

‘
Com re d d b irthda ez ej ekt fi n i d ea éli i um 6 b a
’
1 1 1

krzi el,
4 THE A P L HABET .

a , e, l, 0 , u, may r es
p ectiv ely sta nd for the v ow els
d, e, i, O, a, w hen ou t of a c cent .

‘
Comp are p dléis, pa l ashial ; p et , limp et ; p it , k Okp i t p lit i
o k ,
ol t r un ; u , u hé v
’

p p p .

U naccented e, i , d hardly b e said t o d iffer from

can

a nd m ay b e r ep resented in t he sa me
’ I I
u na ccent ed e, i ,
u,

w ay b y F
}, i, ii .

‘
Hav v
y u e er b en d har ?
' ’
Mit hé nOt t ri az wel a?
”
az y
F iilfi l, hand ul f

0 and a may re
p resent o and 61? w hen out of a ccent .

‘O
Comp a re t um, ot umnal ; o
g ust ,
o h
g ts : a rt , a rt i st i k;
a rt eri , ti rt é rial
’
.

D ip hthongs .
—
The chief diphthongs are o n a nd o i
.

‘ ’ ‘
ow or on i n t he w ord s now a nd nou n a nd oy or oi i n
‘
t he w ord s b oy
’

,
b oi l
’
,
are c om p ound s o f ot her v ow e ls ; i n t he
‘ ‘ ’ ‘ ’ ‘ ’ ‘ ’
w ords hOW a nd noun . of a a nd ti in b oy a nd
‘ ’ ‘ ’
of 6 a nd e .

eu, ew , ii ( :
1

y fi) may als o be regarded a s a dip hthong, e+ 7

2
‘
E u rop e
’
,
‘
few
’

,
’ ‘
fu el
i , «6, which a r e fund
a ment ally d i hthong s, are regarded a s
'

a, p
su b st a nt ial ly sim pl e l ong ow el s v .

W hen out of a ccent , t he dip ht hongs may b e rep resent ed t hus

Oil or o w , oi or 0
31, 37
1
1 .

W a nd Y . w a nd
y a re so metimes called consonants,

so metim es se mi - v o w e ls .

‘
In a ny ca se
‘
w
’ ‘
is ti , a nd y is e , ea ch q u ic ly p ro
’ ‘ ’ ’
k
nou nce d bf e ore a not her ow el as in t he w or ds
‘
v
w e a nd w ay
’

( ii é, w e, w e) , a nd in t he w ord s ye yea ( e é, e a
-
-

y é . ye)
W It rep resent s w modifi ed b y t he h The p ronuncia
a sp ira t e .

t ion r ema ins in a c cor d a nce . w it h t he old or m hw f .

it f
a o t en ha e t he sound of y i nserted
a nd ef v
ore t hem ; a s b
‘ ’

f
in t g zz n ( t u ne) , yti ( few ) , hy ii ma n ( human) , hyxi m an ( huma ne)
‘ ’

v j
W e ha e ust seen t ha t t his comp ound sound may b e classed
with t he d iphthongs .
 N N NTS
CO S O A . 5

Although, as al ready correctly stated; a I s a different v owel

from a as is é from e , i from i , & c , yet it it is an
‘ ’
.
‘ ’ ‘ ‘ ’ ‘ ’ ’
.

i mp orta nt ob serv ation t hat the i ndividual s of each of t hese

c ou pl es of v ow els are ex cha n ea b l e w ith ea ch ot her in k ind red
g
E nglish w ords, somet imes a ccent ed , sometimes unaccent ed ,
as m a y b e se en from a fe w ex a m les n a shon, nashonal ,
p
nashonalit i ; d er i v , deriv ashon d eri v a t iv ; r é al r éal i z , r ealit i ; , ,
‘ ‘
i d ea , i d éa l i z , i d ealit i ; ral , w a, r el wa; 1 ep yut , rep yitt ab l ; ° -

p a r ent ,
p ar e n t a l ; p p a a p ap al ; m as o
,
n ,
m as oni c ; con t i nyii ,

c Onti ny fiit i ; t héat r, t heat rical ; Cana d a, Ca nadian P ariz ,

P ariz ia n ; r ev el, rev el ashon ; rep l i, r eplicashon ; r epé t r ep et i ,

shon ; accent , a ccent ; Germa n, Germanic ; B ri ta n B ritania , ,

B ritanic, B ri tish ; l and , S c ot, S cotla nd ; l ab or, la b Oriu s ; Ost er ,

Ost er it y ( a ust er e, a u st eri t y) ; Osp is, Osp i shus ( auspic e, ausp i
cious) p o l it ik , p O I i t ical
*
.

4 . T he C o nso na nt s ,
t heir sou nds, are d i
a nd

v ided a ccor ding t o the t f t he m o ut h u tt ering them

p ar o

a nd ac cord in
g to the Concurrence of b reath or v oice
from the t hroa t .

T he L a b ia ls or L ip -
consonants
( L at . la b ia , lip s)
ar e
p ,
b ; f,
v ; m .

The consona nt s, p a nd b, are call ed mute , exp losi ve, or mo

ma i ta r y la bial s ;
.
t he l ip s compl etely chec t he emission of k
b
of rea t h or oice v
( mu te) , a nd ust w hen t hey are re op ened j -

b
t hese consonanta l sound s u rst ort h ( exp losi ve) , b ut a re heard f
only for a n inst a nt ( momenta r y) f a nd v a re call ed fri ca tive or .

b
conti nuous l a ia ls ; t he p a ssa ge i s not q ui t e cl osed a nd t he
b r ea t h
p u shes or r u s it s w a
y t h b
rou gh ( fri ca ti ve) , w hil e t he

sound ca n i n ea ch case b e e t u
p k
p for a l it t le ( conti n uou s) f is .

v ery nearl y 17 w it h a n a dd ed rea t hing ( p —i— h, p h) , a nd v is b

nea rl y a n aspira t ed b ( b h, bh) I n st rict ness, f a nd v are .

‘
d enti lab ials ( t oot h a nd l ip consona nts ) , not p u re la ial s ; for
’
- -
b
t he u pp er t eet h come d o w n u p on t he l ow er lip , a nd rea th or b
v oice is e p elled x et w een t hese b .

b
Aga in, t he mem ers of ea ch of these pairs al so di fer rom f f
ea ch ot her i n t his w ay W hen t he lips close or op en for 19, they
.

chec k b
or li era t e b rea th ; when the
y cl ose or op en for b, t hey
This sch e b
me of v ow el sym olis ation w hi ch ha s the p ecu lia r a d v a nt a g e ,

Of i nd i ca t ing a t once t he a ccent s and t he ow el s of w or d s w as com v

f
,

m u nica t ed t o m e b y Dr Clar k w h o cons id er ed i t li k ely t o b e u se ul not

.
, ,

in g r am m at ica l d i scu ssi on s b u t i n E ng lish p ronou ncing d ic t ionar i es

ly
on ,

an i n th e v o w el p art of a ny sy st e m of p h on et ic sp ell i ng t ha t m a y b e
f
h er ea t er a t t e m p t ed for th e E ng l ish la ng u ag e h a v e ma d e one or t w o I
f f f
.

v ery sti g h t d e v ia ti ons r om the ori inal orm , for th e sak e of uni ormi t y
g
and si mp li cit y .
6 THE A P L H AB ET .

chec k or li berate voice Hence p has . b een v ariously cal led a

s zt r cl, brea thed , ha r d , sha r p , or strong ; a nd b ha s
sound een b
ca lled a sona nt, v oi ced so
, ft fla t , ,
or w ea k sound The t w o first .

nam es i n ea ch case t he most a pp rop riat e, seeing t hat t hey

a re

b
d escri e t he essent ia l oi nt of d i er e nce
p ff .

I n sound ing m , t he li s ar e a ided b t he nose

p y He nce m is .

cal led also nasal t he nose) I t is

a consonont ( L at . na sus, .

cont inuous.

T he D e nt a ls or Tooth -
consonants ( L at . d ent
‘
t ooth t , d ; t h d h ; I , n, r
a re .
,
t ( surd) a nd d ( sonant ) are m omenta ry ; all the r est are con
t inuous ‘
ih ( a s in smith , ‘ ’
. thin is surd a sp ira t ed t ; dh ,
—

( as in bo
‘
oth thine i s sonant , — asp irat ed d t hey ar e ormed f
by e xp elling b r ea t h a nd oice v b
et w een t he t ongue a nd t he upp er
t eet h .is a lso nasa l
n l is sou nded b y d irecting t he p oint of
.

t he tong u e t o t he ou nd ary of t eet h a nd bp a l a t e, a nd a ssing

v oic e b
y t he sid es of i t ; r , b y p assing oice o er mid le a nd v v
p oi nt of t he t ong ue ( F or S cot ch and rench r , t he t ongue
. F
vbi ra t es st rongly aga inst t he p ala t e) .

T he P a la t a ls , or Pal a te consonants -
,
are 3, Z
s h, z h .

The p alat al s are all conti nuous s and sh a s irated s) a re

p .

surd ; z a nd eh a s ira t ed z , t he middl e c onsona nt hea r d i n

p
v
ision t ha t i s v iz hon a re sona nt .

From t heir hissi ng sound, t hese ha e also een call ed

‘
si bi v b
Za nts

T he Gut t u ra ls or Throat sounds ( L at g uttur, the

‘
-
.

t hroat ) a re k, g ; ( kh, g h) , h ; ng .

7
c ( surd) g ( sona nt ) are m omentary ; the others are con
a nd

t inuous The a sp ira t ed kh, gh d o not occu r now i n E nglish ;

.

f
h, a so t ened sound, or mere guttu ral reat hing, al one r ema ins b .

no is nasa l .

‘
v
m, n, l, r , and ng ha e also e en called li q u id s , rom t heir
’
b f
fl ow ing c ont inu ous sou nd B ut t his is o i ousl y a n a r it ra ry
. bv b
limita t ion of t he name, a nd d oes not carry wit h it a ny a d a nt a ge v .

f bv
I t w i ll b e seen r om t h e a o e li st , tha t ou r alp h a e t is d eficient i n b
x
ch a ract e r s for e p r essi ng th e c ons ona n t s ou nd s tit ( thi n ) , d h ( thin e) ,
sh ( sha m e ) , z h ( az u re) ng ( ring) I t is u rt h er r ed u nd ant as reg ar d s th e f
bf
.
,

l e tt ers c ( r ep res ent e d b y s or k ) , g ( th e sa m e as k e or e u) a nd 3: ( eit h er ,

ks or gz ) A ls o j , a s r ep res e nt i ng a com p ou n d sou n d , w oul d b e su p e r

.

fl u ous , if w e ha d t h e el em e nt a r y c hara c t er eh ( a z ure) A t p resen t i t i s a

v
.

con eni ent c ont ra ct ion for d z h ( th e sonant corresp onding t o t he surd
comp ound tsh or ch) .
 E T Y M OL O GY .

E TYM OLOG Y is t he s t ud y of ind iv id ua l w o rd s .

I t is in contrast to S YN TAX, w hich is t he j oining of

w ords in sentences .

I ndiv idua l w ords may b e v iew ed in three different

F irst, w e may d iv ide t hem into classes, or k ind s,

and ex p lain t he p u rp oses ser v ed b y ea ch k ind This .

is t o gi ve t he cla ss ific a tion of w ords , or t he PA R T S O F

S P E E CH.

S econdly, w e may c onsider t he

t hat they
changes

m
.

u nd erg o w hen t hey ente r i nto co p osit io n,

a s in t he

p l ura ls of nouns, the co mp a rison of adj ec tiv es, 85 0 .

This is IN FLE CT I ON .

Third ly, w e may e xamine the grow th a nd st ructure

of w ord s This i s ca lled D E RI VA TI ON
. .

Before ente ring up on t he first d iv ision, —

the Parts
of S p eech, it is req uisite to exa mi ne the nat ure of the
S entence .
 THE S E N TE N C E .

l S peech is ma de up of sep ara te sayings,

. each co m
l ete i n it sel f, a nd cont a inin s eral w ords and these
p g ev

sayings a re S e nt e nce s .

Any co mp let e meaning is a sent ence .

A singl e w ord d oes not gi

" "
ve a meaning : t he w ords, J ohn
‘t ’ ’
s ree t , sta r ,
see esca p e ,
used se pa ra t ely, do not t ell u s
an yt hing . We l east t w o w ord s t o con ey a ny informa
need at v
t ion :
‘
J
ohn sta nd s , is a ull meaning
’
f
The cases w here e en . v
fi
t wo w 0 1 ds a re suf cient a re not ery numerous m ost m ea nings v
‘
are expi essed b y m ore t han t w o w 0 1 d s : he is in t he str eet ,
’

I see t he sta 1 t he g uilty ca nnot a l wa ys escap e

’
.

Any t w o w or ds, or m ore, w ill not gi e a mea ning — that is, v

k
w ill not m a e a sent ence :
‘ ‘
hea y gol d , t hunder lioght ning v ’

‘
v
a l l g ood m en t hems el es , a r e not sent ences
’
There is a p a r .

t icul ar k
i nd of w ord needed t o comp let e t he d ecl a ra t ion or
‘ ‘
v
m eaning : g old i s hea y , t hund er fol lows l ightning , all
’ ‘ ’

g o o d m en d eny t hemsel es
’
v
2T he u s ua l a nd re g ula r fo r m of the S entence
.

is t o d e c la re t ha t somethi ng 1 s or is not t o giv e an —

affirma tion or a denial .

v f x ‘h
F or afi rm i ng, w e ha e the orm seen in the e amples : t e
sun i s r isen
’ ‘
gold 1 s hea y , m en w ill die
'
’
v ’
.

‘
v
F or d enyi ng, w e ha e such orms a s t he sun is not risen f
‘ ‘
f
‘ a t hers are not hea
e y me n w i ll notvli e a l
’
w a y s
’
, t he v
‘
r ep ort is not t rue , a
’
b v
ra e sol dier w ill not d esert his p ost
’
.

f f f
S uch f0 1 ms di fer rom the oregoing only l n t he a ddit ion of the
v
nega ti e w ord
‘
not
’
The dist inct ion et u een t he kinds I S of
. b
the gi ea t est imp or ta nce in regar d t o 0 m eli e and cond uct , b ut b f
is seld om con51 d e1 ed 1 n Grammar .

Of sent ences t hat d o not assu me one or other of these orms, f

t here are t wo cl asses i m p erat i e and i nt erroga t i e
—
v v .

The I mp er a ti ve sent ence, inst ea d of d eclaring som et hing,

’ ‘
c omm and s, direct s, or ent rea ts : cl ea r t he w ay , t urn to t he
right , spa re hi s l i e
’ ’
f .

T he I nter r oga ti ve sent ence as s a u est ion who will go with k q

me 2 Can any one discl ose the mystery ?
’
.
 1Ts F O RM S AN D P A RTS . 9

B oth v
t he imp era ti e and t he i nterrogat i e sent ence m a y b e v
f
rega rd es a s shor tened orms oft he u sual , o1 d ecla ra t o 1 y sent enc e :
.

‘
clea r the w a y , i s t he sa me as
’ ‘
c omma nd you t o cl ea r t heI
w ay
’
.
‘ ’
F or sp are his l ife , w e shoul d sa y, i n ull,
‘
( or w e ) f I
ent rea t y ou to sp ar e his l i e
’
f
The int e1 1 oga tiv e onn I S a shoxt
. f
w ay of sa ying
‘
a sk orI ‘
w ish t o now some thing I
’
k
3 . S j
u b e ct a nd P re d ic a t e —
E v ery S entence
m ay b e d iv id ed into t w o p a rt s .

One p art is t he na m e of t he t hing s p o k e n

a b o ut , a nd I S called t he S u b ] ec t .

The other p art 1s w ha t l s s a id a b o ut t he S u b

and is c alled t he P r e d ic a t e
j ec t ,
.

Li ons roar is a compl et e sent ence The t hing sp o en a out , . k b

bj ‘
t he S u ect , is l ions w ha t is sa id a out lions, t he P redica t e, b
‘
is t ha t t hey r oa1 ( The decl ara t ion is a fli 1 ma t iv e
’
Here .

su bj
ect a nd p r edica t e a re ea ch e p ressed b y a sin l e w ord
g x .

b
Unsup p ort ed odies all t o t he g rou nd
’
f .

S ubj ect .

Unsupp ort ed od ies b a ll t o t he

gr ound
-
f .

Any e1 son t hat u nd erst a nds the m ea ning of t his sent ence
k now s t a t w ha t 1 8 s o en a ou t I S e
p p k b
ressed i n t he t w o w ord s,x
‘
u nsuppor ted od ies b ’

; a nd t hat w ha t i s sa id or d ecla red a ou t b

unsup o1 t ed b
odies is e pressed l n t he our w ord s, x ‘
all t o t he f f
groun
Thus, al though a g reat many w ords ma y b e u sed i n conv eying
a si ngl e m ea ni ng , w e c a n a l w a ys sepa 1 a t e t hose t hat gi v e t he
subj ect from t hose t hat giv e t he p redi ca t e .

A small l ea k — w ill k
si n
great ship a .

T he p ain of d eath —
is most in ap p rehension .

v t s, and
They t ha t ha e t he great est gif
are t he m ost hu m l e b
f
-

are oft he grea t est u se ulness

.

i nver ted or der Al t houg h t he eneral ru l e in sent ences of

.
—

f
a firma t ion and d enia l is t o p la ce t e su ect rst , the or der i s bj fi
some ti mes i nver ted short w as hi s t ri ump h how l ong he w ill
‘
remain, no one ca n sa y ;
’
i t is a law of na ture, t ha t d isuse
“
d iminishes th e ca a ilit ies of t hings b On rest oring t he regular
ord er, t hese ma y p
e w ritt en t hus

His t riumph — W as short .

—
ca n sa y ho w long he will
No one
remai n .

I t , ( namely) , that d isu se d iminishes

b
the cap a ili ties of t hings, i
“13 a law Of nature.
10 THE SE N TE N CE .

Comp ou nd a nd Contr acted S entences — . Wh en a sent ence can

not b e red uced t o a singl e su ect a nd bj a singl e p redica t e, it is
b tw o or mor e sentences a r e p ut together , which occurs not
e c a use

f
un re q u ent ly : The sun gi es l ig ht b y da y, a nd t he moon b y v “
nig ht cont a ins t w o su ect s t he sun bj
t he m oon a nd t w o
‘
p redica t es agreeing in the main a cti on, gi e light b ut differ v
‘
ing i n t he manner of t he a c t ion, b y d ay b y night This
i s a comp ou nd sentence, p a rti a lly contr acted .

‘
f
The ollowing are additional e ampl es ohn a nd Da id x —
J v
a re here ; J
ohn is a t t he d oor, a nd Da i d a t t he w indow v
v
The ri er r ose, urst t he em a n b
ent , a nd ood ed t he eld
’
b km fl fi
j
( one sub ect a nd t hree p redi ca tes) Gold is a metal , yell ow , . .

v b
hea y, i ncorrodi le, of grea t al ue, and used for coin and for v
orna ment .
’

T he N a k e d S e nt e nc e
4 . P a rt s o f S p e e c h .

N o u h a nd V e r b A S en tence conta ining only t w o

.

w ord s m ay b e c a lled a na ke d s e nt e nc e I t c onta ins .

t he k ind s of w ord s a b sol utely essential t o a meaning,

and no others .

These w ord s are, in Grammar ,

d if
ferent P a rt s of
S p ee c h .

‘ ‘
‘
P eter co mes
9
fi shes
t ime d i es , pru dence for
sw i m
1 ’ ‘

b ids a re t he short est

p os si le sent ences ; t hey are me a nings b
g i ven in t he most na ed orm O n k f
e of t he w ord s i n ea ch ex
‘
.

p r esses b
y i t sel t he su ectf P
’
et er ,
‘
s h esbj t im e
‘
p ru fi
d enc e ; t he second w or d i n ea ch is a comp let e p red icat e
’

"
com es sw im ies or ids fl f b
bj
The w ords for t he su ects ar e, in Gra mmar , m ainly of one
kind or class, or one pa rt of sp eech t he N oun :
— ‘
P ete r ,
’

‘
fi
sh es
‘
t ime ,
’ ‘
p ru d ence are nouns .

The w ord s of t he p redica tes are, in Grammar, a l wa ys of one

“ ‘
comes ,
‘
sw im
’
c la ss, one a rt of spe ech —
t he V erb :
p
or
fl ies forb ids v e bsa re r .
”

The p re dicate w er d or v erb

v arious p eculia ities Among
, , has r .

others w e may noti ce he n v r a b nt t he sig nifi ca t i n of

re, a s e e se , o

ti me ; t he fa ct o t hing d cl red is a lw ays gi v en as h p p ning

r e a a e

in a cert ain d iv isi n of t ime p resent o s t fu t u or in m ny —

,
a ,
re, , a

c s d uri ng a ll t ime
a se ,
P t er c om es ( p resent t ime)
‘
J amese ,

m
.

time) , ( all time)

’

wit hdrew ( past fishps swi .

 N AKE D AN D cnor nEn . 11
.

v F rom a n ak ed or sk elet on sentence we m ay consider all other '

sente nc s t b e d riv d b ing

e o s it w re cl ot hed or fi ll ed out
e e ,
e , a e , ,

or x p a nd d b y
e dd it ions
e nd m ost
a f t he w ord s u sed fo t his
a o r

end b l ng t o ot her gra mma t ical classes

e o or dif ferent p arts of ,

5 C lo t hing o r F illing o ut
.
O j e ct
b —
W hen .

the Predicate i s c lo t he d o r e nla rg e d b y nami ng

an o bj e c t a cted on t he w or d used is still most fre
q uently a N o un the G reek s w orshipp ed Ap ollo
’

fools w aste op p or tunities

‘
Ap ollo a nd opport unit ies are nouns They might . ser v e as
‘
t he su bj ects of sent ences : Ap ollo w a s t he oracul ar god op p or

tuni ti es occur

Tr a nsi ti ve a nd I ntr a nsi ti ve V er bs — This e p a nsion, there ore, x f

b
d oes not ri ng out any new p art of sp eech t he o ect , l i e the bj k
su bject , is a noun, or s om e q f
orm e ui a l ent t o a noun B v
ut .

b
w e t her e y d et erm ine a dist inct ion a mong er s : t h ose t ha t v b
f
a r e t hus ollow ed b y an o bj
ect a re cal led tr a nsi ti ve er s ec a u se v b b
t he a ct ion is supposed t o p ass over t o some p a rt ic u la r t hing .

v
T hose t hat gi e a comp l ete meaning w it hout a n o ect t he sun bj
shi nes t im e fli es a re i ntr a nsi ti ve .

Chi ef uses of the N oun — The noun is not con ned t o t he fi

s u bj
ect or the o bj
ect of t he sent ence ; i t m ay occur in som e
‘
ot her sit ua t ions ; b ut t he chie f
w a y t o t est a nou n is t o see
k
w het her it ma es sense w hen u sed as a su ect or a n o ect bj bj .

‘
John comes send John ma e sense w i l l comes send k
burned are nonsense will and urned a re not nouns b .

6 E nla rge m e nt of S u bj ec t a nd O bj e c t
. .

T he A dj e c t iv e s The S ub j ect is enl arg ed b y W o rd s

—

‘
t ha t m o d ify it s m e a ning : as few men liv e t o b e
a ll high m ount a ins ar e im osin
’
ol d ;
’

p g The w ord .

few j oined t o the noun men t o modify its mean

ing, a nd the w ord s all high , j oined t o m ount a ins
’

are w ord s of a d istinct gra mma t ical class or P art of

,

S p eech, and are called A dj e ct iv e s .

The Ob j ect of a S ent ence, w hen a N oun, may b e

en a ged or mod ified in the sa me w a ‘
l I
'

r
y : se e br i ght
‘ ‘
fires ; he commanded ma ny la rge a rmies ;
’
they
’
12 4
‘
THE SE N TE N CE .

cli mb ed the loftiest p eak Bright many ‘

large
’
,

A dj ectiv es
’
the ,
loft iest are .

b oth pl ces t he adj ective has t he

In a t o l imit t he sa me use—
nu mb er of things ex p r ss d b y a nou n
e e ,
a nd increase t he m ean
‘
i ng , few limit s t he class men t o a small er num er ; hi h
’ ’ ‘
g b
limits t he class mounta in, an d 1 ncrea ses or a dd s to the mea ni ng
b
0 1 a tt ri ut es of t he cl as s the t hings sp o en of ha e e eryt hing k v v
b el on in t o t he cla ss mou nt a in, a nd somethin
g g g esid es, namely, b
x
wha t i s e p ressed b y t he w ord high ‘ ’
.

7E . nla rg e me nt of P re d ic a t e . T he Ad v e rb .

The Predicate may b e enlarged or ext end ed by

w o rd s ex p ress ing s o me a tt r ib ut e s o r c irc u m
‘ ‘
s t a nce s of a c t io n t hey marched stea d ily ; b ring
’
—

J ohn her e ; t he fruit w ill soon b e rip e

’ ’
.

‘
soo n , are of the class,
’ ’
The w ords steadily here ,

or P a r t of S p eech, called t he A d v e r b .

The a dv erb m od ifi es limits or v ari es t he a ct ion of t he p re

, ,

d ica t e, or a dd s som et hing t o it s signi cat ion ; t he a ct ion fi

‘ ’
q fi ‘
marched is u ali ed b y t he meaning st ea dily , w hich is
’

somet hing m ore t han mere m arching The ru it w ill b e rip e . f

‘
i s cha nged in m eaning b y the w ord soon , w hich l imit s t he
’

ti me of t he ri enin
‘
The w ord here gi es t he p la ce w here
’
v
J ohn 18 t o b e roug t t o ; it i s a n a d er of p l ace v b .

T hese w ord s a re cal l ed a d v er bs, ecau se t hey are attached to b

ver bs, 0 1 t o t he essent ia l word m t he p redica t e of t he sent ence .

8 M a ny -
w o rd e d
The Adv erb , ln A d v e b s,
r —

st ea d of b eing one w ord , may b e m

.

a de u p of t w o or
‘
more w ord s : they marched i n ord er send J ohn to
’

’
t own ; the a pp les w ill b e r ip e i n a week The ex
’
.

‘ ’ ‘ ‘
re ssions, i n ord er , t o t own in a w eek a re ca lled
p
A d v e r b ia l P hra s es .

lv
These p hra ses se e t he ery same p u rp ose a s the single v
‘
w orded a d er s in ord e v b . l
st a t es t he ma nner o f ma chin ;
’

g l
v
t o t ow n gi es t he p la ce w here ohn I S t o g o t o,
’
ein
g an ad J b
‘
v erb ial p hrase of p l a ce in a w ee is a n ad er ia l p hrase of k ’
v b
time .

9 . T he The A d v erb ial Phrase

P re p os it io n .
—

u sually consist s of a N oun, and a nother kind of w or d

connecting the N oun w it h t he Pr edi cate V erb I n the .

 THE P A TS R 1
os S P E EC H . 13

hrase
‘t o t ow n t ow n is a N oun ; t o is a w ord of ‘
p
a d istinct class, or Pa rt of S p eech, named t he P re
p os it io n .

The p rep osit ions are few in num er ; they a re mostly short b
‘ ‘ ‘
w ord s, as t o
‘ ‘
i om ,
’ ‘
’
b y , in
,
’ ‘
f
on ,
’ ’
o er , uu der w it h , . v ’
.
’

‘
Their origi nal meaning is d ir ection o r si tu a tion
’
a ga i nst . .

A p plied t o a v e1 b of mot ion, 0 1 a ct i on, t hey indica t e t he d irce

v
t ion of t he mo ement , w hich, howe er , is i n most cases agu e v v
or incomp l et e, u nl ess some o ect is na med
‘
c o m e to
’
is notbj
‘
b
i nt ellig i le w ithout a p la ce or o ec t na med ; t
come t o school ,
’
bj
‘ ’
w e ra n t o the w ood .

ID T he C o nj unct io n
t w o d istinct sen —
W hen
tence s are united b y a c onnect ing w or d , this is of the

c la ss, or Pa rt of S p eech, called t he C o n j u nct io n

‘
indi v id uals
’
t he sun rose, a nd t he c loud s d isp erse d
I w ill come if I can
’
die, b ut the race is p erp et ual
‘
And , b u t , and i f , a re unl ik e a ny of t he other p a rt s of
‘ ‘
’ ’ ’

s e ech ; t hey a 1 e conj unct ions They are nearly allied t o, b ut

p .

t di st in ct f1 om, p l ep osit ions

‘

ye .

S ent e nces often follow one another W ithout a ny connecting

w e 1 d s a t al l .

I . T he The S ub j ect or the Ob j ect of

P ro no un .
—

a S e ntence may b e gi ven b y a w ord of refer ence : J ohn

‘
sa id he w ould go la unch t he b oa t, a nd t a k e i t a cros s
t he ri v er S uch w or ds are of the class, or P art of
’
.

S p eec h, name d t he P ro no u n;
‘
J ohn it na m es a p erson b y his ow n na me
IS a noun , he .
‘ ’

v ”
is a p ronoun, ha ing no meani ng of itsel , b ut re te 1 1 ing ac t o f '

b k
t he p e1 a
‘ ’
J
ohn p re iou sly na m ed v
The w erd w ou ld eq ua lly .

a pp ly t o a ny p erson m ent ioned in t he sent ence or cla u se t ha t

goes e ore b f .

‘
k
I n l i e m a nner a oat
’
b
nam es a t hing b y it s ow n nam e
w he n w e hea r t he w ord w e no w w hat is mea nt I t has no k .

m ea ni ng o f i tsel ; w e m ust l oo ac f
t o see w ha t t hi ng w a s k b k
la st ment ioned, na mely, a oa t t he t hi ng la st m ent ioned b If
b
ha d een t ree t he w ord it w oul d ha e m eant a t ree v .

The p ronouns a re a smal l cl ass of w ords, of ery w id e a p p li v

ca t ion T hey a re called p ronou ns, or for nouns, eca use t hey
.
-
b
v
se r e inst ea d o f nou ns A t er a p erson or t hi ng is once me n
. f
t ioned a second m ent ion may b e a oid e d b y u si ng one of t he
, v
pronouns, w hich a re u sually much shorter w ords t ha n nouns .
 PARTS OF S PE E CH .

T HE N O UN .

D e finit io n .

I The N oun is defined b y the follow ing mark s

.

I It m a y b e t he S u bj e c t o r t he O bj e c t of
‘
a S e nt e nc e t he ga rd ener p runed the tr ee
Here ga rdener t he subj ect of the sentence and t ree , t he
bj
.

o ect , a re nouns .

b
There a re ot her w ords esides nouns that may b e the su ect bj
or t he o bj
ect of a sent enc e These are p ronouns, a nd t he in
.

finiti v es of t he er v b
He wished to go , they li e r ead i ng ,
.
‘ ’
k ’

ta lki ng a t igu es usf a re sent ences whose su ects a nd o ect s bj bj

a re not nouns, b ut p ronou ns or inf init i es he ‘
t hey us v
‘
pronouns ; to go rea ding ta l ing infinit iv es k .

c ce some a d d it io na l charact ers a re nece ssary t o dist 1 n u1sh

g
f f k
_

t he noun rom t he e ot her p a rt s of sp eech The oll owing mar .

d ist inguishes it r om t he p m noun f .

2 T he N o un is t he na me of t he t hing
. II .

it se lf, w hil e the Pr onoun names b y mea ns of a

reference .

‘ ‘
Thus, J ohn kingdom v irt ue ar e the na m es
‘ ’ ‘
I , he , it ‘
of t hings themsel v es ;
’
w ho ,
’
t hey
a re nam es t ha t ha v e no mea n ing, e xc ep t b y re ferring

t o sometlnng other w ise p oi nted o ut or underst ood .

‘
f b
A ugu st zts ound Rome uilt of ric , a nd he l e t i t uilt of b k f b
ma r l e b ’
bj
The su ect a nd t he o ect of the rst sent e nce, A u
.
‘
bj fi
g u st u
’
s ,
‘
R om e , ar e nou ns ; t hey na me t he a c t ua l o
’
ects bj .

bj bj
The su ect a nd t he o ect of t he second sent ence, he
‘
it
a re p ronouns ; t hey na me b y re erring a c , one t o A ug ust us, f b k
t he ot her t o Rome .

f
To dist ing uish t he noun rom any p art of the er , we r esor t v b
t o t he t est of inflexion .
 P ROP E R ,
S IN GU L AR M E A N I NG L E S S N OUN S
,
. 15

3 T he N o u n is c ha ng e d o r infl e c t e d
III
'

. .

for N umb er, C a se a nd Gender The I nfirfitiv es of , .

the V erb are not inflected a t all W e cha nge ma n .

‘
men , men s ( N umb er, C ase)
’
i nt o
’ ’
i nt o l ion
‘
l ioness ( Ge nd er
) .

‘
N eit her ve
in niti e orms, t o lo e
t he a cti fi
l o ing , nor v f ‘
v v ’

‘
v
the p a ssi e infinit iv es,
‘
t o b e l o ed eing l o ed a re now v b v ,

cha nged in a ny w a y Ot her p art s of t he e r a re e t ensi ely

. v b x v
c ha nged ; t he chi e m
p p o se ei ng f
t o sig ni y time T he b
r e is a f .

cha nge f or nu m ber ; t her e i s none f or ca se or f or g end er .

A l l nou ns a re not cha nged for nu m er, case, a nd gender ; b

somet imes t he m ea ning, a nd somet imes t he u sa ge, w oul d or id f b
t he change A la rge p rop or tion ha e t he l ura l num er only
.

p v b
a few are in ect ed f fl
or ea se st ill ew er a re 1 nfl ect ed for g end er f .

‘ ‘
The uneha ngea b le nouns, su ch a s good ness gold must
k f
b e now n ro m t heir cha ra ct er and meaning Good ness is .

k nown b y t he end ing

‘
ness t o b e w ha t is called a n A st ract
’
b
noun Gold
. sil er st eel are v
now n b y t heir m ea ning k
t o b e names, or nouns, of Ma terial, w hich rom t heir na t ure f
cannot b e p l u ra l , a nd cannot b e cha ng ed f or gend er .

On t he other ha nd, t he i nfini tiv es a re l imit ed t o a few orms f

t o writ e t o ha e w rit t en v
wri t ing ha i ng writt en & e v .

C la s s e s of N o uns .

4 . N ouns are di v ided int o fiv e classes .

I P ro p e r S ing ula r M e a ning le ss N o u ns

.
, ,

R ome J ord an S irius P hara oh

Th se are c ll ed p r op e b ecau se th y b elong t o s me one i ndi
e a r, e o

v idu al thing or p erson F or t he same rea son, t hey are sing ula r
. .

Rom e is the p rop er a nd p eculia r na me of a single c ity .

They are ca ll ed mea ningless, in c ont rast t o t he ne t class x .

E xa mp les o f P rop er N ouns .

P ersons : N
oah, Ari st ot l e Caesar, L u th er S ha k espeare , , .

P la ces, B ui ldi ngs, Machi nes, nota b le Obj ects : E urope, Medi
t erra nean, L eb a non, Thames, M ala k ofl, Mons Meg , Koh i noor
'

- -
.

D a ys, Months , F esti va ls : Monday, May; Christ mas .

B r a nches of K now ledge Algeb ra , P hysics, ot any, Herald ry B .

Di seases : Ca ta rrh, Typhus, P leurisy, Aneurism, Dipht heria .

5 . II . C o m m o n, Ge ne ra l, S ig nific a nt
N o u ns ‘ ’ ‘ ’ ‘ ’ ‘
k ing
City ,
riv er ,
sta r ,
 16 P A TS R or S P EE C H .
—
THE N OUN .

‘
W hereas t he name Rome
’
a p plies only to one o bj ect , t he
na me ci ty ma ny obj ect s it is a na me for Rome
is com mon to ,

P ar is, L ond on, York , a nd a great many ot hers The rea son of .

i ts b eing used for a ll t he se obj ect s i n common is t ha t t he

y ,

r esemb le one a nother : Rome, P a ris a nd L ond on a re t hin s of

, g ,

t he sa me ki nd t hey are inha b ited p l a ces, ea ch u nder one a ut he

,

r it y ; t o t hem, a nd t o al l such
‘
t he na me
’
-
cit y is a p lied , .

I t is t hu s common t o a great numb er of t hing s inst ea d 0 b ei ng ,

r est 1 ict ed t o one it is g ener a l or t he na me of a k ind or class , ,

i nst ea d of b eing i ndiv id ua l i t is si gnifica nt or ha s a mea ning, ,

beca use wh p plied t o a ny t hing, i t t ells 11s t ha t t ha t t hi

en a ng
has a cert ain c hara ct er To say t hat erusa lem is a city , is
.
‘ ’
J
b
t o say t ha t it resem les Rome, P aris, L ond on, Du l in, & c a nd b .

p o ssesse s t he n k
ow n c ha r act ers common t o a ll t hese .

A p rop er nou n i s a mere ma r or sig n t o designa te a thing k ,

a nd no m or e ;
‘
ordan i s a m ar J ’
for a p a rt icular o ect , a nd, k bj
v
i f ne er used for a nythi ng else, i t reca lls t ha t o ect a lone
‘
bj .

A comm on noun, ri er , is a name a nd som ething more ; i t v ’

t e lls us w ha t sort oft hing is na med a od y ofrunnin

g w a t er, b
r ising i n t he m ount a ins, a nd ow in
g t o t he sea
’
fl
Ri er
"
. v
t hu s general , w hile
‘
orda n 18 J
pa rt icular : t he one has a sig ui
fi
fica t ion, o r is signi ca nt ; t he ot her ha s no signi ca ti on, i t is fi
mea ni ngless
,

bb
Ma ny, pro a ly al most all, p rop er nouns w ere originally sig
nifica nt , c onv ey ing some p art icul a r m ea ning This w a s rst of . fi
a l l p re eminent ly c onnec ted w it h a si ngl e i ndi idual , a nd t he n
-
v
ca me b y a nd b y t o b e a p pl ie d t o t his indi i d ual a lone
- -
Jn t h v .

fi
l ong r un, t hi s sig ni cat ion w a s d rop t , and t he name wa s r ega rded
v
si mply as t he d isti nct i e d esig nat ion of t he p a rt icula r o ec t bj .

v J
W hat e er m eaning orda n may ha e ha d at rst , it is not hing v fi
k
more now t ha n a mar t o now a cert ain g eogra phica l o ect b y k bj
i t i m pl ies no q u al it ies w hat e er v
Moses 1 s a mea ningless name,
.

v
ser i ng t o p oi nt ou t a gr ea t J
ew ish l ea d er a nd l a w gi er it d oes v
not necessa rily re call t he a ct of his ha ing f
een d r a wn ou t of v b
t he wa t er , a nd it ma y b e a p plied a t w ill in new ca ses w it hou t
‘
na me t o t ha t a ct
‘
f
E hren r eit st ein ,
. r oa d st one o f b ’
b
honour , ha s p a ssed t o the st age of a me1 e geograp hical na me,
’

a nd as su ch is p urel y meaningless .

T he most chara ct er ist ic p rop er nou ns are t hose tha t ha e een v b

u sed for one t hi ng a l one, a nd ha e ne er een a pplied t o a ny v v b
t hing el se S u ch a re a few na mes of p er sons a nd p la c es, a s
.

( i n a l l p ro a i li t y ) b b e b u ch a d ne N
z z a r, Rome, S aha ra , G1 b ra l ta r .

These a re p rop er, singula r, and mea ni ngless, 1 n t he ull sense f

o f t he t erm s ; p rep er , as t he e clusi e p rop e rt y of a s1ngl e x v
obj ect ; si ngu la r , f or t he sa me r ea son ; mea ni ngl ess, ecause, . b
k
unl i e t he na mes k ing, city, d esert , port
-
t hey con ey no —
v
 MM ON G EN E RAL I GN I F I CAN T L 17
'

CO , ,
S : C AS S .

f b
i n ormat ion a out t he t hings, a ssign no p rop erties, q ualities, or
k
cl ass l i e nesses of the O ect s bj .

Owing t o t he grea t mul tit ud e of t hings w e ha e t o find nam es v

v
for , w e sel dom l ea e a name in t he e cl usi e p ossession of one x v
‘
The rst nown u se of t he w ord Her cu les w as t o
fi k ’
t hing .

fb
na me a g rea t a ulous hero, Of i m mense odily st rengt h a nd b
c ourage . v b
I t ha s, how e er, e en l a rgely app l ied t o other p ersons ,

fb
neit her a ulous nor heroes, m a ny of t hem ery ee l e a nd ery v f b v
t imid . b fi
S t ill, ha d it een con ned t o hum an ei ngs, it might b
v b
ha e een so fa r a com mon, g eneral, or signi cant na me, a s t o fi
f
sig ni y t hat t he o bj
ect na m ed i s a m an B ut for w a nt o f sepa .
,

ra te na mes, i t ha s b
een u sed f or shi p s, d ogs, horses, ra il w a y

e ngines a nd other m a chi nes — t hings w it h no rese m l a nce t o one b

a not her . Hence, a lthough a p p lied t o many t hings, it is not
a common, g enera l , or sig ni ca nt name ; w hen w e hear i t , fi
w ithout k
nowing anything urt her, w e d o not f now w het her it
‘
k
mea ns a man, a ship , a dog , or a machine .

W hen w e hear the nam e W ellingt on alone, w e d o not now k

whet her i t indica t es a man, a t own, a colony, a ridge, a st reet , b
a shi p , or a p a ir Of oots b .

China is a p rop er na me it ha s, how e er , t w o a pp lica t ions, v

b
b ut t here is no similari ty et ween t hem it is a count ry and it ,

i s a na me for a p eculiar ma nu a ct ure SO ‘

f
a nk in has t w o. N
uses b ut it is st ill a p rop er na me .

‘
v
Da y is t he p roper na me for a man, and t he common or
’

fi
sig ni ca nt na m e for a miner s l am p
’
.

Lincol n is a p rop er nam e, b ut is not con ned t o one single fi

obj ect ; st ill , i t is not a common a nd si ni ca nt na m e,
g eca use fi b
t here is no simila ri t y maint ained in a p plying it I t is u sed for .

l aces a nd f or p er sons, and w e should not b e sur rised if it w ere

p
p
u sed for horses, or for ma chines .

I t is in naming p ersons t hat w e are most under the necessity

of u sing the sa m e nam e f or m any indi id ual s t housand s Of v
p ersons ar e called b y t he sa me na me,
‘ row n y e t row n, B B
a lt hough so w id el y a pp lied, is not a common, general, si nifi
g
c a nt na m e T here is not hing common t o al l t he row ns, a nd
. B
f
d ist inguishing t hem rom all the S miths, t he ohnsons, or t he J
Ow ens . AS nam es of cl ans or amilies, t hese m ight ind ica te f
c ommon d escent, a nd b e t o t ha t e t ent cl a ss na m es ; b ut , as x
t here ar e ma ny circumsta nces t hat l ea d t o t he shi t ing of names f
v
of p ersons , w e are not sure e en of t his a m ount of similari t y .

A s it is t he inte nt ion of t hose names t o signi y i ndi id u al s, f v

a nd not cl asses, t hey ha e to b e su v
pp l em en t ed b y a d d it ions t ha t
rend er t hem , in t heir ow n sp here, st ri ct] p rop er, singula r
nam es . I n a small v
illage t here is p ro a ly only one ma n b
called W illiam B
rown , hence t hat name i s a
’

p roper, singul ar;

2
18
. P A RT S OF S P EE C H .
—
THE N OUN .

mea ningl ess name To ma k e p rop er na m es st ill more

'
as w ell as .

d ecisivel y i nd ivid ual t rip le or q u a d rup le d esig na t ions m ay b e

,

u sed Com b ina t ions of t w o W illia m B row n, Georg e B row n

.
—
,

Da v id S mit h m u st Oft en r ecu r ; comb ina t ions Of t hr ee w ou ld

-

b e mu ch ra rer — W illiam George B row n Da v id S am u el S mit h

'

, ,

a re c o mp a ra t i vely i nfreq uent W hen t he midd l e na mes a re .

sur na mes a nd not O ft he m ore lim i t ed cla ss of ordi nar y Chri st ia n

,

na mes — a s J ohn S ta nl ey S mit h t hey a re st il l dess l ik ely t o —

a pp ly t o a p l ura l it y Of p ersons W hen we mak e a c omb inat ion .

t ha t is u sed for onl y one p erson p resent or p a st that com b ina , ,

t ion is, in t he st ri ct est sense, p rop er, sing ul a r, a nd mea ningless .

6 Si g a
n u l.r a nd S g
i nific a nt N a mes —
S ome
S ingular Obj ects hav e names tha t are significant ; as
Pr ov idence for the Deity, N at ure F ate
v
These a re ery rare insta nces, and elong ra ther t o the p oetic b
a nd rhet ori ca l emp loyment Of la nguag e t ha n t o t he ord ina ry u ses

of w ord s
‘
The w ord p ro id e nce i s si g ni fica nt eca use it is
. v ’
b
b
a pp l ica le t o m a ny t hings, i n irt ue of their resem la nce t he v b
v
act or q u al it y of p ro id ence is S how n on ma ny occa sions As .

a mora l v
i rt ue it ma y b e m a nifest ed b y a nu m er Of di ferent b f
ersons B ut , b y w ha t i s called a g ure Of sp eech, t he w or d fi
p
.

as a sp ecial a p p l ica t ion t o t he one eing t ha t show s t he ua l it y B q

x
i n an e t raord inary or in nit e d egree fi .

bj
A sing ular O ect ma y ha e a sig ni ca nt d esigna tion, w hen v fi
v
se era l sig ni ca nt na mes are fi oined t o e t her, so a s t o a
g pply t o j
only one p erson or t hing
‘
S o ereign is genera l and significant ;
‘
. v ’

it ap plies t o m any p ersons : Ou r so ereig n singl es out one ; v ’

t he a d ect i e ourj v
b y its limiting orce, select s rom the class f f
one i ndi idu al v .

f
I t is t he unct ion Of t he a d ect i e t hus t o narrow or l im it a j v
cla ss of t hing s, a nd t he l imita t ion i s somet imes ushed t o
p
v
indi idu ality P ow er ul so erei gn is m ore l iml t ed t han
. f v
v
so er eig n b ut st ill t he d esigna t ion is not singula r neit her is
‘
reig ning so ereig n v
The reigning so ereig n is sing ular,
’
. v ’

‘
t hrough t he p ecul ia r orce of t he a rt icle t he , w hich is, b yf ’

p v
r e em ine nce, a n indi idu a lising w or d , as w ill b e a t er wa rd s
-
f
e x
p l a ined .

7 C la ss
. N a mes are the sa me as G eneral a nd

S ignifica nt N a me s .

The O bj ect s Of na tural hist ory a re a rra nge d in cl asses ; as

roc s, k m et al s p alms, b ird s, a p es

, S O, i n . e o ra h , t her e
g g p y a re

the cl a sses seas, m ou nt a ins

-
ri v ers p l a i ns, d ese rts , , . M a ny
o t her O bj ects are sp o k en of a s c lasses, as b
t he no les, l awyers,
 LLE CTI V E MATERI AL 19
'

CO AN D nouns .

t raders These names are all g eneral and signi cant ; t hey
. fi
a re t he names common t o a g reat num er of i nd i id uals, i n b v
v irt ue of resem la nce or si mila ri ty b
All t he od ies ca ll ed
‘
. b
b
metals r esem l e ea ch ot her i n a num er of p oint s ; no les
' ’
b b
v
ha e p eculiarit ies i n common, which are a sent rom other b f
cla sses of t he communi ty .

‘nation ‘l ‘e i
8 I I I C o llec t iv e
. . N o u ns as g
*

ment , fleet
’
sena t e shoal
’
.

v
The Collect i e noun is t he na me of a great num er of . b
v k
ind i id uals t a en a s one ma ss, and sp ok en ofa s a singl e o ect bj .

‘
A nat ion c onta ins t housands, a nd p erha ps millions, of indi
’

vid ual m en a nd w omen b ut it is sp o en of a s one o ect , k bj

be cause t hey a re supp osed t o g o a ll t oget her A
’
eet cont a ins . fl
ma ny ship s, all u nd er one comm and , a nd eep ing t oget her for k
‘
one p ur p ose fl
The eet w as ict orious m eans t hat the ship s
. v
b
com ined t o ga in a ict ory v .

mp les P a r lia ment was op ened b y the Q ueen The

'

Other exa .
—
.

cla u was must ered The mob w as d isp ersed . The S p .

A r ma d a w as u nsu ccessful T he meeti ng is l arge

'

The j u ry . .

fi nd t he p ri soner guilty
s The cou r t ha s p assed sentence The
. .

soci ety is soon t o m eet The boa r d is a out t o issue regul ations
. b .

The commi ttee was not called .

Collecti v e na mes a r e a lso gener a l a nd significa nt na/mes for

‘

b
t here may b e a num er of collections oft he sa me things There .

a re m any fl
eets, a r mies, regiment s, cl ans, host s, sw a r ms
; and
as the i nd i idual v fl
eet s, arm ies, & c , resem le ea ch ot her, t he . b .

names a re g eneral and signi ca nt . Hence all t hese nouns are fi

b oth collect i e a nd g eneral v .

N ouns of Mu lti tude — S omet imes when t he coll ecti e noun is

. v
k
used, t he t hing s a re sp o en of ind i idually a nd sep ara t ely, as if v
it w ere a class nou n ‘
The j u r y w ere e t w it hout
p .
’
ood , k f
means t hat t he j u r ymen w ere so ep t ; ecau se t he a ct ion of k b
k f
ta ing ood ca nnot ap p ly t o a whol e ody collect i ely, b u t only b v
t o men i ndi idually v
These collecti e nouns are someti mes
. v
cal led nouns of M L T T U E U I D
They occa sion dif cult ies in . fi
x
S ynta , as will b e a terwards e plained ( S f
TAX, Concor d of; x YN
S u bj ect a nd Ver b) .

P easa nt ry, t ena ntry, youth, no ility, si sterhood, are e amp les b x
v
ofc ollec ti e nou ns t hat may al so b e nouns of mul t it ud e .

9 IV M a t e r ia l N o uns as
‘iron ’ ‘cla
. .

’
, y
w heat W a t er ,
snow

I ron is t he na me for al l the iron e isting e eryw here, v iewed x v

as a smgl e collecti on Wa ter 18 t he name for all water
. .
220 P A TS R or S P EE C H .
—
THE N OUN .

M at erial v
ha e t hus a resem l ance t o collecti e nouns
nouns b v .

f
Uhe di ference is, t ha t t he mat eri al ma sses a re more continuous,
v
b r l ess regu la rly d i ided t han coll ect ions of o ect s Comp are bj .

‘
w at er w ith eet iron coal fl sand w i th art ill ery

( collect i e) v .

A gain, t he ma ter i a l nou n must be si ngu la r , b

’

ecau se t here

ca nnot b e t w o comp l et e or e haust i e col lect ions ofone m a t erial : x v

v
sil er is all e i st i ng sil er
’
x
Unli e t he collect i e noun, t hev . k v
mat erial nou n cannot b e a class na me Di ferent mat erials may . f
b e unit ed in a cla ss, b y t hei r resem lance as, w hen gold , sil er, b v
‘
k
i ro n, & c , ma e t he cla ss m et a l ; b ut
.
‘
meta l is in e ery
’ ’
v
resp ect a g eneral a nd signi ca nt noun, and is not either a fi
v
coll ecti e or a mat eria l noun .

E xa mp les o f M a ter i a l N ou ns —
Rock stone, sl at e ma rbl e , , ,

a nit e sa nd ,mud lead b rass z inc c opp er p la t inum gold ,

, , , , , , ,

lt , al um, soap p otash but t er ham t ea suga r, ri ce t ob a cco,

, , , , , ,

b read, linen, fl ax, cott on, hemp , p ap er, w ine, bee r, b ran dy,
p hl oroform, a rseni c, cloud, mist, d ew , hear rost - f .

‘
The na mes of d iseases ha e een clas sed under prop er nouns v b .

fihere is also some resem lance et w een t hem a nd nouns of b b

m at eri al I n gram mat ica l const ru ct ion, t hey agree w ith prop er,
.

b f f
mat erial, and a stra ct nouns, a nd difer rom t he cl a ss noun .

Fv
{X
e d o not say a t yphus, t yphuses e er is som etimes a .

noun, a nd use d in t he p l ural, imp lying t hat t here a re

v a rious k
inds of e er fv .

Ap p a r ent P lura l s o f Ma teri a l N ouns —

W hen st rictly used ,
‘
the mat eri al noun ca nnot b e p l u ral, for t he r easons gi en v . Yet ,
occasionally, w e find such nouns u sed in t he p lural, as sa nd s,
twines, t eas This happ ens in t hree w ays
. .

W hen t he mat erial name is u sed t o designate the things

ma d e of i t a s ti ns for cert ain utensils made of t in ; p ap ers for
w hat gi v es t he new s .

W hen
instead of the whol e coll ect ion, d eta ched p ortions
,

of i t ar e mea nt as st ones, slat es, p eat s, cl oud s, light s .

W hen a material is d i id ed int o distinct ki nds, or v

v a ri eties ; as w ines, t ea s, suga rs, sal t s, cot t ons soa p s, ea rt hs,
g ,

tw at ers This is t he commonest case of t he ma t erial noun used

.

in t he p lural .

I n such cases the noun can b e u sed in th e singul ar with a

’

bf
{ e ore it a tin, a stone, a w ine, a sugar, a w at er .

These nouns are t hen t o b e p a rsed a s class or gener a l nou ns,

lt hu s b
The ot anist st udi es t he grasses, and has ound a new f
‘
(g h ( mat erial noun)
’
l T
’
r ass enera nou n) e c ow e a t s gr ass . .

‘
They ha d fish ( mat erial noun) for dinner ; f
’

’
they ate our
tishes ( general noun)
’
i
.
 ‘

B R
A S T A CT N OUN S . 21

W hen number is thought w e ha e a p l ural two men are

of,
v
in t he room W hen q u a nti ty is t hought of, e en w hen e pressed v x
‘
b
in num er, w e ha e t he sing ul ar v
t wenty p ounds w as t he sum
charged

‘ en ‘round
Ab st ra c t N o u ns
’
IO V . . : as l g th ,
‘w hi teness ’ ‘ ’ ‘ ‘ ’
healt h regulari ty , b rav ery
’ ’
ness , , , ,
‘
t emp erance w isd om
’ ’
.
,

W hen w e e x amine thing, as a house, a

an actu all y e x ist ing
lion, w e find t hat it ha s ma ny d i erent p r op ert ies a hou se is ff .

high, it is long , it is br oa d , it is eit her old or new , and so on .

k
W e may loo a t it, and consider t he height, w ithout t hi n ing of k
t he lengt h, or t he w id t h, or t he c ol our, or t he age, or t he new
ness . I n so doing w e are sa id t o a bstr act t he height rom t he
.
f
other p rop erties S o, i n t u rn, w e might consid er t he length or
.

f
t he br ea d th, ea ch b y it sel , w ithout e p ressly t hin ing of x k
a ny thing else : we shoul d t hen a st ract t he lengt h, or t he b
b rea d t h, as t he case might b e These w ords— height , length,
.

b readt h, are cal led A B S T R CT ou ns A N .

S o w ith a l ion W e might, in l oo ing a t t he lion, t hin

. k k
sep ara t ely and p a rt icul a rly of his si z e, or of his shap e, or of hi s
colou r , or of his str ength, or of his fier ceness a nd, when
t hinking of hi m in each one of th ese a sp ect s, w e shoul d b e
v
ina t t ent i e t o t he other p oints, al though w e could not ent irely
k eep a w ay t he imp ression of t hem These names, t here ore, a re . f
ab st ra ct nou ns .

Concr ete N a mes — As contra st ed w ith the a stract names, t he b

‘ ’ ‘
house a nd t he l ion , ea ch considered in a l l it s p rop ert ies
’

t ogether, a re named b y concrete names All class nou ns, w hich

a re al so common,
general, a nd significant nouns, are concret e
nouns Mat eri al nouns are li ewise concrete
. k .

v
F or e ery sep arate p ow er, p rop erty, a t tri ut e, or aspect of a b
t hi ng in t he concret e, t here is a n a st ra ct d esig na t ion, signifying b
t hat we are att ending more t o t hat p rop erty t ha n t o a ny of t he
ot hers i nsep ara ly oined w i t h itb j
A mount ain ( concrete) has .

height , lengt h, w id t h, shap e col our, w eight , age— all a st ract ;

, b
A man has height , w eight , sha p e, col our, age, strengt h,
k
hunger, ta st e, courage, s i ll, irt uousness or i ciousness, a nd v v
many other q ual it ies, w hich, w hen sp o en ofb y t hemsel es, a re k v
q b
ua lit ies in t he a st ra ct an d a re named b y a st ra ct nouns
, b .

Ab s t ra ct N o uns a re m os t ly d e r iv e d
II .

fro m A dj e c t iv e s ; as length , from long, round

‘ ’ ‘

from round , regularity , from r eg ula r

’
ness .
22 P A TS R or S P EE C H .
—T HE N OUN .

The a dj ectiv e ex presses a p rop erty or att ribute in comb ination

w it h the concret e noun— long roa d, r ound t ower, w ise m a n .

W hen t he p rop ert y is sta ted as a n ab stra ct noun— lengt h,

roundness, w isd om t he nou n i s a d eri v a t i v e from t he a dj ect iv e
,
‘ ‘
long b ecomes l eng th r ound b ecomes round ness
The larger num ber of ab st ra ct nouns a re d eriv ed from a dj ec
tiv es, b y t he a ddition of ness ; b la ck , bla ck ness b r ig ht ness,
’

ri ht eousness, fooli shness, b old ness Thi s is t he

g , gra ciousness .

chi ef E nglish or S a x on e nding .

‘
A few ha v e t he ol d S a xon te rminat ion th : t ruth, wid th,
’

st reng th, w eal t h, hea l th, d ea t h .

Many ab st ract nouns of L at in ori gin end in t y z q ual ity,’

nob ilit y, b ea ut y, cu riosit y, v erit y, honest y, p robity, t emeri ty,

ra p idit y, v er aci ty, cu p idit y, st u p idit y .

‘
Another cl a ss end in ce : pr ud ence, p at ience, t emp erance,
’

v iolence, benevolence, b eneficence, mag nifi cence, maleficence,

mal ev olence, j ustice .

I2 Ot he r A b st ra c t N o u ns a re fo r me d fro m
.

’ ‘ ’ ‘ ’ ‘
V e rb s as occup ation , relief , conference , choice ,
’

’
serv ic e .

‘
Occupat ion f om the v erb occupy a nd expresses the
18 r
’
,

acti on o ft he v erb l ik e t he infi nit iv e t oc up y

‘ ‘ ’ ’
,
or occupying o c , .

Rel i f is f m t he v erb r liev e a nd is nearly the sa me as

’
e ro e

t he infinitiv es t o r eli v e r liev i ng e e

B con y R ea di ng mak eth a full man confe ence a rea dy

a
‘
sa s, ,
r

m n
a R ading a nd conference b t h ex p ss the acti n f
e o re o o

t he verb t he on is n infiniti ve r el e a v e b l h
’
—
re ding e, a , a , o s r a a

st r ac t n un t he ot her
o ,
c nf ence is a v b l a b st ct n un
,
o er er a ra o

c onf rri ng
e w ould h v e b e n t he ex a ct p ral lel of re d ing
a e a a

F u ther x mp les
r P session
e a b d u t i n m ledi tion c on
.
— os , a c o , a c ,

st ruct ion lect ion p

,
e f nse w o k rev iv l ep o h
, roo , se ,
r a ,
r r ac .

I n su ch for ms s l ct i n b y l ota v ot b y b llot the nouns

e e o e a

are t he m e as t h infini ti e of v b s
sa el ct ing b y c t ing v s er e e as

l ots v oting b y b lloting wor hip ( worship ping) is a p art of

a s

religi on

IS . Ab st ra ct N o uns a re b y na t ure S ing ula r .

W hen they in the Plu ral, t hey a re con v er ted

are used

int o common or genera l nou ns .

They t hen mean p artic ular exampl es, acts, or ex

‘L ength i s an
’
a bstra ct noun ( adj ective a b str a ct ) . I t is
‘
na turally singul ar .
r
When we say a l ength a nd l engths we
 US ES on THE N OUN . 23

mak e it a class or g eneral noun, b u t t he meani ng i s changed ;

i nste a d of l e ngt h b
in t he a st ra ct, w e t a e a p art icular k mea sur e
a s a y a rd l engt h, a el d lengt h fi .

b
Colour is a str a ct , a s in colou r a dd s t o the pl easur es oft he
’

t he colou r of t he sea ; it is a cl a ss or general name in

’ ’
eye ,
t he colou rs of t he r ain ow b
w hi ch mea ns diferent sp ecies o r f
v a riet ies of col our .

F riend ship b
is a stra ct , t he st at e of eing and ha ing a
’
b v
f riend .
‘
A ri endship f ri end shi s
p f
ar e t he singu l a r a nd

l u ra l ofa class noun, mea ning sp ecia l or a rt icula r rela t ions of

p p
f riend ship .

‘ ‘
‘
f b
L i e a stract ; a li e and li es , common or general
’
.
’
f v .

v
They w ere l o ely a nd pl easa nt in t heir li ves, a nd in t heir d ea th
( a b s t ra c t ) t h ey w ere n o t d i id ed
’
L i ert y v a s t ra ct ;
.
‘
b
l i ert ies , b b ’

comm on— f
o rm s or k
ind s oflib erty Hold your p ea ces . d ri n I k
al l your oo d hea l ths
g
Other exa mp l es — Art , gra ce, ea ut y , cu ri osity, pleasure, pas b
si on , f
eeling, w ill , m emory, i nd ust ry, go ern m ent, societ y, v
v
se eri t y, b
el ie ,
p f
roo , reason, f irt v
ue, g eni us, t ri al , error, resist
a nce, se r ice v .

Us es of t he N o un .

I4 The typical ap p licat ion of the N oun t o na m e

.

t he S u bj e c t o r t he O bj e c t of the sentence, is t he
b asis of t he D efini tion .

I5 N ouns are also u sed t o c o m p le t e t he P re d i

.

c a t e , w ith certain v erb s of inc omplet e mea ning He .

‘
is a shoema ker ; t hey a re fugi tives ; N a p oleon w as
’ ’

elec te d E mp eror The fact is not stated w ith com

’
.

l t e sense b y t he v erb al one w it hout t he a dd ed noun s

p e .

I S N ouns occur v ery often in p re p o s it io na l

.

h s t h t is, ex p ressi ons m a d e u f re osit io n

p r a se ,
a p o p p
a nd no un ( or some eq ui v al ent o f a nou n) A ma n o i .

‘ ‘
c a ses oi the ut m ost di fi icultg , he ca me in
’ ’
v ir t ue ,
‘
— - —

gre at -
ha ste

I7 N ouns
. ar e v er
y ext ensi v ely used as Adj ec
sea monst ers
’ ‘
ld
’ ‘ fo ot ’
t ives , fie
g uns , a ra ce ,

ga rd en w alls
This u sag e is a v ery
grea t a re iat ion, b y bb v ellip sis a nd

rea rr a ng ement . Monsters tha t li ve i n the sea is shor t ened to

 24 PAR TS OF S P E EC H .
— THE nor m .

monsters li vi ng i n the sea monst ers i n ( or of) the sea and,

fi n lly a , t heimp orta nt W o rd is ret a ined a nd p ut in t he
only
r eg ula r
p osit ion o f t he t yp ical noun q ua li ying w ord, t he A d oe
-
f j
v
t i e, sea m onst ers Comp are t he use of t he ormal a d ecti e f j v
ma ri ne monst ers

T he P o s s e ss iv e of t he N o u n ( S ee I N FL E XI ON )
is p ra ctica lly a n A dj ecti v e t he K ing s command is
’
.

’ ‘
the sa me as t he r oya l command ; a sold ier s l ife is ‘a
’ ’

mili ta ry life ’
.

S ub s t it ut e s fo r t he N o u n .

IS . P ro no u ns r egu la rl
y t ak e the p lace of the
N oun .
( S ee
p 2 5 ,
. an d foll ow ing) .

I9 . Adj e c t iv e s a re often conv er ted into nouns ; as

the d eep t he fu tur e an i mbecile ex t re mes the

or ig ina ls

S u ch e x amples
t o b e rega rd ed as cas es of ellip si s ; a noun,
a re

b e ng rea dily u nd e rstood , i s om it t ed , a nd t he a d ecti e t he re

i j v
f
u pon assumes t he orce of t he noun, a nd m a y e en b e in ect ed a s
‘
v fl
a noun f f
The ull orms of t he e am ples g i en w ould b e
. x t he v
d eep sea ,
’
t he ut ure ti me ,
’ ‘
f
a n i m e c i le p erson ,
’ ‘
e t reme b x
p osi tions, op inions, mea su r es 85a , t he original documents,
p ict ur es & c .

The noun t hu s ormed is f o ft en ab str a ct , as in Gree k a nd

‘
‘
L atin ‘
the tru e for t ruth t he bea u tifu l
’
for be
au t y

‘
20 . T he I nfinit iv e
t he V e r b a re fre fo r m s of
l d ‘
q u e n t y u se for nou ns To b e u ni ted i s to b e str.ong
is t he sam e as uni on is strength to d ela y ( or
d el a yi ng) is dangerous ma y b e said in p lace of d ela y
is d anger ous
fi v f
The in nit i e orm i s more simple t han t he corr esp ond ing
b
a st ra ct nou n, a nd it i s b
e t t er a d a t ed for ta i n
p g on a d unct s k j
f
t ha t modi y t he a ct ion e p ressed x .

2 L A d v e rb s in a few instances t urned int o

are
‘h ’ ‘
nouns ; as t e a yes ha v e it , the up s a nd d ow ns o f
‘ ‘
life , an et erna l now , the how, the wh en, a nd t he
’ ’

why , , smce then

1 c
 sus sr i r ur ns .
—
r nn P
'
R ON OUN . 25

. This is p romp t ed b y the desire of short ness and i id

usage vv
ness The a yes is a shor t a nd ea sily und erst ood w a y o f sa yi ng
.

‘
t he members tha t sa y A y no w indic a t es emp hat ic a l ly a nd
v
v i idly p r esent t ime, how i ndicat es ma nner , when time, a nd
so on .

22 . A N o u n C la use is a complete sente nce

sta nd ing in t he p osition of a noun Tha t one shou ld .

’
be ca reless is i nex c usa b le is a no ther w ay of sa ying
ca relessness is inex cusab le

The N v
oun cl a u se gi es i n a l onger, b ut simp l er , orm t he f
mea ning t hat w oul d ot herw ise b e e p ressed b y a nou n w it h x
j x
ad unct s e p ressed or und erst o od I t is a ery o port u ne
p . v
q v
e u i a lent i n cases w he re t he a d uncts of t he noun would b e j
numerous a nd complicat ed

”
.

“
THE PR ON OUN .
7 8 ,L

D efi nit io n .

T he P ro no u n d iffe rs fro m t he N o u n in
I ,

e x p re ss ing a t hing , no t b y it s o w n na m e , b ut
b y a re fe re nc e o r re la t io n t o s o me t hing e lse
‘I t h
e p erson now sp ea k i ng) say m
(
’
as h e
( so e one

formerly mentl oned ) remained

fi bj
The rst o ect of t he P ronoun is t o sa e b y a r e erence t he v f
ment ion or t he r ep et it ion of t he oun Certa i n p ronouns a lso, N .

as w ill pr esent ly b e see n, o

.
bv
iat e t he necessit y of rep ea t i ng t he
g b
rea t su st it ut es of t he N
ou n in c om p osit ion — t he n nit i e of I fi v
t he V er a nd the b
ou n Cla u se N
One or t w o oft hem a re, urt her, . f
x f
e t remely u se ul in a nt icip a t ing t hese e ui al ent orm s q v f .

C la ss e s of P ro no u ns .

‘ ‘ ‘
2 I P e rs o na l : I
’ ’
t hou
’
. . we ; , y ou y e .

‘
t he firs t p e rs o n
’
I a nd we a re p ro no uns of
‘ ‘ ‘
the others,
’ ’
t hou
’

, ye , you ,
are p ronouns of t he

s e c o nd p e r s o n .

I . I mea n
s the sp ea ker sta nd ing a lone
‘
I c ha rge

you t o d e p ar t
26 PA RTS or S P E E CH — THE P R ON OUN .

W e means the sp ea ker , a nd others a ssocia ted w ith

hi m
.

I n oral a dd ress only one ca n sp ea a t a t ime, b u t t ha t one, k

sp ea k ing for others a s w ell as j e r hi mself, sa s
y we The ore f
j
ma n o f a ury a ddresses t he udge in t he w ords, j
W e find t he
p risone r gu ilt y I n w rit t e n co mposit ion w e is more st rict ly
corre ct , b
eca u se t he p art ies sig nin
g t h ei r names a t t he end are

a l l eq ua l ly sup pose d t o b e u tt ering t heir sent i ment s .

P e rsons i n v er y high a u thor ity, i n i ssuing their com mand s,

‘
f
o t e n u se w e inst ea d of a s, lVe, I
ichola s, Autocrat of N
a ll t he Russias

I n a nony mous w rit ing, a s in new spap ers a nd magaz ines, t he

w rit er s ea s a s w e kThis is call ed the ed i tor ia l w e
W e is u sed in spea ing for hu ma ni ty genera lly k w e a ncy f
t hat w e shal l al ways eel a s w e d o now f
2 T ho u is a ddressed t o
. one p erson.

I n t he usages of our la nguage t his word is o sol ete, e cep t in b x

f
t he ol low ing ca ses
‘
I n a dd res si ng the A lmighty Tho u a rt t he L ord a lone
I n p oetica l u se 0 tha n t hat rollest i n hea en a o e v b v
I n exp ressing fa mi li a r ity a nd contemp t :
’
Thou ile v
crea tu re .

I n the la ngua ge o f the S oci ety o f F r i ends .

Yo u is the or di na r
y p r onoun of the second p erson

for more p ersons

one o r .

Ye is employed for eleva tio n Ye hill s and dal es

N or y ou , ye P r ou d , im p u t e t o t h es e t h e f a ult .
’

Al so i n fa mi li a r i ty Ye
’
need not w a it .

‘ ‘she ’
3 . II D e m o ns t ra t iv e P ro no u ns :
. he
’
, ,
‘ ‘ ‘ ’ ’
they ; that
’ ’
it ; this , .

4 . He
is the p ronoun of the ma le sex in man and in
the higher a nim a ls, a nd in p ersonified ob j ect s .

Henry fou nd tha t he w a s mista k en S pea k ing of t he l ion

’
.
,
‘
we sa y ,
‘
he is v ery strong
’

; of t he su n,
‘
he is risen
’

,
he is
e clip sed

5 . S he is the p ronoun f em inine gen d er in of the

m a n and in animals a nd in p ersonified ob j ects ,
.

‘
Eli b t h k n w he ul d h v w h n the
’
za e he wn w y
e s co a e r o a e

li n
o h
ess see sub i n d ng h fil t t h i h lp
er c s ofF nce a er s e es o e r e ra

w e can s y sh h x p i nc d m ny v i i itud
a e as e er e e a c ss es
 PE RS ON A L AN D D E M ON S TR ATI VE . 27

6 . it is the p ronoun the neuter gend er, referr ing

of

t o things w ithou t life, and t o l iv ing b eings tha t ha v e

’
no se x . The house is near le t us go to it .

W hen human b eing or a n anima l is mentioned ,

a
‘ ’
thou t mark ing the g ender, it is t he p ronou n u sed
I t is a healt hy chil d
’
W here s the d og ? I hav e
’
.

missed it
’
.

bj k
Al l o ect s sp o en of, t hat ha e no sex, or w hose sex is o erv v
k
l oo ed , a re sig ni ed b y it
‘
fi rin
g t he l ight
p u t i t B
on t h e
'

b
t a le ;
’ ‘
I
w ent t o t he ri er ; i t w as sw ollen ;
’
v L o, w here i t
( t he
g host ) c om es a
g n
a i

The Mod es f Refer ence of

o It
The mod es of re erence f of t his p ronoun ar e v arious , and l ead
fl
to con ict s of meaning .

l T he B a c k w a rd o r Re t ros p e c t iv e refe re nc e ,
.

t o a no u n, a n i nfinit i v e , or a c la us e .

1 The usual form of t his is t o some

. s ing le no u n
in b efore, a s in the ex am les i n
go g p g v e .

2 . An I nfinit iv e p hra se ,
w hich is e uiv alent t o q
a noun, ma y also b e p ointed b ack t o .

To resist your a ct s w as nece ssar y as i t (na mel y to r esi st yo ur ,

‘
a cts) w a s j ust t o inv ok e you r p i ty w ou ld b e a s u sel ess a s I
should hold i t ( na mely to i nv oke your p i ty) mea n
,

A nother m od e of b ac k w a rd reference, l ess fro

quently occurring, is t o a c la us e .

The d ay w il l b e fine ; no one d ou ts i t Here t he ant e b .

’

‘
ced ent 18 not t he nou n d a y , b ut t he w hole asser t i on or cl a u se
’

the da y W l ll b e fine I v
ha e d one t he st a t e some serv ice, a nd
t hey k
now i t, mea ns t ha t t hey now t he a ct t hat ‘ ha e
’
k f I v
d one the st a t e some ser ice v
f
T he re er ence m ay b e still m ore com rehensi e, as w hen a t t he
p v
v
end o f a l ong na rra t i e, t he b ea rer sa s
y ,
n e er mind i t w ho v
v
w ould ha e t hought i t 2

II . T he F o rw a rd or A nt ic ip a t ing re fe re nc e .

The sub j ec t of the r eferenc e in this a lica t ion is v er

pp y
sel d om a no u n it i s e ither a h or a c la u s e
, p ra s e .
28 PA R TS or S P EE C H .
—
T HE P R ON OUN .

1The a nticip ating of a s ing le no u n b y ‘i ’

. t is a
rhet orical d ev ice ra t her than a n ordinar f m of p la in
y or
rose
p .

S urely, i f need ful , i t is al so fright ful, thi s ma chi ne ;

‘ ’
tis
ent irely of t he ear th tha t p a ssi on The p la in st ra ight forw ard
’
.

form is this ma chine is also frightful tha t p a ssi on is entirely

‘ ‘

of t he ea rt h
There a re al so su ch ex ampl es a s t he follow ing ‘
i t is sur —

p r isi ng t he l i t t l e p rogr ess w e m a d e T his ho w e v er,

i s in r ea l i ty a ,

t ra nsmute d c la use ; if ex p ressed in t he full a nd reg ular for m,

the sentence w ould st a nd t hu s i t is surp risi ng how l i ttle w e
a d va nced tha t w e ma de so li ttle p r og r ess
—

2 . The infinit iv e p hra s e is e xt re mely comm on .

‘ ’ ‘ ‘
I t is hea lt hy to w a lle ; it is u seless
’
deba ti ng ; i t is v ain
to ma ke excuses
3 The no u n
. c la us e i s also most frequently anti
‘
cip a te d b y it
‘
bb
I t is p ro a le tha t the d a y w ill b e fine i t is said tha t ou r
a r my has ga i ned a v i ctor y The cla uses ar e most c ommonly
’
.

j
‘ ’
int rod uced b y t he con unct ion t ha t , b ut ot her con unct ions j
ma y b e empl oyed I t is u ncertain if ( or w hether , or w hen) he
‘
w ill come i t is l aid d ow n how fa r w e shoul d go, and w ha t
or how much w e should ask
‘
v
This u se o f it g i es us something of t he p ow er ofi nv er sion
b el ongi ng t o la ngua ges dif ferent in st ruct ure rom ou rs, and t hu s f
k f
t a es a w a y an imp er ect ion of our la ngu a ge a s c omp a red w it h
these ot hers The idiom t here is has t he sam e efect
. f .

III . T he I nd efinit e re fe re nc e .

Thi s is carried t o the ut most in t he sayings i t ra ins w ha t ,

is i t it how is i t w it h you i t is a ll o er w i th us t hey l or d v

i t , w e rou ghed i t in t he a c w oo ds
’
b k he st ars i t in t he p r o
v inces ,
’ ‘
t ri p i t as ye go I n su ch ca ses, t here is scarcely a
’
.

p b
ossi ili ty of a ssig ning a ny p recise o ect , c ircu m sta nc e or bj
a ct , f
a s a n a nt eced ent or r e erenc e f W e ca n only in some circu itous

“
.

w ay su p p ose t hat t here is some a ct ion in t he d ista nce t ha t le a ds

m W
'

h d i d
’

t o t he e l
p y go i n of t he p r on o u n a t s o ng o u t si
. e ?

k f
som e one a s s, w it h r e ere nce t o t he w ea t her , a nd t he a ns e r is

i t ra i ns a short w a y of sa ying t ha t t he a c t ion or ong oi ng in

t he m a t t er of w ea t her, is t he a ll of ra in f .

v x
This ag ueness e pl ains t he u se o f t he p ronou n in iola t ion v
o f t he c onc m d s of ge nder a nd nu m er
—
‘
I t w a s he, no t she, b
t ha t I
sa w
[ is they t ha t gi v e t he gr ea t At rid es
’
sp oils
.
 V AR I ETY F ERE N CE ‘rr ’
or RE or . 29

‘ ’
The p ronoun it thus a p p ea rs t o ha e a t l east t hree dist inct v
modes of re fei ence l n comm on u se : l st , t o a sim pl e su ect , or bj
noun, going e o re b f
2 nd , t o a p hrase or a cl au se bgoi ng e ore ; b f
3 rd, t o a p hrase or a cla iise coming a t er Hence w e w e o t en f . f
x
i n g reat p erpl e ity t o say w hich of se eral p ossi le r e erences a v b f
v
w r it er has i n iew w hen he u ses t he w ord
‘
W hen w it ha t h .

x
a ny mi t u re ofr a ill ery, i t 18 b ut ca lli ng i t a nt er, a nd t he t hi ng b
i s d one Here w e udg e rom t he mea ning t hat t he rst it
.
’
j f‘
fi
f
i s or w ard or ant icip a t i e, a nd the second a c w ard or ret ro v b k
s ect i v e
p T h e . f
ull i ll ust ra t ion of t his d i cul t y, a nd of t he ffi
v a i i ou s m od es of o bv
iat in0g i t are gi en el se w here ( Comp a ni on to v
the Higher Gr a mma r , p p 43 a t t he sa me t i me w e a pp end
.
-

here a fe w t yp ical e a mp les x

W e m ay arther rem ar t ha t . f k
the relat i e v
w hich ha s t he same t w o ol d re er ence, ret rosp ec f f
bj
ti vely, t o a single su ect or t o a w hol e p hra se or cla use .

F u r ther exa mp les f

o the P ronou n i t —
‘ ’
We ha ve seen that
t he v ai 1et y of r etel ence of t his
p ronou n i s a f eq uent
r ca use of
‘ ‘
mb i0guit y The p eculiar id iom ‘
’ ’
a . i t is , it ap p ea rs , i t is
said ,
‘
it comes t o p ass follow ed b y t he t hing re err ed t o, ma es a
’
f k
clash of mea ni ng such a s d oes not occur w it h t he oth er p ronouns .

I a m going t o ment ion t he ma tt er I t is right t ha t i t shou ld .

b e m ent ioned
’ ‘ ’
fi
The rst i t here is p rosp ect i e, a nd re ers t o
. v f
t he cla use t hat it shoul d b e ment ioned t he second re ers a c f b k
‘
to the m at t er
’
.

‘
b b
I t ha d een w ell oth for E ngl and a nd ( for) S c otl and t hat
t here had b
een m ore of such g ood a nd m od era t e ings, as i t k
"
v
w oul d ha e p re ent ed many l ong w a rs v ’
l t in oth insta nces . b
p oint s t o t he sa m e cl a use t ha t t here had een m ore ofsu ch g ood b
a nd m od era t e ings k
b ut t he fir st p recedes, a nd t he ot her
-

f ollow s t he cl ause .

‘
There are so many ad antages of spea ing one s own l an v
’
k
u
g g a e w e ll , a n d eing a m as t erb of i t, t ha t l e t a m a n
’
s c a ll i ng
b e wha t it w ill, i t cannot b u t b e w ort h our t a ing some p a ins k
in i t
’
v
T he a riety of re er ence here is ery grea t
. f The rst v . fi
‘ ’ has ‘l a n u a e ’ for it s a nt eced en
it g g t , t he p r omi nent su ect bj
o f t he i ev i ous cl ause, a nd i s t here ore u ne ce t iona l e ; t he f x b
second
p
‘
it f
rea dil y re ers us t o t he noun imm edia t ely
’
p
r eced in ,
p g
‘ ’
ca lling ; t he t hi rd i s a n ind e nit e re f erence ra t her t ha n a fi
f
re erence t o
‘ ’
l a ng ua ge ; a nd t he ourt h carri es u s ac to f b k
‘
l a ng ua ge To r emedy t he con usion, t he t hird it should
’
.
‘
f
b e d one a way w it h, a nd t he second remo ed t o t he end : t he ‘
v
v
a d a nt a o g es k
o f S pea ing one s ow n la n u age w ell are so ma n ,
g
’

y
t hat t he ta k ing of some p ains t o b e ma st er of i t, ca nnot b ut b e
w orth w hile t o ev ery ma n, l et his call ing b e w hat i t w ill
’
.

The p ronouns rema i ning are so l a ced t hat their a nt ecedents

O

a re o ious bv E ven t he second

.
p
‘ ’
it may b e easily disp ensed
30 PA RTS or S P E E CH — THE P RON OUN .

w ith b cha nging

‘ v er
y the last clau se to wha t e may b e his
c a l li ng
W en w e int end t o empl oy t he p rosp ect i e it
h ‘ ‘
i t is & c , v .

b
w e shou ld not ring t he re t rosp ect i e u se i nto col lision w ith t he v
ot her
‘
. b
The est w ay in t he w orld for a ma n t o seem t o b e
a nyt hing is rea l ly t o b e w ha t he w ould seem t o b e
‘

esid es . B
b
t hat , i t is many t im es as t rou lesome t o m a e good t he p ret enc e k
o f a g ood q ua l ity a s t o ha e i t v
a nd i f a m an ha e i t not , i t i s v
v
t en t o one b ut he is disco ered t o w a nt i t, a nd t hen all his p a ins
b
a nd l a ours t o seem t o ha e i t a re l ost
’
Her e t he t wo modes
v .

f x
o f re erenc e a r e ine t ric a l y con used t o et her
g b O n f
e of t hem .

ought t o b e d one a w ay w i th B
esid es, t o m a e good t he p re
. k
t ence of a good q
u a lity is ma ny t i mes as t rou l esome a s t o b
v v
ha e i t ; a nd if a man ha e i t not , t en t o one b ut he is d isco ered v
t o w ant i t, a nd t hen a ll his pa ins and la ou r t o seem t o ha e i t b v
a re l ost
’
f
The sol e re erence now is t o t he one su ect q u al it y
. bj
If k v
i t w ere sp o en w it h ne er so great s ill in t he a ct or, t he k
manner of utt eri ng t hat sent ence could ha e not hing i n i t v
k
w hich could st ri e a ny b ut p eop le of t he gr ea t est huma nity
nay, p eopl e el ega nt a nd s il f k
ul in o ser a t ions up on i t
’
The b v .

fi rst
‘
f
it re ers t o sent ence t he ot hers t o mann er ‘ ’
The rst . fi
f
m ight b e le t out, t he cla use eing con ert ed int o a p articip ial b v
x
e pr ession w hich w oul d b e rea dily i nt er pret ed a s i n conne ct ion

w it h that sent ence

‘
if sp o en w it h ne er so great s ill k ’
v k .

‘
I t is a S ign of grea t p ru d ence t o b e w il ling t o r ecei e in v ’

struct ion ; t he m ost int elligent p er sons som et imes st and i n

‘
need of i t
’
W illingness t o recei e inst ruction is a sign of
. v
rea t p ru d ence ; t he most int elli ent ersons som et imes sta nd
g g p
in need of i t — is b
et ter ; a l t hough t he na t u ra l a nt eced ent
‘ ‘ ’
Or t he
’
w oul d st ill b e, not inst ruc t ion , b ut willingness .

fi rst
‘ ’ ‘
it m ay st and , a nd t he rep et ition of i nstruct ion b e
’
,

v
sa ed b y t he u se of a not her noun of much t he sa me meaning ;
‘
as f
in orma t ion and Suggest ion

7 T he y is the p l ural of He and S he app lied ‘ ’ ’

.

t o p ersons, and of I t ap p l ied to things

’
.

‘
‘
I m et t he soldiers ; they w ere on the march ’
I saw his .

d a ughters they w er e in t he fi eld .

’
Gold , S il v er , a nd p la t inu m
a r e t he no l e m eta ls
’
they b are so call ed b ecause they d o not
r ust .

8 . T his and T ha t are p ro

p erl
y Demonstrativ e
A dj ec ti v es .

They u u ally
p ha ve a noun e xpressed o r underst oo d, as I tak e
this place, you ta k e tha t 3 . I n the first cl ause, t he noun place
 D E M ON S TR ATI VE S D IRE CT ,
AN D IN D E F I N I TE .

is xp re sed in t he second it is understood in the one t his

e s , ,

is a n A dj e t iv e in t he ot he
c t h t m y b e classifi ed as eit h
,
r, a a er

a n A dj ct iv e or
e D m n t ra t iv e P ronoun
a e o s .

The ca se where th t seem t o h v e m o t of t he nat ur e of

a s a s a
‘
t rue p ronou n is seen in t he f llow ing s nt nces ; he mist o k o e e o

his ow n r oom for tha t o f the st ra nger t he song oft he night in

g a l e i s m ore v
ariou s t han tha t of t he t hru sh Thi s is a orm
’
. f
v
d eri ed rom t hef F
rench ; our na t i e i di om s a p l i ca l e t o t he
p v b
f
ca se, w hich are t o b e p re erred when t hey ca n b e u sed , ar e, l st ,
his ow n room for t he st ra nger s room
’
t o rep ea t t he nou n,
‘
a nd 2 nd , t o use t he p ossessi e w it hou t t he noun, — or t he v f .

st ra nger s
’
The p ossessi e inflexion eing so r arely in u se w e v b ,

a re t hrow n p rincip a lly u p on t he rst orm w hen w e w ish t o fi f

k eep cl ear of t he Ga llicism .

‘
I n t he line, t o b e, or not t o b e, tha t is t he u estion tha t q
may b e considered a s a p ronou n, ha ing a w hole cl ause for t he v
v
a nt eced ent , as w e ha e seen w it h t he d em onst rat i e
‘ ’
it We v .

might st ill consid er t he w ord a s a n a d ect i e w ith a noun j v

d ropped , or p u t in a dif ferent p la ce, a nd so l oo u p on t h e pas k
sag e a s a n a
‘
bb v
re ia t ion of
‘
t o b e, or not t o b e— tha t q u esti on
is i t
’
One t hing ha e
. v I
d esired of t he L ord, tha t ( t hing) I
w ill see a t er k f .
’

‘
‘ ’
This is of the nature of a pr onoun in t he p hrases e ore bf .

‘
t his f
a t er t his
’
t her e eing, how e er, a n el lip sis of t ime b v
f
F or t he ull illust ra t ion of t he arious uses of this and
.
‘ ’
v
‘ see the Comp a ni on to the Hi gher Gr a mma r ,
that pp 5 2 6 1 .
-
.

9 . C e rt a in P ro no u ns of D e mo nst ra t iv e
s ig nific a t io n a re c a lle d I nd e finit e ,
from sigh i
fying not p articular a ny sub ect ,j
b ut p ersons or thi ngs
t ak en generally S u ch ar e O ne a nd T he
‘
: one
.
y’
ca nnot b e sure of t ha t
’
of t he littl e ones

“
an
y .

“
They is al so u sed coll o uially q i n this ind e nit e sense fi ‘
they
say t hat t he ha r v est is
’

good ; b ut t he har est is said t o b e v

g ood b
is et t er E nglish .

x
I n t he first e ampl e, one is a sp ecial ap plicat ion of t he
k ‘
num eral , ta ing t h e p l ace of t he old ind e nit e ma n ,
’

p erhap s fi
u nd er som e sl ight i n u ence of t he fl
rench on, w hi ch is a cor F
r u t ion of homme — m a n W hen t he su ect of t he er is . bj v b
nu now n, or of littl e conse u ence, t he
‘
rench use on, as on d i t q F
‘
(
’
— it i s said b y no one in p ar t icular ) ; on comm enc e a
‘
é riger
’
—
p p
eo l e e i b
g n t o uild ; it eing no matt er w ho a re b ’
b
t o b e empl oyed , p ro id ed t he w or is d one v W e u se the p assi e k . v
v oice in su ch cases the uil ding is eg un W e emp l oy oneb b
in somewhat di erent circumsta nces ff Thus, ifwe were p ut t ing .
32 R
P A TS or S P E E CH — THE P R ON OUN .

a sup position b y w ay of argument or illustr at ion, w e might

v
g i e i t in t he ollow ing or ms fsu pp ose I w ere t f
o lose my w a
y
i n a w ood or, sup ose you w er e t o l ose you r w a y
p o r,
ose one w ere t o l ose one s w a A ll r e ma d e u se of b ut
’
su
pp y a ,

a s a g enera l rul e, t he l a st is
p re e rred as a m a tt er of good t a st e f .

bj
The first is o ec t iona le as erging on egot ism, t he second a s b v
f
u sing reed om s wi t h a not her
p erson, w h ereas t he t hird i s i nd if
ferent ‘
.
’
If
one s honest y w er e imp ea ch ed , w hat shoul d one
do is a olit er m od e of ma ing t he sup p ositi on t han t o t a e
p
k k
eit her one 3 sel , or t he f
p erson a dd ressed , for t he e am ple
’

x .

One shoul d b e ol low ed b y one and not b y f W hat

one sees or f
eel s, one ca nnot b u t b e sure t ha t one sees or eel s f .
’

This may sound st i b ut t he ollow ing is l a x ff .

‘
t he ett er f b
q
a c u a int ed one is w it h a n
y ind o f rh e t o ri cal t ri c , t he l ess k k
b
l ia l e he i s t o b e misled b y it
I n t he second e a mpl e gi en a o e x
the l it tle ones v one b v
is t he numera l emp loyed in t he manner of a p ronoun, b y ind i
ca ti ng somet hing t ha t ha s
g one e ore ( or
p e rha p s has t o come b f
f
a t er) I k
li e p ea ches, b ut must ha e a ripe one, or some rip e I v
ones

Other j
a d ect i ves are used in al most t he same w ay ; as gi ve
me o ne or tw o I w ill tak e ei ther or nei ther or both o , , , r a ny

one, or so me , or a ll , or none
S u ch a nd demonstrati e p ronouns
sa me a re e mp l oy ed as v
‘
i fyou are a m a n, show yoursel su ch The u se of sa m e in f
comm on st yl e i s inel ega nt The a d er s, so t hu s t hen . v b
t here her e hence t hence hither t hit her ser e v
t he p urp ose of t he d em onstrat i es d o so t hen for d o it or v
d o t ha t a nd if so b e t ha t he find it

IO . C o m p o u nd P e rs o na l a nd D e mo nst ra
t iv e P ro no u ns R efl e x iv e The w ord s e lfenters
'

—
.

i nt o Comp ounds w ith b oth t he P ersonal a nd D emon

‘
strat iv e P ronouns ; a s myself ,
’
thyse lf ourself

o ur sel v es rsel v es h m self h

’
y ou rself y o u i er
‘
it self , oneself or one s sel f , themsel v es
’ ’ ’
self ,
’

These are ca l led R eflexiv e Pronouns .

‘ hurt
flxv
The t rue r e e i e u se is seen in ca ses li e
"
myself k I
h e d oes hi mself in u sti ce j
m ind yo urself t he a ct ion o f t he
su bj
ect ein
g t u r b
ned ac u p b k
on hi msel , so t hat he is o
‘
ec t as f bj
w ell These p ronouns al so imp art emp ha si s : as
‘

mysel , I f ’

“I
.

‘
he him sel , ‘
f
t hey t hem sel es ; a nd t his i s t he origi nal
’ ’
v
i
a p p l ca t ion . B
ot h t he int ensi e or emp ha t ic a nd t he st rict ly v
f xv ’
re le i e u se ap p ear i n Tennyson s line : And myself some
”
myself .
 mrnanoe u RE LATI VE 33
'

nnr w xrvn i vn AN D .

N early always English, and v ery freq uently

‘

in the ol dest
l ater, especial ly in p oetry, t he si mpl e pronouns are u sed as
refl e x iv e obj ect s ic me reste ( I rest
‘ ‘
he t hrew hi m
d ow n I w ill bethink me quit you like men comfort ye,
c om fort ye, m eop le
y p
‘w ho
I I _ III I nt e rro g a t iv e
'

. P ro no uns
’
w hich ,
w hat w hether

l2 . W ho a pplies to p ersons ,
and is entirel y ind efini te .

goe s there su
p p oses co mp lete ignora nce of t he
e rson al lud ed to
p .

I3 . W hic h ,
unl i e k its u se as a Rela tiv e , a p p lies to
p ersons as w ell as to things I ts p eculiar force is
.

selective .

The applicat ion t o all genders is in accorda nce wi th t he

v
original d eri a t ion ; th e ol d E ngl ish orm o f w hich hwi lc, f
b eing f or hw i lic ( w ho lik e or w ha t like) , and -lie eing open
- - -
b
t o t he necessa ry in ect ions fl .

‘
k
W hich eu p oses a now n cla ss or group, and in uires t he q
fi vd
sp eci c indi i ua l or i ndi idual s v
Whi ch of you con incet h v
me of sin l
‘
Whi ch is t he way i
’
Which is the est ? ’
b
I4 W ha t. a pp lies exclus ivel y to things ; as
‘
wha t
‘
did you see Wha t is to b e d one 2
’

I n t he ea rlie st
p eriod of t he l anguage wha t w a s the regula r
neut er corresponding t o t he ma scu line a nd emi nine w ho f
I t ma y b e called b y p ie emi nence t he int errogat i e of now
-
v k
x
ledge, or t he e p ression of a d esi re t o b e in or med resp ect ing f
some Wha t is man ? Wha t is light
”
’
ar t o f t he w orld

ning ?
p Wha t is t he cause oft he t ides 2
I5 ,
W he t he r
,
d ual, w a s formerl
y pp
a lia n old
ed
t o a sk w hich of t w o Whether is greater, the gold ,
‘’ ‘
or the te mple I Whether of them t w ain d id the w ill
’

‘
of his fa ther I

‘w ho
IS . IV . R e la t iv e P ro no u ns w hich
’
w ha t
’
t ha t , . These are the p rop er relativ es .

W ho which a nd what w ere v iously interroga

a ll
p re
‘
t ives t hat wa s d emonst ra ti ve . The relat iv e usage is a l t er a

a
ppl ica t ion .
34 P A RTS or S P E E CH - Tun P R ON OUN .
Q
“
a

There are se eral other w ords t hat ans er t he v urp os e of

r ela t i es v ( su ch) a s ,
‘
b ut ,
‘
when
’ ‘
w here ,
p
‘ ’
w hit her
’ ' ’

‘
w hence , a nd t he compounds,
’
w hoe er ,
’ ‘
whoso ‘
w hoso v
e erv w hi che er whichsoe er v
what soe er whene er v v v
w hensoe er &c v .

I7 A R e la t iv e P ro no u n s t a nd s fo r a no u n,
.

o r s u bj e c t o t he r w is e m e nt io ne d , w it h t he
p o w e r o f a co nj u nc t io n b e s id e s I t j oins sen .

t enc es and cl a uses b y referring b ack direct ly t o some

t hing j u st named .

ha
‘
I n t he sent ence,
‘
I d I f ound a n old ac qu a inta nc e, w hom
nd hi m I
‘
s m t ime w h m is t h sa m
’
n t seen f
o or o s e o e e a a
‘
I d not k n w wh t y u y i q uiv l nt
.

h d not
’
a n see o o a o sa s e a e
to ‘
I d o n t know tha t tha t you sa y you say th t b ut I d o
o
‘
a ,

n t k now tha t
o

W ho d its ‘
’

I8 . an co mp ou nds, w hoso w hoev er

w hosoeve r l
pp y to p e rs ons
a a nd w ho so meti mes
a pp l ies to the higher animals .

‘
In E nglish,
t he ea rliest w as int errogat i e
h
T e w ho
’
v .

fl ‘
f
i n ect ed orms w hose a nd "w hom a pp ear as rel a t i es i n
’
v
t he 1 2 t h cent ury
‘
w ho i t sel w a s muc h la t er i n eino
’

g u s ed f ‘

b
a s a rela ti e, a nd d id notv reely a ct a s such t ill t he l 6 t h f
c ent ury .

I n t he E liz a ethan t imes b

w a s not u nfreq uentl y "w ho
a pl ied t o l i eless o
p ect s mf bj
ost l y, per ha p s, 11 i t h a e elin
g o f f
p e rsoni ica t ion f S h a e sp ea re ha s
.
‘
k
a g ent le fl oo d, w ho, ? i ng b
st op ed , t he
p o u nd i ng a n sbo e rfl ow s t h b k
e w ind s, w ho t a e
’
k
b
t he r u fli an ill ow s b y t he t op s a nd such li e k .

‘
o is commonly
’
t lied in t w o d iff
‘
er ent
a
pp v er
y
si nific ations
g .

I . T o co nne ct t o c o o rd ina t e se nt e nCe s :

w -
.

as I met the w at chman, who t old me there h a d b een a s

fire
Here t he t w o ind ep end ent 1 11 su ch
sent ences a re dist inct and

a case
‘
and h e might ha w
’
ee n su st it ut ed fo1 w ho b b
Ano th er form of t he sa me u se is w hen t he second cl a use 1s of
t he k ‘
i nd t er med a d v erb ia l w he1 e w e m a y st ill resol e w ho ,
v ’

i nt o a p ersona l or d em onst ra t i e p ronoun a nd a con unct io n v j .

k
W hy should w e co nsult P harl es, w ho ( foe he, seei ng tha t he)
no w s noth ing o f the m a tt er ”
.
 cc- oa n mxr me AN D a nsr mcrrvn; ‘
35

II .
"
In md o ern u se, more es
p ecial ly in b ook s, who ’

is frequ ently empl oyed t o int ro d uc e a c la us e

mt e nd e d t o re s t r ic t , d efi ne , lim it , o r e x p la in
'

a no u n ( or its eq uiv alent) as that is the man who

sp ok e to us yester da y

Here the cla use introdu ced is necessa ry t o d e ne or

by who fi
x
e pl a i n t he a nt eced ent
‘
t he ma n w ithou t it w e d o not now k
‘
w ho t he m an is v
S uch rel a t i e cl a uses are t yp ical a dj ecti ve
.

cla uses v
i e , t hey ha e t he sam e e ect a s a d ect i es in l imit ing
. . ff j v
nouns This may b e cal led t he rest ri ct iv e u se of t he rela t i e
. v .

f
N o w it w ill b e ound t ha t the p ract ic e of our most idioma t ic
~

k
w ri ters a nd sp ea ers is t o p re er t hat t o w ho in t his f
ca t ion w hereas, for t he other mea ning, t ha t w oul d
ro er
p p .

I9 . W hic h refers to l ifeless j

ob ects . The com
w hichev er and may refer also
’

p ound s, w hichsoe v er
t o p ersons .

‘
Though origi nally int errogat i e, w hich a pp ears ery ea rly v ’
v
a s a rel a t iv e ; a nd t his u se w as conf i rmed a nd e t ended b y x
F rench in uence fl
B y t he 1 3 th cent u ry it w a s not u ncommo n
. .

x
The e clu sion o f w hich f
rom re erence t o p ersons ( cr m a rc
p f
‘
w hich
’
int erroga t i e, has v
ecom e more a nd more b
st ric t, sinc e t he end of t he 1 7 t h cent ury e ore t hen t he . B f
‘
a p lica t ion o f
p w hich t o p er sons w as q uit e common Our .

F a t her w hi ch a rt in Hea en v
is a amilia r rep resentat i e of
num erous e amp l es in t he x i le E en Tennyson w rot e Bb
The one t rue lo er w hich you e er had v b ut t he newest ed iv
t ion ( 1 8 7 8 ) read s The one t rue l o er w hom you e er oun ol
f v
. v
v v ’

W hich is employed w ith reference to things in b oth

the senses j ust giv en of w ho w ith reference t o
ersons
p .

‘ ‘
F ’
irst , in co or d ina te sent ences, w here it , or they , a nd a
-
’
,

‘
j
'

con unct ion n ight a nsw er t he p u rp ose ; t hus,

. a t school I
studied geometry, w hi ch a nd i t) ound use ul a terw a rd s
’
I f f f
Here t he new clause is somet hing independent added t o the
p re v
iou s cla u se, a nd not limit in
g t hat cla use in any w ay So .

v b
i n the a d er ia l cla use, as he st 1u c the p oor d og, w hi ch ( a nd k
or a l though it ) ha d ne er d one him harm
’
v
S uch insta nces .

‘
represent t he most a ccu r at e mea ni ng of w hich
’
a s of w ho ;
a nd a ccordin l ,
g y we might t erm t hese t he cc ordi na t ing -

relat iv es.
36 R
P A TS or S P EE C H .
-
THE rR ononN.
-

Which is lik ew iseused in r estr ictive cla uses that limit or

ex p lain i t s a nt ec ed ent ; t he house w hich he b uilt st ill
‘
as

rema ins
’
Here t he cla u se int roduced b y w hich sp ecifies, or
.
‘ ’

p oint s ou t , t he house t ha t is t he subj ect of t he st at ement ,

nam el y, b y t he c ircumst a nce t ha t a cert a in p erson b uilt it As .

r ema rk ed w i t h r eg a r d t o
‘
w ho , ou r m ost idioma t ic w ri ters
’

p refer t hat in t his p a rt icular appl ica t ion, a nd w ould say

t he house tha t he b u il t r ema ins
‘

’
There is a sp ecial reference of w hich a tta chin
g to it
as the neute r rela t iv e .

Caesa r
’
cr ossed b
t he Ru icon, w hich w a s in e fect a decl arat ion f
of w a r The ant eced ent t o w hich in t his i nst a nce is not t he
.

b
Ru icon b ut t he ent ire cl ause, Caesa r crossed t he Ru icon b
f b
t his a ct ei ng w ha t a mount ed t o w a r I t w ill b e rem emb ered .

‘ ’
v
t ha t t he neut er d emonst rat i e i t in li e ma nner ma y ha e a k v
c l a u se f or its a nt eced ent ( s 6 ) w e m ight sa y Caesa r crossed
b
t he Ru icon w hen no ody e p ect ed i t ;
’
b x
it re erring st ill t o t he f
f ’
a ct of Caesar s c rossi n , a nd not t o t he
g Ru icon N ow t his b
mea ning o f w hich is not one of t he mea ning s of t he rela t i e v
’
v
t hat a s a retrospec t i e p ronoun, a lt hough t ha t may app ly
’

t o t hings as w ell as t o p ersons .

There is a p ecul iar u sa g e w here which may seem to b e st ill

r egula rly used in reference t o p ersons ; a s i n
‘
ohn is a J
a soldi er , w hi ch I
shou ld a lso li e t o b e t hat is, a nd k shoul d I
k
al so li e t o b e a sold ier B ut a l t hough t he com pl ement of t he
v b
er f
is here in t he orm of a nou n, t he usu a l orm is t he f
j v x k
a d ec ti e ; a nd e a mp les l i e t hese m ay b e regar d ed a s si mil a r

f
t o t he ollow ing, w here t he re erence is t o a n a d ect i e f He j v
f
t ur ned q uite w hit e rom r ed , w hi ch he ha d een - t ha t is he b ,

ha d b e en red
'

The d e m onst ra t i es t his , t hat su ch v

so
’

as w ell as either neit her a nd ot h a re u sed similarl

y b .

The form ‘
the whi ch so com mon i n t he E liz a et ha n eriod, b
occu rs ea rly i n t he 1 4t h c ent ury, a s eq u i a l ent t o t he r e nc h v E
lcq u el, la q u elle b
I t o ta ined m u c h more a ou r t ha n t he com
. fv
p a nion orm f the w hom Th e w hose w a s al so used .

‘ ’
re s t r ic t iv e , e X Ii
20 T ha t is t he p ro pe r
.
p
c a t iv e , lim it ing , o r d e finmg r e la t iv e .

f
That , t he neut er oft he d e init e a rticl e, w a s early in u se a s
’

a neut er rel a t i e v
All t he ot her old est relat i es g ra d ua lly d rop t
. v
a w a y, a nd t hat ca m e t o b e a p pl ied a lso t o p l u ral a nteced ent s,
a nd t o mascul inos a nd em i nine s W l_1 en asf w hich a nd .
~

who f
ca me orwa rd t o sha re t he wor of t ha t there see ms to k
 T HAT THE P ROP E R RE L AT IVE or R ES TRI CTI O N . 37

ha ve arisen notlit tle uncert a inty a b out the rel at ives, and w e
a

find curious doubl e forms whom t ha t w hich t hat w hic h

as , 8 m Gower has V enus w hose p riest tha t I am
’
Chaucer
’
.

This Abb ot w hi ch t ha t w a s a n holy man, ‘

his l ov e
’
w ri tes
B y t he Eliz a b et ha n p eriod , t hese
’
the w hich tha t he ow et h .

d oub le forms ha ve d isap p ea red , a nd a ll t he rela tives are u sed

‘
singly w i thout hesi ta t ion F rom t hen till now,
. t hat has
’

‘ ’ ‘
been struggling w it h who and which t o regain sup erior ’

fa v our w ith v arying success

. .

The best w rit ers oft en ap p ear to grop e after a sep arat e employ
‘
ment for t he several rel a t iv es W ho is u sed for p ersons,
.

‘
‘
w hich for t hings, in b ot h num bers so is t hat and t he

only opport unit y of a sp ecia l a p p l ica t ion of t hat li es in t he

important d istinct ion bet w een cc ord ina ti on a nd restrict ion -
.

N ow , a s w ho a nd w hich are most commonly referred for

co ord inat ion it w ould b e a cl ear ga in t o confi ne t em t o this
-
,

se nse a nd t o reserv e t hat for t he rest rict iv e a p plica tion al one .

This arra ngement t hen, w ould fa ll i n w ith the most gener a l use
,

of tha t , esp eci a l ly beyond the l imi ts of for ma l comp osi ti on

’
.

The use of t hat sol ely a s rest ricti v e w ith w ho a nd w hich

’ ‘ ’ ’
,

solely as co ordinati ng, a lso a void s a mb igu i ti es t ha t oft en a t t end

-

‘ ‘
t he i ndiscriminate u se of who a nd w hich for co ordinate -

‘
a nd f or rest ricti v e cla uses Thus, w hen w e sa y,
. his conduct
surp rise d his E nglish friends, w ho had not k nown him l ong ,
’
'

w e may mean eit her that his E nglish friends genera lly w ere
sur pri sed ( t he relat iv e b eing, in t ha t case, co or d i na ti ng ) , or -

that only a p ort ion of t hem—L na mely, t he p art icul ar p or tion

‘

t hat had not k now n him l ong w ere su rp rised —

I n t his last .
.

case t he rela ti v e is meant t o d efi ne or e x p lain t he a nt eced ent ,

and t he d oub t w ould b e remov ed b y w ri t in t hu s : his E nglish
friends tha t had not k nown him l ong
’
S o int e following sentence
.

t here is a similar am b iguity in t he use of which t he next

w inter which you will sp end in t ow n w ill give you opport unities
of ma k ing a more p rudent choice This may mean, either
’
.

‘ ou
y w ill spend nex t w inter in t own ( fw hich being co ord i -

nat ing) , or the ne x t of t he w inters w hen you are t o l iv e in

t ow n, l et that come w hen it may I n the former case ‘
’
. whi ch
is t he p ro r relat iv e in the la t t er case t he meaning is
t iv e or de ning, and w ould b e best b rought out b y t hat z t he
nex t w int er tha t you will sp end in t own
A furt her considera tion in fa v our of employing that for ex
pl icat iv e clauses is t he unpleasa nt ef fect arising from t he too
‘
fr eq uent r e ti tion of who a nd w hich Gramma ria ns oft en
recommen t hat as a means of varying the st yle ; b ut this
ught to b e sought in sub serv ience t o the still greater end
,

end o

i P
f ee rieuitw .
38 P A TS R or S P E E C H .
— THE P R ON OUN .

2L W ha t and its co mp ounds, ‘W ha tev e ’

r a nd

w ha t soev er a l
pp y t o t hings .

I n t he ol d est English w hat w as interrogat i e F or v

v
t h e regula r rela t i e u se i n ap l icat ion t o t hi ngs, t he ot her
‘
v
r el a t i es w ere su ci ent , a nd wffi ’
t w a not ery e t e nsi ely
s
v x v
e mp l oyed S ome such insta nces as t hese might b e ci ted : The
.

‘
mat t er w ha t ot her m en w rote ,
’
nothing w ha t ca n b e said
aga inst me t hat w ha t ha e always ma int ained I ’
v .

f
The t ra nsit ion rom t he int e1 roga t i v e orm t o such e a mpl es f x
a s the f
oll ow ing 1 S easy : L oo , w ha t spea , my li e shall k I k f
‘
p ro v e i t t ru e w h at h
’
e id s, tha t t ho u sha lt b d o Th e
’
.

omission of t h e d emonst ra t i e t hen v

i es t he u sual orm : v f
‘
w ha t I k
my li e shall p 1 o e t rue fg
’ ‘
wha t he ids t hou v b
p
s ea

th
‘
sha l t d o 0 1 , in nat ural ord er
. ou shalt d o w ha t he

b id s
’
. This is o iou sl y e ual t o bv q
t hou shalt d o tha t w hi ch
( o r th a t) h e i d s ; b
a nd hence
‘’
w ha t
’
i s c ommonly d esmib e d as

p ra ct icall y a comp ou nd rel a t i e, com ining as it w ere v ot h rela b b

v
t i e a nd ant eced ent The a nt ecedent is regul a rly supp ressed ,
.

x
e cep t in cer ta in i nve r ted or ms f .

‘
x
I n su ch e ressions as t he ollow ing, w hat may b e p ut for
p
f
‘ ‘
v
t hat w hich a nd is gene ra lly a n imp ro ement : I n certai n
ca ses w e re ra in rom d oing tha t w hich w e ha e a na t ural d esire
f f v
’

f
to d o, or orce oursel es t o d o tha t t o which w e feel a v
rep ugnance

S u bsti tutes for the P r op er Relati ves .

22 . b y S A M E , has the
As, p receded b y S U CH or

force of a relativ e, ap plying to b oth p ersons and things,

and al w ays w ith a n exp lica tiv e or r estr ictive S ignifi

ca tion .

The curse denounced upon such as remov ed ancient land

‘
marks t his mi ht ha v e been t hem t hat or t hose t hat b ut
‘ ‘

not so p rop erly

g
‘
w ho He '

of
fered
"
me t he sa me cond it ions a s
‘
t he sa me cond itions tha t w ould b e eq ually
’ ’
he fered
of you
‘
g ood ; the sa m e conditi ons w hich
’

,
t hou g h com mon, may b e

considered in eri or f .

v f
The t r ue relati e orce lies, not in such and same b ut in
"a s ‘ ’
B y t he 1 4th cent ury as someti mes t oo t he p l a ce of
. k .

‘ a ’ in t he ordinar constructi on Wi thout a recedin ‘su ch ’

th t y , p g
or
" same b ut t his use e did not cont i nue in a our wi th fv
w rit ers, t hough it is s a mi li ar in
p ro incial a nd ul f
gar v v
‘
t he ma n as tha t ) rides t o mai k et
’
Engli sh : I n the .

‘ ‘
oldest E n lish,
g such
’
was ollowed b y such
’
f .

swilc) K1ng Al red used

. such f which
’
 S UBS TI TUTES F OR THE P R OP E R R E LATIVE S .
$9
‘ ’
el a) I n t he 1 2th such
hw . ce nt ury as a pp ears.

C ha ucer ‘
has such w hich
’
a nd
‘
such
’
tha t :
‘
‘
I
‘
s ha ll lo v en su ch that I w ill
’
.
‘
W ho ’

,
’
w h ich , a nd t ha t
’

a f ter
‘
su ch
’
w ere es
p ec ia l ly c o mmon in t he p eriod of Q ueen
A nne S uch
. as ha s ruled si nce .

The or m ‘
su ch f as
’
is a c o n e nient su st it ut e for v b
t hat b
a nd ena les us to va ry the rela ti ve cons tr ucti on in rest ric

v
t i e cla use s w it hout loss o f lea rness I t has t he ur the r a dv a n . f
b
t ag e of ena l ing us to enclose the a nteced ent ‘
s uch sk i ll as he .

d is played
’
,

“
As may easily b e r ep la ced b y
’ ‘ whi ch in cert a in co or d i
na ti ng cases
‘
T he shi ps w ere l 1 oz en i n, a s not un re u ent ly
. f q
ha ppe ns 1n t hese reg1 0 ns ’
as is he re ery m uch t he sa me a s v
‘ ’
w hich in t he r efe1 cnce t o a w ho le cla use g oing e ore The bf .

ad er ial se nse of as is more p rominent i n t his a p plicati on

v b ’
.

23 . The w ord B ut is sub sta nt ially a ,

rela ti ve in
c erta in c onstru ct ions where the p r incip a l cla use ha s a

nega tive force . B ut is a lw ays r estr ictive

’
.

‘
There wa s no one bu t d id his e st i s eq ual t o there w a b {

no one tha t d id not ( d o) his est b

W ho is t here bu t comm it s ’

e rrors ?
’
W ho 13 t here tha t d oes not c om it e rt u s m
‘
E a rlier, it wa s usual t o inse1 t a te 1 b ut t he a p p rop ria te f ’

‘
v
d emo nstra t i e p ro noun : as t here w a s ne er yet a ir woma n v f
b u t she mad e m ont hs in a glass scarce a s ull s cast up b ut k ’

w ell he new i ts owner k

2 4 . The t he p ur pose of the
ad v erb w he n a nsw ers
"

r ela t iv e ( an d gov erning re os it ion , wi th a noun of

p p
‘
)
ti me as the a ntecede nt ; as t he good new s fronr
I reland reached L ond on a t a time when good news w as
’
needed .

‘
t o empl oy in w hich for t he same m ea ning
1s a l so usual
’
It
v
b ut 111 ca ses w her e t he rela t i e cl au se l imit s or d efines, t hat
‘
v
i s t he p roper 1 ela t i e, a nd w e ca n sa y t he ery da y tha t he v
a rri ed v W hen ha s not a l wa ys the e p licat i e meaning t hus, x v

“
‘
t he d ay of t rial w ill c ome, wh en al l w ill b e di fferent
’

w hic h
’
w oul d he 1 e b e t he c or rect r ela t i e W e may v .

v
ho w e er t hat when is perha p s o t ener rest 1i cti ve t han co f
o rdi nating .

25 W he re 18 need as a relative w hen the a ntec e

.
w

d ent ‘
denotes pla ce ; as fI p ut the b ook in t he p lace ,
49 P A TS R or SP EEC H .
-
THE R N UN
P O O .

‘
where I found it ; for
’
in which I found it or that
“ ,

I found it i n
'

k
T he re ma r s ma de on when a pply t o w here I t may b e a
b
su st it ut e f v
or either rela t i e, b ut i s p erhap s mor e c om monly
a nd b e t ter a p p l ie d w hen t h e rest ric t i e mea nin
g is int end ed , as v
v
i n t he ab o e inst a nce W he re t a es a m uch w ider ra nge t ha n
. k
b x
l it era l p lace, eing e tend ed t o t he m a ny met a p horical a p pli ca
t ions of place as, t he p oint w here your a rg ument ails f
v b
These t wo ad er ial relat i es ar e of great use v in v arying a nd
ligh tening comp osition, w hich is al ways lia le to b e b v
o er
b u rd ened wit h t he common rela t i es v .

26 . W he nce
is occasionally used as a relativ e of
‘
e re tu rned t o t he p la ce whence he ca me ,
’
p l a ce : h
‘ o ‘
i nstea d of fr m which he came , or tha t he ca me
’

from
27 W hit he r is used in lik e manner in the sense
,

‘ " ‘
of t o a p lace ; as I follo w ed him t o the house ,

whi ther to which) he ha d gone

28 . W hy as a relativ eis alw ays restrictiv e, a nd

sta nd s for on ac count of w hich t ha t for

There w as no reason w hy he should thin so, 18 a short a nd k
el ega nt w ay of sa ying on a ccou nt of w h ich or for w hi ch he

s hould t hin so or k
tha t he should t hi nk so ( for )
‘ ‘
‘
W h ence
’
a nd w hy a re of l ess g eneral ap p li ca tion th an
’
w hit h er
,
‘w h en ‘
The y are m ore confined t o t heir p r incip a l u se a s
’
a nd w h ere
b
.

int er rog a t i v e ad v er s A s r ela t i v es t hey a re , st ri ct ly s p ea ki ng , t he eq u i

v f
.

val ent s o ft he c ommon r elat i es w it h p re 0 8 iti ons, r om w hi ch ( w hence ) ,

t o w hi ch ( w hi ther) , for w hi ch ( w h y i?
‘ h
29 . T he co mp o und fo r ms W oev er w hoso ,
’

whosoev er w hichev er w hichsoev er w hatev er

‘ ‘ ’ ‘ hens ’
w henev er , w herev er ,
’
w hatsoe v er , w oev er
‘ heresoev er ’ ‘w hithersoev er ’ ‘w hencesoev er ’ hav e
w , , ,

a cert ain ind efinite mea ning, a nd hav e their a nteced ents
‘ oever is foun w a ntin
often left u ne
x p r essed thu s, wh d g
means a ny p erson that is found ; whoso
‘wha tever b e the cons equ ences, I dare not stay
w herev er, w hithersoever you go
 “
THE COMP OUN D REL ATI VES ;
The charact eristi c meanings of t hese w ord s are more closel
al lied wit h t he i nterr oga ti ve m ea nings of w ho , w hich w hat
y ’

& c , t han w it h their m ea nings a s relat i v es

. Thus the p ecul ia r .

force of w hich as a n v
inte rroga t i e is, w hich one of a certa in
defi n d e num b er or class 2 a nd t his is t he mea ning of
whi chsoe v er

3 0 F urther exa mp les “of R ela tive Constr uction

. .

omp a nion to the Higher Gr a mma r,

( S ee also C
'

pp .

63
The distinction ob serv ed b y our idiomat ic writers b etw een
t hat on t he one ha nd , and who a nd w hich on t he ot her,

al though for t he p resent v ery mu ch l ost sight of ,

d eserv es t o b e
re viv ed, bot h f or t he p ersp ic uit y a nd l ight ness of t he comp osi

tion The following ex amples w ill ser v e furt her t o ill ust ra t e
.

t he dist inct ion .

l . I n g eneral , Mr . B
ur chell w as fondest of t he com a ny of
chil dren, w hom he used t o cal l harm less l it tl e men om
’
.

is here idiomat ica lly used, being t he eq uivalent of a nd them he

used to call ac .

B n t l t might a co a as , 3.
Wh m W k in g n n t i n
o a 1se a a o
L d Ch n ll f b th t h i l w
or a ce or o o e r a s.
’

‘whom is equ l t o and him

Here al so a

I n t he follow i ng inst nce t he r el t iv e is est ri ctive or defi nin

g
a a r ,
and that w ould b e p refera bl t he c ncl usion o f t he I li d I S
e o a

the exit of a g e t man out of comp a ny whom he has

r a

magnificent ly Compare a not her of Add ison s

’
ent ertained
sent ences a man of polit e imagi na t ion is l et int o a rea t ma ny
l easures tha t t he v
ulga r are not ca pa le of receivi n b g
e
p
B oth rela t i es ar e v
int rod uced d iscriminat in in t his
—
‘
S h e ha d learned t ha t rom Mrs W o od who had f
h
ge ,
.

eard it f b
rom her hus and , w ho had hea rd it a t t he
p u lic
'

b
f
hou se rom t he la ndlord, who had een let into t he secret b y b
b
t he b oy tha t carried t he eer t o some of t he p ri soners
f
The oll owing sent ences a re am ig uou s u nder t he modern b
‘
syst em of us ing
7
who for ot h p u rp oses met the oatb I b
‘
k
man w ho t oo me a cross t he erry
’
w ho is t he p rop er f . If
v
rela t i e her e, t he meaning is met t he oat man, a nd he t oo I b k
b
m e a cross it eing sup p osed t hat the oa t man i s now n a nd b k
fi
d e nite B ut i f t here b e se eral
. oat men, and wi sh t o v b I
indicate one in p art icul a r b y t he circumsta nce t hat he had ta en k
m e across t he erry, f
should u se
‘
t ha t I ‘
The youngest b oy
who ha s l earned t o dance i s a mes
’
This mea ns eit her t he J .

youngest b oy is James, a nd he has learned to dance or of the '

42 m a rs or sp nncn .
—
r nn P RON OU N ’

boys t he you ngest t hat has l ea rned t o d ance is ames

,
-
J This
l a st sense is rest ricti e, a nd t ha t should b e used v .

2 Tu rning now t o w hich w e m ay ha e a seri es of p arall el

. v
x
e a mp l es The court, w hi ch gi es cu rrency t o ma nners, shoul d
. v
b e e empla ry x ‘
here t he m ea ning is t he court should b e exem
p la t y, for the cou r t gi es currency t o ma nners Which is v ’
.
’

t he idioma t ic rel a t i e i n t his case v

The ca t , w hich you d esp ise .

so mu ch , is a ery u se ul a nimal
’
v
The r ela t i e here also is f . v ,

co or dina t ing, a nd not rest rict i e

-
i t w ere int end ed t o p oint v . If
v
out one i ndi id ual ca t sp ecia ll y d es ised b
p y t h e p son a dd ressed,
er

t ha t w ould con ey t he sense v

A t heory w hich d oes not t end .

. v
t o t he i m p ro ement of p ra ct ic e is u t t erly u nw orthy of r egard
’
.

‘
The mea ning is rest rict i e ; a t heo ry tha t d oes not t end
’
v .( d

f
The ollow ing sentence is one of ma ny rom Golds mit h t hat f
g i v e
‘
t ha t i n
.stea d of ‘
w h ic
’
h
’
—
‘
a ge, th a t l esse ns t he e n o y -f j
f
ment of li e, i ncrea ses our d esire of l i ing ’
Tha c eray a lso v . k
f
w as ond of t his u sage B ut i t is not ery c ommon . v .

‘
f
T heir a it h t ended t o m a e t hem i mp ro id ent ; b ut a w ise k v ’

inst inct t a ught t hem t ha t if t here w as one t hing w hich o ug ht

f
not t o b e l eft t o a te, or t o t he p rece t s of a d eceased p ro phet ,
i t w as t he a rt illery
’
a case w here t a t is t he p roper r ela t i e
’
v
m
.

All w ords, w hi ch a re sig ns of compl e id eas, urnish at t e r x f

of mi st a e k
T his gi es a n erroneou s i mp ression, and should
.
’
v
b e all w ords tha t are sig ns of com ple ideas . x
I n all ca ses of p resc rip t ion, t he u ni ersa l p ra ctice of udges v j
j
i s t o d i1a ct uries b y a na logy t o t he S t a t ute of L i mita t ions, t o
decid e a ga i nst inc’orp oreal r ight s w hi ch ha e for many yea r s v
‘
b q
een rel in uished : sa y inst ea d , i ncorp oreal right s tha t ha e v
for ma ny yea rs a nd t he sense is clear .

I t is nec essa ry for t he p r oper u n

3 . d erst anding of which t o -

v
a d ert t o i t s pec ul ia r unction of re erring t o a w hol e cl a use a s f f
t he a ntec ed ent W illi am ra n al ong t he t op of t he w a ll, w hich
al ar med his m ot her ery mu ch
’
v
T he a nt ecedent is o iou sly . bv
not t he noun w all , b ut t he ac t e p ressed b y t he entire cla use
’
f x
‘
-
W illiam ra n , & c ‘
He b y no m ea ns w a nt s sense, w hich
’
.

v
onl y ser es t o agg ra a te his orm er olly v
na mel y, ( not sense f f
‘
b ut ) t he circumsta nce t ha t he d oes not w a nt sense
‘
He is ’
.

v x
n ei t her o er e al t ed b y p r osp eri t y, nor t o o m u ch d ep ressed b y
-

f
m is ortu ne w hi ch you must a llow mar s a great mind
’
We k .

v
ha e d one ma ny t hi ngs w hich w e ought n ot t o ha e d one , v ’

m ight m ean w e ought not t o ha v e alone ma ny thi ngs t ha t is,

‘
fw e ought t o ha e d one‘ few t hings
‘
v
Tha t w ould g iv e t he
’
.
’

x
e a ct sense int end ed w e ha e d one m a n t hings tha t w e v
ou ght n ot t o ha e d one
‘
He ega n t o 10 0 a t er his a fairs
v ’
. b f f
f
himsel , w hich was t he w ay t o ma e t hem p rosper k .
’

W
e must ne t a ll ud x
e t o the cases where the r elativ e is
,
.
 V 4RI E I I E S o r; RE
' ‘
—
L A TI V E oousr s ucri ou .

g ov erned b y a p rep osition; W e can u se a p rep osit ion befo re c

‘
el a t iv e i s
‘ ‘ ’
d hi h h h h
’ ’

, w h o a n w c h ,
b u t w e n t e r t a t ,
t e p r e

sit i on m u st b e t hr ow n t o t he end of t he cla u se O w ing t o

p
. o .

a n imp er fect a p recia t ion of t he g eniu s of our l a ng u a ge offe nce

p ,

w a s t ak en a t t hi s usa ge b y some of our l ea ding w rit ers a t t he

b egi nning of l a st cent ury, a nd t o t hi s circum st a nce we mu st
r efer t he di su se of t ha t a s t he rela t i v e of r est rict ion
*
.

S p e ak ing of D r y d en , H al la m sa ys His E ssa y on Dra ma tic P oesy p ub

xt n y ft
, ,

lish e d i n 16 68 w as r e p ri n t e d si ee ears a er w ar d s, a n d it is c u r i ou s
b D yd n m x M
,

t o o s er v e t h e ch a ng es w h ich r e a d e i n t h e e p ression al one

f b
.

h as ca r e u lly n ot e d a ll t h ese t hey sh o w o th t h e ca re t he a u t hor t ook

w it h hi s ow n st yl e , a nd t h e cha ng e w hi c h w a s g ra d ua ll y w or k i ng i n t he

“
The A ngli ci sm of t er m ina t i ng t h e s en t ence w i t h a
b“
E ng l ish la ng u a g e .

p r ep osit io n i" s r ej ec te d Th u s, I ca nnot t hink so cont e m p t i ly of t he

I x ” I v
.

ag e li v e in , is e cha ng ed for t h e a g e i n w hich li e A d e ep r e

x b f
.

e p r es si on of eli e t ha n all t he a c t or ca n p e r su a d e u s t o is al t ere d ,

f
,

ca n i n sinu a t e i n t o u s A n d , t h oug h t h e ol d orm cont i nu e d in u se

f D
l ong a te r t he t im e of ry d en , i t h as of la t e y ea rs e en reck oned in cl e b
b
g a nt a nd p roscri ed i n a ll case s p er h a p s w i th a n u nnecessa r y a s t i d i ou s f
f f
, ,

ness, t o w hi c h I h a v e n ot u ni or ml y d e er r ed , si nce ou r la ng u a g e is o f
'

Te u t oni c st r uct u r e , a n d t he r u l es of L a t i n a nd rench g ra mm ar are not F

a lw ay s t o in d u s b
’

b b I
.

On t h e sa m e su j ect Dr Ca mp ell rem ar k s N ow t ha t a m on t h e

b
.

su j ect of t h e p rep osi t i on s , i t w i ll n ot b e i m p r op e r t o consi d er a p ec u l i

f
ar i t y w hi ch is o t en t o b e ound w it h u s in t h e ir arra ng em ent f I n e v er y
x
.

ot h er la ng u a g e t h e p r ep osit i on i s a l m ost c ons ta nt l y p r e fi e d t o t h e nou n

' '

v
w hich i t g o er n s ; i n E ng lish i t i s som et im es p la ce d n ot onl y a t er t he f
b
n ou n , b u t a t a c on si d er a l e d ist a n ce r om it , a s i n t h e ollo w i ng e a m p l e ; f f x
Th e i nfir m a r y w as , i nd ee d , ne v er so u ll as on t hi s d a y ; w hi ch w a s a t f I
som e loss t o a c cou nt for, t ill u p on m y g oin g a road
”
o ser e d i t w as a n b I b v
east er ly w ind H f
er e n o ew er th a n s ev en w or d s i n t er v ene
be t w een t h e
b B
.
.

r ela t i v e whi ch a n d t h e p r ep o sit i o n for el ongin g t o i t esi d es , t h e p r e

f
.

p osi t i on d ot h not h er e p r ece d e it s r eg im en , b u t oll ow s it On e w o u ld

'

b f
.

i m a gi ne , t o con si d er t he m att er a st ra ct l y , t ha t t hi s cou ld not a il i n a

l a ng u ag e l i k e ou rs , w hi ch a d mi t s so fe w i nfl ect i ons, t o cr ea t e o scu ri t y b
f I
.

Yet t his , i n a ct , i s sel d om or ne v er t h e conseq u ence nd eed t h e si ng u

b
.

l ari t y of t h e i di om h a t h m a d e som e cri t i cs c on d em n i t a sol u t el y Tha t .

t h er e i s not hing ana log ou s i n any k n ow n t ongu e , ancient or m od ern , ha th

a p p ear ed t o t h em a su f f
i ci e nt reason
B III
ow n it ne er a pp eared so t o m e
’
I v
. .

—R hetori c ook , C
ha p 4
f x f M
. .
, .

Th e oll ow i ng e am p l es , ta k en r om assin g er s Gr a nd Du ke of F lor ence,

'

w ill sh ow w ha t w as t h e u sa g e of t h e Eli z a e t ha n w rit er s b

F or Imt us u se the f reed o m I w a s b or n w i th .
’

I n that d u m b r h et ori c whi ch y ou ma ke u se of .

’

i f h ad e en h eir I b
Of all the gl b and s cep t res m a nki n d bow s t o
’
o es .

t h e na m e of fi r end
Which y ou p lea sed t o g r a ce i nc w i th
ar e .
’

w il u ll y i g nora nt i n my f op ini on
Of w ha t i t d i d mmte him to
’
.

Il ook t o h er as on a p r in’cess
I da r e not b e a mbit i ous of .

Tha t I wa s born w ith

’
.
 P A TS R OF S PEEC H .
-
THE R N
P O OUN .

‘
I t is curious that the only circu mstance c onnecte d with
S cott , and rel at ed by L ock ha rt of which , w as a w it ness, is
i ncorrect ly st at ed in t he L ife f
o S ir Wa lter ’

( L eslie s
’

ha t I
.

Menw irs ) .

'
The v
rela t i e should be rest ricti e : t v was a
w it ness f
o .

‘
There are many w ords w hi ch ai e a d ect i es w hi ch ha e j v v
nothing t o d o w it h t he q ual it ies of t he nou ns to w hich t hey a re

p u t .
’

( Co et t bb
e tt er : t here
. a B
re ma ny word s that are a d ec
j
v
t iv es tha t ha e nothi ng t o d o w it h t he u al it ies of t he nouns
’
q
tha t t hey are p u t to .

‘
bj
Ot her o ect s, of w hich w e ha e not occasion t o spea so v k
f q
re uent l y, w e d o not d esigna t e b y a na me of t heir own
’
.

‘
This, if a mended, w ould b e : other o ects tha t w e ha e not bj v
oc ca sion t o sp ea o k
f so req uent ly, w e d o not
’
f
S orrow for t he d ea d 13 t he only sorrow from w hich w e re use f
t o b e d i orced ; vthe only sorrow ( tha t) we 1 efuse t o b e di orced v
fro‘m
’
.

W hy, there is not a singl e sentence in t his play tha t I do

not k now t he me a ning o f .
’

( Add ison .

‘
Originalit y 1 s a t hing w e consta nt ly clamour for , and con
Carlyl e )
’
sta nt ly ua rre] w i th (
g
. .

‘
‘ ’
V hose a lt hough t he p ossessi e of who , and p ra ct ically
’
v
‘
of w hich f q
is yet re uently emp loyed for t he p urpose of re
’

striction
‘
He sp ok e of lov e , su ch l ov e as s ir its eel, f ’
I n w or ld s w hose cou rse is eq u a b e a nd p ure .

This 18 not fel t t o b e so ea t a d e art ure from idiom as the

p
‘
reposit ional forms
‘
of w om ,
'
of w hich
’
are , when used to

p efine or restr ict t he su bj ect .

‘
W e are the more l ik ely to guard w a tchfully against those
fault s w hose d eformity w e ha ve seen ful ly disp la yed in ot hers
’
.

This 18 bett er t han t he d eformity of w hich w e ha v e seen .

‘
P r oposit ions of w hose t rut h we ha v e no certa in k nowledge
’
.

( L ock‘
e .

6 W here its compounds

’
, a nd wherein w hereo , 8m , f ’

b
are su sti t ut es f or ot h 1 el a t i es b
They ma y t here ore b e u sed
‘
v . f
‘
instea d of t ha t , w ithou t t he m islea d ing e fect of which
’ ’
f .

f
The ol low ing are e a mples : x
t he ha p p iest condit ion ofsociety
is ( t hat ) w her e t he grea t est num er of pe rsons is ( should b e a re) b
‘
found p ossessing a m od era t e y et suf cient su sistence ;
’
fi b I
m u st su pp ly me
Wi th m d efectiv e in
’
all I a .

a cop i ou s t h em e
Wh ich w oul d , d iscou rsed a t lar g e o f m ak e
, a v ol u me.
’

8 0 in S hak sp ea r e t o ta k e , an e x am p l e o u t of many
To h av e n o scr ee n b
e t w ee n the pa rt he p la yed
A nd him he p l a yed
'
i t for .
 V ARI E M E S
l
’
or R E LA TI V E C O ST N R U CTI ON .
‘
45

know of no rule wher eby it ma y b e d one they ( great vi rt ues)

oft en sa v e, a nd a l wa ys ill ust ra t e t he a e a nd na t ion i n whi ch
g
‘
( wher ei n) they a ppear ; for the age and na t ion tha t t hey
’

ap p ea r in
‘
7
. S uch as
’
is rest ricti ve
is a c on enient mode of
, a nd v
v arying t he v
rela t i e const ruc t ion :
‘
Ea t such t hings as ar e se t
b fore you
e
’
. W hi t field s p rea ching w as such as E ngla nd had
’

nev er heard b efore

’
.

H df a re b ut p eti t e
su ch a s b oyi sh a
p
ar
D i d in s a s not , n or t h e p a l a te , 11 11 ep r a v e d
B y cu l ina ry a rts, un sa ou r y d eem s v
( Cow per .
’
.
)
‘W hat t he e uiv alent of t he t ha t t ha t w hich has
8 q
—
.

t he ad v ant a g e oft a k mg a p rep osit ion ruin seemed imp end ing

a nd i nev it a b le , t houg h no one could t ell i n w ha t it w ould fi rst

wha t it w ould fi rst show it sel f i n

’
show it self , or
Wha t i n m e is d ark
Illumine wha t is low ra ise a nd su p p ort
,
’
.
,

I t is prob ab le t ha t any a tt empt t o esta bl ish a different classi

fica t ion of t he p art s of sp eech, from tha t w hi ch ( w ha t) is
com monly receiv ed , w ill b e found of l it t le u t il it y
’
.

9 W e ha v e al so seen t ha t a cla use in p a rt icip ial a dj ect ion

.

ma ha ve a restr ict iv e fo rce ‘

a t ru t h long for gotten m a y ha v e
‘

to e rediscov ered W ha t ma n among you, ha vi ng a hund red

sheep , eq u al t o t ha t ha s W e giv e the pap ers showi ng ( for
’

t he concord existi ng bet w een t he four P ow ers a t

‘
t hat show
t he t ime w hen E ngla nd and F rance w ere enga gi ng in a sepa ra t e
( Kinglak e) B ut it w ou ld b e a b su rd t o
’ ‘
course of a ct ion .

ex p ect m ercy, j u st ic e, or w isd om from a class o fm e n fi rst a based

b y ma ny years of opp ression, a nd t hen ma ddened b y t he j oy
of sudd en deliverance, and a rmed wit h irresist ib l e p ow er

(M a ca ul ay) .

10 I n t he following ex a mp les w e shall a v ail oursel v es, as

.

may see m fit, of all t he foregoing devices, wit h a v iew t o amend

ing t he rela t iv e const ruct ion .

There are one or t w o obj ections w hi ch ha v e b een b rought

‘
.

i n t t h t u d f l it i l n m w h i h i t m b e u se ful
ag a s e s y o
p o ca e co o y, c a y
‘
to not ice, ma y b e a mend ed t hus : t her e are one or t w o oh
’

ons ( t ha t ha v e b een) br ought a a inst t he st u dy of p ol it ica l

j ec t i g
economy, w hi ch ( a nd these) i t ma f l i m
'

y b e u se u t o n ot ice t ay

b e u seful t o not ice one or t w o obj ections b rought a gainst t he .

st udy of p olit ica l economy

There are t wo ob ect ions, howev er, by w hi ch ( wher eby) its

“
‘ '

j ust ness m ay b e p ossi ly controv ert ed .

’

A spiri t m ore a mia b le, b ut ”l ess v igorou s, than L u ther s

’

w ould ha v e shrunk b ack from t he d angers w hi ch he b ra v ed a nd

tha t he b rav ed ;
‘ ‘
surmount ed
’
the da ngers
surmounted b
y m
’
h i .
 “ “
46 m a rs se son THE P RON OUN 7
’

or a —
.

N or is it at all improb abl e that t he emigrants had b een guilty

of f
those aults from which ci ilised men who set t le am ong a n v
v
u nci il ised p eop le are rarel y i ce ( Ma ca ulay)
’ ‘
f
N or is i t a t all .

b b
i mp ro a le t ha t t he emigrants had een gu ilty of the a ults b f
f v
tha t ( such a ul t s as) ci il ised men that settl e ( settli ng, or settled )
a mong a n unci ilised
p v
eo l s ar e rarely ree fr om f .
’

f
1 1 . The orm t hose w o app l ied in a r estricti e sense is t he v
b ‘
mod ern su stit ute for t he a ncient idiom t hey t ha t , a n idioni ’

‘
in a ccordance w ith t he t rue m ea ning of t hat
’
They tha t .

‘
t old me ( t he st ory, sa id ,
’
l essed a re they tha t mourn ; a nd b‘ ’

‘
S i mon a nd they tha t w ere w ith hi m , l o e them tha t lov e me, I v
a nd they tha t see me early shall find mek they tha t a re w hole
v ‘
ha e 11 0 need of a p hysicia n ; how sweet is t he rest of them
’

tha t la our b‘
I
c a nnot t ell w ho t o com a re t hem t o so fit l) as
.
p
t o them tha t p ic p oc et s 1 n t hek p resenc e k
o f t he ud g e
’

,
‘
th ey j
tha t ent er int o t he st at e of marriage cast a di e of t he g reat est
cont ingency
’

( Taylor) J . .

T ha t m an at h p er ec t l esse d ness b f b
W ho w al k eth not ast ra y ,
‘
x
if e pressed acco1 ding to the old idiom w oul d b e, the man
hat h tha t w al eth k .

‘
Tha t , t hose , as d emonst rati e ad ect i es re er ac ward}
’ ’
v j v f b k
and a re not t here ore w ell suited for t he f orw ard r eference im f
p l i k ‘
ed l n m a ing u se of t ha t which t h ose w ho as rest rict i e
’
v
rel a ti es v . v ‘
I t is also ery cum r ous t o say tha t ca se to which b
e ca se ( tha t) you a llud e to
’ ’
a llu d e , f t h
y o u or .

k
1 2 Ta e now the ollow ing
.
‘
f
the Du e of W ellingt on is —
k
not one of those w ho int er eres wit h mat ters ov er w hi ch he has f
no cont rol ;
’ ‘
k
t he Du e is not one of them tha t int er ere i n f
v
mat t ers tha t they ha e no cont rol over ( ma t t ers tha t t hey ca nnot
cont rol , beyond thei r control , ou t of thei r
‘
t hem If
tha t sound s t oo a nt iq u at ed , w e may a dop t as a con enient com
’
v
‘
p 1 omise, t he Du e is not one of those tha t k ’
or
‘
t he Du e is k
not one to i nt erfer e l n mat t ers out of his p ro ince , t he Du e
’
v ’
k
is not one tha t i nterferes w ith w ha t h e ha s no cont rol over .

13 . j
P re ud ices a re not ions or op inions w hi ch t he mind ent er:
ta ins wi t hou t k
now ing t he gr ound s a nd r ea sons of t hem, a nd
whi ch a r e assent ed t o w ithou t e a mina tion ( er eley) Th e x ’
B k .

‘
b ‘
w hich in ot h cases should b e tha t , b ut t he r elat i e may
’ ’
v
b e ent irel y d ispensed w ith b y p a rt icipia l con ersion
‘
p re udices v . j
a re not ions or op i nions enter ta i ned b y t he m ind w it hou t now : k
i ng t he grounds and reasons of them, a nd asse nt ed t o w it hout
x
e amina t ion
’
.

‘
The p ol it ical a nd moral syst em of ahomet is tha t which M
'

( wha t, such as) might b e e p ect ed rom one w ho a i med ( a i ming ) x f

on ly a t p rsonal aggra nd isement, and who ha d ( ha v ing) no
e
generous i ews eyond v ’
b .
 ’

sa v iN s i ns ga mm a or THE N otiN .

‘He wh p ow er is t oo great , an
k s t hat sov erei d w oul d
'

t hin
' '

i
o

desi re t o limit it ca n d o so 0 11 ; b y set t ing u p a grea t er ,

’
,

v
t hat , thi nki ng so ereign p ow er t oo grea t , d esires
’

m
.

‘
f ‘
1 4 The t oo req u ent rep et it ion of w ho a nd
. w hich
’
ay

v v
b e a oided b y resol i ng them int o t he con unct ion and p ersona l j
‘
or ot her p rono un I n such ci rc um s ta nces t he u t most t hat ,

B x
osq u et c oul d b e e p ect ed t o d o w a s t o hol d his ground , ( w hich)

a nd thi s he d id

One of the uses of P 1 onou ns is t o sa v e t he

‘
re p e t it io n of a N o u n , as J ohn is come ; he has
not b een l ong
’
.

ff
This m ay b e e ect ed b y ari ou s other means v
m
.

B y some ore gener a l d esi gnati on , as in ilton (

Thus M .

k
spo e t he temp ter , t he fiend for S ata n ‘
W e w ent t o see S t . .

P a ul s, a nd ad mii ed t he vas t b u i ld i ng
’ ’
.

S uch general w ord s are o t en a d a nta geousl y com ined wi th f v b

the rel at i e v
t ou ching musica l har mony, a thi ng tha t ( e u al t o
. q
w hich
’
d elight et h all ages , a thi ng a s sea sona le 1 n j oy as in b
‘
he w a s nat urally mo1 ose, a p ecu li a r i ty tha t 1 d o not
'

nef ;
g k
ere t a e int o a ccou nt
’
Al so the rela t i e m ay b e d isp ensed
. v
w it h t he nat ion w ere u na nimous, a thi ng a ci rcu msta nce) of
ra re occu rrence

B y the u se o f syno ny mes .

‘
His happ i ness w a s mu ch
enha nced b y his success ; b ut it w a s not i n t he na t ure of so
’
rea t bl iss t o la s t
g .

Un der t he a dj e ct iv e w e shall see ot her mod es of sa v ing the

r ep et it ion of t he p l inci pa l su bj ec t , a s b y lo1 n1 er a nd l a t te1 ,
‘ ‘ ’
t he
‘

t he fi1 st a nd t he se c ond , the
’
one a nd t he ot her,

I t is e v er
y fi
insu f cient defini ti on of t he p ronoun t o say t hat
v
it sa es t he rep et it ion of t he noun, eing w hol ly i na p p lica le to b b
v
int erroga t i es, a nd to t he ind e nit e p r o nouns The r elat i e fi . v
p v v
ronouns, moreo er, ha e in a dd it ion t he orce of con unc t ions f j
a nd, a s w e ha e v j
ust seen, t he use of t he p rono un is not t he
v
sole means of a oid i ng t he rep et it ion of t he noun .

THE A DJ E C TIV E .

D e finit io n .

I . A n Adj e ct iv e I S a w o rd Jo me d t o a no u n
to lim it it s a p p lic a t io n ; as my hat ,
‘ ’ ‘
a sa cet
‘

sou nd
’
.
48 P A TS R or S P E E C H .
—T HE D
A JE CT I VE .

“
Adj ecti ves are commonl y sa id t o name a q uality B ut this '

p ply to p ronominal a dj ect iv es, as

ca n ha rd ly a ‘ ’ ’
t his, our .

M oreov er in t he cla ssifi ca t ion o f a dj ect iv es, one class is t hose of

q uality ; imp lying t hat t he ot her classes, na mely, adj e ct iv es of

q u a nt it
y a nd the p ronominal adj e ct iv es, a re not ex p ressive of
q uality I t is b etter to treat t hem a s w ords that go al ong with
.

nouns t o sp ecify or narrow t heir a ppl ica t ion F or ex a mpl e, t he .

w ord w ise j oined t o t he noun man, signifi es a m ore select

’

k ind of man, ha v ing t he dist inguishing a tt ri but e t erme d

w isd om Thus while t he ex t ent of t he noun is na rrow ed , i ts
‘

mea ni ng is i ncr ea sed b y t he a dj ect iv e w ise men a re a smal ler

cl ass t ha n men b ut t hey ha v e one att rib ute in addition t o
w hat is common t o men .

A n Adj e ct iv e is d is t ing uis he d fro m a

2 .

no u n b y it s infl e x io n, w hich is for d egree, or w hat

is called C o m p a riso n wise, w iser , w isest ;
’
fertile,
”

mor e fertile, most fertile

In la nguage, w hich a dmit s t he ea sy con ert i ility of the
our v b
p arts of sp eech, nouns a re o t en used t o discha rge t he of ce of f fi
j v
t he a d ect i e as t he gold ri ng These nouns are distinguished
f rom t ru e a d ect i es b y not j v
e ing c omp ared : w e ca nnot sa y b
‘
ld O h d ue gram
’
old, ld t n th t h n t he t r
g g o er , go es e o e r a .
,

j v
ma ti cal a d ect i e d oes not und ergo t he noun inflexion w e do
B y t he sa me crit erion w e ca n
’
not sa y w ise, ( p lu r a l ) w i ses .

j
d ist ing uish a n a d ect i e rom a er used t o li mit a noun as av f v b
br ew house
f f
I t ollows rom the d e nit ion, t hat an a d ect i e ca nnot b e t he fi j v
su bject of a sent ence W e ca nnot say wi se is good
. A w ord
t ha t m erely l imits can ha e no m ea ni ng sta nd in a l one, or wit h
g
v
ou t a W Ol d t o l imit
‘ ‘
S uch ca ses as fou l is a ir
. b la ck is not f
w hit e a re no t e c ep t ions ; t he a d ect i e x ei ng u sed f or t he j v b
cor respo nd ing a st ra ct noun b
Hence w hen a se ntence or clause .

b j v
e i ns w it h a n a d ec t i e w e und e rst a nd t ha t t here is a n i n er
g .
v
sion of t he u sual ord er as g r ea t w as t h e a l l t here o f f ’
.

j v
An a d ect i e cannot q ua li y a ny p a rt of sp eech b ut a noun f .

I t ca nnot b e go erne d b y a p reposit ion v .

C la ss es of Adj ec t iv e s .

3 . I P ro no m ina l Adj e ct iv e s
. These are of
.

fo ur‘ k inds a —
D emonstra tive, I nterr oga tive, R el a t ive,

The na me p ono
r minal Indi ca tes that t hese j
ad ect i v es ( this ,
 P RON OM I N AL ADJ E CTI VE S .

my, &e ) a re all deri ed rom pronouns

.
-
v f
nd eed t hey ha e o t en . I v f
b e en incl uded a mong t he p ronou ns The rea son for p lacing .

j v
t hem a mong a d ect i es is t ha t they r eq ui re a nou n after them,
which t he p roper p ronouns d o not .

4 . l . P ro no m ina l D e m o nst ra t iv e Adj ec

‘ ’ ’
i iv e s the d s uch
’ ’ ’
this , , y on , yon er ,

T his ( pl ural these appl ies t o p ersons a nd things,

a nd means some ob j ec t nea r or close a t hand , or nea rer
‘
t ha n some other com pared ob j ect : this man , some
’
.

’
o ne c lose by this house , t he hou se tha t w e a re in or

near this is m v ow n, my nat i v e land

This w as o rigi nally the orm oined to neu ter nouns
’
f -
j .

‘
t his mea ns t he nea rest — eit her
’
I n a succession of t hings, .

t he l ast sa id , or t he ne t t o b e menti oned x

A ter this sp eech . f
f
re ers t o w ha t ha s ust j
een, or is inst b
going t o b e, d eli ered : v I
w ill p ut this sup p osit ion is what is t o come ne t x .

‘
-

’
T ha t ( plural t hose t o p ersons and ) ap p lies also

things, a nd means somet hi ng at a d ista nce Tha t .

‘
man I S som one not close b y This a nd that a re
’
e . .

correlat iv e or cont ra sti ng w ords ; the one excl ud es or

opp oses the ot her .

That was originally t he neuter orm of the ad ecti e f j v .

W hen t wo p ersons, t hings, 0 1 a ct s ha e be en ment ioned, t he f v

‘
first i n ord er is somet imes reca lled b y tha t , t he second b y t his,
’ ’
'

in imit a t ion of t he La t in p ronou ns i lle a nd hi e Other orms . f .

for t he same p urp ose ar e t he o ne a nd the other ,

’ ’
t he first
’
.

a nd
’
fi
t he second , t he rst named a nd t he last na m ed , t he
’

‘
former a nd t he la t t er
’
S omet imes, as in t he second of t he
.

foll ow ing l ines ,

‘
t hese and those m ea n some a nd ot hers ,‘
, ,
’

b
with merely su ordinate re erence to comp ara t i e pro imity f v x
F t s ma y v a ri ously dis p ose ,
fi
h er
or t une
A nd t hese b e p p y ca lle d u nh a p p y t hose
v b
,

B u t Hea en s j u st a la n ce e q ua l W l ll a p p ear ,
’

W hil e those are p lace d in hope , and these i n ear f .

’

The freq uent ellip sis of t he noun wi th the d emonst rativ e

adj ect i v es gi v es t hem t he chara c t er of d emonst ra t iv e ronouns
p
a fte r tha t, I shal l sa this b eing gra nt ed
‘
y no more These
a dj ect i v es a l so oft e n hel
p t o sa v e t he rep etit ion of t he ma in
'

subj ect , b ei ng oined t o a more e neral nou n

by j
of rep e at i ng t he na me
‘ g T h u s, inst ea d ’
.

Caesar , w e may designate hi m i t hat

’
’

‘
g eneral t hat Roman t hat conq ueror
4
50 m ars or se a s on —
4 11 1s A nrser i vn
.
.

.
v he , a modifica tion
is commonly of
'
ca lled

the D e finite A rticle I t is usually exp lai ned . a onl g

w it h a or an , called t he I nde finit e A rt icle
’ ’
.

Yo u y o n d e r a nd
are chiefly a p plied t o thin s a t
g
‘
some d ista nce : yond er iv y mantled tow er
’
-
.

The orm yond i s now d ropt : yornd star tha t s westward

f ‘
‘ ’ ’
. .

f1 om t he p ole ( Ha mlet)
‘
Comp are t he Gen na n j ener ( that

S uc h is pa rtly d e monst ra tiv e, hav i ng a re fer ence

al so to uality a nd q
ua nt ity S uch il in s uch a n q . m .

at mosp here w as t oo m uch for them .

’

modern form oft he ol d

’
S uch is t he .
-
li c, so
li ke lik e t ha t
Compa re t he Germa n soloh .

5 . T he a d v e r b ia l s u b s t it ut es fo r t he De
mo nst ra t iv e A dj e c t iv e s are t he s ame as for t he
De monst ra tiv e Pronouns ‘ ’ ‘ ’ ‘t hen’ " here ’
so , thus , t ,
‘
a nd t he c omp ound s
(
‘
herein , t herein
’ ’
, hence
t he nce
hit her , thit hei These sub stit ut es ca nnot
, .

b e used w here nominati v es ar e r equired "

Here, there, .

‘ ‘
lies, are eq uiv alent to in t his p lac e , in t ha t p lace
’ ’ ’
.

B v riety and el gance are at tained b y t h employment of

ot h a e e

t hese a dv rbs s d emonst tiv s e The rem rk m d re pe ting

a ra e . a s a e s c
‘
w here wh n s eq uiv l ent s of t he
’ ’
&c
,
e , el t i v n uns
.
,
a a r a e ro o ,

are pp l ic ble t o t h p resent cl ss of w o d s :

’
a a h e1 t e
p int ;
o a r eo 3 e

he ein 13 l ov e ; then was t he t ime

’ ’ ’
there 3 th rub e r

6 . 2 . P ro no m ina l I nt e rroga t iv e A dj e ct iv es
‘w at ‘ ‘ h h r
and comp ounds
’
h
’ ’
,
w hich ,
w et e ,
.

‘
W ha tpp l ie s t o b o t h p erson saa n d th in gs : w ha t
‘ ’ ‘
m an ?
’
w ha t cou ntry ? I see wha t
friends a nd re ad wha t b ook s I p lea se
’
.

‘
W hat ’
w as p ron B y t he 1 3 th ce
original ly a neuter
oun . n
t u1 y i t ha d come t o b e u sed a dj ect 1v ely w ith nouns of all genders
”
.

W hic h is used milarly :

si which m an,
‘
or men ?
‘which w man ‘
w omen ?
’

o ,
or which count ry or count
 P RON OM I NA L A DJE CT I V ES .

‘
li k e i mplied also quality
’
I n its earlier use, which such,

a nd qu ant ity .

‘whether
W he t he r is now disused : case is the
’
b etter ?

7.3 P ro no m ina l
. R e la t iv e Adj e ct iv es
‘ ‘
w hi ch , w hat , and comp ound s
’ ’
.

W hic h a pp lies b oth numb ers

to all gend ers and

w e w ere met b y the lieu tenant, which officer w as

t o show us ov er the ship the arm y refused to m arch,
whi ch circ u mstance disconcert ed all his p la ns
’
.

‘
V a riou s su b stit ut ions are generally pr eferred w e were met
‘
b y t he lieu tenant w ho w a s or,
a n oficer tha t w a s
, t he ,

a rmy 1 efused t o ma rch w hi ch a ci r cu msta nce tha t— a nd this

,
—

disconcei t ed a ll his pla ns

‘wha t friend
W ha t
is u sed in much the same w ay : s

he gained he k ep t ; wha t t ime the floods lift up their

’

v oice y ou ma
y t a k e w ha tever b ook s you choose
’
.

8 4 P ro no m ina l P o s s e ss iv e A dj ect iv es
. .

‘ ‘ ‘ r’ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
my , mine ’
’ ’
’
h hi
’ ’
, ou ,
ours , t y ,
t ne , y ou r ,
‘ ‘ ‘ ’ ‘ ’ ‘ ’ ‘
his , her , hers , its , their , theirs
’ ’ ’ ’

y our s ,
.

These are the p ossess1v es of the P ersonal and Demon

st rat i
v P ronouns
e .

‘ ‘ ‘
The doub le forms my, mine
’ ’
, our, ours , thy, t hine
‘ our u
‘
h r h ers
‘
t h e ir t h e irs
’
h e v distinct u ses
y , y o 1s e , , ,
a .

fi f
The rst orm is used with nou ns l i e any ot her k
‘ ‘
my oob k ‘
y ou r h
,
o u se
’
; th ei r li er t y
’

; t he other orm 13 b °

f
emp l oyed in p r edica t ion, a nd in ot her ca ses w here t he noun d oes
‘ ‘
not immediat ely foll ow 3 as t he oo
’
b k
is mi ne ; t he house is :

‘
v f
,

that is you r op inion, mi ne is ery d iferent

’
not you r s ; In
‘
t he t ransl at ion of t he i le,
‘
Bb
t hine a nd mine are used wit h
‘ ’ ‘
b
no uns eginning w it h a ow el or w it h h : v mine eyes ha e v
seen thy sal ati on ; v’ ‘
mi ne honour , & c
’
A simil a r difference .

‘ ‘
x
e ist s b
et w een
’
none a nd no ; as
’ ‘
Thy ingd om hat h none k
‘ ‘
end at all ; f
riend ha st t hou none ;
’ ’
he ga e no reason ; in v
t ruth, none can b e gi en v
The meanings of t he p ossessive ronouns are so well und er:
st ood a nd so li ttle su ect t o irre bj ty, as to need no sp ecial
'
52" PA R TS -
‘

OF S P EEC H -
THE A ‘

DJE CTI VE
’

. .

II Adj e ct iv e s ty
’

9 . .
. of Q ua nt i .

S ett ing a side t he p ronomm al a d ect i es, w e m ay include all j v

t he o thers und er t he t w o hea ds of q ua nt ity a nd q ua lit y those
‘

o f t he one cl a ss ( ua nt ity) ar e f
q e w in nu m er a nd
p ec ulia r in b
c ha ra ct er ; t he ot her cl ass ( q ualit y) comp ri ses t he grea t ody b
o f a d ect i es j v
The a d e c ti es o f q uant ity are su d i ided as j v b v

“
.

f ol low s

IO 1 A dj e c t iv es of Q ua nt it y in ma ss o r
. .

‘ ’ ‘ ‘
b U Ik mu ch , lit tl e , grea t sm all , som e ,
’ ’ ’
a ny
‘ ‘ ‘ ’ ‘
much w ind ; l ittle light ; g rea t riv ers ; some feeling
’ ’ ’
.

The se a re all ind efinite .

k ind of q u nt ity is l o c lled continu ous q uantit y and

This a a s a ,
'

i s opp osed to b ok n nu mb r d d iscr ete q u nt it y

r Sp e
e ,
e e ,
or a . ac ,

mot ion b ulk a nd m t i l b ing in m ny i nsta nces unb roken

’

, ,
a er a e a ,

w d o n t al w ys
e ppl y n
ou m b e s t o d esig nat e t heir a mount
a a r .

W h n w e d esi e a u y w su ppo e t hese t hings divided i nto

e r cc ra c e s ;

u mbe r t he p
‘
rds
’

p rt s
a nd n ,
a t s ; t n y B ut w here w e ar as e a .

c a nnot d o t hism s i n m nta l q u l i t i s

-
we u se adj cti ves of
a e a e ,
e

d gree a nd p p ly q u l i fying w d s to sp eci fy t he d if

e ,
a f rences a or e
‘
m l l v e y sm l l x ceed ingly small diminut iv e in ig
th us
”
.
,
s a ,
r a ,
e , , s
‘
n i fica nt ; g la rge, som ew ha t la rge, rat her l a rge, consider
rea t ,

a l b
e, a st , h u e
g v i mm e nse, enormous, in nit e ,
‘
m i d dl i ng, fi
v
a era ge , m od era t e, ord ina ry, so er , & c
’
b .

S ome and a ny are a pplied a lso t o num er b .

2 ; A dj e c t iv e s of Q ua nt it y
II . in N umb e r .

U nder this W e hav e v arious k inds '

‘ei ht
D efi nit e N u me r a l A dj e c t iv e s ; as g
‘
a l num b e r ;
ca rd in ) h ’
( e eighth d a
y ( d l
’
d ays t or ina

numb e r) .

The ca r di na l t wo, t hree— d enot e t otals made

numb ers— one,

u p t o t he amou nt of t he nu m er t wo, fiv e, ty & c The b fif . .

b
or d ina l num ers i nd ica t e a ser ies, a nd st at e t he p la ce of a n
v
i nd i id ual in t he series : t he
‘
t h m ar s one o ect a t a
’
fif k bj
ic ert ain r em o e rom the comm encem ent v f ‘ ‘
.

W e may incl ud’e al so t he m u l t ip li er s, g

’
sin l e , d ou l e ,
’
b
f
t w o old ,
’ ‘
tripl e ,
‘
t hree old ,
’ ‘
q ua dru l e , & c ; a nd t he
’
f .

‘
b
c om ina t ion of t he num eral s w it h p art ien a r su ec ts, a s bi bj
'
’
e nnia l ,
‘
q u a d r i la t era l ,
‘
h ep ta ona l
g T hese ha e a l so t he
’ ’

. v
meaning of q u ality .

Am or a , t he I d
n efi ni te Art ic
l,
e is t he num eral :
"J
dj
a ectiv e one w ith a somew hat al tered significa tion.
 . Anqs cr rv s s -
QF Q ua nr rr v;

N o ne; N o , exp resses the or

'

p v a t ion of a nyt hing

ri .

‘N ‘ ‘
m ad e
’
is t he ol d E ngli h up of ne — (
’
one s na n , l an
-
not
"
a nd
‘
no
’
is a short ene d form, l i ke ‘
a f omr an
’

The w ords mu st b e oll owed b y t he sing ular or p l ura l , f .

a cco1 d ing to t he m ea ning A n a ncie nt G1 ee d is b el ie i ng his. k v

r el iO
g i on w oul d h a e sa id t he1 e a re
‘
n o God s v
a Je w t he 1 e is
’
,
‘
no God I n t he u nion wit h p lu 1 al nouns, t he d e1 a t ion of
’
. . .

‘
none, no i s orgot t en f
S o t he com m on e p ression il o onc
.
t
’
x
‘ ’
is, in this regard , t aut ologica l, b eing lit erally not one one .

‘ ‘
more
’
A no t he r is in
’
a n—other a second ,
one ,

add ition to w hatev er numb er has gone b efore .

’
In ol d E nglish, ot her w a s used as a n ordinal where w e now
‘

‘ ’
u se sec ond .

‘
A d el iv ed meaning of a not her 1 mp lies t he sense of differ
ence t ha t 13 a nother ( z a difier ent) qu .

esti on
’
.

B o t h means tw o tak en together, is op p osed t o

‘

and
n an d neither
(
’
the dist rib ut ives fi
ei ther e of t w o) ,
’

( none of t w o ) .

This word , b eing o ften used w ithout the noun, assu mes t he
cha rac t er of a p ronoun .

l2 I nd efi nit e N ume ra l Adj e c t iv e s ; as;

.

"
,

‘
ma ny d ays a ny b ook s a ll men These exp ress
.
,

numb er, b ut not in t he d efinite form of numera tion

: .

M a ny ,
al though p l ural in m eaning, '

ca n be
with ma ny man
’
a singula r noun d ed b y
’
rece
.

p a : a .

Thi s u sage da t es from t he b eginning of the 1 3 th century

' ‘
.

‘ ‘
A ny old E nglish cenig , from a n
’
one
'

‘ ‘
means one , b ut no one in p articular
’
a ny k nife w ill
’
do I t w as early ap pl ied t o p l ural nouns also
. a ny

trees a ny m en , i t m at ters not w hi ch, nor how man

’

y .

‘
f v
A t e1 nega t i e w ord s any rend ers t he e cl usi e sense em x v
‘
w it hou t a y re mai nd er ,
’ ‘ b
pha t ic : n not a ny d ou t T he .

a
‘
ppl ica t 1on’ t o ma ss or b’ulk has een al r ea dy m entioned 1 0) b
a ny m ea t , a nJ w oo l

T he ol d riega t i v e nce
.

‘
nig ( ne ssnig) d isapp a red in t he
’

e
o

teenth cent my
.

‘
one a nd
‘
N
not a ny t a e i t s la ce
.
p
’ ’
k .
54 r u ns or S PE EC H .
—
THE A mnomvs .

-
A n, whi le indicating definitely bne in
a, div idual
a nd no more means no one in
p articul ar Henc e it is .

ca lled the I ndefini te a rt icle .

S o m e ind icat es indiv i dual not p ar ticulari sa i , one

or d enote s an u ncerta in ort ion of a n entire class or

p
'

‘
numb er : S ome enemy has done this giv e him s o
’
ap p les .

‘
S ome mea nings
’
has various
I n strict logic it signi fies .

‘
not none , a cert a in nu mber, b u t how m any not sta t ed some
’
—

a t lea st There is a more p o ula r mea ning w hich i mp lies l ess

.

‘
t han t he w hole, some only
p or
‘
some a t most
‘
S ome men
,
’
.

a re w ise insinuates t ha t t here a re ot her men not w ise Hence .

the a lterna tive signifi cat ion : some b eliev ed a nd some ( ot hers)
believ ed not S ome fift y yea rs ago is a v ery ol d id iom for
’
.

ressi n an a p roxi mat e num b er

g p .

he app lica t ion to mass or b ulk has been already mentioned

‘some m
‘
aome w ood , ischief
’ ’
.

C e rt a in is a s mall selec t numb er Applied in the .

singul a r it means a p articul ar and k now n indiv i d ual .

S e v e ra l, the Distrib utiv eA dj ec tiv e, is also u sed to

:

mean a small numb er w ithout reference to distrib ution

he e ntered w ith severa l foll ow ers severa l of the
al ac e tow ers w ere t op p led to the earth
p
‘
meaning
’
S un a nd div ers, al so originally separat e ,

are now ess freq uent ly us d e to signi fy a sma ll a nd ind e nit e fi

‘
nu mb er
’
: for su nd r y w eight reasons ,
‘
v ari ous :
'

Q ornpa re al so difierent a n for va ri ous ( or

’

fer eni ) reasons .

Fe w is op p osed
‘
to many ‘F ew
few shall
p art

mny m
,
’ ‘ ’
A few is me many
w here a eet .
'
so -
not .

‘
N ot a few is a more emphatic ma ny ; t he d enyi ng an
’
’
of
Op p osite b
eing o ten a st ron er f
orm of t he afii rrha t iv e f . N ot
‘
b
inconsider a le is perhap s a itt le l ess than c onsid era le b
M o st ,
the largest numb en
‘n
’

A ll is op posed ali k e to some

’ ’
one and to .

‘
W ho le , or total , is opposed to part and hence
’

to some 3 .
 R oman
ia ns, I nb s r mw a AN D Drsrn mur rva .

Dist ri b ut ive N ume ra l Adj ect iv es ;

t
IS .

‘ ‘ ‘
as ea ch ma n nei ther w ay The se are each
’
,
‘
e ither
’
neit her
’
sev era l
‘cv er
’
other
’
, , y , .

Ea c h is mployed to denote tw o Or more things

e

tak en sep arately S imeon and Lei ri took ea ch man

‘

his sw ord E a ch is a singula r w ord .

W hen applied t o two , ea ch is opposed t o either a ny one

of t he t w o, as w el l a s t o
’
b
o th , or t he t wo collect i ely v I
v
sol ed t o c om a re t he account s of my t w o
p riend s, a l low ing for f
t he p 1ej ud ice of ea ch, a nd t o orm my j ud ment up on b oth, f
l v
.
.

wi t hout adhering st ri ctly t o ei the r The corr e ati e of ea ch is

’
.

ot her as seen 1n the ellip t ica l e p ression ea r each other s

’
x b
b urd ens

E it he r means any one of tw o things . G iv e me a

p en or a
p enc il ; ei ther w ill serv e my p urpose that
is, a p en w ill serv e, or, in the ab sence 0 1 a n
p ,
e a p e ncil
wi ll ser v e .

f
E ither i s o t en u sed where t he prop er ad ecti e would e j v b
each f
b u t not so o t en now a s ormerly f
The King of srael, . I
a nd Jehosha pha t , King of ud a h , sa t ci thcr ( f J
or ea ch) of t hem on

his t hrone ’
There wa s a huge rep lace a t either ( more p ro
.

’
fi
rly ea ch) end of the ha ll
p e .

N e it he r t w o things ; it means
excl udes each of

not the o ne a nd not the other : Tru th may lie on b oth ‘

sid es, on either sid e, or on nei ther side

S e v e ra l refers to an indefinite numb er, and is

‘
usua l ly j oined to a p l ural n oun : the
y w ent t o their
sever a l homes

E v e ry means each indiv id ual of a w hole coll ect io n ’

‘
se pa ra t ely sta ted or censi dered : gi ve ever y man his
’
d ue .

v
E ery is a comp ound of ever ea eh ; it app eared a out t he -
’
b
b e ginning of t he 1 3 t h cent ury E cep t ing i n such idioma t ic
. x
p h ra ses as e a ch ot her , it mi ht b e a lmost
’

g gen era lly su st i t u t ed b

for each v
E ery is a n emp ha t ic word for all as it seems t o
v
address t he indi id ua l s sep a ra t ely Engla nd e p ects ev ery ma n x
‘ ‘
not ever y one t hat sa it h unt o me
’
t o d o his d ut y E ver y .
-

t hree years is an a dm itt ed idio m .

 g

R H THE ADJE OTI VFL :

.

"
a . P A TS OF S P E E C : —
7 4

‘n ’
Ot he r, opp osed to o e , is the second or alterna
ti v e dual form
of a c oup le— B oth the hills, the one a

held b y t he royal troop s, and the other b y their enemies,

w ere aliv e w ith armed m en
N o ot her has t he more ind efi nit e signifi cation of ‘none
’

be sid es or
’
a nyw here it is t he same as
‘
F oll ow ed by ‘
t han
’

none b ut B y an incid ent al conseq u ence, t he o ther ma y

’
.

p oint out contr a ri ety as on t he one sid e of the river st ood ou r

'

a rm , on t he other , t he enem The mea ning of edd i tion

’
y y . .

c om e s nat urall
y t o at tach to t he w or’d : get as much other
’

k nowl edge as you can The other day is an idiom for la tely
’
.

|4 ‘
'

. III . . A dj ec t iv e s of Q ua lit y ; as a broa d .

p r ud ent man
’ ’
w ay a hea v y w eight ,
a .

These emb ra ce t he g rea t od y of a d ect i es, a nd are co e ten b j v x

'

s1v e w ith huma n k now l ed ge They cou ld b e classi ed onl y b y . fi

f
re erri ng t o t he science s, or dif ferent d ep artment s of now l ed ge k
a s ma t hema t i cs, na tura l hi st ory, mora l s, 85 0 E eryt hi ng t ha t . v
ca n b e p oint ed out as a p rop ert y, p ow er, or a gency, i s l ia le t o b
x
b e e p ressed as a n ad ect iv e, so a s t o q uali y some ob ect
)
'

I n f j .

Roget s Thesa ur u s o W or ds a nd P hr a ses, a cl assi cat ion of f fi

’

k
human nowl edge is gi en a s a asis for t he clas si ca tion of v b fi
words a ccord ing t o t heir meani ng, a nd it will b e ound t hat t he f
wo rds t hus a rra nged are nou ns, a d ect i es, a nd er s a nd t here j v v b
is hardly a ny m ea ning t hat ca nnot a pp ear in all the t hree orm s f .

- The nouns l ea st suit ed t o ecome a d ect i es ar e t he names of

‘
b j v
nat ura l cla sses or inds, as t ree
‘
horse mon ey k e cause k b
bj
t hese o ect s cont ain t oo ma ny ual ities t o b e pr edicate d of any
'

q
b
t hing esid es t hemsel es W e cannot w ell ha e a t hing di ferent v . v f
from a t ree a nd p ossessing all the charact ers of a t ree ; hence
v
When w e d eri e an ad e ct i e rom t ree, as a r orescent w e j v f b
m ean only t he f
orm of a t ree, a nd not al l t he att ri ut es So b .
~

m anly leonine or lionli e mer ely i nd i ca te somep r omi nent k

c ha r acter of a ma n, or of a l ion, and d o not t rans er t he w hole f
b
of t he a tt ri u t es of a ma n or a lion t o somet hing t ha t i s neit her .

j v f
A d ect i es ormed rom t he names ofmet al s, m ineral s, w oods, f
& c , g enerally signi y ma d e fr om these m at eria ls
. f .

j v v
A d ect i es d eri ed from t he na mes of g reat na t ural o ect s, bj
f
o t en mea n only a refer ence t o t hose o ec t s as t he
‘
t he sol ar , bj
b
t he lu na r ta l es — t a l es r esp ecti ng t he sun or moon b .

“
I5 . The class of A dj ecti v es d eriv ed from p rop er
and cal led P ro
p e r A dj e c
‘
t iv e s , a r e p r inc i
‘
‘

a dj e c t iv es
fi

o f q ua lit y ; a s the S ocra tic -

 THE
.
'
A R TIC L ES “ .

Method which means a certa in p eculiar method,

’
,

inv ented or empl oyed b y S ocra tes .

S ome p roper adj ect iv es might b e l ook ed up on as cont rib ut ing

‘ ‘
f
t o orm p roper na mes ; as E ngl ish law F r ench lit erat ure
‘ ’
t he E liz a betha n Age .

T he A rt ic le s .

'

The art icles are ofgrea t v alue in our l

ge They indicat e a ngu a .

t hree dif
ferent f
orm s oft he nou n, ea ch w i t h a se para t e mea ning :
‘a v irt ue v
the irt ue and i rt ue are a ll d ist inct v .

l6 . An or A is called t he I nd e finit e A rt ic le
‘a horse ’
mea ns
horse 111 p a rticula r
no one I t g iv es .

the sp ecies or k ind of thing w anted, and lea v es the

choice of the indiv idual free
’

The indefi nit e articl e is t he u nemphat ic form of t he numeral

‘one a nd has a meaning ofi ts ow n d iffe rent from t he numera l .
,
‘ iv e me a en mea ns i v m bj of t he sp eci es
G p g e e a n o ect p en
‘ i ve me one en la s em ha sis u on one a nd i m l ies that
’

g p y p p , , p
‘
one k
is as ed for, a nd not t w o or t hree A horse, a horse, my .

kingdom for a horse, is any horse, a nyt hing t ha t is a horse

’
.

v
The arti cl e, ha ing a singul ar m ea ning, is a sign of t he singula r
b
num er, and is used w ith a ll sin lar nouns ( p ro i ded t hey a re
u v
su ch as ad mit of t he p lural )
‘
hus w e d o not sa y house . 0 g
‘
b
t a le
‘
st ar b ut a house a ta le ,
’
a star Hence it b
i s u sed w ith general or class names, and not w it h rop er names
M
( Adam, ary) , nor w ith names of mate rial ( air, go d) , nor wit h
b
a st ra ct names ( w isd om, ra er
y) b v
W hen class nouns ha e no . v
pl ural c ha nge ( shee ca nnon) , t he presence or a sence of t he b
a rt icl e is a m ar k
of t e nu m er ( a shee , shee )
p p W hen a is b .

p refix ed t o a p rop er na me ( a Mr row n) , o ne of a class is meant . B .

"
W A is u sed b efore a consonant, a nd b efore h
’

“
.

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘a
sound ed , meal
’ ’ ’
house
’
y , or w a ,
a
yea r , .
‘
A n is u sed b efore
’
a w orl d . a v ow el, and b efore silent .

’
h as a n ounce ,
an hour
M any oft he b est w riters , as M a caul ay ,
use a n before h ( not
silent )
i
b en t he a ccent is on t he second s ll a bl e a n hist ori cal
a rall eF
y
p
b
S ome w or ds eginning w it h a ow el ar e p ronounced a s if t hey v
bega n w ith a consona nt al fly ew e, eu nuch, eulo‘gy, E uropean,
_

f
use ul , & c
‘
. Bf
e ore su ch w ords s me w ri ters u se
o an b ut most
”
’
use a , W ll l ch is p re era le : ‘ ‘ f b
a ewe , a E uropea n
’
 P A TS R OF S P EE C H .
— THE - A JE CT D IV E . ,

T he it ll ed t he A rticle y b eca nse

'

ca De finit e ’

it p oints out one ob ect j

d efinite ly : ‘
the horse " means
so me one horse in p articula r .

‘
w ea k er form than the d emonstrativ e
’
The is a
‘ ’
tha t .

‘
fi
That m t he rst insta nce supposes something actu ally seen
b b ein
g p oin t d u t w h n w i nt ing t o a ca nd le,
y
e o : as e e sa y , p o
) ri n
g me tha t ca ndle
’
W hen w e ca nnot p oint t o a t hing, w e
.

k
may ma r it out b y some d escrip ti on ‘
t ha t ca ndle w hi ch had . .

j ust b een l i t
’
. S uch d escrip t ions w h en ully g i en ha e t he f v v
f j v
orm of t he a d ec t i e cla u se, w i th a rel at i e o frestricti on : v
man w hom ( t hat ) you see As a lighter orm, w e emp loy the
’ ‘
f
a
.

inst ea d of t hat ‘
the c nd le which ( tha t) has u st ee n lit j b
w
the man hom ( tha t) you see
’
A single i ndi i d ual , p erson or
. v
t hing, is p oint ed out b y some circumsta nce t hat app li es t o him
or it, a nd not t o a n ot her

y
.

j v
These ad ecti e c auses of descrip t ion are often shortened, b y
’

v v
lea ing out wha te er is not essent ial t o t he mea ning Thus .

‘
t he man tha t sta nds i n the door wa y , may b e t he man stand i ng
’ ’

‘
i n the door w a y , or st ill shorter, t he m a n i n the d oor wa y , t he
’ ’

‘
v ber sta nd ing
’
b
eing underst ood I n such cases w ha t 18 l e t 18
. f
a n a d er v b p h rase , a nd t his is one of t he m ost re u ent a ecom
q f
p a n i m ent s of t he d e nite a rti cle fi T h e w a y ( tha t lea d s) to the
.

’ ‘ t he t ree befor e the house ;

’ ‘
t he church on the hi ll
’
cast le ; 1

t he w a te r of the r iver
’
The singl e word a d er may al so b e
.
-
v b
u sed
’
t he evening star is t he contract ion for t he st ar tha t ‘ ~

‘
shi nes i n the eveni ng ; 1 t might ha e
’
ee n t he v b
st ar i n the even
i ng
’
or
‘ ’
t he st ar of eveni ng ; b u t usage p re ers t he eveni ng i
‘
f
sta r
'
. f
A ny one of t he orms 1s distinct i e of a par ticular sta r, v ‘

a nd t ha t 18 enough .

f
W hen t he i mp ort a nt act I S gi en in the v er itsel ; the er v b f v b
must b e reta ined , w hat e er else 18 le t out : v rin
g t h f
e cand le B
tha t ha s been l ighted , if made shorter must b e t he lighted ,

ca ndl e
’
The ci rcu mstan ce t ha t d ist mgu ishes t his ca ndle rom f
t he rest is it s b
eing lig ht ed , a nd, t here ore, t he v er
‘
must b e f b
k ep t t o show w ha t indi id ual is p oint ed a t b y v t he
’
The,
t he comi ng ra ce
’
sta nd i ng stones ;
j v
An Ad ect i e, especially m t he superla t i e d egree, may ser e v v
the same end as t he p a rt ic ip le
‘
t he b r oa d w a l -
is s upposed k ’

t o b e so w ell cont ra sted w it h all ot her w al s b y it s rea d t h, t ha t k b

v j v
t o g i e t his ad ect i e i s t o p oint t o one w al e clusi el
y S o, k x v .

t he gr ea t p yra m id , The hea vi est metal is

’ ’
t he b la ck hol e
’
.

t he one meta l p la tinum .

N fi
A ou n ma y b e t he de ning word : t he sa lt la e is a cont ract k s

‘
f k
t ion rom the la e tha t cont a i ns sa lt ; and , if t here is only one
’
 "
ra n nnnmrrn A RTI CL E . 59

such, the art icle is p roperly u sed t o p oint out an individual " .

‘
S o,
‘
t he gra ni te orma t ion ,
’ ‘
f ’
t he A tl a ntic ca le , b t he P i tt
minist ry
’
.

The a rti cl e ma y b e used w it hout a ny spec i

"
fying a cco mp ani
‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
ments
’
the fil e , the hill , the st reet , the general ,
’
the
’

,
as
‘ ‘ ‘
l ion , the m ind , the B a r , the rich The short ening 18 here
’ ’ ’ ’

“ m
.

c a r 1 ied to t he e ry u t V ost ; t he de ning c irc umsta nces a re l eft fi

ou t a l toget her T his is eca use t he p erson a dd resse d
. b now s k
‘ ‘
W e say the fire , inst ea d of the fil e tha t is i n
’
w hat is m ea nt .

t his r oom b
eca use w e are spe a ing t o e p erson in t he room, a nd k
u sing la ngu age t ha t p r ecl ud es a ll ot her res W hen w e sa y fi .

the fire , w e ca n mea n onl y t he fire t ha t is in t he room if

’

we d d i n ot m e a n t ha t , w e sh o u ld h a e t o u se d e fi n i n g w o v
r d s — 4

‘
m e hil l m ea ns som e one
’ ’

g o a nd s t i r th e b ed roo fi re S o , th .

f
hill nea r a nd a miliar ; the street i s t he st reet tha t 18 close b y,
’ .

or w here w e are liv ing at t he t ime, or t hat has een alrea dy b

ment ioned or d e ned fi .

The lion is a short er w ay ofsaying , the species of animal s

’

‘
na med t he lion the al m
’ ’
S o w ith the rose the t at o ,
p
.

a mong p l ant s The French is t he p aop e or na t ion av mg

’
.

m
t hat na me .

‘ ‘ ‘
’
The r ich , the p ow er ul , the great , the
’
f’
isera le , a re
’
b
p h v
ra ses t ha t lea e out t he cla ss name— men 0 1 huma n e i ng s b
as b eing rea dily u nd erst ood, a nd merel y gi e t he na me of the v
selecti o n int end ed , w hich sel ect ion, as eing one a nd d efinit e , b .

v
recei es t he art icl e .

’ ‘ ’ ‘
j ’ ‘ ’ ‘
f
The t rue , the ust , the good , the l aw ul , the ex
p ed ient , m e ot her
’
or m f
s of t he a s tract nouns— t ru t h, b u stice, j
good ness, la w ul ness , e ped iency
‘
f x
They ma y b e consid ered as .

‘
sho1 t ened , f t he things t hat are t rue t he t hings or a ct ions
'

or

of m en, t ha t are ust ,

’
j Only t he essent ia l w ord 18 1 eta ined ;
‘

t he rest ca n b e sup p osed .

‘ ‘
The w it h a comp arat i i e, as i n the more, the ett er , d oe-s
’ ’
b
fi v
r

not show t he ord inary u se of t he d e nit e a rt icl e b ut 18 a surv i al

ofi ts a ncient a la t i e orm in t he stron b v f g
r d e monst r a t i e sense e v
‘ ‘ ‘
Thy ( the) ma , thy ( the) b et is litera lly bJ tha t or
’
of t ha t
’ ’
.

by so much) more, by tha t ( or by so much) e t t er

’

; l i e t he b k
‘ ‘
L at in qu o magis, eo melius ’
They w ill ask the mor e , d ocs
.
’

x
not p roperly e emp li y a transit i e e r w ith a n o ect f v v b '

bj .

S cot t icisms i n the use of the A r ti cles There a re v arious -

S cot t1cisms m connex ion w ith t he art icles —

‘
How much t he
six p ence the p iec e
’ ‘
ound is it ?
( w ha t is i t a p ound ? )
’
p ‘
( a
i h ‘
); ga is chea per ( sugar) ;
’ ’

p ec e t e s u r
g o t o ( the) school sa y
‘
a j ust ice of the
h ‘ ‘
( ) g ace
’
t e r
( ) p ea ce up ( the) st airs he
is st udyin g ( the) B ota ny
’
.

The na mes of diseases ‘

a re rec ognised as
p ro p er nouns : he
60 . P A TS R ,
or _
sr nncn .
— r nn A DJE CTI VE .

‘
h as caught col d
’
, he died o f consu mp t ion, of t yp hus I t is
i mp rop riet t o t rea t t hem as class nouns, an d p refix t he
a rt icle the co d, the e er
—
y fv .

'‘
F
rom T weed t o Ta y is a p oetica l u sa ge for rom the f
l w eed to the Tay N ot w ort h ( a ) si p ence
’
The d ay (t o x .
~

( l a y)
b k b
Who rea s a utt er y u pon a wheel is gi en b y L owth as fl v
an error of t he a rti c le T he mea ning i s d e nit e :
. the w heel
’
fi .

f
To drop t he art icle r om w ord s t ha t it has usu a lly ee n oined b j
t o has a pe rsoni ying e f fect W f
hen w e say societ y inst ea d of
.

‘
the so ciet y w e t rea t soc iety as a p erson S o w it h Go ern . v
ment for the Go ernment
’
v
The America ns sa y Communit y
k
th in s so too

S ub s t it ut e s fo r the A dj ec t iv e
l9 T he A dj e c t iv e
. C lause is t he longest and

ful lest e q uiv alent t o t he A dj ec tiv e ; it is a sent ence

serv ing t o limit a nou n in the sa me manner a s the

“
A dj ect iv e : the w ay tha t he ought to go is the r ight
‘
i n d ea th are fa ta l acci
’
a ccidents tha t result “
’
w ay ;
d ents ; a n a t temp t tha t has no cha nce of su cceed i ng
’

i mp ossib le a t temp t
’
is an .

Th e Adj ect iv e Clause fully ex emplifi ed a fterw ds ( see

i s more ar

AN A L Y S I S OF S E N T E N CE S ) W e ha v e n ow seen t hat it is b y con

.

t rac t in Adj ct iv e C l uses t h t w ob t in t he shot ex p res ions

e a a e a r s

wit h t e Defi nit e Art icle I n t he same w ay we x p l in t he . e a

e x t ensi v e emp loym ent of N ouns as Adj ecti v es a n d the l ss , e

freq uent use of A d v erb s and P r p ositions

. e .

2 0 T he P a rt ic ip ia l P hra s e giv es the same

. .

meaning in a c ondensed form a ccidents r esulting i n

‘
‘
d ea th , troop s hir ed to fight ( mer cena ry) , the k now
’ ’

ledge p ossessed by him ( his) , trib es given to the wor

’
ola tr ous)
ship o f id ols
( i d .

2 L T he P re p o s it io na l P hra s e is a st ill shorter

form, b y an ob v ious ellip sis t he w ar b etween R ussia
a nd Tu rb a nces i n the cola;
)
’
r key ( ‘
R usso T ur kis h di st u -

nies ( colonia l) , the b ook before me ( this) .

N o uns A dj ect iv es ‘a
22 em p loyed ld
‘

. as g o '

d istricts the p olice regula tions

’
cro w n the co tton
 S UBST I T U TE S F OR THE A D JE CT IV E .

‘the B erlin "

Towns Act ;
" "cod
f
o
'

l iver oil
‘ ‘
These are all contracted orms a gold crown f
is a crown
’

‘ ‘
tha t is ma d e of gel a crow n ma d e o f gold a c r ow n of gold ’;
b y re ta ining t he onl y essent ial w ord a nd p ut ting it in t he regula r
.

p os it ion o f t he Ad ect i e, w e say a g old cr ownj v S o, t he

d ist rict s w her e cotton i s gr ow n t he regula tions tha t a r e la id

down by the p oli ce the decrees tha t w er e iss ued fr om B er li n
the Act tha t w as p a ssed for i mp r ov ing the Hea l th of Tow ns
_

oi l tha t is p r e
p a r ed fr om t he li er of t he cod v
F
rom w ha t has b
e en al rea dy sa id as t o t he emp l oyment of t he
fi
De nit e Art i cl e, it w ill b e seen t hat w ord s are o t en l e t out f f
f
t hat are esse nt ial t o t he ull e p ression of t he mea ning, e cau se x b
t he b ea rer can supply t hem rom a nowl edge of t he circum f k
sta nces .

The same noun u sed as an ad ect i e has not always t he same j v

‘
meaning : in gold elds , t he m eaning of gol d i s different ;
’
fi
b eing t he fi
elds w her e gold i s ga ther ed or d u g
. The w ord
house has a different applicat ion in ea ch of t he ollow ing i h f
sta nces— housema id, house t op , house p rop ert y, house t a x, h ou se -

v
sur eyor, house fi
t t ings, h ouse d ra ina ge, house ro ery In bb .

x
e pressing t he mea ning a t ul l in ea ch case , a di erent v er f ff b
w oul d b e necessa ry This, how e er, w e are o t en a le t o
. ess, v f b
from the mea n ings ofthe w ord s themsel es W e see t hat ou se v .

k
t a x is li ely t o mea n a t a x imp osed upon t he ow ners of houses .

I n other cases, t he circumstances or the conte t w il l show what x

is the connect ion int ended .

T he P o s s e s s iv e fo rms of N o u ns a nd
,
23 .

P rono u ns may ser v e the p urpose of the A dj ectiv e :

‘ ‘
God s c ommands are the d i v ine command s
’ ’ ’ ’ "

’ "
mother s care is mother lg or ma ternal care ;
’’

i mage is this
Again the equi al ence t o t he cl ause may b e show nv the
comma nd s tha t God ha s i ssued
‘
such ca re as a other b estows m
a n i mag e tha t rep r esents w hom is t his i
’

24 . Ad v e rb s and P re p o s it io ns may also occa

si onally be e mp loyed for A dj ectiv es . .

This is p ossibl e b y l ea v ing out p art of t he compl et e ex p res

sion T he k ing tha t then r eigned i s mad e t he then k ing
'

‘
The down t ra in i s a shert ened form of t he t rain tha t goes
'

‘
a g es tha t a r e to come after ( the
’
down After ages.

‘ h ab ‘
t e ove d iscourse the discourse that has been gi ven above
( the p oi nt wher e w e now a re)
62 m a rs or S PEEC H .
-
.
THE A D JECTI V E .

o=
o rd ina t ing o r
‘

C P re d ic at e A dj e ct ives
’

25 T he P re d ic a t e oi a
. made
s ent ence is often
u p of a n I nc o m le t e V e r b
.

a nd a n A dj e c t iv e
p
.

‘ ‘
the r ed the w ind beca me _oiolent ,
’
rose is the
‘it is
k ing t urned p a l e ,
’
grow ing cold er she was p r o
no unced b la mel ess

26 . A dj e c t iv e s in t he P re di c a t e are not
restrictiv e, b ut c o- o rd ina t ing They d o not narrow
the class menti oned b ut , ex p ress so me new meaning
tha t ad d s t o w ha t w e k now of it .

a d ect iv
I n the d esi nat ion ‘
fix ed stars the ’
j ‘ fix ’
ed nar
g‘ , e
r ow s t he cl ass
’
st a rs , a nd increases i ts si ni ca t ion, so that fi

“
g
o
‘
bj
t he su ec t d enotes not all sta rs , b ut su ch sta rs as a re
’
ed fix
t his 18 t he usual p urp ose of an ad ecti e oined t o a noun j In v j

“If
.

t he sa ying —
‘
t he fix
e d sta rs are r emote —
t he ad ect i e rem ote j v
f
d oes not ar ther nar row t h e cl ass
’
ed sta rs , b ut fixp redi cat es, or

sa ys, of t he m t ha t t hey a re remote ; t hat t hey el ontg D

t o t he b
‘
remote or dista nt t hi ngs
’
cl ass w e fill i n a supposed ellipsis,
.

w riting t he fix
ed sta rs a r e remot e thi ngs, sta r s, t hen
‘ in
, v
‘remot e ’ is r est ric ti e l imi t in ’

g th gs , stars
‘ ’
b ut not
‘ h
limiti ng t e fix
ed st rs
’

a
.

27 . Adj e c t iv e s p refix ed t o N o uns

M a ny
a re no t re s t r ic t iv e , b ut c o o rd inat ing, o r -

p re d ic a t e A dj e c t iv e s .

This k now n on
can be l y from the sense .

W hen an a dj ectiv e 1s p r fix ed to a p rop er or singula r name

e , it
cannot b e re st rict iv e B r e sol d ie s ex p es s a so
‘ ’
. av r r se

of sol di ers, p oin a d dition t o the q ualit ies of all ot her

ssessin ,
g
t he qu ality of b eing b 1 a v e bi a ve Curt ius ’
sol diers, B ut .

ca nnot rest rict Curt ius : a n indi v idual ca nnot b e rest rict ed .

The meani ng is Cu rtius, w ho w a s b r a ce ; it 13 a short w ay of

’

ment ioning C urtius, a nd of sa ying also t hat Curt ius wa s a b ra v e

ma n .

‘
‘
I t names
’ ’
Gl ori ous Ap ollo is Ap ollo, who is glorious .

Apollo, and adds that he is glorious

'

.
 T HE V E RB .

D efi nit io n .

l The V e rb is t he p a rt of s p eec h co nc e r ne d
‘

in p re d ic a t io n ; that is, in a ffir m ing o r d e ny ing

— in pre senting something t o b e b eli e v ed or di sb elie v ed ,
so met hing that can b e ac ted on There ca n b e no .

sentence w i thout a V erb

‘ M il ton wr ote P aradi se
.

Lost ‘ ‘ the sea is cal m

the sun shines
’

I n af b
fir ma ti on, as has ee n seen, t here must alw ays b e t w o
bj
t hings, a su ect a nd a p redica te The su ect is e p ressed b y
. bj x
a noun or it s e ui al ent t he p redica t e always conta i ns a
q v er v b .

v f
W hene er any w ord ha s t he efect ofp redica t in or a ffirming, it
f
is rom t hat circu mstance a er v b
B ut er s a v e t he fu rt h er
. v b
b fl
grammat ical d istinct ion of eing i n ect ed t o e p ress ariet ie s of x v
b
t i me, p erson, num er , manner of a ct ion, & 0 .
A er pr oper is . v b
f b
t hus d ist inguished rom a w ord el onging t o some other p a rt of
' '

speec h t ha t may b e used in

p redica t io n The a d er a wa y . v b
may b e employed for t he er b ‘
g o v
’

, b u t i t i s not on t ha t
account a t rue g ra mma t ical er v b
we do not say a wa , t hou
y I
a wayest , t hey s wayed

C la s se s of V e rb s .

2 I . . T ra nsit iv e V e r b s — The fire wa rms the

r oom .

‘
Here warm
’
b
is call ed tr a nsi tive, ecause t he a ction p a sses
over t o and a f fects a certain o ect , ‘
bj
t he room This is con
v b
tr asted w it h a other cl ass of er s e emp li ed b y
n x
‘
t he fire fi ’

’ ‘
glows , w here t he a ct ion, gl ow ing i s said not t o p ass a w a y
f rom , b u t t o adhere t o, t he fire I t i s w ith a t ra nsit i e er
. v v b
v bj
t ha t w e ha e a sent ence conta ining su ec t , a ct ion, a nd o ect , bj
in ot her w ords, t he co mpl eti on of t he p redicat e b y a n o ect bj .

v v
Tra nsiti e erb s ar e const ru ed in the p assi e oice W a tt v v
invented t he st eam engine , ‘
the steam engine w as i nvented b y
’
- -

Watt ’
.

R eflexive V er bs are transitiv e v erb s w ith the same

i ndiv id ual as b oth sub j ec t a nd ob j ect la id me d ow n ,
’

‘the co t
n ra di cted themselves , the k ing s p oli cy d e
’ ’
g
’
velop ed itself .
64 m ar s or S P E E C H .
— THE V ERB .

R eci r oca l tV er bs
ransit iv e v erb s used in the
p are
e x p ressmn of mu tu al a c tion a nd ti n f b j ect
‘

: re a c o o su
a nd ob j ec t :
‘
they help ea ch other
here is nothing p eculiar in t he v erb s them sel v es the are
T
ordl na ry t ra nsi tiv e v e rb s
y
; b u t from t he circ um sta nces of t hei r
‘

use t hey sel dom t a k e t he ssiv e form T h ey w ere contra

p a .

di eted b y t hemsel ves is not a u sua l form b ei n q uit e unne

g ,

cessar
y b ut w e mav sa y t hey w ere cont ra d icte d b y t heir ow n
e v i d enc e or such l ik e
’

, T hey help ea ch other is simp ly ellip

-
.

‘ i l t he assiv e
t ical for t hey help each help s ( the) other s)
( a z
p
const ru ct ion is eq ua lly r a re in t hi s case .

3 .
'

II I n
.t ra ns it iv e V e r b s C ome lie sit stand —
, , , ,

sl e ep , w alk r u n sp ea k b ark w onder roan b reat he

, , g , , , , ,

l iv e, die .

v
These gi e a compl ete m eaning w ithout an o ect
‘
bj
‘ ‘
comes ,
’
t hey r u n ,
’ ’
I w ond er , w e shall all d ie
’
.

f ’
fv
l i e s fit ful e er, he sleep s w ell ’
.

b
Op e of t he i nnu mera le w ays of shortening spee ch is t o l ea e v
out t he o bj
ect of a er , a nd e
p r essv b
t he ac t ion g ener a l ly, or x
w it hout refer ring t o a ny o ect i n p articular
‘
bj
Thus t he er . v b
sec
’
v v b
is a t ransiti e er ; it needs an o ect , or something t o bj
b e seen t he c hild sees the ca nd le Yet w e ha e t hi s e p res v x
‘
sion — -
b
The new orn child sees, t he p u p py is lind
’
The -
b .

v b x
'
'

er now e p resses the p ow er of seeing thing s i n general , a nd

‘
not a ny one t hing in p art icul a r men bu ild h ouses
’
S o, , .

‘m en b l
( t ram ) ui d , a nd t ime p u lls d ow n
’

( int ra ns ) lest . B
b e t he a rt t hat ca n i mmor ta lise Keep ( for keep yourself, re
’
.

flexi v e) out of the w ay

I ntr a nsi ti ve V er bs _
i nto Tra nsi ti v es — nt ransi ti e
converted . I v
b
v er s a re v f
ery o t en m od i ed b y a d er ial e p ressions in t he fi v b x
form of p re p osit ion a nd noun as w onder a t his z ea l t hey I
ca me to the r esolu t ion
’ ‘
his riend s st ood by hi m
’
B y an f .

b
a llowa le p rocess, t he p rep osit io ns in such cases ecome a d er s b v b
u nit ed to t he v b
er s , const it u ting t horn c om p ou nd er s, a nd v b
r end e ring t hem t ra nsit i e l i ewi se v k
w hat w a s t he o ect of t he bj
p roposit ion b ei ng now t he o ect of t he
{
er Th bj
us w e ha e v b . . v
t he er sv b ‘
wond er a t ,
’ ‘
c om e t o,
’ ‘
st a nd b y, sp ea to
‘
rid e k ,
’

b
a ou t fi
( t he t own, t he eld s) w hich are o t en t ra nsit i ‘e in t he , f v
ful l est sense, a s t est ed b y t he p a ssi e const ru ct ion :
‘
h1s z eal v
w as w onder ed at
‘
the resolut ion w as come to
’
the ser ant
’
v
was sp oken to
The v bst ermed C usativ
er e a cl ss of Tra nsiti e v er bs
a e ar a v
,

formed from I nt ra nsit ive He s ts 18 he ca uses to i t

‘
. So e s
,
 I N TRAN S ITI VE I N COM P L ETE , ,
E TC .

‘sta fell k d rench, dip , ’

& c , are short w ays of
y lay,
, , raise, soa , .

v ing t he sen e of cause or mak e t o

'

sta nd , lie, f
a ll , rise, suc , k
glink dive & c
s
'
’
.
, ,

S ome i nt ransitiv e verb s are made tr ansit i ve and ca usa t i e v

w ithou t a ny cha nge t he horse w a lks ( int rans ) t he g room .

wa lked t he horse ( t ra ns ) t he w ood fl oa ted ( int ra ns ) t he .

tsrna n floa ted the w ood d ow n t he ri e r ( t ra ns )

ra f v .

Ma ny intra nsitiv e v b t k e a c gnate noun a ft r them

er s a o ‘
e ,

w hich is ra t her a n a er d v b i l mod ifi cat ion t han a t u e obj e t

a s r c a

I ha v e f u ght a g od fight
’
sl e
’
t hey r a n a r a ce, o p th
o ,
e e

k
t ha t nows no w a ing k Yet , in t he p rep osit ional p hra ses
as

b v
a o e, t he noun ca n b e su bj v
ect in t he pa ssi e const ru ct ion a
’
ra ce w a s r un, & c .

4 . III . I nc o mp le t e , A p p o s it io n, o r C o p ula
V e rb s —
B e, b ecome, seem, a p p ea r , grow , w a lk .

‘
The er v b
b e u sual ly need s some w ord t o come a ter it in
’
f
order t o gi e a m ea ning :
‘
he i sv’
m ea ns nothing ( e cept t o x
‘ e is str on
ex p ress si mp le e istence) h e i s lea d er h x g h e is

a t a d ista nce a re sent ences w here t he p red ica t ing er t a es v b k

some a d dit ional w ords— nou n, a d ect i e, or ad er t o gi e a j v v b v
"
-

com l et e sense .

ha t see med the likeness of a k ingly cr ow n t he d ecision

a p pea red to be j ast t he smal l a corn w ill grow a mighty tr ee
He li ved a n ap ostle and died a ma r tyr t he int ransiti e er s v v b
li e
"
v
d ie, app ea r here as incomp let e er s, complete d b y t he
’
v b
a ma rtyr
’
nouns a n a postle,

5 Certa in
. d esignated A uxili v erbs
V erb s, beca use
a re

t hey c ont rib ut e to mak e u p v a riou s form s in t e conj uga t ion o f

t he v erb B e, t he i ncomp l et e or copula v erb b y t e eminence,
’
-
.

is t he chief ; t he ot he rs a re ha v e
’
will sha l .

6 The I mp ersonal V erb s

, are, str ict ly s
p eakin v erbs
d efect iv e in t he p ersons, b eing used only with t he t hir p erson
’
si ngula r ; t hey a re hence called a lso u nip ersona l S uch ar e .

‘ ’ ‘
i t r a i ns, it snows

7 Ot her‘ p art s of
. sp eech are so metimes used as
as Hence; home Up , Guards ,
’

, you id le crea t ures : a nd

m ’
There is in such inst ances ellip sis, or
’
at
‘

e .

omiss ion of t he
‘ ou ns and Adj ec v b N
p roper er go hence
f v
t i v es a re reel y con ert ed into er s, a nd regul arly con uga t ed v b j
as such he ag es a st t he surfdri es the roa d f
 THE A DV E RB .

D efinit io n .

T he Ad v e rb lim it s o r mo d ifie s t he me a n
I .

‘
ing of t he V e r b they
’
she sings bri llia ntly ;
’
ran well .

v b x
The er usually e p resses some action, or a ct i e e ert ion, v x
and, as an acti on m ay b e
p er o f
r med in m a ny w a ys, w ord s a re

need ed to show t his

‘
t he a ct ion na med b y t he er b sing may v ’

f v
b e p er orm ed w it h e ery a riety of e cellence, and und er m a ny v x
circu msta nces ; and inst ea d of empl oying a ddit iona l sentenc es
f
t o sp eci y these mod es, a singl e w ord or p h 1 ase is ta en for t he p ur
’
k
S he sang her e yester d a y for a n hou r wi th gr ea t ap p la u se
p
ose . .

our circ umsta nces a re

g i en as acc o m a n in
p y g or m o di fv
yi ng t he
"
a ct ion one of p la ce, gi en b y t he sing le w ord a d e r v here v b
”
— -

one of ti me b y a singl e w ord est rd ay a nd a not her of t i me

y e
b y a phrase for an hour
’
one of ual it y or ma nner b y a p hrase q
‘
w i th great app lause
’
.

W hen t he a d er
we v b q fi
ual i es t he v er , w e mean t he
say b
act ion e p ressed b x
y t he e v b
r , w hich a ct ion may in ol e ot her v v
w ord s m a ddit ion He bol ly ought his wa y to”t he b a rrrer
. d f - -

boldly
’
q fi
ua li es t he ent ire p redicat e ought his wa y t o t he f
b a rrier .

v b
The a d er is commonl y said t o q uali y, not er s alone, b ut f v b
a lso a dj w tioes a nd other a d ver bs This rs not t r ue g enerally, b ut
.

a ppl ies t o one o f the small est cl asses o f a d er b s, t hose e p ress v x

D R
i ng E G E E b x
The a t t ri ut es e p re sed b y ad ecti es a re u sua lly
.

s j v
b
v aria l e 1 n degree ; a nd t he v aria ti ons a re e p ressed b y a d er s x v b
‘
good , very good
’
so w it h e d e1 hs w isely, v ery w isely v B rrt
’
.

t he most numerous cl ass of a d er s, the cl ass conta ining ninety'

v b
nine out of a hu nd red of t he w hol e— a d er s o f m a nner or v b
q ua lit y, coul d not
‘
ro m t heir n a t u re qfu a li y A d ec t i es a nd f j v
v
A d erb s b
’
A eing d a r kly w ise is pa rt ly a p oet ic
.
gure, a nd fi
p a rt ly ex npli fies t he p ra ct ice o f u sinog a d er s of q ua lit y t o
r‘
v b
x
e p ress d eg ree, through som e a ccid ent in t heir mea ning t ha t
sugg ests ua nt ity q ‘ ‘
Thu s scarcely , e ceed ingly
.
’
c on ou nd x f
’
edly , are i n t he fi
rst i nst a nce a d v er s of q ualit y or ma nner, b u t b
t hey a re ad op t ed t o ser e for d egree v .

W hen a n ad verb seems to q ua l ify a p r ep osz ti on, it r ea lly q u al i

fies a n a d ve b r
‘
ial phrase : gr ca tty a ove his reach , b ’
much efore b
the ti me
’
.
 '

AD E V RB S ,
SI MPLE AN D RE LATI VE .

An ad v er b ma y qualify a noun b ut the nouns so ,

ver bs or v rb l nouns :
e aI shall st u dy
,
‘ ‘
ma y i nstriwt he w a s fu lly master b f
’
onl y
’
t ion , for tha t I
. t he su ect , bjhe ‘
fully ma ster ed ‘ ’
An only son is a n only
.
»

begotten son B y suc h a re iat ions a d er s a re at la st ta en bb v v b k

for a d ecti es j v
The hou se her e is t he house tha t i s here
.

N a oleon,
p ( w ho w a s) la tely E m eror of t he
p r ench
’
T h is is F .

‘
less i rregular t ha n t he la te E mp eror th e a ct of t ime is more f
ro e rl
p p y st a t ed b y a n a d er : m y for mer t ea c her i s a t v b
rans

forma t ion of he t hat former ly t au ht me

g

C la sse s of Ad v e rb s .

2 B efore classifying a dv e b s a ccording t o t heir signifi cat ion r

( as p l e t im Se it is p op er t o a d v ert t o a n import a nt dis

‘

ac ,
e, e . r

t inct i n ru nning t hrough all t hese cl asses

o Most adv erb s con .

‘”
t in t heir me ni ng w i thin t h m sel v s and a e t h r fore called
a a e e ,
r e e

si mp le; t hey m ight a l so b e called a b solu t or not ional ; such e,

a re now h re g a t ly d elight fully

e A small numb er
re

h v e no me ning in t h msel v es b ut refer t o s me a dj ini ng

a . a e ,
o o

t he m ea ning
’ ’
cl a use for as, w hen, while, w here
" " ‘
‘
1v het her
’
w hence , w hy
‘
w here er
’ ‘ ’
as ,
’
than , & c v .

v b
These are t o t he ot her a d er s w ha t t he p ro nou n is t o t he nou n,
a nd hence t hey a re ct d r ela ti ve a d er s t hey a re also connec v b
v
t i e or co n j u ncti v e a d er s, ein
g i n a ct c ov b
mm o nl y re c b
oned f k
a mon
g j
con unct ions .
‘
He ca me w hi le is not int el ligi le b t he
sense is susp end ed t ill so me ot her cla u se 1s su pl ied
p He . ca m e
w hile I w as sp ea ki ng ; now n ot w hence you a r e
’
Ik ’

M
ost oft his class a re o v iou s d er i a ti es of t he rela t i e b
‘
wh v v v o
'

( or its root) ; and w e ha e seen that t hey ar e su stit utes for t hev b
v
relat i e p ronouns .
4

k
Ta ing simp le and rela ti e ad er s t ogether, w e may classi y v v b f .

t hem t hus

‘her ‘there
I A d v e rb s of P la c e ; ,
’ ’
3 . . as e ,
‘w ithou ‘ ’ ‘ ’ ‘a ’ ‘ ’
&c
’
t , ab ov e , near , p a rt ,
together , .

This includes the following regularly formed p ronomina

l
roup
g

Here Hence
There Thit her Thence
W here W hither W hence
Alec the mpounds, ‘hitherw ard ’
thitherward
‘ ’ ‘
whither
:
co , ,

war 1
 P AR TS OF S P E EC H .
— THE ADV E B . R

4 1 Re st in ‘ ‘h ‘
p la c e w here
’ ’ ’
a :here , t ere , ,
by near y ond er a b ov e b elow
Here ,
i n this p lace, thi s
p l ac e opp o sed t o th ere i n tha t,
or some ot her v b
p ce a n a d e r ial su b st it ut e for t he d emonst ra
l a

v
t i e t his I t ha s met a phori ca l e t ensions t o other su ect s x bj
her e l ies the dif ference
There, in its p ri mitive mea ning is b y its cont rast, e x pl a ined
t o here The t w o a re cou pled t oge t her in a ri ous idioms a s v
neit her her e nor ther e ( 110 ma t t er) ,
‘
her e a p la in, ther e a ri er v
There ha s a ery peculia r u se v W e emp loy it t o egin . b
sentences w it hout a n f
y spe c ia l re erence to the i dea of pl a ce, a nd
v
hence d eri e one o fou r rrliomat ic or ms of synta f
Ther e w a s x .

once a
good
’ ‘
k
ing ; ther e was not t ree to b e seen
‘
ther e
came a v
oice ro m hea enf ’
v
O ut 0 the d e nit e signi ca t ion
. fi fi
‘
in t ha t p l ac e has sp rung a n e p ression of m ere e iste nce
’
x It x .

is not dif ficu lt t o a ccount for t he tr ansit ion To b e a le t o sa y . b

t hat a t hing is in a certa in p la ce is t o g i e a n emp ha t ic a ssu rance v
x
t hat it e ists ; a nd hence t he loc alising sta t em ent has e come b
t he st at em ent of e iste nce x
nst ea d of saying . I
a roa d i s , or
’

‘
x ’
e ists , w e sa y
‘
ther e is a road T his id iom is ound ery
’
. f v
v
con enient , b ut is a t t o b e a u se d a nd t he e cessi e use of it
p b ,
x v
should b e a oided v T hus, inst ea d of such circu mlocut ions a s
.

the re is a sense in w hich t ha t is t rue t here is a p la n b y w hich

you might d o i t , w e mig ht w it h more elega nc e, e ca use more b
’

‘
b riefly, sa y in one se nse t ha t is t rue one
p l a n w ould b e

f
The ollow ing sent ence is a n e a m p le oft he e ect of t he orm x ff f
q
in uest ion J
One a ct a m es ind uced t he m t o p a ss whic h w ould
v b b
ha e een most honoura le t o him a nd t hem, if ther e w er e not
b
a unda nt p roo s t hat f
it w as mea nt to b e a d ea d l et ter
(M l
a cau a
y )
W here is one int errogati e w ords
of our I n orm it is a n v . f
v b
a d er , l i e
‘
k
h ere a nd t here in use it is al so a purely con ~

v v f
h ect i e w ord, ser ing t he unct ion ofa r ela t i e or o f a conj unc v
t ion .
‘
f
S he l e t t he p la ce w here she w as so ha py
’
Ha ing . v
t he original mea ning of p la ce, it has a cq u ired t e sa m e m eta
p x
hori ca l e tensions a s t hose t w o ot her w ord s W her e ignora nce .

1s b ’
f
liss, t is olly t o b e w ise B y a n ell ipsis easy t o e p la in w e
.
’
x
find it em loyed a s if it w ere a su sta nt i e He ha d no where b v
t o lay his h
ea d for he ha d no p la ce w here he might lay his
head v
W e ha e t he compound p hrase somewhere li e k
‘o
s mehow nohow &c .

N ear , b y , a re t he a d er s of nea m ess or p ro imity v b x

‘ by comes a horsema n
'

there w as no one by he stood by

‘
B y show s its dif ‘
f
fe rence rom here ( in t his spot) , in t he
p hrase put b y w hich mea ns pu t a w ay or remo e v .
 a nv nnns or PL A CE AN D T I ME . 69
’

finder this head w e class t he ad verb s of nu merica l order

‘ fi rst secondly lastly
’
first ly or .

‘hi her ‘
l
’
52 M o t io n t o
. . a p a c e : t , thither
‘w hither ’ .

Hit her , t hi t her, lik ewise a n opposed a nd mut ually

are
‘
explaining coupl e :
‘ ’
to this p la ce , to tha t p la ce ;
’ ‘
come
‘
where I a m , thither ye ca nnot come
’
hither go thither
,
‘
W
hit her is t o wha t plac e it as an interrogat iv e
which p lace as a rela t i e v .

‘ ’ ‘
6 . 3 . M o t io n fro m a p la ce : hence , thence
‘w hence ’

Hence t hence whence ; from this place from tha t

, ,
‘ ’

,
‘

p l a ce f r m w ha t or w hich pla ce
o H ence i s ex t nd ed t o
’
e

a w eek hence lso t o re son or ca u se a s hence ( from

‘
t ime ,
a a ,

t his cause) it is li k w ise from t hi source or origin : all ot her

e s

faces bo r wed h nce t heir l ig ht t heir g ra c

r o e The ex t ensi n t o ,
e o

t ime hard ly t ak es pl c w it h t hence

’
nd w hence b ut t hese
a e a
‘
share in t he ex te nsions t o reason or ca use : t he facts are
mit ted, w hence w e conclude t hat t he p ri ncip l e is t rue
’
ad .

F rom whence seems a tautology, or superfl uity of exp ression,

‘ ’

b ut we find it in good use : Who a rt t hou, courteous

a nd fr o mwhence ?
’
stranger,

S ep a ra tion in pla ce is e p ressed b y apa rt x

separately
‘a sund er ’ .

Conj uncti on is e pressed b y together x

P lace, in a v
ariety of rela t i e p ositions, is i ndicated b y v
b v
a o e al o t el ow f
under b
d own eyond b
‘ onder ’ ‘aw a ’
t hrough ,
‘ ’
in , ‘ ‘ ‘
without ,
’

y , y out in
‘
w ards ,
’ ‘
insid e ,
’
around ,
’
fr o , ‘
or th
’ ’
f .

The cornp ounds w i th t he single a d er s of p lace are e ceed v b x

ingly numerous, and many of t hem p as s into other classes, and
v
e en into ot her a rt s of s eech b m t h i l l i t ion
p
p
y e a p or ca a
pp c a

b
here y, herein, ereup on, t her ea out s, t herea ter , t here ore, b f f
f
t hereo , t hereon, whereas, where y, where ore, whereo , a ny b f f
where, elsewhere, somewhere, w heresoe er, St e v .

‘ev er ‘lat el
7 II . . Ad v e rb s of T ime ; as
, ,
»
’
y
’
,
‘
often Time may b e p resent, p
’ ’
, b efore ,
85 0 . ast , or

future .

1 T ime p res ent . Under this w e include .

'

the following : ‘ ’ ‘ ’
to day , instantly , -
70 . m a rs or sea s on — ra n A DVERB .

‘still ‘
’
,
forthw ith henceforth ; together w ith
’
,
’
s chu
‘
h
’
p rases as this inst ant , & c .

Closel y allied t o t his cl ass are t hose a d er s t hat connect one v b ‘

‘ ‘
thing wi t h another i n p oint of t ime, such as w hi le , w hen 3,
’

‘t hen ’ ‘
immed ia t ely
’ ’

,
as , .

The word now is t he main or t ypical ad er ofpresent t ime, v b

from w hi ch s nifiea t ion it s ot her u ses are d eri ed v .

I
mmedi at e y is u sed b y t he S cot ch, w hen t he E ngl ish u se
fip resently ‘
I
will come p r esent ly is t he cu rr ent E nglish
'

e x ression f wi ll l ose no t im e ,
’
I
wi ll c ome w it hout I
lh
or
‘
d e ay The st rict use of i mmedia t ely is t o ma e one e ent
’
k v
‘
follow cl ose on a nother in a narrat i e v
and i mmed ia tely set out
he heard the news,
”
T i rne ‘her t of r
'

9 . 2 .
p a s t b efore e o e
‘ ‘ ’ ‘ ‘
hithert o
’ ’ ’
al rea d lately once este rd a y
, y , , y .

The meaning of once is so me former time not signifi ed ’

.

‘ ‘
IO 3 T im e fut u re
’
. . here after ,
: a fter wa rds
‘soon ’ ‘
henc eforth
’ ‘
resent l
’ ‘i mm d i l
’ ‘
, , p y , e a te y , t o
morrow no more
’
.

I t will b e seen t hat some of t hese ( soon p resently, immedi ,

a t ely, henceforth) hav e been enu merat ed u nd er resent

t ime The ex p res s an acti on j ust a bout t o commence a n t here

h
.

fore, thoug st rictl y fut ure, t hey are yet also p ract ically p resent
,

‘ev er
II . 4 . D ura t io n a nd Re p e t it io n
’
,
‘ne ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
seldom ,
’ ’ ’ ’
al w ays of
’ ’
v er , ,
aye ; rarely
ten , ,

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
freq
’ ’ ’
occasionally ,
uently , cont inually , c ontinu
’ ‘ ‘ ’ ‘ ’ ‘ ’
onely incessantly er etuall a a in
’
p p y , once g , ,
‘t w i e ’
c
’ ‘ ’ ‘
d aily , monthl y , annually eriodi cally
’
, p .

E v er 1s the foremost ofthe class ex pressiv e of durat ion I ts

mea ning is at all t imes or t hrough all t ime ; and ow1ng t o
‘ ’ ’

t he g reat force or imp ressiv eness ob tai ned t hrough t his ex t ensi v e
,

signifi cat ion we find it emp l oyed as a w ord of empha sis

‘
if he
“ ,

offer ev er so much mea ning an i ndefi nit ely l arge qua nt ity
’
.
,

B y analogy w e ex t end t he fi ure st ill fart her and say ec er s o

‘

gh t his somewg
,

al t hou a t bord ers on a cont ra dict ion of

’
lit tl e ,
‘e ‘
t he original meaning a s al so d oes v er the l ess for one w hit
‘
t he less The same reason e plains t he a pp licat ions of ne er
' ’
x v
x
A s it e cludes all time, it is a term of st ron deni al , and is
e m
pl oyed for’ mere purposes of emphasis e answered him .

never a word .
 Anvnnss or T IM E
‘

AN D DE GR E E .

A gainmea ns
‘ ‘
"
originally back op posit e on t he co n
‘ ‘
t he o t he r ha nd , a nd henc e a second t ime , b ut
’ ’
t ra ry on

fi
is not c on ned to t his a p p l icat ion I t se rv es as a c on unct i e .
‘

j v
v b j
a d e r , or c on unc t ion i nt ro d uc ing a ne w se nte nc e o r p a ra g ra ph,
w it h t he signi ca t ion once more or fiirr ad d it ion B y t he
p hras e once a nd a g a i n req uent re pe ti t ion is d e noted f .

‘
12 . III . D e g ree , or M ea s u re as much
’ ‘ ’ ‘ ’
v ery ,
fa r ,
ex ceed ing ly .

T hese re er f b
t o t he a t t ri u te o f uan tity, which has ee n se en q b
a bo v e t o b e est imat ed in t w o wa s, na me ly, b
y y num ers, a nd b y b
i nd fi nite wo
e rd s .

F or a sca le o f i nterwi ty beginning a t t he le ast, w e ha ve ve y r

inconsid r b ly
‘
l it t le l ittle sl ight l y s ca rcel y e a
‘
p re tt y m od era t ely en oug h suf cie nt ly m u ch , fi ’

v
ery mu ch g rea tly e ce ed i n ly
g ut terly t horoughly x ’

‘
g e n era lly u ni e rsa ll
y t erri ly Gay vin the sense of b
ve ry is a S co tt icism .

G n ll y h t w v y difi n
‘
e era
’
ni ng w h i h
as o l i bl t
er i n
'

ere ca s c a re a e o o cca s o
a m b ig i t y I n th
u n . n it i p li f th m t p t
e o e se in t h se es
‘
or e os ar
’
, or e
‘
m j it y f i n t n
a or o th pl n g n
s a l ly ce s d d as d d in e a e era su cc ee e o r su cce e e
n mb it m n
.

th g e t r ea e r ft i l I n th
u th n
er o g n
r a s l e o er se se ea s a e er a or

tt ib t
.

g n e li d f t
e ra se acm th i ng mm n t
or a wh l
r la
u e , so e co o o a o e c ss as

lly h v
.

A ni m l g n a s n e era y t m it i g n
a l p p ty f
e a erv o u s s s e or , s a e era ro er o

a ni m l Th
a s fi t i th m t e u l m rsni ng th s nd i e b tt os us a ea e seco s e er
xp
.
,

e d b y th p h
resse in g n r l e ra se e e a

Defec t T he follo wing may b e consi d red as e x pressing q ua n

. e

t it y under t he form o f de f t or d fi ien y l most nea rly ec e c c a

‘ ‘ ‘
l it t le l ess lea st ha rdly b ut p a rt l
y w el l nigh -

‘
’ ’
v b
I artly is a n a d e r of di visi on : p a rt ly his, p a r tly yours
E xcess is i mpl i ed b y v ery
’
far , e ceedi ngly more x
m ost b et ter b est w orst
E q a a li ty, or sufi ci c ncy
t
eno ugh
'

su f fic ie nt ly e ually q
x
e a c t ly p er ect l y t r ul y u s t f j
‘
A ba tement, or g ra d a ti on ha rd ly p ie cem ea g ra d ua ll y
"
R ep et ition ( imp lies num e r) se ld om o t en r eq uent ly , b f f
once t w ice t hrice a ga in once more I n t he sense
‘
ofa dd it ion :
‘ ’
a lso , li ew ise esid es t oo k b
IS . There are ce rt ain imp o rt a nt a d v e rb s of
‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ W it h
C o m p a riso n s o as tha n the a nd ’
,
’

,
’
,
’

,
too
’
.

‘ ‘ ‘
t hese may b e j oined enough on ly
’
a nd
’
i ciently
’
sufi , ,
.

S o, i n it s or igi n a l e t ymol ogy,

3i s a d emonstr a ti ve
p r onou n .
,

mea ning b y tha t W e ha e seen that it is st ill e mp loyed i n v

t his charact er I t thence b eca me a n ad verb of co m /ri sen
'

.
p s
72 PA RTS or S P E E CH — THE A DVE RB .

‘
it k
w as so d ar , tha t w e could see not hing I t w as d ark
'

by
tha t, t o tha t mea su re, namely, t ha t w e could not see
’
To .

m ak e t he co mparison so me , second c l a use or st a tem ent is

req uisite . S om et imes it is used w i t h a m a rk ed emp hasis

So f r ow n ed t h e m ig ht y co m b a ta n ts, th a t h ell
G re w d a r k er at t h ei r f wn ro .
’

I n colloq u ial la ng uage , w e c often lea v e t he omp a ri son nu

su p pl ie d, a nd t hen t he w ord is a mere ex pression of i ntensi ty
v
t he iew is so fine
‘
f
The a p plica tion t o signi y ca use a nd efl ect is in con ormity f
‘
with t he origi nal meaning he ran w ith a ll his might, a nd so
‘
w a s first ; w hich is t o sa y, t hat ru nning i n tha t ma nner , he
’

b eca me hi s t
’
; t he rela t ion of ca use and ef fect eing i n erred b f
f q
rom t he se uence o f st a t ement .

A s, mologically, is a
ety c ontracti on of
I n su sta nce all -ao b
i t is t he same w ord a s so and a d mits of t he sa me interp ret a
t ion . I t al so reta ins a p r onomi na l app lica tion in the r el a t i e v
‘
b
com ina t ion such a s and p erha p s in the const ruct ions
‘
as
‘

f ’
ol low s ,
‘
as regards The ad ver bia l signi cat ion as b ra v e fi '

a s a l ion may b e ex lained b v

ra e by tha t ( or i n tha t d egr ee) by
w hich ( or i n w hich cyree) a li on is ra e B y an ad mit t c d
. b v
‘
el li sis, w e ma
p y sa y ra e a s a lion b v
A s fa r a s w e ca n see
‘
v
"
’
as t wo is t o one, so i s t w el e to six ; t w o is t o one by t ha t,

v
t wel e is t o six by tha t Men are more ha pp y, a s t hey a re l ess
. .

v v
i n ol ed in afa irs f
more ( t he more) com lete s t he compa rison
p
.

‘
As p asses int o more remot e mea ning s w en u sed as a conj unc
t ion .Thus it m eans ti me he t rem led a s he sp o e r ea son b k
‘ ’
as ( f or si nce) y ou are of that op inion I n com ina t ion w it h b
v fi
if , t he compa rat i e signi cat ion is still a p arent ; as if w e
p
d id not now that k There is simply an elli p sis .

Than ( formerly then

’

) follows comp ara ti v es .

‘
He is ‘
st ronger tha n you
’
is, in full ,
‘
he is st ron er
g ; then ( z next,
in alow er d egr ee) strong a re you
The ( O E thy, ab l ofd emonst r adj ) preced es comparati es
. . . . . v .

‘
The more, the et ter b
tha t m ore, by tha t et ter ,
‘
ett er b ’
b
i n tha t degr ee i n w his h m ore Comp are as
T oo is l ik ewise a n a d v erb ofcompari son occasionally empl oyed
b
in t he a solut e sense I t s t erseness is ully ap p recia ted in tra ns
. f
l a ting i nt o other l ang uages, as t he L at in He is too old t o .

lea rn i s a hap py a re ia t ion of bb v

he is so old that he is u na l e b
t o l ea rn W hen t he phra se e p ressing the comp arison is sup x
p ressed, w e m u st und erstand t he w ord in t he sense of mor e t han
enough, t han w hat is u st , r ight , con enient ,j tt ing, or d esira l e v fi b ’
.

0 11 l t ha t t his too t oo soli d flesh w ou ld melt,

v f
,

Tha w,
’
a nd resol e it sel into a d ew .
 mr v 73 ‘
a nvs mas or CO MPAR I S ON AN D csa ra .

Enough suf ficient ly are also u sed in a simil ar w ay

a nd

1 a m old enough t o ma nage my ow n a f fa irs t he irrita t ion is

The longer form s w ou ld b e
’
sufici ntl y gr eat t o l ea d t o w ar
e .

1 a m t ha t I a m ab le t o ma nage my own a f
so ol d fa irs t he
irrita t ion is so grea t t hat it may l ea d t o w a r
The condensat ion may b e carried ev en t o t he omission of t he
w ord of comp arison, t he force of w hich, how ev er, is felt t o b e
i mpl ied He is not a man t o p ut con dence in he ha d not fi
t he p rudence t o concea l his a nger The longer forms w ould
b e : he is not so honoura b le ( t rustw ort hy, good, a b l e, & c ) a .

man t hat one ca n p ut con dence in him

’
fi
he w as not so
ru d en t as t o conceal his a nger t hat he c oncealed his a nger
p
-

The import a nt word onl y , with t he synonymes sol ely

merely a lone m ight b e i ncluded und er t he p resent head .

The general mea ning of only is t his one thing b y i tsel f t o

t he exclusion of ot her t hings .

I4B e lief a nd Dis b e lief, or

. IV . C e rt a int y
‘ ‘ ‘
a nd Unc e rt a int y ; as t ruly , surely ,
’
cer ta inly
’

‘ ’ ‘ ’ ‘
nay not erha s p ossib ly
, p p ,

T his b eing a dist inct ion of great and l ea ding importa nce, t he
words t hat indica te t he d egrees of cert a inty a nd uncert aint y are
a mark ed class, a lt hough not v ery numerous .

F or t he expression of beli ef or certa i nty W e hav e certa inly ,

surely assu redly t ruly v eri l

y un d ou b t ed ly
‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
exac t ly p osit iv ely p reci‘sely ind eed es yea
‘
w ith a v a riet y of p hrases, as of cou rse b y al means , in ,

‘
t ru th ev en so , j ust so most assuredly b y all manner
’

w ithout fail , W ithout excep

‘
ofmea ns
’
on ev ery g rou nd
t ion b eyond all doub t b eyond t he p ossib ility of qu est ion
to b e sure
F or the expression of d i sbelief, we hav e princip ally the great

“
‘
p ar t i cle of n ega t ion, not or no a nd
p hra ses d eriv ing
‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
t heir nega t iv e force from it :
’ ’ ’
no , not , nay not so ,
‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
b y no means , b y no ma nu al of
’
not at all , no w ise
’

‘ ‘
mea ns on no a ccount in no respect , ’
not in t he l east
The w ord s yea, y ea , a y, no, are ca ll ed ad v erb s , an d seem t o ha v e a h
*

ad ver b ia l force b ut , as Mr C P M
aso n re mar k s , th ey are n ev er u sed t o
q j
. . .

u ali fy v erb s , ad ec t iv es , or oth er ad v erb s, a nd t h er efor e a

p pea r scarcely
en t i t l ed t o t h e a
pell a t i on H e p rop os es t o call t h em int rj ec t i ons
. b ut e

t his t oo seem s o Ject ionab l e, as t h ey a r e not ou t b ursts of e mot ion, li k e

‘alas ’
l hu rrah
’
"
a nd t h e li k e They are ra t h er a sp ecies of r ela t i v e
.

w or d s, w hi ch e x p r ess a s
’
k er s asse nt or d enia l t o a p art i cular s ta te
h?
'

ment , not b y r ep ea t i ng 13 sta te m ent , b u t b y r eferr ing t o i t as ha v m g

just b ee n enou nced M
a ny of th e w or d s in t h e a b o v e list, ma y b e
.

d et a ched in t h e sa me w a y from t he se nt ence t ha t t he y q ualify : for

e xa mp le cer ta i nly ,
’ ’
su rely ind eed , £50 The ad v er b then st and s .

alone b y an ob v ious elli sis

-

p .
 “
P ARTS or seas on —
r an AD VE RB .

nt n
l

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
hot a
’
whit b it ,
o ot a j ot
a forsooth ( an ironical
p h r ase i n modern E nglish, b ut used a t seriously, for one t ime
v erily
F or p r oba bi li ty, conti ngency, or u ncerta i nty, w e ha v e p erha ps,
’

p rob a b ly , p oss
’
i b ly m a yb e ha
p ly
’

, mayhap li ely,
’
k
ercha nce era d v ent ure h owb eit
p p

I5 V C a use
. a nd E ffe c t ; as
‘therefore ’
. ,
‘w ’
W hy
’
herefore , , W hence hence thus a nd

nu merous phrases .

Under t his hea d we may include i nstr umenta l ity, w hich

.
”
,

mea ning, howev er although ab unda ntly e xpressed b y

,

a nd cla u ses, is seldom gi ven b y a ny sin le word

g .

‘ill ’
l6 . VI . Ma nne r , or ua lit y ; as
‘
w ell
’
, ,

b ra vely uic kly remarkab ly

’
w isely sof q ,

rightly

As w ith adj ectiv es, this is the cl ass t hat includ es the grea t
b ody of a d verb s Of t he fiv e p re v ious classes it is possib le
.

t o gi v e a n exha ust iv e enumera t ion, b ut a d v e rb s of q ualit y '

ma k e a l a rge pa rt of t he v oca b ula ry of t he l a nguage The .

mode or ma nner of d oing a n a ction may b e v ery v a rious, a s w e

may see o n a lit t le refl ect ion S up pose t he su bj ect is p ut t ing .

somet hing in motion ; we ma y mov e q uick ly, ste ad ily, v iolent ly,
sud denly, ab ru t ly, hur riedly, straig ht, z igza g, st rongl y,
right ly, b ea ut i fu ly, u nexp ect edly, a nd so on A nd ev ery k ind .

of ac t ion t ha t it is p ossib le t o ment ion has v a riet i es of ma nne r

‘
Thus t o spea k ,
‘ ’ ‘ ’
enl ie r t o itsel f t o sing , to ea t
l
.

‘
t o w ork , t o gov ern , t o die , hav e al l t heir spec ia l
‘ ‘
,

’ ’ ’ ’
ok ,

modes, excl usi ve of t he a t t rib ut es of time, p lace, a nd deg ree ,

a b ove enumera ted ; and the w ord, or phrase, or cla use, exp res
siv e of t ha t m od e, i s c ons id ered i n g ra mma r a s a n a d v erb He .

spok e l ong, cl ea r ly, to the p u rp ose

f
He look ed ha r d , wi t h .
’

an xiety, as if he were i n ea rnest

’ ‘
H e gov erned wisely, w ith .

d iscr etion, so as to ga i n esteem

’ ‘
He die d ea si ly, w ithou t .

A w ord, or comb ina ti on

’
sufier i ng, as one w ou ld ha v e p red icted .

‘ ’
o f w ord s, a nsw ering t o t he i nt errogati v e how is a n a d v erb ,

of m a nner, as replying t o a n i nq uiry int o t he sp ecia l mod e

‘
or c ircu msta nces of a n a ct ion I f w e say the sun shi nes ,
’
.

a ny onema y d ema nd a more sp ecific a ccou nt of t his f

-
act , w hich

is k now n t o t ak e p l ace in a v a riety of ways, a nd t he w ord s

emp l oyed t o g iv e such mor e sp eci c informa t ion are ad v erb s or fi
t he eq uiv ale nts of a d v erb s :
‘
t he sun shines brightl y, or w ith
i ntermission, or so as to light W the la ndscap e, or as if we were
‘
 oF CAU S E MA N NIiR
’
. '

ADV ER B S AN D .

'

i n the tr opics The name for the sp ecifying a tt rib ut e of a nou n

'

c orr esp ond s t o j

t he a d ect iv e in g1 ammar ; t he sp ot ify111g
a t t ri b ut es of t he v er b a re
gi v en b y t he a d v erb N ow , from t he
ea t v a riet o f w a s n d? i u m s t a nces of t he e f m nc e of
g 1 y y a c r c
p r or a

a l fione, a d v erb s, a nd a d v erb ia l

p hras< s a nd cl a u ses li e a d ec
j , k
q
t i r es a nd t heir e uiv alents, are necessa l i ly innum era b le .

I7 . A d v e rb s of Ma nne r a re oft e n us e d to
‘ ‘ ‘
e x p re ss De g re e :
’ ’
seriousl
y ,
h o elessl
p y , p ier c
’ ‘ ’ ‘ ‘ ’
ingly , p rov okingly , insep ara b ly , inex tricab ly
’
.

The p ati ent 18 so; i ou sly, hop elessly ill

'

t he a ir is p i er ci ng ly
c ol d he w as p r ov oki ngly cool , t hey are i nsep a r a b ly, i nextr i
’

ea b ly connect ed

I8 T he fo r ma t io n of a d v e rb s fro m P a rt i
’
.

c ip le s is a n el egant m eans of b re v ity : p rov okin l

gy
k now ingly av ow edl
y in v it in l
gy
He w a s p r ov okingly is a short \ 1 a y of giv ing the sense
c ool
’

‘
of he w as so cool as to p r ov oke one— tha t one cou ld not b u t feel
r ovoked
’ ’
k
They b ro e t he la w knou i ngly is a cond ensa t ion
p
.

or k
t hey b ro e t he law , a nd they k ew tha t they w er e d oi ng so
n
’
.

He has a vow ed ly retra cted his op ini on ; t he door 1s i nvi tingly

’

a arj ’

S ub s t it ut e s fo r t he S im p le A d v e rb .

I9 T he e q u iv a le nt s of t he A d v e rb m
'

. in co
it i n a re p hra se s a nd c la us e s
p os o .

PLA CE Ph . r a ses :
‘
‘
I w as nev er i n tha t p lace, qu a r ter ,
tow n, p a r t of the w or ld , ( t o ( z a t t he sea t of j u d
‘
.
g
‘
in t he sk ies ,
’
11nd er t he g reenw ood t ree
’ ’
i nent , Cla uses . .

w herever one goes ev er yu here) , one hea rs t he same st ory

‘
w her e the tr ee fa l ls, t here w il l it lie w hi ther I go, ye cannot
‘
c ome o w hence you ca me e rela t iv e a d v erb s
’
T h w here
’

g
‘ ‘ ’ ‘ ’ ’
w hit her w hence , w heresoev er, & c a1 e t he connect i v es .
-

of t hese cla u ses wit h t he ma in cl a use, whil e t hey al so q ua li f y,

b y t he at t rib ut e of place, t he v e1 b 1 11 t he d ep end ent cl ause -
.

TI M E Phra. T heir riv ahy i s a ct iv e ev en to thi s d a y

ses
‘
ev ery t w o y ea rs bi enni a lly) once on a t ime
’ ‘
t he d ay b e fore yest erday , next yea r a cent ury a go .

Cla uses w hi le I l i ve ever , a lwa ys, & c I w ill follow t rut h .

I will come w hen I ca n ’

t he t hin£ w as d one befor e I ca me
These clau ses are int rodu ced eithe1 1yr t he rela t iv e a d v erb s of
‘ ‘ g
l
time ‘
’ ’ ’
unt il , while
’
ere , when , whenever or b y t he
'

-
76 m a rs OF S E E C P H .
—
THE AD VERB .

‘ ’ ‘ ’ ‘
re os
p p it ions
b ef
o re , after , since which in t his appl ica
t ion gov ern cla uses, inst ea d Of nouns, b ut are u sually called
j
c on unct ions .

DE GRE E . Ph ases
The scene w as i n a si ngu la r d egr ee
r :
si ngu la r ly) romant ic he is so clev er as to su rp rise one
( su rp r i si ng ly clever) b y ever so lit tle to a small ext ent
in a v ery int ense d egree Cla uses He is not so ca reful as he
ought to be care ful enough) t he ra in w a s heav ier tha n w e
a nti cip a ted tha n cou ld ha ve been a nti cip a ted
—
u ne xp ected ly
‘ ‘
t he sea is as d l ep as the mou nta i ns a re high ;
’
as
’ ‘
ihy da y is, so sha ll t hy st rengt h b e A s is t he princip al .

w ord employed in t hese cla uses The d egree b eing e xp ressed .

b y compa rison w it h some ot her t hing a s a st a nda rd, t he connec

t iv e req uired is a w or d or w ords of compar ison or p rop ortionality
frs —
as , as so, tha n, the ( the more)
—
He now s more t ha n I . k
( do) tlw longer w e li ve, t he more cha rita b le w e b ecome
‘
B E LI E F a nd DI S B E LI E F
‘
. Ph r ases : B eyond doub t
‘
u nd ou bted l y, w it h t he highest cert aint y
with
g 1 ea t hesita t ion to confess the tru th ( 2 tr uly, i nd eed , cer ta i nly,
I d o not li e him
’
k ‘
Cla uses : If my l ife d ep end ed o n i t,
.

1 w oul d ma inta in my opinion am as cert a in a s i f I ha d I

seen i t p erfectly Cla uses of elief and Disb elief B
are int roduc ed b forms for Degree .

CO ND
I TI O , N
N CE RT AI N TY
‘
The King could not l egislate
.

w i thou t the consent of his a r lia ment ( p hr ase) P

u nless ( or -

eo cep l)
'

his P
a r li a ment consented , if his a r li a ment d i d not P
e msent ( cla use)
-
Conditional conj s int rodu ce t hese clauses
. . .

CAU S EE F F E CT and .

C SE AU . P
hrases : F or w ha t p u rp ose ( z: w hy) a re you d oing
this l ow i ng to these ca uses ( 2 : hence ther efor e & c ) t he ent er
'

, , .

rise f ail ed
‘
b y the a ct ion of t he sun,
’
b y force Of ind nes s,
’
k
pb the in uence of t he gov ernment
.

y fl Cl a u ses :
‘
Th e crops
’
.

a re b a d, beca use the sp ri ng w a s u ngeni a l we l ost t he fight,

beca use ou r nu mber s w er e r ed uced The con unct ion b eca use ,
’
j
q
a nd its e ui val ents ( inasm uch as, b y reason t ha t , & c ) a re t he .

k
c onnect ing lin s in t his ind of cla use k .

E F F E CT . Phrases
To his ow n hurt , w ith t he highest
s u ccess most successfu l ly) Cla us es He stood his ground,
8 0 tha t a t last he tr i u mp hed

M ANN
E R generally The p hra ses a nd comb inations f
. or
‘
I n a ma nful w ay , & c
’
t his p urp ose a re innu mera b l e The
. .

cla uses are int rod uced b y the rel a t i v e or connect ing a dv erb as ,

upon the sa me p ri nci p le of comp arison as t hat inv ol v ed I n

de gree H e. b eha v ed as if his a ll ha d been a t stake h alls
e f

t o such perusal Of my fa ce a s he wou ld dra w i t

 AD V ERB I A L EQ U I VALE N TS .

20Ot he r P a rt s of S p e ec h are occasional ly

used a s A d v e r b s .

N o uns He sent the man home ( place) he goes

‘
to morrow ( on the ma rrow) ( time) ; he cares not a
’
-

‘ ‘ ‘
( g ) m
’
d d
’ ’ ’

gr o at d e ree S lein ee
p ,
t
.ow n a d e , stone ea d .

T his I s not an unfreq uent u sage W e can explain it b y t he .

‘
ab b rev iat ion of t he a d v e rb ial p hra ses, on t he morrow t o his
house, or home so much as a
groat, & c .

P ro no u ns oc ca sionally
Ad verb s ‘wha t
serv e as
’ ’ ‘
S hould he lab our l somewha t lar ge S cotch
’

‘ ‘
) h
’ ’
rge none the w orse ; I w ill n ot t is

ei ther

A dj ect iv es to sta nd w here Adv erb s

often ap p ea r
‘
might b e expected , as d rink deep , the green t rees
’

’ ‘
w hispered soft and low this look s stra nge , sta nding
’
erect .

W e hav e al so exa mples f

o one ad ect iv ej qualify
‘
j
ad ec t i v e, as
‘
w id e hot ,
’
t he p a le
open , r ed
’

S omet imes t he corresponding adv erb i s u sed , b ut w ith a d if ferent

‘
mea ning ; a s I found t he w a y ca sy easi ly
’
it ap pea rs clea r w

—
clea r ly
’
Although t here I S a p ropri ety i n t he em ploy ent
.

‘
m
j
of t he a d ect iv e in c erta in i nsta nc es, y et such forms a s i nd if
’ ‘
fer cnt w ell , extr eme b ad are gra mm at ic al errors He wa s .
'

i nt errogat ed rela ti v e t o that circumsta nce should b e r ela ti vely,

’

o r i n rela tion to I t is not u nu sual to sa y I w ould hav e d one

.

it i ndep ende nt of that circu msta nce b ut i nd ep end ently is t he

ro er const ruc tion
p p .

j
T he em loyment of Ad ectives for Adv erb s 18 accounted for b y
p
t he follow i ng considera t ions
( 1 I n the classical la ng uages the neut er a d ect iv e may b e
. j
u sed a s a n a d v erb , a nd t he a na logy w ould a ppea r t o ha v e b een
ext ended t o E n l ish
l
.

I n t he o d est E ngl ish, t he ad v erb w as regul a r y

j ‘ ‘
from t he a d ect iv e b y ad di ng e , a s soft , sof
’
t e a nd t he d ro
’

p
‘ " j
p g oft he e left the ad’v erb I n t he ad ect i v e form ; t hus eleens ,
i
’
n
‘ ‘
a d verb b eca me clea n , a nd a ppea rs in t he p hra se clea n
‘
g e
o n
’ ‘ ’

fceste, fast , t o st ic fa st
’
B y a false a nalogy k . ,

j
ma ny a d ect i v es t ha t nev er for med ad v erb s m e w ere freely used -

as ad v erb s in t he a e of El i a b et h :
‘
g
‘
z
Thou did st it excellent ,
’

‘
( for eq ua lly) good , excel lent w ell
’ ’
eq aa l This giv es p re .

ced ent f or such errors as those mentioned ab ov e .

 78 PARTS OF S E EC P H .
-
THE PRE POS I TI ON .

There are cases w here the sub j ect is q ual ified rathér than
' ’

“ ‘
the v erb , a s w ith v erb s of incomplet e p redication,
’
b e ing
‘ ‘ ‘
S eeming , t he ma t ter seems clea r ,
’ ’
arri v i ng ,
’
&c In .

‘ ‘ ‘
i s p art of t he p redica te of ma t te r
’
cl ear They arri v ed
‘
d oes not q ua lify a rri v ed , b ut goes w it h it t o
‘
’ ’
safe
'

sa te
‘
c omp l et e t he p red ica t e S o : he sat si lent , he st ood fir m
’ ’
. .

‘ ‘
I t comes bea u tifu l , a nd it com es bea u t iful ly , ha v e d if
’ ’
fe rent
m ea nings T his explana t ion a p p lies especial ly t o t he use of
. .

h
’
a rt ici les as a d v er b s as in S o ut hey s l ines on L od ore ; t e
p p ’
,

p ar t icip ial ep it hets a p plied t here, al th ough ap pea ri ng to mod i fy

c a me a re rea lly a d dit ional rediea t ions a b out t he w a ter in
el e a ntly S hort ened f orm he chu rch stood glea mi ng t hroug h
g .

‘
t he t rees l a mi n i a sh t e n d r d i t e o f hu rch
g e g s or e
p e c a c
a nd t he ful l form w ould b e t he church st ood a nd glea med
The participle reta ins its force as such, w hile act ing t he p art
of a c oord i na ting adj ect iv e , c omp le me nt t o
‘ ‘
st ood
’
stood
‘
m m ea rned el in
’
l i i l i l re t ha n l T h f of
’

g e a n s t t e o g e e g .

ga d v erb ia f orce in glea ming a rises from t he sub ordinat e p art i

c ip ial f orm j oi ned w ith a v erb , t ha t seems ca pa b le of
’
stood

p r ed ica t i n b
g y i t s e lf as si
. ng st r a n gPe is e lli p t ica l p as si ng
( surp assing) w ha t is strange
V e rb s as ma ck w ent thew hip
s he let it go ba ng
at the wi nd ow a v ery rare usage.

‘
P re p o s it io ns as I t old you before I hav e not
met him since w e nev er t rusted them after

THE P REP OS I TI ON .

Definit io n .

I . A P re p o s it io n is a w o rd p refixe d to a
N o un or it s e q u iv a le nt t o m a ke u p a q ua li
fying or a d ve rb p h r a s e S e nd t he p a rcel to
’
tow n, i n t he e v eni ng, by us .

The act ion of sending t he p arcel is limit ed b y three a dv erb

hrase s a nd t he w ord used i n eac h t ha t oe s w it h t he noun or
p g
p k
ronoun t o ma e t he p hrase, is a d ist inct pa rt of s peech, ca lled

P
t he re osition
p to inf, b y a re p rep ositions .

This I S t he only de finit ion tha t efiectua lly sep a r a tes p r ep osi
tions from conj u nc tions A con unct ion could not b e u sed w ith
. j
» a noun t o ma e a q ua li f
:
,
k
yin phrase W e coul d not say S end .

i the arcel if t own, tho gh t e evening, or us

p u
 A
C SE -
PRE P OS I TI ON S . 1

l
regul ar
a ce of a e it i n i b t w e n a v erb and a
p p r p o s o s e e
t a en by force
’
k
W here one noun is connect ed with .

anot her b
y a p rep osit ion, t here is usu ally a cont ract ion We .

w ent from house to hou se w e w ent fr om ( one) house, a nd w e

u cnt to ( a nother ) hou se
‘ ’
our F a t her i n hea v en ;
.
‘
your Y ’

F a ther w ho d wel ls i n heav en

S omet imes a prep osit ion is oined w it h a n a dv er b ( see
‘
j N OU N ,

u ntil now
‘ a ll
the p r esent for ever
from a broa d , not ab ov e once or twi ce , b y to morr ow
’ ’ ’

‘
In such expressions as , i n br i f
e , for good at
‘
in a ll
’ ‘ ’ ‘
‘ ‘
last , for better , for w orse , p re sit ions ar e comb ined with
’ ’

o
adj ecti ves, inst ea d ofnouns The e l1p s13 of the noun is ob v ious . p .

C a s e P re p os it io ns -
.

2 C e rt a in P re p os it io ns s p e c ia lly
. c o r re s
o nd to t he c a s e e nd ing s of no u ns in t he
‘ ’ ‘ ’ ‘
s rca l la ng ua g e s ; these
’
are of , to , for ,
‘r ‘ ‘
f om
’ ’ ’
, by , w ith .

3 . Of corr esp onds to the p ossessive case in E nglish,

and the geni tive case in other languages .

As t he possessi v e infl ection is used only i n a sm all numb er of

nouns, and not u ni formly i n t hose, w e a re d ep end ent 0 11 t hi s
.

re osit ion f
p p or conv eyi n
g t he m ea ning of t he
p ossessi v e ca se .

Of ’
exp resses a v ariety of rela tions, w hich may b e
trace d up mmon sou rce
to a The
co . original imp ort

Oi the
‘ ‘
root w as from , rom ,
’ ’
S ep ar a tion roceed in f
p g
w hich easily led t o the m eaning now m ost generally
‘ ‘
signified , namel y,
’ ’
b el onging t o or referr in
g t o

F or exam
.

p l e,
t he force of t he w ind m ea ns a ro erty
p p
p r oceed i ng f r o m th e w in d ,
or m a nifeste d b y it,
a n d
ther efore i nher ing in it, or b elon gi ng to it .

‘ f’ i
T he p a rt it iv e m e a ning . O s u sed to
‘
rela te the p a r t of a nything to the w hole . the W ing o f
t he tow n , ‘
’ ’
the ea
gl e ,
the w all s f
o the b anks o f the
’
r iv er .

Any compl ica t ed ob Ject j may b e considered a s ma de u p of its

p a r ts. A hou se has a fou ndat ion, w alls, a r oof, d oors, w ind ow s,
roo ms, &c t hese are it s p a r ts, or mechanical div isions
. Any .
 PARTS OF S PE ECH — . THE PREP OS I TI ON .

'

one of
‘
fi
these b eing speci ed , w e signify that it b elongs to the
house b y t he preposit ion of : t he roofof the house
’

‘
S o w e ma y say t he a rmy of ri tain
‘
‘
B
t he child ren of t he
fa mily t he p rop ert y of t he corporat ion
’
These are all .

sepa ra b l e p art s of t he wholes t hat t he

y se v erall b elong ’to .

A fra ct ion or div ision of a t ota l is expresse b y of on t he

sa m e p ri ncipl e a t hird of t he roceed s few of t he host
’ ‘
p
su r v iv e d a t it he of a l l he p ossessed
’
one nint h o
f t he
rema ind er Hence t he a d ect i v es of f
‘
j ull ness or w a nt a re
‘
na t u rally fol low ed b y full of comp a ssion, of hope
’
of ;
d est it ut e of clot hes, of m oney, of all things

‘ f’
T he a t t r ib ut iv e me a ning . O is used
to connect an pa bstr a ct w ith therop er ty, or u li t
q a y,
‘ ‘
the st rengt h of the lion , the lightness
’
concr ete ; as
‘
the te mp er of steel
’ ’
of a ir , .

There is a se cond m od e of conceiv ing a complex or concrete

ob j ect , na mely, as mad e u p of p r op er ti es, or a ttri butes, insep a r
a b l e from t he ob j ect , e xcep t in t hought Thus w e ma y spea k .

o f t he length of a room, b ut w e ca nnot cut of f the lengt h from

t he other d imensi ons a nd p rop erties W e ca nnot sep ara te t he
.

w eight, the colour , the va lue, of gol d from t he rest of t he

q ualit ies These a re called a bstra ct q ualit ies ; they are sp ok en
.

of i n l a ngua ge a s inheri ng in t he t ota l, or the concrete ; and

‘
w hen a ny one of t hem is sp ecified , t he reposit ion of is t he
’
'

c onnect ing w ord : as

‘
t he sweet ness of oney ‘
t he shape of p
t he mounta in t he col our of t he snow
These t w o mea ni ngs ar e simp le a nd int elli ib le, b eing t w o
‘
modes of t he sa me g eneral idea of possession
g ‘
t
’

p p
ro e r y ,
or
‘
B ut w e find ot her meanings apparent ly v ery
’
b elonging
r em
.

ot e from t his lea ding id ea .

‘ f’
T he efe re nc e me a ning
r O my s e a erv .

‘
to sp ecify a su biect or ma ke a refer ence ; as the B ook
of P rov erb s H ’
ere
. P rov erb s i‘
n dicat es the sub j ect
’

‘ o k ’ refers to The l ov e of our neighb our ;

’
that t he b o .

lov e w ith regard to, or directed up on, a certa in p arty

Of man s first disob edi
’
sp ecified a s our neighb our .

ence —
sing, hea v enly M use
‘a k
This m eaning ma y hav e grow n up t hus I f w e sa y b oo .

m s , w e ma y b e und erstoo d a s i mp l ing, t ha t of t he

’
ofp r ob l e

whole class of t hings named p rob lems, as mu c is ta en as will k

k k ‘
ma e a b oo , li t erally, a b oo ful of p rob lems
—
‘
k
A t rea t ise
of geom et r
y a port ion of the w hole sub ec t of geomet r
’ ’

y, j
 M E AN I NG S OF OF

k
t a en a nd included in a t reat ise The meaning of reference
.

w ould t hus b e a b ra nch of t he p art it iv e mea ning I t I s to b e .

not iced, how ev er, t hat t his app l ica ti on oft he w ord I S not so fre
"
ormerl y W
’
ent now a s f e p ref t Of in sp ecif i
'

u er on o n a
q .

‘
y g .

j
sub ect und er discussi on as
‘
on geomet ry ,
.
’ ’
on p la nt s , & c .

‘
The l ov e of our neighb our i s a mb igu ou s if w e a l low i t t o
’

‘
mean tow a rds our neighb ou r
‘
ro erly t his
p . S hou P
ld b e
i nt er pret ed ( at t rib ut iv ely) t he l ov e ma nifested by our neigh
’ ‘ ’ ‘
b out to us for t he ot her case w e S houl d u se t o I ov e to
God ,
’ ‘
l ove to man
’ ‘
I n t he p hrase the fear of God the
meaninog of r eference is exclusiv ely i nv ol v ed
'

t he fea r is a .

assion b e l ongin rOperl r t o us, a nd is indi ca t ed b t h

p y
e
p g y
p oss essiv e of t he
p erson,
‘
m
’
an s f ear
‘
t h e i c
’
ed s f ea r
’
W k
j
b ut there must b e a n ob ect t o the p assion, some one w ho, as i t
w ere, S hares t he rop erty of it ; t here I S a n at t rib ut e belongi ng
p
to God t ha t inspi res t he fea r, a nd t his r ob ab l
y lea ds to our
em l
p y g
o i n
‘
of i n or d er t o i nd ic a te this 0 cet pj .

fi ‘
S ing of man s rst disob ed ience is l et your song a rise ou t
’ ’

k
o — a nd hence t a e for it s sub ect , b e in reference t o j ma n s
’ ’

‘
fi rst d isob ed iénce
’
Tell me t rul y wha t thou think st of hi m
.
’ ’

— t ha
t 18 , a bou t, rega r di ng him .

‘
S uch a p hrase as a common of turb ry , is a p ure case of
’

a
reference, t he a ccep ta t ion
‘
a c omm on i n so a r as r egar ds the
u
Is
‘ f
g t f p ast u ge is a right ha vi ng
h
’
r ig t f cutt i
h o n g t rf Ri . o ra .

reference to pastura ge

T he A dj ect iv e m ea ni ng . The P rep osition ,

w ith its N oun, has the force of an Adj ective ; as

" crow n o ‘ ‘
'

' ’
a old f g a ol
g den crow n ; a n a ct
,

‘
( p
’
earl
’
f grea t p r ice
‘

gr a ce a a o

reci ous p
p
p
This t oo might b e ex lained on t he part it iv e p rinciple .

crow n of gol d w e m ay int erpret as m ea ning t he q ua ntity O

'
f
gold ta k’en and employed t o ma k e u p a crow n
‘
I n a ma n of
'

co ura o
g e , W e m a y im a gine t hat of t he coura e cont ained I n t he
g
w orld a cert a in port ion is rep resent ed as inhering in a m an, a -

fi
man lled or supp lied wi th courage This const ructi on is the .

chief exa mpl e of t he a dj ective p hrase .

T he A p p o s it io n m e a ning
N ouns in app o .

si ti on are sometimes connect ed b

‘
y o f ; t he city of
‘
A msterdam , this a ffair of t he mutiny , a monster
’

of a ma n , the crime of m urd er

’ ’
.

is strict ly p artitiv e, inasmuch as t he

’
f L ondon
' '

o
‘
of L ondon ; b ut t he t own o f Berlin is an ex
’
 PARTS PE E CH P RE POS I TI ON
‘

82 os S .
— THE .

a mple ofapposition, the t ow n, Berlin I t is not allowab le t o

‘
a p p ly t his form indiscri minat ely the riv er of J orda n is a n
err or .

This a fiair of the mutiny is the same as t his affair, na mel y,

’
’

the mu tiny W e may p erhap s consider the p resent ca se a s a

’
.

fuI ther app lica t ion of t he m ea ni ng of refeI ence b rut e of . A

is colloq uial E ngl ish, a nd may b e int erpret ed as a case
’
a d og
‘ ’
of a po sit ion, or p I edica t ion, a d og t hat I S a b rute .

he w inter of our discontent is a S ha esp earia n gure, i ndi k fi

ca ting a p posit ion .

mp les
’
To ask a fav our of , t o rid one s sel f
’
A ddi tiona l exa .

t o cure a man of , deliv ered of a child

’
o f w oes d anger
—
S ha k a re exa mp les of t he em l o ment of t he r ep osi t i on
.
p y’ p
‘
in its rimery sense of p roceedi ng from He re oiceth more of . j ’
t hat s eep t ha n of the ninety a nd nine which went not astra y ;
I w ill not drin of t he fruit of th k e v ine
" t o die of hunger
’
.

‘
I n t he expression of necessity w e ha v e the eq uiv al ent of t he
’

‘ ‘
a d ver b necessa rily I t ma y b e ex l ained as S omet hing
.
p
b elonging to or p roceed ing from necessi ty S ha esp ea re sa ys k
‘o ’ ‘
-

f force , w here w e S hould sa y p erforce fi S o, of course

‘ ‘
o
’

f conse u ence , of a t rut hq ’

.

A gency or ca use w as often exp ressed b of ab ou t the t ime

‘ ‘
z
of E li a b eth : re ceiv ed of ( f or
‘
by E ward ,
’
t he ob se ed
of a ll ob serv ers ,
’ ‘u nd erst a nded of t he p eopl e ,
’ ‘
e S hall b e
y
‘
ha ted of al l men , seen of all t he apostles
’ ’

This ap plicat ion remains in t he exceedingly common case

.

where t he acti on, nat urally exp ressed b y a v erb , is expressed b y

‘
The b a pt is m of John giv es in t he form of a noun
’
a noun .

( w i t h a d u nc t ) t hj e fa c t t h a t
‘
J oh n b a p t i ed
’
,
a n d t h e ag en t zor

j
s ub ect 1 3 connec t ed w it h the a ct ion b y
‘ ’
of I n t he same .

t he w ar p art y agitated is t urned , for b eing conv eni

k
sp o en ab out , int o t he agita tion of t he w ar p art y ; and
’

is used as in the preced ing exam le .

j
Again, t he ob ect , as w ell as t e sub ect , ofan a ction i s simi j
la rly connect ed wit h t he t ra nsmuted v erb b y of ‘
W e may .

say Caesar conq uered Gaul , and t hen spea of this fact as
’
k
q
Caesa r s con uest of Gaul ; t he v erb b ei ng t ra nsmut ed int o a
’

v erb al noun, w ith which t he ob ect 1 s ep t c onnected b y

j k
‘ f’
o .

Col umb us discov ered America t he d iscov ery of A merica

’

‘ ’
Gut enb er inv ent ed p ri nti n t he inv ention of p rint ing ;
fi f
.

’ ’
E ngl and st Cal ais t he oes of Calais t o d est roy a city
’
t he d estru ct ion of a city .

‘
I n t he Ea rl of Mar w e hav e an exa ct ca se of pa rt it ion , for
’

si t hon h such t itl es a re now mere na mes, t hey w ere not a l w a ys

so . a r w as a g rea t dist rict of count ry con

sti m ent elements, physi cal and merel ;

 ‘or ’ AN D
‘
ro
’
.

chief,
or Earl I so the t he Earl of Ma r was a correct for m on
.

t he p a rt iti v e p rincipl e, no less t ha n the d ist rict , t he p eop le,

‘
the w eal t h, t he history, & c , of Ma r The Q ueen of E ngl and ,
’
.

t he Town Clerk of L eed s are exact ly

pa rall el The same .

p rinci pl e w ill expl a i n D oc t or of m edi cine T ea c her o

f
music Dea n of Guild M aster of t he Rol ls E v ery one of
t hese sup poses a collect i ve inst it ution, mad e u p of many
element s; or p a rts, a nd of t hese one is sp eci ed : Med icine is a fi
w hol e, containing it s science, its met hod s, and a mong t he rest ,
its d oct ors .

I II compari ng the expressions a b ust of Cicero a nd a b u st

w e can farther illustra te t he uses oft he rep osit ion
’
of Cicero s
'

-
.

I n the second ca se it has t he p a rt i tiv e sig nifica tion t e mea ning

is a b ust of Cicero s collect ion of b usts
’
i n t he other it is an
exampl e of ref erence a b ust w hose sub j ect is Cicero

A play of S hak espea re is also p art iti v e a man s prod uctions

’

a re considered a s a art of his coll ect iv e p ersonalit y

p
The b et t er of it is not so good a s t he b et ter for it
.

’
uncl e Tob y s heart w as a pound light er for it
’
.

4 . The p rimary id ea of motion in the d irec

To .

t ion of p erv ades all t he ap p lications of t o

Considering the extent of it s u se, t he meaning of t o is
remark ab ly unif orm I t is pointedly cont ra sted w ith from
.

as i n the p hrase t o a nd fro He w ent to t he house ‘

leav e
‘ ‘ ‘
t hat to me , add to your f a ith d uty to our p arent s
’
to
arms g l or y to G od a re ob v i o us i ns ta nc es Am on g
. t h e m o re

remote a pplicat ions are t o b e found su ch p hrases as p l e asa n t to

‘
to t he numb er oft wo
’
t he t ast e to one s hand t en to one
’ ‘
hund red , to all i nte nts and p u ses to his honour b e it ,

sa id d one to a cind er ye sha p ay to the last penny t hey

‘
marched to t he t une oi to a Christ ian, t his w orl d is a
E v en in t he exampl es where
’

p lace of‘t rial a nd p repara tio n .

mot ion in t he d irect ion of is not directly sta ted, p r oxi mi ty,
’

w hich is the na t ural result , is indi cated hence t he mea ning of

ref nce indicated in t he l ast examp’le
er e .

As the S ign of the in nit iv e, fi t o has st ill t he sa me signifi

ca tion .

I t is remark ed b y grammarians that certa in nouns, adj ectiv es,

‘
and v erb s t a k e ter them, and l ists of such w ords are
’
to af
a ccordin l
g y gi v en for t he guidance of t he p upil as, f’or exampl e,
a ccustom to a dap t to b elong to equ al , ref er
‘
t end &c B ut it shoul d b e not iced t hat i n nearly a l t hese
.

cases t he int end ed mea ning is answ ered b y t his re ositi on, and
p
p
w ould not b e so w ell answered b y ny other b us the w ords
‘ a .

attach ,
’
attend con rm fi consecrat e
‘
listen ‘
g iv e
84 PARTS or S PEE CH .
—
THE P R E P OS I TI ON .

‘ el ’ ‘s
how ‘i
l k en
i ndica te t he sense of a p p roaching
t l , all
nea I eI t o somet hing, or p oint ing i n some one d irect ion, w hich is
‘
t he ma in sig nifica t ion of t o I n a fe w cases t here w oul d
’
.

a p pear t o b e somet hing arb it rary in t he choi ce, a nd in t hese

w ide d ep art ures from t he fund a menta l m ea ni ng w e mu st l oo k
u p on t he connexion as a sp ecia l id iom of t he la nguage , t o b e
'

l ea rned from usage, a nd not t o b e inferred from t he general

m ea ning of t he w ord Am ong t hese, w e may perhap s include
.

‘ ‘ ’ ‘
t he follow ing, bl ind to ( w here to mea ns I efe rence) , d eroga
’

‘
t ory to
’
foreig n t o , ob ect to j
op p osit e to
'
.

‘ ‘ k k
S uch exa mpl es as ‘ disli e to ,
’ ’ ’
t rue to , u n nown to ,
‘
p rov o e to k ‘
im put e to , ad ap t to , a re conformab le t o t he
’

p rima ry si ni ca t ion
g fi .

W e occasionally m eet w ith v iolat ions of these S pecial usages,

ferent fr om
'
such as
’
ferent to , for d if
d if .

k
To ta e to w ife is a lm ost a sol itary remnant of t his u se of
’

‘ ’ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
W ith God t
’ ’
i n t he capa city of
’
to as , for ,
o
.

‘
friend ( S penser) ; he ha th a p rett y young man to his son
’ ’

B
( ‘y )
u n a n T hi s
. I s no t h i ng to w ha t w e exp ected
’
The sense .

in compa ri son w it h is easily reached from the original

’
of
mea ning ‘
k
The Gree s a re strong and s ilful to ( in p roportion
.

’
k
t o) t heir st rength .

‘ ‘
I t I S alt ered to t he b et t er shoul d b e for the b etter
S cotti cisms W ill you b uy a nife to ( for) m e k
I hav e no
fault to ( with) him I entert a in no p re udice to ( t owards) hinI
’
j .

5 . F o r is mu ch more in its complica te d a nd v ari ous

‘
ap p lications Ori gi nall y connec te d w ith fore , meanin
’

’
.
g
in front of , it has b ranched off in dif ferent directions,
u nt il the orig inal significa tion is freq uentl y t o all
ap pe ara nce lost sight of .

‘
Themeaning is d ir ection, end purpose, b enefi t
chief ,
’
.

They set out for t heir home som e t oil for m oney ot hers ,
‘ ‘
fame o ne for him self , t he S a b b a th w a s mad e
’

for
‘
ev e
‘
man for t his end c ame I int o t he w orld
’ ’

for good for

‘
ma n
’

for a draught of v inta ge t ha t hath b een , for

Jesus sa k e
’

This mea ni ng is b rought out st ronco ly b y t he cont rast ing p re '

‘
5 he fought for his p rincipl es and aga i nst
‘
’
sit ion aga inst
pp int erest ‘
for t he constit ut ion, a nd a ga i nst t he k ing
’
We .

a re for t he p rincip l es of good ov ernment aga i nst W a l ole, a nd

g p
for W al pole a ga inst t he op posi t i on
’
.

‘
The m ea ning of r efer ence, seen in su ch exp ressions as so
much for t he first q u est i on
’
b odies d ep end for t heir v isib ility ,
can b e t raced t o the meaning ofend, p urpose, b ene t fi .
 "
A PPLI CATI ON S ‘

OF F OR
'

‘
The old idiom now t he g erund form of the v erb , is a n
call ed

inst ance of t his ap p licat ion W hat w ent ye out for t o see
The id ea of end or p urp ose is imp l ied i n this v erb a l const ruct ion,
‘
a l t hou gh t he for is now d rop p ed .

‘
F or a holy p erson t o b e hu mb l e , for one w hom all m en
est eem as a sa i nt , t o fear l est him sel f b e come a d e v il , is as h a rd
as for a p rince t o sub mit hi mse l f t o b e gu id ed b y t u t ors
’
ere . H
w e hav e a form gr ow n ou t of t he gerund const ruc t ion, w it h a
reference st ill t o t he id ea of end, p u rp ose, or d i rec t ion This is .

a u seful eq uiv a l ent of t he noun cl a use ( tha t a holy p erson b e

humb le, tha t a p rince su b mit himsel f,

nect s it sel fw ith the sense in front of

‘ ‘
“
The m eaning of ca use, a s w ell as of p u rp ose, r ea dily con
’
b ehea ded for t rea son ,
‘
d ecorat ed for b rav ery , c ould not a ct for f eminent ,
’
ear

q
famous for , fre uent ed for
’

‘ ‘
m
i ’
I n t he phra ses si x
f or
p a
y l i
enn
ne for l i ne , ea su re

m w e ha v e t he m ea ning ofexcha nge, or r et u rn for

fo r easure

which chimes in w ith the original significa t ion erha ps t he . P

id ea of p r op or ti ona li ty i n t he p hra se he is t all for his yea rs
is merely a follow ing out of t he sa me a p p licat ion S o a lso w e .

t ook him for his b rot her , w here t he mea ning S hades into t he
’

‘
id ea of compa ri son implied in as
‘ ‘
F or hour
an for a litt le for once for ev er rep resent
fi
an a p p arent l y d ist inct signi ca t ion, al t hough w e m a y sup p ose a
‘
connexion b et w een it a nd t he p ri ma ry m eaning in front of
‘
F or means not w it hsta nding in S p it e of a meaning
‘
not rea d ily connect ed w it h t he foregoing F or all t his, t hey
.

‘’ ‘
st ill p roceed for a ll his w ea lt h, he w as not content for
‘
a n t hing t o t he cont ra ry
y ; f o
’
r a l l t ha t W e ma
y s
.u
’
o
pp se
t he connexion t o ari se from t he circu msta nce t ha t men oft en
fail in t heir ent erp rises, alt hough p ossessing t he usual means of
success, a nd t ha t t he w ord imp lies t he p resence of t he mea ns,
‘
accor d ing t o it s origi na l force, in front of and yet allow s u s
‘
to infer t hat t he end w a s not ga ined F or all his w eal th
.

w it h all his w eal t h i n fr ont of hi m — t he nat ural conseq uences

d id not follow in his ca se ( Comp are t he u ses of with
Ofthe l ist of w ords giv en as p rop erly follow ed b y for t he
rea t er numb er ha v e t heir meanin u i t d b t hi rep osit ion,
g g s e y s p
while with a few it has no S p ecial ap pro riat eness Thus care
p
.

for sa il for w ork for d esign for g oo d for p rep ared

for sub st it u te for thank ful for ‘

a nsw er for occasion

for est eem for a re all in a ccord w it h t he rincip al mea ning

p
a b ov e
giv en .

He w a s a ccused for ’

, is a S cot t icism for a ccu sed ‘ So

there I S much need for It need of it is t he corr ect phra se

a .
86 PARTS or P
S E ECE — THE PRE POS I TI ON .

‘in "he
burst for ( with) laughing called
’
si sts f or ( on ) it ;
for ( on) me di ed for ( of)
.

t hirst
‘
a nd for
’ ’
To t o w ha t is ca ll ed t h e d at i v e case of th e
corr es p ond
c lass rcal l a ngu a g es , a l t h ou g h t he
y ha v e a fa r w i d er ra ng e of m e a ni ng
t ha n cou l d b e e x p ressed b y t ha t i nfl ex i on Our so call ed ob ec t i v e for m s
.
-
j
—
m e , t hee , h im , h er t h em are , in t heir or igin, d ati v es, a nd thi s signi fi
,

ca t i on s till t o a certa in ex te nt a dher es t o t hem

'

‘ ‘forw
F ro m
’
6
’
forth , ’
. ards , b eginning a t ,
‘ roceedin aw a ’ m d ‘
m D
p g y F ro d oo r to oor .
f r o an
‘ ‘
t o B eersheb a f r om ho me f r o m ear th t o h ea v en

The original reference t o p lace is wid ely d epa rted from in the
u se of t he p reposition, b ut t he more eneral id ea of direct ion
g
from is in t he main p reser v ed .

Th e ap pl ication to ti me is seen in ‘
f m m om t o noon, ro
‘
noon t o dew y ev e fr om my youth up fr om age t o age
Anyt hing that indicates a sou r ce, or igi n, or commencement,
‘
may b e p reced ed b y from ‘
He rose fr om t he rank s fr o m
’
.
,
‘
ob sc urit y &c a ut hori ty ema na tes fr o m t he sov ereign
. .

sna t ched fr om t he fl a mes

‘
wonfr om t he enemy the song
b eganfr omJov e w e mu st p rob e t he st ory fr om fi rst t o l ast
’
.

‘
H enceit is used in t he sense of t urn away q uit
‘ ‘ ’

,
l ea v e ,
’

ab a ndon He fled fr om the city ofdest ructi on S hrin ing k

from t he p icture ofdist ress
‘
moteness d p r i va ti on ; as ab sgnt fr om my sight ;
’
Al so re an
‘
mote fr om cit ies far fr om t he mad d ing crow d s ignob le
’ ’
re ;
st rife fr om t hee t o die w ere t ort ure more t han d ea t h
k
I t li ew ise follows w ords imp lying d eli ver a nce, r elea se, & c .

relea sed f rom his v ow

S o, sep a r a ti on, a bstr acti on, d estr u cti on, are indica t ed b y the
~

sa m e p rep osi tion, a n d w ith a li e adhere nce t o the main a nd k

p rimary i mport .

‘
Motiv e or r ea son may b e exp ressed b y from ; t hey a ct ed
’

‘ ‘
fr om n o un w ort h
y m ot ive f r om g r a t it ud e fr om fear

I mi ta ti on is a sense closely connect ed w ith the ori inal

Knell er i s sa id t o ha v e p aint ed t he fig ure and hands of a d ies
fro m h i s hou sem aid H e co wied fr om the lif
. e only

l a ring a nd ob v ious p eculiari ti es acaulay)

g .

‘
I t is inferior fr om ( should b e to) what I expected
that , shoul d b e fr o m
’
different to .

‘
7 By The p rima ry m eaning seems t o b e ab out ,
’
. .

‘ ’
alongsid e of , p roximity
‘
‘
H e sa t by t he rive r
‘
by the tree hard by the oracles of God i nhab ited
 FR OM BY mm

by the great The other meanings grow out of this b y

na tural tra nsitions .

Thus, d efence h ip f,
o stand by me
‘ ‘
A gency, i nstr u menta lity, ca use ea ten b
’
w olv es , main
y
.

‘
ta ined by t he p ub lic
’ ‘
w a tched by angels , sha en by t he k
w ind
’
k ‘ ‘
S ha espeare uses wit h m t his sense : here i s himself,
.

‘
ma rred, as you see , w i th t ra itors
” z
’
w e should now say by
‘
W e hop e to gain by you ’
sei e him by force
’ ’
t rait ors
‘
by int elligenc e man rai ses his condit ion ‘
t he p ow er o
’
i '

p k
s ea i ng w ell should b e a imed a t by a ll
’
t o now by hea rt k
‘
W ord s of mea su r ing ke
b y aft er t hem f1 om t he circum
ta
sta nce t hat t he t hin s measured ha v e t o b e u t si d e b y sid e
g p
‘
g reat er b y half
’
measur e your desires by your fort unes, not
y our f or t unes by yo ur d esi i es
’
by t he ru l e a n d t h e s u a re
’
q
‘
it was sold by t he ounce
’

I n p hrases of a is tmbu ti n, such as one by one

’
b house by ‘ ‘

house , t o d o t hings by ha lves , w e ha v e st ill t he sa me idea

’ ’
.

They ca me by hu nd1 ed s is a som ewha t loose a pp lica t ion

’
in
hundi eds is pe1 hap s less f1 eq uent in goo d English
’
.

The employment of t he p reposition w ith nouns of ti me illus

t ra t es t he general sig nifica t ion : by t his t ime t hey a1 e i a r a w ay
’

‘
t ha t 15 a longsid e of, or a t t his t ime ;
’ ’
’ ‘
by the c ommence ent m
of spri ng ; by sunrise
This i s t he p rep osit ion ofa dj u ra ti on, a urpose st ill conform
‘
ab le t o t he p rima ry meanin
’
g by all t a t w e hold d ear is
.

‘
sta nding by, a nd und er the l ove or tear o1 in uence of
’
fl .

8 . W it h .
.
The ra dical notion inv olv ed in ‘
w ith
’

‘
a pp ea 1 s to b e t ow a rds j oining or u niting
’
. I n old
‘
E nglish w e find w ith w a rd (
’
—
ward ,
lik e to —
to
’
us wa rd ,

The meaning of opp osi timi or contest comes rea dily from the
main root , seeing t hat comb at ant s must c ome int o cl ose cont a ct .

W ith in old English, was much used in t his sense in com

p ounds it has always t his meaning wi thst and The mea ning
‘
o f in s it e of ma b l i d i h m h a d v er
’

p y e ex a ne n t e sa e w a y as t e
sa ti v e use of
‘for
’
ith all his learni ng, he ha d b ut lit t le
.

’
1 ud ence
p .

Comp a ny or c omp anionship I S a v ery na tural a pplicat ion : he

“
‘
t 1 a\ elled w i t h me for some d a ys ; t here is no liv ing w i th
’

such neighb ours ; he came n i th the fi1s t and rema ined w i th

’

t he last ;
’
his 8 8 1 ant w a s w i th him " he indled k
ra ge
’
.
‘
I w il l b uy w i llfyou , sell w i th you , ta l w ith you , w a l k k
 “
m a rs m m ra nr osm on
‘

or sens ors— 4 .

a nd 8 6 followi ng
b ut I w ill no t eat wi th you , drin
k
w i th you, nor p ra y w i th y ou
’ ‘
w ith A t e b y his side
’
.

P ossessi on is rea dily i m lied in union

p w i th t he hop e of is
’

’ ‘
‘
t he sa me as ha vi ng t he hop e of
’
so
‘
wi th a v iew t o ,
’
’
ith w
p ow er t o , w ith l ega rd to .

F rom union or comp anionship comes ca use, i nstr u menta li t ,

mea ns : fed wi th t he sa m e food, hurt w i th t he same w eapons y ’

‘
p a v ed w i th
‘
g old ,
’ ‘
enri ched
‘
i th now l edge ,
’

‘
‘
w
el a t ed w z th k
j oy , fllh d w ith‘ w ine , p la nt ed w i th firs , w ea ried wi th
’ ’ ’

mu ch st udy , w i th medita t ing t hat he mu st di e once

’ ’
.

k
( S ha esp ea re .

I t has b een seen t hat t he agent , or p rime mov er, in a n effect,

k
more u sua lly t a es b y a ft er it ; b ut t he i nstr u ment t hat t he
’

‘ ‘
a ent e m loys i s e xp 1 essed b y i h
’

g p w t h ; t e field w a s d u g b y
‘
t he l ab ou 1 er w i th his sp ad e
’ ’
B y is t he p 1 ep osit ion t hat
.

‘
foll ow s t he p assiv e v oice t o exp ress p ersona l agency t ried by .

his pe ers .

W it h 18 al so u sed for i mmed i a tely after , t he connexion of

ideas b eing a ppa rent w i th t his, he p oint ed t o his face
T hey q uarrelled a mong ea ch ot her , should b e
’
E rror s .

‘
,

‘
a gr eea b ly w i th ( t o) t hei1 i nst ru ct ions ,
’
w i th ea ch ot he1
’

‘ ‘
he is not yet reconciled w i th ( t o) me
’
rev a il ed wi th
’ ‘
d o)
’ ‘
d b p
( up on) g oo b y e w i th ( t y ou or
g oo y e .

‘
F rom
’
b y , and w it h , are 13 1 e os1t10 ns corresponding t o
t he a b la t iv e ca se in L a t in I n Gree which ha s no a b la tiv e,
. p
k
t he genitiv e and d a t iv e are ta en instea d , or t he correspond in g
p rep osit ions am used .

The em p loym of these d eta ched w ords 18 more cond u ci v e t o

g
v ai iet y a nd p 1 ec1 s1on t ha n t he c a se inflexions ev er thel ess it . N
z
is p ro er t o signa l i e t he r ela t ions t ha t t he ol d l a nguages hav e
t houg t fit t o exp ress b y ca ses, a s b eing i n a ll p 1 ob a b ili t y t hose
of m ost freq u ent occur1 ence a nd of g r ea t est imp orta nce We .

sha ll now enu m era t e t he ent ire b ody o f p 1 ep ositions under

d ifferent hea ds, according t o t heir meanings .

C la s s e s of P re p o s it io ns .

9
'

P la c e Under p lace w e ha v e
. R est i n ,
‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
h (
’ ’
b y
’ ’

(
’
t e w h e re
) a s in on
,
at n ear 2 ) , ,
.

w t n t he w henc e and t he w hither

JVI oti on w ith d ll é t t o ( ’
) ,

rom
to into u nt o tow ard s ( up d ow n
) f ,
’
,
’
P la ce a nd d ir ecti on, ov er ,
u nd er ,

through b ehind b et w een a mong u p on

‘n a r off acr oss b eyond a b aft ab o v e
e
 r ns r os m ons or PL A CE .

IO L Fle st in
'

2 . .

ln is the chi ef p rep osition of rest in, or the w her e ,

it is closely connected With on

The p ri mary force of t he w ord 1 3 m aint a ined throughout t he

many a pplicat ions of it The idea of b eing cont ained is seen .

ev en w hen pl a ce is not t he sub ect und er considera t ion

‘
In j .

i n a d ee slumb er
‘
summer im mersed i n w orldl a ffa irs
emp loyed i n ca rrymg
p ‘i n t he p ow er ofthe enemy
’ y in j oy
a nd i n sorrow v ersed i n langua ges ersev ere i n his d esi n
p g
inv olv ed i n ruin
‘
The p hrases i n fa ct i n t rut h I , i n tha t i na smuch a s
’
i n al l , indica te no essent ia l
’
i n t he ev ent of , i n v ain
d ep art ure from t he p rimary i mport I n the name of used i n .

inv oca t ion or adj uratj on, may b e sup p osed t o mea n rest ing .

up on or cl ot hed w ith t he na me or a uthori ty of

The old w rit ers often used in for into cast you rself i n
*
.

‘ ‘
Won The familia p phrases fall i n l ov e c al l i n quest ion ,
’ ’
d er .

dash i n p ieces & c , remain a s exa mpl es cf t he usage

“
. .

S cot He gav e me a b oo i n ( as) a p resent

. k
On F or t he most p art
. on falls und er the t hird cla ss ,
‘
( pla ce and direction) b ut it is often an equiv alent of in as
sig nif ying merely rest On a rock, t he p oet st ood
.

t he b oo < is on the tab lel

At The me ‘near ’ ‘close
by
’
,
.

. sa as or _

house may mean simply

near or b y the house
Al though thus coinciding in it s p ri mary meanin w ith b y
g
i t dif fers from b y in not b eing ext ended t o signi fy ca usa ti on
‘
or a gency, ex cep t in a v ery limit ed w ay a t t he inst iga t ion

( commendation, fered much a t their ha nd s

’ ’
r e of we su f .

B
esides cl oseness,
‘
at ma y imply in the di r ecti o n of ; as t o
fire at a mar ‘ k ‘
to gl ance a t a q u estion t o la ugh a t ,
’

w ond er a t b ar a t w or a t gke t a t
’
, co m e at k
A ppl ied t o ti me, i t signi es a p oint or m om ent oft ime fiat

p r esent a t t he s t ro e o f nin e a t noon k a t mid night

‘
There is a d ist inct ion b et ween at and in, a s signifying
’

p‘ l a ce ; w e sa
‘
y a t t he ma r et cross ,
’ ‘ ’
a t the fou nt a in , b ut k
‘ ‘
i n t he t ow n i n A merica ; t he one b eing a
’
i n F rance
j
limit ed ob ect , which w e may stand close b y, b ut t he ot her a
inore extend ed surface, w hich w e are cont a ined in I n some
’ '

ca ses b ot h a re a
pp li cab le a t, or church b ut we
'

m ust say a t home

k
'

The p hra ses invol v i ng at are , in eeping w ith t he eneral

significa t ion, alt hou h some oft hem constit ut e
”
g p eculiar i ioms :
90 ra ms or Se as on — a ns r s nr dsr mon .

‘ ‘ ’
loss
’ ’
at p ea ce a t w ar at l at the rice of at a
‘ p ay ,
‘ p
.
, ,
a ult
’
at f a t ha nd , at issue a t v a r1a nce l ib ert y
at
‘ ’ ‘ ‘
a t a n cnd ,
’ ’ ’
a t b est , at a ll ,
a t la rge at full sp eed .

‘
5 Angry a t ( w ith) hi m
’
S cot . ha t red a t ( to or against)
a sk , in u ire a t of a
q ( ) p erson
N ea r ( nigh ) also means p roximity nea r me
nea r the nea r the city
d oor
This idea is ob v ious in it s meta phori cal a ppl ica t ions ; thus
‘ ’ ‘ ’
w e hav e nea r t he heart , a t ransl a t ion nea r t he original ,
‘
nea r t he t ime
’
I t cont rasts w ith in not sig ni fying
’
. at
‘ ’
direct ion at a d ist a nce, and w ith in in not exp ressing t he
fa ct ofb eing contai ned in .

By . S ee §7 .

II 2. . Mo t io n w it h d irect io n .

To 4) is the chief p rep osition for this meaning .

The imp ort ant comp ou nd int o is v ery uniform and

i mplicit in it s ap p lica tion .

‘ ‘o ‘
l ok i nto a b ook led i nto error ,
’
Go into t he house ,
’

‘ n ill ‘ ‘
,

i st ed i nto his mind , forced i nt o comp liance ,

’ ’
a g es
‘ ‘
b rok en up i nto compa nies ,
’
crow d ed i nto yea rs b urst i nto
fragment s i nto di fficulties infuse more sp irit i nto t he com
‘
spring i nto b l ossom
’ ’
p osit ion , l et i nto t he secret ,
‘
~

S cot . He is soon p u t i nto ( in) a passion

‘
sit i nto ( nea r)
t he fir e

Unt o N ow sel dom used, for it signifies almost the

.

sa me as either t o or int o

T o w a rd , t o w a rd s , in the direction of ad

v ance towa r d s t he castle look towa r ds t he ea st

T he metap horical a p p l icat ions are a ll ob v i ous contri b ut e

‘
towa r ds t he exp ense towa rds the end oft he sp eech towa r ds
’
e v ening , 81 0 .

F rom has b een alread y expla ined

I2 . 3 . P la c e a nd d ire c t io n .

On The simp le p rep osition of rest, repose, or

.

sup p ort, t he found a t ion or p rop b e ing indicate d b the

’
y
noun follow ing on the g round , on t he tab le on
‘ ’
t he sea on t he coast lea ning on his staff a
 P LA CE WI TH D I RE CTI ON .

L ondon is sit u a t ed o nt he Tha mes show s a slight dep art ure

from t he st rict m ea ning, a s ifb y a fig ure of sp eech .

‘
S omet imes a fallin or ot her motio n is i mp l ied :
nr
The rain
falls on t he ea 1t h
‘
I si ft t he snow on t he mounta ins b el ow
w e ru shed on deck
The o ther uses consist m or e or l ess in follow ing out these
ri ma ry si nifica t ions D e end o n me i s m eta p hor ical rest
p g p .

or s up p or t .N ow fa d es t he glimmer ing l a nd sca pe on t he

si ht , i s hi hly figu ra t i ve b ut st ill in k eeping
g
’

g H e p l ays on .

’
t he v iolin he d ined on fish , are fa rt her extensions of signi fi
The constru ct ions t o ga z e on , com
’
ca t ion . t o d ote on '

‘ ‘
ment on p r evail on in sist on resol v e on reflect on
t respa ss on are w ell recognised idioms .

I n signifying ti me, we hav e such f r s as

o on Monda y , m ’

o n t hat night on t he occasion t hese exp l ain t hemsel v es .

A somewha t d ifferent sense is ob serv ab le w hen w e say on the

m elt ing of t he ice t he ship s d ep art ere t he r elati on is H ‘

b etween t wo a ct ions ; first t he ice melt s, t hen t he ship s depa r t .

The one fol low s t he ot her closely On is much t he same a s

.

( immedia tel y) a fter

Ca use may somet imes b e implied in the u se of on ‘
on t his
a cc ount on t he fa il ure ofhi s p la ns he t hrew u
p t he p ro ec t
,
r
j
is b ot h when and beca u se his p la ns fa iled
R efer ence ca n also find by exp ression
on a s w e hav e seen

under of
’ ‘
k
A w or on p olit ics, on nance, on music, fi
&c .
‘
to spea k
on t he terms of p ea ce
’
I n E li a b et han
. z
‘ ‘
,

E g
n l ish,
on
’
w a s oft e n u sed w h ere w e m u st n ow us e of
esp ecially t o exp ress reference t o b e ea lous o n one j fond o n
a t sha l l b ecome on m e
’

p ra ise h e sha ll hear o nt w h

’
And in ot her ca ses a s we ll a t root on s heart the lord
‘ ’
i the middle en s f
’
f it, t he island)
’ ’
on t ( o a ce we a re
su ch st uf f as d reams a re ma d e on
in suc h comb inations ‘
Opp osi tion is giv en b y declare,
‘

on as—
mak e
’
w ar on , 81 0 .

Many p hra ses inv olv e this p rep osit ion

’
on fire , on the
t he al ert sudd en
’
w i ng on on a on v iew on a rea t
, g
scal e on t he p art of ,
’
on my honour his b lood b e on us

Rely i n is an error for rely on founded i n t rut h for

on t ru th S cot He w as married on ( t o) such a person
. I
I saw him on or
’
ha v e w aited l ong on ( for) an answ er up on

( )
i n t he st reet

On is opp osed b y of
f, another form of of

B
y elli si
p ,s of
f is more in use as an ad v erb t han as a p re
‘ ‘ ‘
ground , ofi my shoulders ofi w ork
’ ‘

fi the
’
ti on : o .
 PARTS or SPE E CH .
—
THE PRE P OS I TI ON .

The a d ver bia l meanin g is the same, and is seen in comp osition
‘
b rea k off ‘
" ‘ ‘
with v erb s, as et ofl , b e of
f d ra w off ,
’

g
driv e ofl ; k eep of d ri nk of
" ’
f , p ay of f S et of ( on a
'
’
l
j ourney ) , should b e set ou t The phra ses w ell off b adly o ff ,
‘ ‘ ’
.
’

a re som ew ha t p ecul ia r ; t here i s p r ob a b l y an ellip sis of som e

sub j ect, as i f w e were t o say he is w ell off that b usiness

Up , d o w n ,
are o
pp osed meanings .

Up
’
sta irs d own st airs up hil l, d own hill ; up
the strea m d own the stream d own the v ale of
’

years .

Adv er bi a l form the p rice of stoc is up k ‘ is

s irit s w ere
p h
up t he count is up ( in ar ms)
y oo up fill up ‘
lea d L k
up " hush up Come down ‘
sit d ow n b ri ng d own
'

‘ ‘
p ull d own ,
’
t a
’
e dow n , k ’
run d ow n , w ri t e d ow n
’
, p u t d own
’
.

Up o n is a modification or v ariety of the si mp le p re

p osition on w hi ch can be u sed for it in nearly e very

‘ ’ ’ ’ ‘
Upon a hill , up on the right , up on condit ion , up on
‘ for sub sist ence
up on t he p a rish (
’
securi ty , up on a foot ing
‘ ’ ‘ ’ ‘ ’
or sup p ort ) , u pon p ri nci l e , up on record , up on t rial ,
p ’ ‘
up on a t ime up on occas1on up on t his, g o up on t he ice

enter up on a n u nd ert a ing

’
k
Kings b rea fait h up on com . k
modity ( S ha esp ea re) k w hen and beca use t hey ca n ga in b y
doing so
‘ ‘
I n ad ver bia l mb ina ions ; '
dwell u descant up on
’

Z e uI o u
co
on
f ‘
resolv e up on
,

’ p r y p
z
Scot lhere is a
e
g , .

’
.
'
meeting up on ( on) Thursday he p lays
hp on ( on) t he fl ute
’
.

A b ov e , b e lo w , b e ne a t h, a dhere w ith c onsider

ab le regul arity to their w ell k now n -

sense — higher or

lower in place .

’
Th e metaphorical ap plicat ions of ab ov e to signi fy sup er iori ty,
d igni ty, eleva tion, are seen in such exa mp l es as a bo v e his ra nk

ab o his means a b ov e comp r ehension a bove b oa r d

f
ve
a b ove mean a ct ions , a b ov e t he b right ness of t he sun
’

The t ra n
‘
sit ionis eas y t o t he m eaning, mor e tha n, i n excess
‘ ’ ‘
a bove t he pr i ce of rub ies , t he serp ent
’
a bove all ,
’
of ; a s
is cursed a b ove all ca ttle
A d v er bi a lly t he sense is adhered t o as i n referring t o a
former pl a ce in a b ook .

‘ B ’
elow , and b eneath are applied metaphorically t o t he
'
 ur , AB OVE ,
O ER : V D OW N ,
s nL ow, UNDER .
’

elow the mark ,

’
opp osite st a tes ofi n eri or i ty and
f b dog: ad a tion .

benea th the yok e , benea th cont emp t

’ ’
A dv ‘
He shrunk . .

benea th S cot W ho li ves a bove ( ov er) you i

. B elow ( under)
’
w at er, ground, his cl othes .

‘a nak ed sw ord
O v e r means‘
ab ov e in p osition
hung over his head a large hole over t he mant el
’
i
p ece .

Ov er is extended from place t o many other applicat ions,

’

‘ ‘
r eser v ing t he ma i n idea
’
p w t w t h r p r e

p
o er over , o a c ove .
,

m use ov er ‘
fear cam e over m e "
ominat e over , Over t he
’ ’

‘ ‘
h

w oul d b e l it erally
’ ’
t hrough t he season
’
season, is over night
‘
t hroii gh t he night , b ut means also a ft er t he commencement
’

’
of the night .

‘ov er shoot
mp osition the meaning is S t ill p reserv ed :
’
In co ,
‘ ver ha n ’
o g , overcome I n some compound s t he idea i mplied
‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
over d o , overestima t e
’ ’
is excess ov er cha rge The t ra n .

sit iou is a n ob v ious one .

‘
The idea of cov ering d istinguishes t his p rep osition from t he
’

‘ ’
all ied w ord a b ov e , a nd has g iv en t o it a fa r gr ea t er st ret ch of

a p lica t ions T h e numb er of d eri va t iv es ob t ai ned f rom it is

p .

v ery g reat .

S cot . They l oo k ed over ( out at ) the window

‘
Und e r, t he op p osite of ov er u nd er the tree
’
und er hatches u nd er w ater under heav en .

‘ is often ap pl ied met aphori cally

Undei ’
I t is ext ended to .

‘
su bj ect ion, d ep end ence, a nd p r otecti on ; as u nd er t he sov ereign
‘
und er God
’
1
.

To the sustaining of a nything a s a bu r den, cover ing, or

’ ‘
under ob li a t ion ,
’
envel0p e : u nd er orders , u nd er t rial
‘
u nd er a pp rehension ,
g
‘ ’
und er rep roaches ,
’ ‘
u nd er necessity
‘ ‘
um
’
u nd er c onsid era t ion , d er t he g uise, or pretence, or
chara ct er, or na me of , u nd er a rms
’ ’ ’
und er sail , .

‘
To less i n q u a nti ty ; as u nd er age u nd er t he m ar k
Und er t he seal of , is a more remot e ext ension, a nd may b e
’

interpret ed as
‘
und er t he a ut hori ty or gua rant ee signi ed b y
’
fi
t he p utt ing of a seal .

‘
The ad v erb ial sense is in harmony w ith t he otht r : b ring
’
d
’
m ‘ ’ ‘ ’
und er , p u t u n er , co e u nder , g o u nd er , b end wnd er .

T hro ug h The simple p rop osit ion for the idea of

.

‘
through the gate , ‘ ’
through the w ood ,
’
p assa ge :
 P EE CH PR EP OS I TI ON
'

1
'

94 P A nrs
'
or
‘
S .
—
THE .

1 ‘thr u
o gh ma n
yhand s
‘t
thr ough
hr ough the ra nk s
’
,

the cl oud s thr ough t he v alley a nd sha d ow of d ea t h

The fi rst step in a d v a nce of t he p rimit iv e sense is t o sig ni fy
over the w hole extent o
f a thi ng, from en‘d t o end , or from one
sid e to a not her as thr ou gh al l ra nk s thr ough all na t ions
t h e ap plicat ion d epe nd ing on t he fa ct t ha t passage i mp lies su c
oe ssiv e cont act , a nd a sur v ey o f w ha t is gone ov er .

Owi ng t o the fa cilit y for gaining our w ishes i mplied in

a free

p assage, a n open d oor, or a m edi um o f co nv eya nce, t he w ord

k
fa rt her t a es on t he mea ning of i nstr umenta li tg, ca use, mea ns

‘
t hr ou gh ind ust ry thr ough in uence
‘
fl
thr oug h t he m inist er
A difference may b e
’
throu gh t he sw ift ness o f his horse .

not ed b et w een t his k

ind o f i nst rumentalit y a nd t ha t exp ressed
b y w i th a d ifference a ris ing out of t he p rimi t i v e sense of t ht
w o rds .

T ime thr ough the ages through the winter thr ough
t he session

Thr ougho ut is a strengt hened form .

S cot . He w a lk ed thr ough ( across) t he room he will learn

thr ough ( ) time
in he w al ks t hrough ( in) his sleep ’

‘
A lo ng isb y the long or length of a long the

shore a long t he road a l on sid e

g
No met ap horical extensions of any imp ortance are t o b e
not ed .

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ lid e
Come
’ ’
drive a long
’
A dv . a long ,
wander a lon
g , , g
a long

A c ross ,
on the cross a cross the riv er

a cross the stree t

’
,
a cross the Atlantic a cross his
shoul d ers

swi m a cr oss
0
Adv . L ay across

B efo re , in t he front of, w ith or w ithout

rox imity b efor e the d oor b efore S eb astop ol
p
‘
‘ before the magistrate ,
’
-
bef0 re t he fa ce of before
t he w ind
B y a nat ural t ra nsit ion it a p pl ies t o p reced ence, p r efer ence, or
b efor e his reg iment he w a s
’
s up er i or i ty befor e h is hett ers ,
p l a ced b e for e t he n ig h t s
’
k .

The a p plica t ion t o p riority o f ti me is one oft he chief uses of

t he w onl before day before long before t he age
 THROUGH : BE FORE ,
A F TE R z B E TWE E N , A MON G
'
.
’
95

b oth pl ace and t ime are denoted ,

‘
look ing befor e a nd

Aft e r ‘b efore in the signification of

,
op p osed to
reced ence in rank, and in exp ressing t ime
p .

The full a p pl ica t ion t o p la ce is seen in t he ad v erb ial and ad

‘
lagging after t he after p art of t he
'

eet iv e uses of t he word

l
-

milding
fi
B y a n ob v iou s gu re it is used w ith w ord s signifying p u rsu i t ,

’
and i nq u i r y, a nd al so desi r e follow after search after ,

hunger and thi rst after longing after immort al ity

B y a fa r ther ext ension, also q uite a ccount a b le, w e find it
signif ying i mi ta tion or f ollow ing a l ea d a ter Tit icus
f after

t he original , t he mod el , t o na me after

’

B e hind , as op p osed to b efore means in the

rear of at the b a ck of behi nd the scenes behind
a cl oud behind the b ack
H ence such appl ica tions as i nfer i or i ty, bei ng left ou t, a re

ma ind er i n a rr ea r , a t a d ista nce, out of sight, d isr ega r d ed .

The a d v er bia l comp ound s w ith v erb s are o fa li e t enor k

behi nd fall behind w al behi nd
‘
k
loo behi nd k
B et w e e n W hen
t w o Ob j ects are sep ara te d, the
'

inter v ening sp ace, or anything in a middle p osit ion, is

exp ressed b y this w ord in i ts primary sense b etween
deck s between t imes
H ence it is ppl ied t o expr ess all that goes on in such a situ
a
‘
a ti on p as sin g betw een int ercou rse or communica t ion
‘
betw een coincidence, sim ilari t y, cont rast , or d if ference be
tw een ( t he resul t of the compa rison t ha t may t a e la ce w hen k
tw o t hings are nea r each ot her)
‘ ’
so
‘
friend ship re at ionship ,
‘
,
l
understa nd ing cont est a nd r iv al ry b etw een
’
betw een , to
j
ad ud ica t e betw een a l so comm unit
y o r
p a rt nershi
p as pos
sessing
prop erty between them
‘
B
et w een ex r esses
p in t he m id st of t wo b ut t he ety mo
l ogy is Oft en d isregarded in it s app licat ion S uch d if
. ferences
‘
betw een t hese thr ee great p oet s ( Grot e) the da ys w hen my
’

P
mother and I and eggotty w ere a ll in all t o one anot her, a nd
t here w as no one t o come between us, rose up b efore me
’

k
( Dic ens) .

a nd m
i py
l a gr ea ter
 PARTS OF O S PE E CH .
—T HE PREP OS I TI ON .

numb er of things
‘
surrounding ; a
m
ong the t rees
a mong fr iends a midst his flock 3
‘
T hey p ed m y a rt rai ment a mong t hem
’
. S cot .
‘
I stuc k
a mong ( in) t he mu d

To m edita t e a mong st d eca y, a nd stan d

A ru m a mul s t r ui ns
’
.
,

S trictly, t o di vide between

1

‘
i mpl ies t wo t o di vide mong ,
’
a
more t han tw o .

B e yo ndThe p rimary . mea mng i s outsid e o i

f n
l ‘
h f r sid e of
’ ‘b e '
’ ‘
n t y nd begond
'

p a ce,
o e a o sea ,

b ou nd s beyond hearl ng
B y
e ond
’
is e xt ende d meta ; horieally t o signify p er i or i ty or
s u
‘
excess in a g rea t ma ny ot her
p ro p
e rt ies ; t hus, beyond t he
numb e r or mount 3,
b eyond his p o w er or his
a mea ns beyond
‘
hi m beyond d esc r iption beyond disput e beyond measure ,
’

’
beyond the g ra v e To go beyo nd is to d ecei ve,
.

c umv ent .

A b a ft . A sea term ex cl usiv ely : no smoking ab a ft

this funnel

R o und , A ro u nd r ound the house run round

the common a round t he fire

Round a dheres lit erally t o its well nown p rimary signifi ca -

k
cat ion e xcep t in t he one p hras e
, t o get r ou nd a person for
‘ ‘t o ci r cum vent
t o w hee dle or p revail w ith

A b o ut
has the p rimary ea ning of around b ut m
is mu ch more v aguely a pp lied I t p a sses off into .

s i nifying a certai n ind efinit e nearness or

g pr ox i m ity,
t he b eing cont a ined in a p la ce some w here or other as
‘ ‘ ’ ‘
a b out t he hou se , a bout t he
’
t ow n , a bout the
country a bout t he p erson

T his i s al so t he force of t he w ord as ap l ied t o time a b out -

m id night means not exa ct ly midnight ut som e t ime not far

’
,

f
of .

‘
S O with nu mber : hundred F rom
’
ab ou t a ex sin
.
p res
‘
g
nearn ess it b ecomes al so a p r ep osit i on of refer ence ; as a b ou t
‘
my fa t her s b usiness
'
a bou t w ho w as a bout t he
’
g rea test
o rigi n of ev il .

As an ad ver b, its force is seen in go about

 P LACE AN D TI ME . 97

‘t ow ard s ‘in
A ga inst ,
opp osit e to op p osition
‘ t he w all
’
a ga i nst the t ow er
’
to a ga ins t ,
ov er ,

my",
’
a ga i nst t he ene a ga ins t the c urrent .

T he cont rariet y t o for has b een alrea dy exempl ified

’

A ga i ns t w int er a ga inst my ret urn & c , shew t he . a

pp h
ca t ion t o ti me ( fut ure) .

W it ho ut ,
on the ou t sid e of b eyond the b ound s
‘ ‘ t
of w ithout the ca mp w i hout t he ra nge of t he
rif
le
H ence t he b eing d ep ri v ed of ,
sense of
‘
not ha v ing
’ ‘

w i thou t hel p w ithout courage w i thout d ou b t

These p rep osi tions of p lace a nd moti on i ncl ud e nea rly all t he
simp l e a nd p rimiti ve p rep osit ions of t he la nguage i t w ill b e “ ,

seen f rom t he foreg oi ng e x l a na t ions t hat b y mea ns of m eta

horical ext ensions, w e em p oy rela t ionship s of p la ce t o exp ress

p
most ot her relat ionship s d enoted b y prep osit ions .

Th e rel at ionships ofp la ce may b e ma de more expl icit a nd em

h at ic b y a v a rie ty of comp ound p hr ases, w hich ha v e t he exa ct
porce ofp rep osit ions as
‘
in t he mid st o f
‘ ‘
‘
in t he hea rt, cent re ,

i n close p roxi mit y t o

’
i nt erior of cl o se b y hard b y
in t he neighb ourhood or v icinity of rig ht t hrough
‘
st ra ig ht a t in a nt icip at ion of

ll T ime ‘ ‘till ’ ‘until ‘

I3 S ince during
’ ’
. . .
, , ,
‘ ’
e ndi ng after ere
p .

S ince The t ime a ft er an ev ent si nce t he p ea ce

‘ l ’ ‘
Ti l , flu nt il P receding a nd up to an ev ent : til l t he
’
end of t he cent u ry .

During p e nd ing T he cont inua nce of t he ev ent .

Many prep ositions of place may b e ap plied to t ime,

‘in ’
.

b y gov erning a noun of t ime ; as

’
,J
on ,
’
b efore b etw een by w ithin , ab out ab ov e

near
‘ ’ ‘
this a t midsumm er ;
‘ ’ ‘b
In
a ysar ; on efor e noon
k
‘
"
betw een t his a nd t he end of t he w ee by Christ mas ne xt
w ithi n t he mont h a bo ut an hour
’
a bov e a g enerat ion
’

;
nea r
’
si x O c oc l k
T he e x r ession of t ime m ay b e rend ered more specifi c a nd
em pha t ic
’
y p
a v arie ty of p hra ses at the mome nt of , on t he
’

e v e of , & c .
 PARTS OF - P
S EEC H .
—
THE '

P RE POS I TI ON .

i4 . i ll The agent , instrument, or means

. A g e nc y .

f
b a n a ction i s indicat ed b y the P rep ositions ‘
by
through w it h and b y t he
p hr ases, b y means of
b y v ir tue Of ‘
thr ough t he instrumental ity Of , b y
’ ’
,

help of b y force of & c .

The simpl e p rep ositions hav e b een alrea dy expl ained The .

p hrases deri v e t heir signi fica t ion of a gency from t he nou n by

mea ns of a p ow erful connexion by vi r tue of his p osit ion a s
‘
thr ough the i ns tr u menta li ty of a s ilful ag ent by k
fav oura b l e circumst ances by force of earnest soli ci t a
t ion

I5 . IV E nd , p u r p o se , m o t iv e , o r re a s o n
.

‘f ’ ‘
from
’
P hra ses : ‘
ou t of ,
‘ ’ ’
On account of ,
'

or , .

‘b ay of , for t he sa k e Of
’ ‘f ’
t he ends of
’

y w , or ,
‘ h consid erat ion of ’ ‘ ‘
on the from
’
i , score of ,
a

regard to w ith a v iew to w it h an eye to

As a llthe a ct ions of hum a n b eings are for some end, t he

stat ement oft he end i s Of ten req uired The l ea ding p rep osit ion .

‘ ’ ‘
is for ; he w or s for his b rea d k ’
W hen the feeli ng t o b e .

‘
gra ti fied’ is oint ed ou t , from is em p loy ed
‘
he w or s fr g rm k
p
.

hu nger e read s from c uri osity ( for Ou t

of k in d n ess
’

;
‘
on a ccou nt o f m ere a m b it ion
’
;
‘
by w a y of
’ ‘ ‘
st re ngt hening his case f o the sa ke of ea c e f or the en ds
r p
orm er g ood c ond uct
,

consi d er a ti o nof his f

’

j i i
y
o u s t ce , n on
‘
,

t i e scor e of il l heal t h f r om a r ega r d to c ha ract er w i th a

v iew to a good ed uca t ion The m eaning of t he noun suggest s
’
.

t he suita b le a pp licat ion o ft he p rep osit ional p hra ses W e s hou ld .

say, i n c onsi d er a ti o n of his yout h, he w a s sl ight ly p unis hed

b ut on a ccou nt of t he serious chara ct er of t he ofie11ce
'

consi d

er a ti o nimp lying a fa vmcr a ble sent iment .

”9 ‘ ‘ f’ ‘ b out ‘
16 . V . R efe re nc e On
’
,
o , a
’
, touching
’

co nc ern ing w ith referenc e to as fo r as t o

as r egard s on t he
’

j
sub ec t of on t he mat ter of

t he p oint of
on in resp ec t of
On t he b ea ut iful I si ng of w ar he ca me t o sp ea t o k
me a bou t his ou rney j
tou ching t he law
‘
cmi cer ni ng his

“ (
int erest s
i

a s to hi m
wi th r efer ence to your a pp l icat ion
‘
a s r ega r d s t he
p
as [ or t ha t

r ogr ess of t he su it
’ ’
ou t he

su bj ect of e xpl osiv e mixt ures on the ma tter 0} t he sa l e

’
in
r esp ect of your w ishes
st
a
 E N D, RE E RE F N CE ,
SE PAR ATI ON I N CLI NA TI ON
, ,
ao . 99

A llied t o reference is S UP P osrr mN for w hich there

are sev eral p rep osit ional p hra ses, a lthough t he m eaning
‘
is more u sua ll v ex p ressed b y conj unctions in the
on the s upp osition of ,
’ ’
in case of
’
ev ent of , .

I n the event of his not a rriv ing on the supp osi ti o nof t here
b eing a n ab unda nt supp ly i n ca se of fa ilure

I7 V I S . . e p a ra t io n a nd E x c lus io n :
‘w ithout ’
,

set t ing a sid e

’
sa v e ex cep t ,
b esides b ut
r om a r from
p u t t ing on one sid e
( p )
a art f ( )
f
‘sa ee ‘
W i thou t ar ms E ngland besid es
one
’
excep t
‘
his ow n setting a si de t he q u est ion of c om pensa t ion p ut
ti ng ( lea ni ng) on one sid e t he fea r of conse u ences
‘
none but q
‘
him a p a r t from hi s comp a nions fa r fr om home
‘f
IS . V ll I nc lina t io n
. a nd C o nfo r m it y : or
’
,
‘a ‘
) ( g y)
’
ac corda nce a r eeab l
(
’ ’
ccor ding to ,
in w ith ,
to ,

in p u rsua nce of
‘
‘
F or ( the ends of) u st ice ; j
accor d i ng to u se and w ont ;
’ ’

‘ ’ ‘
i n accor d a nce wi th t he v iew s of b ot h p a r ties a gr eea b ly to
‘
ur su a nce of t he arra ng em ent s al rea d y
’
ur i nst ruct ions ; i n p
yo
ent ered on

V I II A v e rs io n O p p o s it io n
’
l9 . .
,
aga inst ,
‘
with a thw art in sp it e of in d efiance of
‘ ’ ‘ ‘
A decree aga i nst l aw t o cont end wi th one
’
a thw a r t
’ ’ ‘
the w ishes of friends ; i n sp i te of fa te ; in defia nce of his
p rofessions
‘for ’ ‘inst ea d ‘in
2 0 IX S ub s t it ut io n :
’
of
’

. .
, ,
‘
room of in p la ce of ( a s a sub st i
’
on the p art of

tu te) for
‘ ‘ ’
An eye for an eye i nstea d of his b rother ( b y w ay of
‘ ‘
eva sion) fa i r w ord s i nstea d o f deed‘ i n r oom of t he d ecea sed ;
’
s
i n p lace of one oft he of ficial s a s a su bsti tu te for a b rid e
g
S cot . I n p lace of( i nst ea d of) p itying him, t hey la ughed at him
2l X .P o ss e ss io n Ma t e ria l : ,

y) m )
’

( h
’
to t e
p p
ro e r t of ( ad e of , .

22 I t has b een seen t hat some w ord s are b ot h p rep ositi ons
.

a nd a d v erb s
p p . A
re o sit ion i s k nown b
y its gov erning a nou n,
or a p hra se c orres ondin Thus a n infini t iv e phrase
p g t o a noun .

is freq u ent ly gov erned b y a p r ep osit ion on comin

g hom e
on b rea k in
g t he sea l after c onsid ering t he case without
st ra ining hard t he reason of hi s answ eri ng so soon
 THE CONJU N CTI ON .

Definit io n .

I . C o nj unct io ns j o in S e nt e nc e s t og et he r
‘d a
ends a nd night b egins t h ey w ere eq ual in
y
p ow e r, b ut t he
y w ere not eq uall y es te e m ed
This is t he primary use of t he word s called Con u nct ions j .

j
W hen t w o sent ences a re oined b y a w ord exp ressing t he relat ion

“
of th e one t o t he ot her, t he w ord of rela t ion— a nd , b ut , if ,
or
j
is a con u ncti on . k
B ut t he r ema r is a lso ma d e, t hat b esides ,

j oining compl et e sentences, cla u ses, or a f fir mations, th e con

j j
unct ion ma y oin p a rt s of sent ences, a nd ev en single w ords
Ab rah am sa w my d ay afa r of f a nd w as gla d a ol eon a nd
p N
ell ington w ere g reat g e nera l s
T
These, how ev er, a r e ob v iously ,

cont ra ct ions, a nd , when rest ored t o t he full form , giv e dist inct
di ct ums N
apol eo n w as a great g e nera l , a nd W el lingt on w as

a grea t general
’ ‘
He is nei ther a fool, nor a rogue
.
’ ‘
nei ther
‘

he is a fool , nor he is a rogue

The following exa mpl es are not so ob v iou sly cont ra ctions
t w o a nd t wo is four if t hey sta nd b e t w een y ou a nd me
k
Agai n p ut it u nder l oc a nd k ey seems imp ossib le t o resol v e
,

int o sep ar a t e sent ences the reason is t ha t it is t he la st stage of

sev eral a b b r ev ia t ions . j
V ery fa milia r ob ect s t ha t in t he first
inst a nce w oul d need to b e exp ressed at some lengt h, a re in t he
end g iv en b y t he few est
p ossib l e w ords t ha t w ill m a e a k ;

k
.

meaning A loc is a comp h ca t ed ma chi ne it c onsists of t w o

.

sep a rab l e a nd yet r el at ed memb ers t he one is cal led t he

a nd t he ot her t he k ey t he t w o t ogether a re call ed short l y loc
‘
k ,

‘ ‘
a nd k ey S o ma n and w i fe ,
’
p a rent a nd child m a ster
’

‘
nort h a nd sou t h , a re a b b rev ia t ed correl a t iv es
’ ’
a nd s er v ant ,

u nited b y a nd W hen w e say of t wo persons t hey are hus- i ‘

j
b a nd a nd w i fe w e ca nnot resol v e t he con unct ion i mmed ia t el y
int o t wo sepa rate a ffirm a t ions, yet remot ely t he a nd c onnects .

d istinct sta te ment s or se nt ences, such as t hese hu man b eings

a re of t w o cl asses ; t he one cl a ss a re m a l es, wh o b ecom e hus

b a nds, a nd t he ot her cl ass a re females w ho b ecome w iv es

’
.

We come to ab ridge t hese sent ences b y l ea v ing out all t he

w ord s, b u t t he two essent ial husb a nd , w ife a nd coupl e t hese
— —

b y a nd B ut for t his w e should ha v e to sa y one of t hese

ersons is a hu sb a nd, a nd t he ot her i s ( his) w i f e

p
j
S ome w ord s a re Con unct ions a nd nev er anyt hing else such
‘ ’ ‘ r ‘ ‘ ‘
Other words
’ ’’ ’
are or , no , if , b eca use , lest .
 CO OR
-
D NA NG
I TI '
AN D sURonDI NA'rI N G . 1 01
‘

are, now at least , p rincip ally P repositions, .

j unct ions b y b eing p refixed t o a cla usé ; t hgse are ’

~
a

af t er since ere u nt il fort ll

fiS‘g mEnglish ;
e o l di
’
.
-

st ru ct ion w a s t o supp ly t he d emonst r a tiv e t liait for t he pre

sit ion t o govern A f ter tha t I w a s t urned I r epent ed
p o
The d mp p ing o f t he d emon
’
after tha t l wa s i nst ruct e d & c , .

t ra t iv e leav es t he p rep osit ion in d irec t cont a ct w ith t he clause,

a nd it is t hen sa id t o b e a conj unct ion .

Certa in a d verb s are i ncl uded a mong t he con unctions These j .

a re w ord s t hat a re p u rely rela ti v e, or st a nd i n need of a second

‘

cl a use to gi v e a mea ning He is ind ust rious, ther efor e he is

.

The w ord t herefore w ould not suf fice of it self t o

’
ha p y .

a if h e i s h ap p y t h ere must b e a re v ious cl a u se t o g iv e

q u y p
t he mea ni ng, or t he reason w hy he is hap p y B y t his circu m .

st a nc e,
‘
t heref o re serv es t he of fice of a con unct ion I t is a j .

j
rel a t iv e a d v er b , con unc t iv e a dv erb , or a d v erb ia l con unct ion j .

Of t he sa me class are
’ ‘
k
li ewise , al so , st ill , yet , nev er
’ ‘ ’ ’
~

‘ ‘
theless ,
’
not w it hsta nding ,
’
however ,
’ ‘
cons e uently ,
’
q
hence a ccord ingly

C la s s e s of C o nj u nct io ns .

2 There are tw o l eading div isions of Conj unctions

.

C o o rd ina t ing a nd S u b o rd ina t ing

-
.

( Jo ordi nating Conj unctions j o in co o rd ina t e

- -

c la us e s that is, ind ep end ent affirmations .

S ub ord inat ing j

con unctions u nite s u b o rd ina t e
or d e p e nd e nt c la us e s t o t he p r inc ip a l c la us e
of a se nt e nc e .

3 . I T he C o
.
-
o rd ina t ing C o nj unc t io ns are

classed a ccor d ing to the

b etween the rel a ti on ex isting

united clauses They ma

y i nd ica
. t e t hat t he second is a

cla use of Addi t ion or Cumula t ion of 039190 8 7 .

tion or Contr ast or of Ej f ect or Conseq uence

t herefore

4 . C u m ula t iv e C o nj u nc t io ns are such as

unite one cla use w ith a second whose mea ni ng a d ds to

‘ ’ ‘ ‘ ‘
wha t p r eced es
’ ’
AN D ,
a lso
l ik ew ise , as w ell
,
’ ‘ ‘
not onl y— b ut , p artly p artl y , first — i then
’
as — -

‘ ‘
moreover , now , w ell
’
secondly, &c
’ ’
.
, further
l O2 ma rs or; $P E E CH .
—
THE CO NJUN CTI ON .

A nd t oupiesor unites tw o a ffirmations, and does no

This i sthe chiefofthe cl a ss it is a st ri ct con unction t he

’

j
i
'

i
r est a re a d v erb s ha v i ng t he sa me ene ra l e f
fect , b ut w it h
g
a ddit ional circumsta nces or sha des of m ea nin
g .

B ot h —
a nd p uts sp ecial e mphasis on the co m
b ination .

A ls o mark s so me similarity in the second statement .

V ery oft en, how ev e r, t here i s little imp lied in it b eyond

what w oul d b e signified b y a nd

L ike w is e is nearly the same as also

I t w as consi d er ed t h a t t h ere w as p oi nt i n t h e rem r rk m ad e on t h e son

of a fa m ou s S c ot ch j
u d g e w h o h a d s u c cee d e d t o hi s fa t h er s of ce , b u t
'
fi
j L
,
'
not t o h is a b ili t y h e w a s a u d g e a l so b u t not likew i se ik ew ise
,

g g p r eced ing , ha ving near l y th e force

o ten onn ect s one se nt enc e w i th a
‘
0 an

A s w e ll a s giv es an especial emphasis to the union

in most cases m ore p art ic ul arly t o t he first memb er .

He a s w ell as you is more forcib le t ha n he a nd you

‘ ’ ’
.

‘
- N o less t ha n ha s
’
a si mil a r ef
fect . B oth ex p ressions are
st rictly su bor di na ting connec ti v es .

N ot o y
n l —
b ut indicates strongly the fact that the
fi rst mentioned mst ance d oes
c ircu not sta nd b y itsel f,
and thus emp ha sise s t he second .

I nstea d of saying Engla nd a nd all the rest of E urop e we

m ay w hen w e m ea n t o p ut st ress on t he ci rcumst ance of
say,
E ngland s not sta ndi ng al one, not only E ngland, b ut all t he
’

r est of E urop e

P a rt ly —
p a rt ly . Ha lf —
ha lf . Now —
no w .

‘
H p ke s o p e from con v i
a r tly
ct ion, p a r tly from p rudence .
’

H consent ed, ha lf from cup idity, ha lf from fear

‘ e ‘
He .
’

B
d w elt now a mong t he rit ons, now a mong t he Mercia ns These .
’

a nd simil a r forms a l so cou p l e or a dd t w o p red ica t ions, int ro

du cing at t he sa me t ime a circu mstance t ha t seems suita ble t o
t he sp ecial case .

F irst , t he n, sec o nd ly, &c The numert

'

.
 o mmm rl va '
AN D a nv a asa r i v a . 103

ad v erb s ind ica te cumula tion the a dd it ional circum

sta nces b eing d efinite ord er a nd a mea ns of reference .

F u rt he r, Mo re o v e r mean tha t ,
the cas e is not yet
exha usted, there is m ore t o b e sa id up on it .

N o w is transferred from prese nt time t o indicate

r esent circumsta nc es I t i nt rod uces t he mid dl e link
p .

in a n argume nt, a nd i t offers ex pla na t ion .

‘
mmencinbg a sentence i s t o follow up a
’
The ef
fect of now co
st a t ement b y som ethin t ha t co mp l et cs it so as t o e na b l e a n
g ,

i nference t o b e d ra wn T hus i f a c ond it ion b e p remised 11 0 m

.

w hich something follow s t he c omp lia nce w it h t he cond ition

.

‘ ’
w ou ld b e exp ressed b y a nd t he c onc l usion b y t herefo1 e
’

, now .

‘
He w a s p romised a hol id ay if he e xec ut ed his t as ; now he k
k
has d one t he t as , t he refore he i s ent it led t o t he holiday .

( The minor premi se of t he syll ogism is correct ly int rod uced b y

now
N ot this man, b ut B arab b as now B a rab bes was rob b er
’
a .

Here now add s an explana t ory circu mstance .

W e ll implies that hitherto all is sat is faxt ory a nd ‘

indisp uta b le, a nd that the w ay is cl ear for

p_
r oce ed in
g
a nother step .

I t i s in t he consecut iv e sent ences of a P aragraph that t hese

a dv erb ial connect iv es come m ost f req uent ly int o p la y, a nd w hen

ca ref ully emp loyed, t hey a dd much t o t he cl ea rness of t he

c onnexion .

The o mi tting of
j h a
as t he f ce of cumul a t ion ;
con unction
or

t he mere fa ct of sta t ing one t hing a ft er a not her, w it h no w ord

“
e xp 1 essi ng op posi t i on, or cond it iona lit y, or ot her re lat ionshi ,
p
l ea v es it to b e und erst ood t ha t t hey a re t o t he sa me general
e fie ct , j ust as i f we w ere t o e mp l oy and t o u nit e t hem
’

T his omission may a lso suggest infer ence : The w ind p asseth
ov er I t it is gone

5 . A d v e rs a t iv e C o nj u nct io ns p lac e t he
second S entence or Cla use i n some k i nd of op p os ition to

w ha t p recedes This Class . is s ub di vided into t hree

Sp ec ies .

E xclu wise ‘
( b ut else other
’
a . sive not— or .
1 04 PARTS or sp nnon .
—
r nn CO N J UN CTI ON .

N ot —
b ut ex cl ud es or
p uts a sid e one fa ct to b ring
another into p r ominence .

A or em i re, bu t for
st1 uggl e not f existence.
’
He did not
pv
,

sp ea k bu t he foug ht
,
.
’
e m ust t hink
’
not whom w e ar e fol
l ow ing , b ul w ha t we a re d oing .

E ls e , o t he rw is e , on any other supp osit ion

j
These a d ve1 b con unct ions hav e a d efini te a nd imp ortant
fi
signi ca t ion ;
‘
it is so, ha d i t not been so, something w ould
ha v e hap pened
’
He came to t own yesterd ay, other wise I
.

‘
should not hav e met hi m if he had not come to
’
t hat is,
t own yest erd ay

O r similarly imp lies the exclusion of the first cir

cu mstance .

I must seem t o b e angry, or other wise, if I d o not see m

t o b e angry) , she t oo may b egin to despise my a uthority
’
.

( )
b A .l ter na ti ve either —
or neither -m
nor
w hether — or W hereas and w hile may b e added .

The general meaning of ea ch ofthese couples is w ell known ,

b ut t here are some special meanings wort h not ing .

Or so metimes ex p resses a mere a lter na t ive na me,

01
‘
synony m ,
the thing b eing t he same : Christ, or

( th )
a t is the Messiah ’
.

In j udicial
p din g s t hi s is ex ressed b
r oc ee
p y a l i as W e are .

hence, somet imes, a t a l oss t o now w hether an alt ernati v e is k

merely v erb a l, or is rea l .

‘
you must
’
ust se en t he use of or for otherwise
’
or you ca nnot succeed

N o r is sometimes a contrac tion for

’
and not .

He foresa w t he conseq uences nor were , they l ong d elayed

’

( a nd they w ere not) .

These alternativ e j
con unctions are not alw ays con

fined to two t hings .

‘
Ho regard ed
her as ei ther an im ost or, or a madw oman , or
‘
a compound of b ot h
’
N ei fher w in .
, nor rain, nor aught else,
‘ ’
can cool our a fl ect ion .

F or I have nei ther w it , nor w ord s, nor w orth ,

A
cti on , no r u t t e ra nce, nor th e p ow er of sp eech,
To stir men s bl ood
’ ’
.
 AD V ERS ATI VE AN D ARRE S TI VE .

W he reas a nd w hile may often b e regarded as co

ord ina ting no less t ha n as sub ord inating a lter na t iv es .

‘
The su b tle i nt erpreta tion of l aw s ca n p ut v ery few in
rememb ra nce of t heir d ut y, w her ea s w h ile on t he ot her

ha nd ) t he p la in m ea ning of t he l a ws is op en t o ev ery m an
’

‘
W hereas is st ric tly a comp ou nd rel at iv e a d v erb , mea ning
’

in circumsta nces w herein, or wit h reference to w hich

( ) c
. A r resti ve, p re resent e d by b ut
ne v ertheless
’
l
’
still , y e t on y
P hr a ses : for all that a t the sa me t ime

B ut is the j
con unct ion of ex cep tion and surp rise.

‘
The chara cteristic meaning of b ut is seen w hen
somethi ng has b een sa id t ha t suggest s, a cc ord ing t o

the usual course of things, a certai n ot her fa ct, or con

cl usion, w hich, how e v er, d oe s not follo w i n t his case .

He w as honest, bu t he w a s not est eemed A n honest man .

’

usu al ly ga ins t he esteem of his fello w s, a nd w hen w e hear t he

a tt rib ut e of honesty a f fir med , w e a re na t ura lly d isp osed t o g o
on a nd a ssume t he a ccomp a niment o fr esp ect t his is p rev ent ed
‘ ’
b y t he u se of b ut , a nd hence t he d esigna t ion a rresti v e The
meeting dispersed t he conclusion is t ha t e v eryb od y w ent a w a y
t o chec k
t his i nfe rence, w hic h m ay b e t oo ha sty a nd sw eep in
w e ad d , but t he l ea d ers rem a i ned He is rich, b ut not ha ppy
’
he t ri es hard , bu t he d oes no t p rosp er .

L oose emp loy ment of b ut This forcib le w ord should not b e

-

k
used w here no e xcep t ion i s t a en, or no a rrest p ut u p on a
‘
nat ural i nference . N
0 m a n t a eth it f k
rom me, b ut I la
y it
dow n of myself ; b ut is here u nnecessa ry
’ ’
.

k
I t is al so a common mist a e t o use b ut i n the sense of now
h e c o mpl et in
as signif y in g t g of a ca se in order t o dra w an
‘ ‘
infere nce Men a re ni ortal ; bu t ( for now w e are men ;
.

t herefore w e are mort al

’
.

T he mer e sta ting of a contrast d oes not ustify b ut j w hen

r id e comet h, t hen com et h sha me bu t w it h t he low l y is
p
w isd om The las t assertion is i n a ccorda nce w it h t he first tthe
d enial of t he oppo sit e is anot her mode of af rming t he sa me fi
‘
fa ct ) , and t h ere fore t h er e i s no suf ficient case for b ut
‘
W hile is a suit ab le w ord in t his connexion ; so is t he p hrase
’

on t he ot her ha nd

I n t he follow ing sent ence t he p rop ri et y o f b ut d epends on

’

‘
t he facts of t he case : the Commons p assed t he bill, bu t t he
106 m a rs or S EE C P H .
—
THE CO NJUN CTI ON .

Lords threw it out ’

I fit w ere usual for t he ords to agree
. L
W th th C mm n
i e o o s, t heir o
pp o sit i on w ould b e a surp rise, a nd
w ould b e exp ressed b
y b ut W here t here is no su rprise, a
j
cu mul a t iv e con unct ion is t o b e
p referred a rl ia m ent
p assed
. P
t he measure, b ut t he Kin re fused his consent w ould , under
g
t he custom of t he E ngl ish const it ut ion, b e a ro er const ruction
p p .
’
j
B ut is t he con unct ion of ep ig ram
.
.

B ut t hen . Am ore e mp hat ic form of b ut q

e ual to b ut
in tha t cas e, or on tha t supp osi tion

S t ill sug ests a

g p a u se to hear w hat is t o b e sa id
b y w ay of e xce t i
p on or Opp osition to t he rev iou
p s
state ments .

‘ ‘
S till is an equiv al ent Of b ut and ev en m ore em hat ic
’

‘ev r p
e y thi ng w e nt a a inst him t i ll h e p ersisted As i t i s a
g s
rea t er b r ea k in t he flo w of t he com osit ion t ha n
‘
b ut , it is
’

g p
e rab le w ord for c ommenc in
a p re f
g a peri od, or t he second mem
b er ofa period di v ided b y a semicolon .

Ye t . The p eculia r force of yet is b rought out b y

’

its c onnexion w i th t hough t hough d eep , yet

cl ear
‘
W hen though is not exp ressed, it is u nderst ood , and t he
’

‘
meaning of yet is al most t he sa me The int ent ion is a s it .

w ere for mally t o concede a p oint t h at w ould seem t o c a rry a

q
certa in c onse uence w it h i t, a nd a t t he sa me t ime t o forb id t ha t
q
conse uence .

N e v e rt hele s s I n conv eying the same general

.

meaning as t he foregoing, this long w ord makes a con

siderab l e b reak or a use
p .

I t is t herefore suita b le for introd ucing a l on er declarat ion,

as in commencing a p eriod , or an extended m em er of a period .

Ho w e v e r A w ord of like p urp ort t o the fore

.

in I t has the p ecul ia rit y of b e ing often

p l a ce d in
g o g .

t he m id dle of its sent ence or clau se .

‘
ho wever , he wa s not inclined t o t a e k ’
That course, The .

a dv a nt age of such a n a rra ngement is, t ha t t he c on u nct ion d oes j

not st a nd b et w een t he t wo connect ed sta t ement s, and so p er .

mits t he reference to b e emphat ical ly close .

O nl P laced a t the b eginning of an assertion

‘onl
y
’
h as the effect of b ut
’
.
 ARRES TI VE AN D I LLA TI V E .

Do
’
as you l et your int ention b e app arent ;
p lease ; only
that is, your d oi ng so is st ill t o p ermit t his one thi ng, namely,
t hat you mak e your int ent ion a pp arent .

F or all t hat , in sp it e of all t hat , not w it hst a ndi n a ll

t ha t , a re g rases t hat p roduce t he arresti v e effect , a n g
suit a b le t o p
ma d e use of w hen a more t ha n ord i nary emphasis
is d ema nded This emp hasis t hey giv e p artly from t he for ce of
.

t he w ords, part ly from t heir occup ying t he at t enti on b y t heir

lengt h .

A t t he sa me t ime Another p hrase b elonging t o t he

.

arrest i ve cla ss, w it hout much specialit y in it s a p pl icat ion .

6 . Illa t iv e C o nj u nc t io ns exp ress j

e ect,
’
conseq uence t herefore w herefore hence
'

or

w hence conse
q u ent ly a ccord ingly thus
so t ha t t hen so t hen

T he refo re is the typ ical w ord of the class .

q
I t is al so t he most fre uently ma de use of The rest d o l itt l e .

more tha n a fford synonymes t o v a ry t he composit ion W h ere .

q
for e is e ual t o a nd t herefore
‘
hence, t he sa m e as from
‘
t his
‘
k
w hence li e w herefore dispenses with and when
we should say a nd hence

‘
C o ns e q ue nt ly is the eq uiv al ent of as a con
’
seq uence .

A c co rd ing ly may mean conseq uence or ef

fect
’
,

lik e t he p receding .

I t is also suit ed b y it s d ifetym ology t o

ferent mean a rat her
‘
ing somet imes imp ort a nt t o b e signified , in harmony w ith
‘
The a rra ngements are t hat t he ca v alry and art illery shall
mov e in a d vance ; accor d ingly, you ( the ca v al ry) are t o leav e
y our p osition 85 0 .

T hus and so , l ik e ‘a c ’
cord ingly , are w ord s or1g1nally
1 m l 1n
p y g comp a rison or si milari ty of m a nner, and ex
te nded t o sig nify inference or conseq uence .

‘
Thus 1s employed a fter sta t ing a pr incip l e to i ntr od u ce an
i n p oi nt ; as mu ch a s t o sa y w e shall giv e an
or case
inst a nce of w ha t is int end ed ’
I t al so ex presses a com par ison
.

111 t he st rict sense ; a s in t he

p assage from t he f
lea s ur es o P
Hop e A t summer s ev e, when hea v en s et hemal b ow , & c
’ ’ ’
.

thus ( ad v of manner or com arison wit h d el i ht we l in er

.
p ) g g
 198 r ea rs or S P EECH .
-
THE ~
CON JUN CTI ON .

The ex ist ence of these t wo distinct uses renders the word less -

j
a p t as a n illat iv e con unct ion, a lt hough st ill a d missi b le .

S O , w hos e p rimary funct ion is t o ma e a comp arison, can

’
k
a lso ex ress a conse uence
p q T h ere w a s not hi n
.
g to b e seen, so
w e w ent our way
S o t hat is more speci c t han so fi t he addition of t hat
’

ex cl ud es t he m ea ning of comp a rison hence this comb ina ti on is

one of our most p recise f orm s of si n i f in I t s most
g y g inference .

c ha rac t erist ic imp ort is, t o such a degree t hat

T he n F rom hav ing as an ad v erb t he force of

.

’ ‘
after t hat , or in t he nex t p la ce t hen has b een
included among illativ e conj unct ions t he fac t of one "

t hing following a nother b eing giv en as show ing causa

tion or i nference .

The sa me ex l anation a p p lies to t he ad op t ion of con

‘
q
se u ently
’
, it fo lows t hat as w ord s sig nifying ca use a nd ef
fect .
‘ ‘
is more commonly used i n a compound phra se, so
’
Then
‘and t hen , b ut it ma y, st anding al one, ha v e t he f
’
ull
t hen
‘ in d raw ing a n inference, or st at ing an
force of therefore
‘ ’
effect , or a consequ ence S o then t he ca use w a s gained ,
.

signifies b y t hose mea ns it came a b out as an effect that &c

)s
.

To the exp r essi on of t his imp ort ant relat ionship , a s w ell
va ry .

as occasiona ll y to ma ke i t mor e emp ha ti c a nd p r eci se, we use

to
‘
hrases Of gr eater l engt h ; as t h e ef
f ect , conse uence, resul t ,
p ‘ ‘ ‘
it may be
’
t he inference is ; it foll ows
’
up shot w as ;
concluded, inferr ed &c .

7 II T he S ub o rd ina t ing C o nj unct io ns

. . are

div ided a ccord ing to the va r ious r ela tions or mod es of

d ep endence ; as Reason ( b eca use) , Condit ion ( if) , End

“
at ) , P recaution ( p rov id ed t hat ) , Ti me ( when)
K

( th
I
.

C o nj unct io ns of R e a so n a nd C a use
3 b ecause for since as w hereas inasmuch
f
as seeing ( consid ering, &c .
) t hat
W hen w e inv ert an illa t iv e g t he cou se connexion, sta tin

u nce as t he main cl a u se t he
o ther is t hen assigne d a s t he
q
”
e
“
.

r ea son he is in ea rnest ther efor e h e w ill succeed ( i lla ti ve)

,

he w ill succeed, beca u se he is in ea rnest ( r ea son) The cla u se .

3,
beca use he is in earnest is a sub ordinate or d epe ndent cla use
3 in ot her w ords, t he fact is giv en not for it s ow n sa e, b u t as k
b earing out somet hing else The con unct ions . j
t hese clauses are, t herefore, ca lled subordina t ing .
 RE S OA N OR CAU S E .

B e c a use , b y its deri v ation, is t he word for assigning

a ca use .

M oral ca uses, or mot iv es ac t ing on p d

t he b y mind ,
a re e x r esse

j
t his con u nc tion : he rea d s beca use he has t hought himself
hungry he w rites beca u se he has rea d himse l f full P hysical
’
.

‘
ca usa t ion i s sta ted in t his exa m l e : t he crop s fa il ed, beca u se
p
t he season was dry

F o r is in assigning causa tion, in gi v ing w hat

u sed
18 call ed the l og ica l reason or roof a nd in exp la ining
p ,

or a cco unt ing for a t hin

'

g .

W m
k
The b roo w ill b e v cry o
grea t d eal Of rain fell _ _
,

al of ra in m ust hav e
’
t he night ( physical ca us g rea t d e
fallen, for t he b roo is hig h ( the logical r ea son or p roofL i He—
k fl
’

ressed on, for his am b i ti on w a s st i ll u nsat isfied ( expla na tion) .

he w ord is especially a p p rop ria te in t his l a st sense A charac .

t e ri stic ap plica t ion is seen i n such a sent ence a s d o as you are

t old, for much d ep end s on it here t here i s a b l an or ellip sis, k
“
j
a nd w hen t ha t i s filled u , t he con unct ion show s itsel f in t he
p
sense of g iv ing t he rea son or p roo f d o as you a re t ol d i f you
“
r

q
fa il, t he conse uences w ill b e s erious, for ( or t he p roof of which
is) mu ch depends on it

S inc e lite rally means so mething tha t is p ast, and .

hence se ttled a nd fixed, so t ha t w hate v er conseq uences

d ep end on it must now a rise .

S i nce you desire it , I will loo int o t he matt er k I t declares .

’

a cert a in c ircu mst a nce t o ha v e occu rred , a nd gi v es t ha t as a

reason for t he main af firma tion .

As deriv es its use as a sub ordinat ing c on unct io n of j

reason from t he ori gina l i d ea 1
of d ec la ring si mila r ity
or comp a r ison .

’
A s w e are at leis ure, l et u s see w hat is t o b e seen t he as .

here a ssigns a rea son for our see ing , & c , a nd it d oe s so b y i ndi.

ca t i ng a sort of si mil a rit y o r ha r m ony b et w een t he p osit ions o f

‘
ou r b ei ng at l eisure a nd our seei ng a ll w e c a n i t is i n
‘
a cc or da nce w i th our sit ua t ion t o see , & c
’
L et us a ct ou t, .

o rm t o or resemb le ou r p osi t ion , & c Al though as is t hu s

’
c onf , .

i ncl uded among t he sub o rdina t in g c on u nc t ions of rea s on, j

t here is m ore freq u ent d a nger of a mb ig uity w i th it t ha n w ith
t he ot hers o f t he c la ss .
 1 10 PAR TS or SPE E CH .
—
THE CO NJUN CTI ON .

W he r e a s
introduces the p reamb le in ev ery Act of
P arliament, giv ing t he reason or motiv e of t he
enactment , or t he ev il t o b e remedied b t he p rov isions
y
t ha t foll ow .

H ence
it is stri ctly a con unction of reason, b ut its empl oy j
ment i n t his sense is most ly confined t o legal comp osit ions .

The mea ning b elongi ng t o t he w or d in ord inary st yl e is

d ifferent ‘
k
I offered t o ta e t he l ot ent ire, w her ea s ev ery one
.

el se w ished i t d iv ided
’
ere it H
p lainl y i ndica tes a contrast
.

b et ween t w o t hings S ee 5 ( 2 ) ( b) . .

I nasmuch as, forasmuch as These are comp ound e ui

. q
‘
v al ent s of si nce as a nd w hereas ( in t he sense of a p re
a mb le)
’
F masmuch
.
'
as many hav e t a
k en in ha nd to set fort h
in order, & c .

S ee ing t ha t , c o ns id e r ing t ha t , hav e a sp ecial

ap p rop ri a t eness when the r ea son gr ows ou t o f ci rcu m

sta nces r e fl ected on by the mi nd .

S eei ng tha t you ca nnot get what you ask , t a e w hat you k
Consideri ng tha t t he w orld is so int rica t e, w e are
’
ca n g et .

not to be surp rised t ha t sc ience has p r ogressed sl ow ly

’
The .

only p ecul ia rit y of these p hra ses a s con unct ions of rea son is j
deriv ed from t he mea ning of t he w ords seeing considering

9 . C o nj u nct io ns of S up p o s it io n C o n ,

d it io n, o r Q ua lific a t io n g ( )
’
if sup osin
p t hat ,

if not u nl ess exc ept w ithou t otherw ise

though
’
w hether as if , not withsta nding
al b eit

if . W hen
thing is stat ed not ab solutely or un
a

cond itionally, b ut u nd er a cert ain cond it ion, su pp osition,

or q ual ificat ion, if is the p rincip al w ord for exp ressing

the condi tion .

I
w ill, if can I
if I coul d, w ould This is the main I
j
u se of t he con unc tion, t o which i t a d heres w i th cons id era b le
uniformit y .

A p eculia r and somew hat amb iguou s empl oyment of t he

w ord i s see n in t he fa b le, w here t he a nt sa ys t o t he gra sshop p er,
‘ ‘ ’
If you sung in su mmer, d a nce in w inter w here if has t he
‘
( force of a r ea son, t he cond ition b eing a realised fa ct , s ince, or
as you sung These a re ca ses where t he con unct ion is a lways
. j
followed b y t he ind ica t iv e mood .
 S UPP OS I TI ON on COND I TI ON . 111

S upp osing t ha t on t he sup p osit ion, p resump t ion,

all eg a t i on, hyp ot ii esis t hat , a r e p hrases t hat v ary t he
, ,

m od e Of int rod ucing condit i ona l stat eme nt s ; t hey ca rr y t heir

ow n m eaning w it h t hem I n ca se ( t hat ) is a v ery conv enient
.

a nd o ft en- wa nted hra se f or a nt ic i a t in on t i n e n i es or ev en

p p g c g c
‘
t ualities The rep osit ional p hrase i h f i of
’
.
p n t e eve n t O s
t he sa me t enor .

P rov i ded t ha t . S ee 10 , end.

If no t is j
a c on unct ion of nega tive condition .

i t he most saga cious, s not t he most comprehensiv e,

Ar st otle, ’

mind Of a ntiq uit y conv eys an i nsi nuation Of d oub t, alt hough
t he c ont ext and the manner w ill Ofte n show t ha t t he spea er k
either b eliev es or d isb el iev es t he st a t ement .

Unle s s a nd exce pt a re also j

con unctions of
nega ti ve condit ion .

Unless i f not ) I hear to t he contrary, I w ill b e t here

’
.

‘ xce
E p t’ unl ess, if not ) ye rep ent , ye shall all li ew ise k
ri sh
p e .

‘ th
W it hout w as former] u sed to signif
y
‘
ifnot wi out
you go I w ill not
, T e c onnexi on of t his sense with t he
usual force Of the p rep osit ion is a
pp a rent .

W he t her —
o r, w het he r, indicate a doub le case of

cond itionality .

Whether k
he l i e it or not , he wi ll hav e t o gO that is
’

"whi hev er Of he t w su b h h
c t o pp os it ion s e t e fa c t , e w il l h av e t o

k ‘
'

if he li e i t, he w ill ha v e t o go if ( t hough) he d o not

g
o

ike it , he w ill hav e t o go

I n t he exp ression I ‘
k
now not w hether he w ill c ome, the
’

w ord ‘ ’ ‘
k
if somet imes t a es t he p lace Of w hether , a s if con
’

d it iona lity w ere st ill suggest ed The t ransiti on from st at ing .

c ond itiona l it y t o imp lyi ng m ere d oub t is a n Ob v ious one ; the

mea nings a re st ill d ist inct .

A s if is a co mp ound j
con unction carrying out the
sense of b oth w ords .

‘
He st a rt ed as if he sa w a sp irit
’
, is ellipt ical for as he
would hav e d one if he,
’
&c .

T ho ug h, a lt ho ug h, ex p ress concessi on, w hich is

condit ion, w ith t he circ u msta nce
t ha t p ar ties a re w illing
to all o w somethin that they might p erhap s re fuse.
g
1 12 PA RTS Ca m e os — THE CO NJUN CTI ON .

Though all men d eny thee, yet will I not c

grant the s uP “
sit ion t ha t a ll men & c
.
’

p o , .

W hen something is gi v en a s t rue with a certain limita tion,

w e m ay use t his w ord t hey ad v anced st eadily, tho ugh slow l
y
The use Of yet t o prefa ce t he p rincip al cl a use inc reases the
e mphasis Of t ha t cl a u se, b u t d oes not a f fect t he meani ng Of
t hough in connexion w it h t he sub ord ina te clause .

The omission Of t hough in t he a b ov e examp le w ould ma k e

t he clau ses c o ordina te, united b y the co ordi na t in arre st iv e
- -
g
c onj unct ion yet
‘

W e ha v e a v ariet y Of p hrases for t he p resent meaning

v id ed t hat , all ow i ng t hat ’ gl a nt ing t hat , & c
p osing t ha t also freq uently imp l te tha t a concession is is
.

N o t w it hs t a nd ing falls under the sa me hea d as

t he foregoing .

a v erb a l
“
I t is phrase conv ert ed into a rep osit ion in t he first
inst a nce, a nd t hen into a con unct ion j t Ob v iously means
.
1 p
a m p rep a red t o d o a c ert ai n t hing, grant ing w hat a
ppear t o b e
st rong c onsid era t ions or f orc es on t he ot her side

F or all t ha t, i n sp ite Of a ll t hat are ex ressiv e s

p onymes
for t he co ordinat in mea ning
-
Anyhow . at ev ents
are ot her p hrases Ofa lied signi ca ti on fi .

A lb e it is an ex pressiv e comb ination, and ought not

to be consider ed as Ob sol ete, or Old fashioned -
.

lo . C o nj unc t io ns of E nd , or . P urp ose

‘t ha t ’ in ord er that
’
so — as
‘
as— as
‘
lest
’
, , .

T ha t is the demonstrativ e p ronoun, conv erted into

j
our chie f con unction Of end
‘ ‘m
We sow , tha t w e may rea p t oil , tha t t hey may
’
en
The t ra nsference of t he d emonst ra t iv e t o
’
a tt a in t o l eisure .

t his p e culia r u se may b e exp lained b y su pposing t hat a fter a fact

‘’
is sta te d, t he b earer is rea dy t o ask wha t then w hat next t
‘ ‘ ‘’
w ha t Of it for w ha t end 3 w hereu pon t he d emonst rati v e
su pp lies t he informat ion d esired, tha t, ( namely) w e may
rea p W ithout assuming t he na tural d esire t o now w hy k
a t hi ng is, or w hy a n assert ion i s mad e, w e ca nnot w ell account
j
eit her for t his con u nct ion or f or th e st il l grea t er b l an of con k
‘
meet ing w ord s shown in t he gerund const ru ction : W e sow to
‘
r eap t hey st oop to ri se bor n b ut to d ie in al l w hich t he
a ct ion ex ecte d t o f ollow is simp ly named in i ts m ost na ed k
k
form, the carer b eing loo ed upon as as ing why 1? or w herefore ? k
 P UIir oss AN D TI ME 1
’

than the simple

ore expl icit
‘
t ha t ; st ill it fa ils t o exp ress t he fa ct Of end b y a d irect
'
‘

‘ ‘
mea ning : t he w ord s in order mean only t his rst , t ha t
’
fi
ne xt t he b earer must himself su pp ose t ha t t he one lead s to,
or p oint s t o, t he ot her The sa me p hrase is int erp osed in t he
.

er und const r uct ion w e rea d i n or d er to b e informed

g
So —
as. He so acted as toga in the confidence Of

This is a k ind Of rel at iv e t he const r uction;

‘
d emonst ra ti v e, t he as rela t iv e He act s in that manner,
.

b y w hich manner he gains The end is st ill a ma t t er Of

’
.

i nference more t ha n Of d i rect informa t ion The effect of t he .

c onst ruct ion i s t o indica t e not merel y e nd , b ut a cert ain exp ress
suita b ility in t he mea ns empl oyed t o comp ass t he end .

‘
L e st is the
’
end Of av oid a nce in ord er not t o .

’
They set a st rong uard, lest any one shoul d e sca e
g p .

j
I n the u se Of t his con unct ion w e shoul d notice t ha t if t he
‘
rinci pa l v erb cont ai ns t he mea ning o f a v oid a nce, t hat is
p ‘ ’ ‘
p refe ra b le t o lest ; I fea r ed tha t ( not test ) I shoul d b e
d eceiv ed

P r eca u ti on is indicated b y the p hrases, p ro v id e d

t ha t , w it h t he u nd e rs t a nd ing t ha t , w it h t his
ro v is o ,&
p c .

Preca ution may b e vi ew ed either as condit ion or as end

I t is .

a colla t e ra l Ob j ect t o b e k ep t i n v i ew a nd ful filled al ong w it h

.

t he mai n p urp ose I n d oing w hat is chi efl y a imed a t , w e a re

.

‘
t o secu re certa in ot her things p rovid ed tha t all is sa fe, you
ma y d epa it
’
. P
I n Acts of arlia ment t he p hrase used is p ro ‘

v id ed a l w a ys t ha t

II . C o nj u nc t io ns of T im e are
p artl y rela

t iv e A dv erb s, p a rtly P rep ositions b efore c la uses

’ ’
w hen , w hile as until ere , b e fore
a fter

I w ill come w hen I am a t leisure I w ill p raise thee w hi le

( so long as) I l iv e as I look ed, some one cam e nea r they
‘
re mai ned u nti l ni ht set it w ill b e long er e you ha v e such
in
g
‘
t he t rut h w ill come out be
’
a c ha nce for e we are done ;
’

;
k
after t he v ote w as t a en, t he a sse m b l
y b ro e u p k
I mmed i a te c onseq uence is sig nified b y v a rious compound
connecti ves
‘
no sooner t han
— ‘
ust when ,
’ ‘ j
ha rdly b efore ,
—
’

t he moment t hat a s soon as &c .

8
11 4 PAR TS OF S P EE CH . THE
—
I N TERJ ECTI ON .

The I N TE RJ E CT I ON is not p roperly a part Of sp eech, as it

d oes not ent er into t he const ruct ion Of sent ence s I t is a
'

su d den excl a ma t ion p romp ted b y som e st rong f e eling or emot ion.

T here a re v a rious u t ter a nces suited t o t he d i fferent emot ions of

‘
t he mind a s, j oy, a la s
’
hnz z a hurra g ri ef, O l ah
w ond er , hah "app r oba tion, b ra v o
‘ ‘
a v ersi on, u h t u sh
‘ p g
F or calling a ttent i on, lo hush & c .

N fi
E XCL AM ATI O , one Of t he gures Of rhetoric, empl oys w ord s
‘
o f ordinary l a ng uag e in t he m a nner of int erj ect ions
’
Wha t I
for shame " ah me 1
‘
how st range hark l
’
 I N F L EXI ON

The second pa rt OfE tym ology, called lnfl e x io n, .

treats Of t he changes mad e on w ord s t o exp ress v arious

relations and meanings .

Thus the N oun and the P ronoun are changed in three

ference of Gend er, N umb er,
w ays, namely, t o exp ress dif
and Case These changes constitute D eclensi on
. .

The Adj ecti v e and the Adv erb are inflected for
Degree This p rocess is named Comp a rison
. .

The Verb is changed t o signify P erson, Numb er,

Time, & c This is called Conj uga tion
. .

The uninfiected P a rts of S p eech are the P rep osition,

the Conj unction, and t he I nterj ection .

NRL ExI ON or
‘
.
I N ouN s .

G EN DE R .

Ge nd e r : Ge nd e r fo llow s S ex
In Modern En lish g
,
the natural difference of sex
d etermines the gend er .

divided into t he t wo classes

ar e .

as man, woman b ull, cow .

P l ant s and thin s d est it ut e Ofli fe hav e no sex

‘
O .

l distinction corresponds the di vision Of names,

TO t hi s nat ura
accordi ng t o Gender .

N a mes for indiv iduals of the ma le sex are Of the;

‘

M
‘ ’ ‘ ‘
a s c u line gend er ; as k ing , man b ull
’
.

N ames for the femal e sex are Of the F e mini ne

gend er as q ueen wo man COW
k
S trictly spea ing; these two
‘

are the only genders ih

’

Modern
 1 16 I N FLE X I ON .
—
f
Gg:l l pER or nouns .

N ames for things wi thout sex are said to b e of the

N e ut e r Gender, that i s, are s1 mp ly left as of no
‘
g der as gold , mountain
’ ’ ’
en b read oak .

‘
N is La t in for
eut er
’ ‘
nei ther that is, here, neither
mascul ine nor feminine ,

Many
'

w ords are ap pl ied t o both sexes al ik e ; as

’ ‘
p arent , chil d , cousin
’
said t o be of
’
. These are
the C o m mo n G end er
’

The names appl ied t o t he grea t er

a nimals are of t his s ort , i t b ein nl in t h m re im or t ant
p
g o y e o
a nd b est k
now n sp ecies t hat w e a re a t t he pa ins t o not e t l e sex . .

Thus, t rout a nt ,
’ ‘
li a rd are common t o b oth sexes z If .

w e wi sh, on occa sion, t o mar t he sex, w e use a sp ecia l d esi a k

t ion, a s the p refix he or she
‘ ' ‘
or t he a d ect iv es
‘
ma e ,
’
j
‘
female Ma n and man ind are oft en used comp reheng k
siv ely f or b ot h sexes
'

W e also u se other designations, su ch as

.

‘ac or ‘ ‘ u
b , l h h
’
t a ut hor p a in t er , p oet for o t h se x es a t o
g
t hey are p roperly masculine, and hav e feminine d eri v ativ es
‘ ‘
,
,

& c ) The effect of t his is t o giv e v ery di f ferent

’
-
a ct ress .

‘
meanings to the t wo phrases : t he greatest of livi ng actors f, ‘
‘
t he grea t est of li v in a ctr esses , app l ied t o a woman By
’
a nd .

fi
t he rst she is d esigna te t he rst act or of either sex, b y the fi
second t he first of herb w n sex
’

2 . P ure ly ; Gra mma t ica l Ge nd er I n Old

"

E nglish, t he gend er is often d etermined, not b y the

meaning, b ut b y the form .

I n iiiod er n E nglish , g end er foll ow s sex ( wi th a few ex cep tions) ; that

’

is, mascu lin e w or d s a nd form s are con n ed t o th e mal e sex , feminine fi

w ord s a nd for ms to t he female sex B ut in ol d E ng l ish , as w ell as ‘ i n
‘ ’

L G
.

ma ny ot her lang u ag es, as a t i n , ree k & c , a p oet ical or fig u ra t iv e , .

roc ess of rsonify i ng t hi ng s W i th out life w as in ex t e nsiv e op e ra t ion,

p y w hi ch e d ist i ncti on of end er w as ex t e nd ed t o nou ns
a nd , t h e a j
d ec t iv e w as reg ular y i nflected in three forms, ‘for g
feminine, a nd n eu t er .

Ma scul ine endings w ere -a , end , -er e, -tng atronym ic) ; ~

‘ ‘
dom, -had , -scip e, & c mona ( moOn) , w eal end ( wi eld
‘ ’ ’
as .

‘ ‘
’
W odntng ( W oden s son) ;
’
i ng one, rul er ) , fiscer e ( fish er) ,
’

‘ isd om ‘
w cildhad ( childhood ) , freondscip e ( friendship ) ;
F eminine end ings w ere the ab stra ct m e ( from adj ) , u , u ng
’

- - -

‘
or « i ng ( from v erb s) , & c b lit hmis (j oy) , caru ( care) ,
’ ’
as .

l eornu ng or leorning (l earning) .

N ‘
eu t er endings w ere er n, J ae, « an ( diminutiv e) , & c ; as -
.

‘b em for ‘b ere sc n ’ ba r le house b arn

,

‘ ’
: k
’
( .
r , y
-
, ) , cn a wlac ( now -

ledge) , ( maiden) :
 "
. HOW r o nrsr
'
ms ursn G E NDER . fl ?

I n many cases the distinct ive t erminat ion w as d rop t

oft ime t he orig inal gend er st ill rema ining
,
st reet
( for st reet u
fem , st reet ) , & c
. .

I n t he 1 3 th cent ury t here wa s great confusion oft he genders

a nd in t he 1 4t h cent ury, t he m od ern syst em w as p retty well

3 . There t hre e w a ys
a re of d is t ing u is hing t he
Ge nd e r of N o u ns .

‘
I . By e m p lo ying d iffe re nt w o rd s : as king,
husb and, w ife b oy, girl
’
u n cock, hen
q ee

This is a q uestion t he meaning of w ords, and not of

of

gra mmar . I t is not a met hod of inflexion, b ut a sub st it ut e for

inflexion . The nu mb er of such w ord s is not great The fol .
~

lowing a re the chief

A UL N F
M SC I E . E M N N MA UL N
I I E . SC I E. F M N I N E M AS CUL I NE
E I .
. FE M I N I N E .

B hl
a c e or M ida F th a er M th o er N ph
e ew Ni ece
Boa r S w
o Fi r ar Si t s er Ppa a M mma a
B y
o Gi l G nd
r a er G oos e Ra m or
B id g m B id G nt l m n L dy
Ew e

“
W e t he r
,

r e roo r e e e a a
B th
ro er Si t H t
s er ar R oe R e ev e
H
_
M
"

Doe a d am
B k
} Ma re
uc ors e or
B llu Cow S t a ll ion D ame or
B ll k H H u sb a n d W ife d am
}
u oc or
eifer
S te er Ki ng Q u een S lov en S lu t
Coc k Hen L ad a ss L S on
C ol t or F oal L or d L ad S ta
Dog or H ou n W il d uck g
Ta r or
D ra k e
'
W om a n Tu t or
D ron e Uncl e
Wi z a r d
S ome of t hese names, t hough dist inct in app eara nce, a re v ery
cl osely c onnect ed in their original forms T hus, ga nder ( ol d .

n d a nr a ga ng a at b ei ng eu honi c , r b ein sub

g a r a g p g
- - ~ -

‘
st it uted or a n old er 3 , a nd a t he masc t ermina t ion) a nd goose .

( ol d g s, for q mm, ga ng ) are ra d ically t he sa me w ord

a e he w
p . N
‘
a nd niecc come t hrough F rench from L a t nep os and nep tis . .

‘
A ccord ing to Dr Morris,
’
l ord , old E nglish hlaford, is for
.

hlaf w ea m ( loa fk ee er) , a nd t he correspond ing feminine is t f

'
- -

w ea r d ige, contra c t o old hlte f d ige, w hich in course of t ime

‘

b eca me la dy Colt
'
‘ ’
foal , and lly hav e b een t ra ced fi
t o a ra dical connexion King a nd q ueen may p ossib ly b e .

at b ott om, the ma sc: a nd f em f orms of t he sa me w ord L ass . .

‘ ‘
may b e for lad ess Ma n , in ol d English, w as of b ot h
’ ’
-
.

gend ers ; w oma n is O E w zf ma n ( wife ma n)

'

- -
. . .

ri dBeg room i s a corru t ion of ol d b r olgnma ,

p y
’
( b ride s
ma n) ; gumt a ( ma n) b eing cogna te w ith L at homo, — a s ga ns .
1 18 ,
I N FLEXI ON .
—
’

D
GEN E R or
‘ ’

N OUN S .

‘
( goose) is nate with L at
Countess is the ( Ma/laser
’
cog . }

‘
d riv a t iv e feminine of count , t he F rench na me for ’
’
e earl .

’
C irl w a s of either gend er as l at e as t he 1 4th c entu ry, signifying
‘
a l itt le child
’
.

k
Dra e is exp l ained b y reference t o cognat e form s, as a con
’
.

t ra ct ionof end r a ke ( d uc ing) : cp Germ enterich ( d ra e)

-
kk . . k
it is w holly d istinct fxorn d u c k ’
.

The gi v ing of dif ferent Word s to denote gender is an

ex c e t iona l u sa e, a nd is accounte d for in most ca ses
p g
b y the g rea t d ifeienee offu nct i on of the two sexes '
.

“
Thus men a nd w omen p erfo1 m offices so dill é1 ént a nd
'
'

su sta in c hara c t ers so dist inc t t hro ugh t he v arious r ela t ionships
of l if e, tha t w e a r e no t sur p rised a t t he ir b eing d es ig nated b y
diffel ent w o1 de ‘ ’
A da ug l1 t e1 is l iterally ‘
t he mil e r
’
or k

“
.

‘
k
mil ma id b ecau se t ha t wa s t he office t ha t t he d aught ers of
‘
t he house fulfilled i n ea1 ly p a st m a l t imes S o the horse a nd .

‘ " ‘ ‘
mare ra m
’ ’ ’
t he b ull o1 ox a nd cow , t he a nd ew e
& c , ha v e b roa dly
. mk
a r ed d ist inct ions i n t heir u ses a nd em l o
p y
mea t s, which p rob ably suggested t he difference of ap pellat ion
i n e a ch case .

In few i nst ances t here is a noun of common gender

a

as wel l a s sep a r a te d esigna t ions of the sex es .

Thus c

S on or augh t er D S ov er eign King or Q u een

H a rt or R oe P a r en t F a t her or ot h er M
C oc k or Hen P ig B oar or S ow
H or se S tallion or are M S h ee p Ram or E we .

These are also v arious c o mpou nds

F t f t h F t m th
os er- a er os er - o er M ilk m -
an
G ff ( g nd G mm ( g nd
a er ra a er ra
’
M oor - c oc k

pa } me )
re re P ea —c oc k
G nt l m n G nt l w m n
e e -
a e e- o a S t ep fa t h er
-

G nd f t h G nd m t h
ra -
a er ra -
o er S te p son -

L nd l d
a L nd l d
-
or a -
a Tu r k ey cock -

Mar ma n -
Mer m ai
-
F r enc h man -

4 . II . B y p refix ing a w o rd ind ic a t ing t he

s ex
MA UL N E SC I . MA UL NE SC I . FE M N N E I I .

M a le s erv ant
-
Fema le se rv a nt -
B oa r p ig-
S ow p i g -

M a n ser va nt-
M a id -
serv a nt B u ck ra b b i t
-
Doe r a b b it
-

M a n k i nd -
Woma n k i nd -
B u ll ca lf
-
Cow -
ca lf

S he b ea r
-
Cock sp a rr ow
-
Hen s p a rrow
-

Hc g oat
-
S he goa t
-
Dog fox-
B i tch fox -
,
 . F , Drsrm orrvn E '
ND I NGS . HQ;
‘
W oman ( w if man, wife-man)
’
is originally
i hea d Ma nchild ‘ ‘
“
’
lcna ve girl for
’ ’
u i der t his -
a nd -
b oy
w
.
, ,

tom ca t ( old
‘ ‘
lamb ‘
’ ’
ca r l cat t e -
e- q ween b ee -
are
simila r exa mp les .

h f fi‘
5 l ll B.

_ y
t e u s e.o d is t inc t iv e s u i x e s , o r
t e r mina t i o ns : e ss, tri:v, Ji ne, a , ( R omance su f fixes) - -
,

-
en, ster, for ad di ng t o t he mascul ine to mak e the
-

feminine , and er , c a ke, for a ddin g to t he-

fe m in ine

to mak e t he mascul ine .

r esse, M L at issa di f mi
( F
- e ss
)
. is t he or n ary e . .

n ne sufli x i n Modern E n0glis h

i

Up t il l a b out t he middl e of the 1 4th century,

a t ta c hed only few w ords, t hese w ords b eing, l ik
to a
N m
or an- F rench origi n I n t he second hal f of t he 1 4th cen .

tury, it b eca me estab lished as t he usual feminine end ing for

nouns of what ev er origi n .

S ometimes is added to the masculine, w ithou t

‘
-
ess .

ma sc . A
M S C.
Pt n
a ro Pt
a roness
Count P ee r P eeress
P t
oe
D eacon D ea con ess Li n o Pi t
r es
Gi a nt ess My a or M a yor ess P ph t
ro e P rop he tess
‘
Tutor ess , vi sc ount-
’ ‘ ‘
and many o thers, might be
‘
added God , god d ess ; p rince, p1i nc
'
.
- -
ogress

ial mas culine ending is o mit t ed

b efore ~
ess is
MAS C
Ab b
.

ess
N egro Ng e r ess
'

G ov ernor G ov erness

‘
Ab b ot is O E a b bod , atr a bbd tem ; ab b ess 18 short e ned
. . L
from a b b udisse ( L a t a bba tissarm) , t he old est exampl e of t his .

‘ ‘
end ing in E ngl ish Gov ernor, ess mu rderer, -ess
’
-
. &c , .

p ra ct ica lly ad d th e masc or t he fem termina tion t o t he v e1 b . .

root ; t he addit ion of w e to t he masc ul ine w ould ma k e a

t roubl esome p ronuncia ti on S orcerer f is a corrup tio n of F r . .

sor ci er , L at sor ti a ri a m ( fro

‘
m
’
. Sor tes, l ot s, orac l es) , sorceress
seems t o b e f ormed on much the sam e p rincip le as t he precedin
g .
 NF LEXI ON NDER N OUN 8
' '

— GE OF
’

I . -
.

S ometimes the masculine ending is, appears to b e,

’
'

or

modified b efore ess is added

F EM .

Ti g r ess

‘
Duchess Emperbr is F r
’ ’
F r dnc esse, d wch esse
is old .
- -
. .

‘
em h d om L m m m
'
’

p e r eu r , s ort ene fr a t i p er a t b r e ; e
p r ess .

‘
p rev iously emperesse ( l 3 th ce
‘
em eri ce
’ ’

( 1 2 th‘ c en
k
nt ury p

“
t ury) , a short ening of F r i m p er a trw e, a t i mp era tr icem
. Ma r . .

is L a t ma r chimz issa , from ma sc form

’
chioness
m
. .

‘ ‘
Mist ress correspo nd s t o
’
ister
’
ra t her than to master
m 0 E t he forms w ere maister, ma ist( e) r esse
'

. . .

t rix , the feminine form of L a t tor, is found in

- .
-
a
few nouns tha t come direc t from the Latin
M AS C . F EM. YEM .

A d j u toi '
A dj t ix
u r
A d m inistra tor A d mini t s ra tr ix H eri tor H e ri t r ix
Di r ect or Testa t or Tes ta t ri x
’ ‘
has b ot h a nd
’
P 1 op riet or p rop riet ri x p rop ri et ress
‘D
irect ress also occurs
’ ‘E mp ress has ust b een explained
’
j
. .

‘ urse ’ older nwrice nor ise F nourr ice L at nu tr z cem

N , , , , . . . .

ine, - - ina, is e
esp cially frequent in p rop er na mes of

w omen .

H ero
Cz a r Cz a ri na M argr a v e

Ca roline, Josephine, Pauline &c .

‘
in me R omance w ords
'

-a occurs so
m sc . F E M. MA S O. F E M.

Don D onn a I nfa nte I nfa nta .

S u l t an S u ltana S ig nore S ignora .

B eau ( old b el b el le co me direct from F rench .

-
eh a nd -
s t e r ar e the native ,Teutoni c endings .

B oth are now ob solete .

o
p
e ‘
e n remains only in vi xen ,
 msr m or rvn E nn mos; T 1 21
‘ ‘
The form v i xen i s a d ialectic v a riat ion of fyxen
’
’
the
‘

‘
regula r 0 E fem of fox
’
. . The v ow el 0 cha nges t o y und er
. .

t he infl uence o ft he coming e ( in en) : comp a re god , gyd en

‘ ‘ ’
-

‘ ‘
(‘g od dess) , ’w u‘l f , wyl fen ( she w ol f) , Germ fnchs, fi chsnn ,
’ ’ ’
.

l he sa me change i s a lso seen i n

’ '
l
f o lfi
'

tt o tti n w w n
g o , g o , .

‘ ‘
ma n, men , cock c hi ck en
’ ’

(0 E g o l d , 0 E . . . .

g yl d eh

The rea l ma rk of t he femi nine, 6 , ha d b e en drop t ev en in t he

earliest E ngl ish , t he en, a lthough ta k en p racti ca lly as a mark
of gend er, i s i n f a ct a m a 1 k o f p ossession D1 Mo1 r1s illustra t es . .

t his b y q uoting S ans k ri t I nd ra ( na me of a God ) , I nd i a 11 2 /

. .

( I ndra s wife) , and Lit huanian ga nd r as ( stork ) , fem ga nd rene ;

’
.

where n a nd en denot e i a nd e t he fem gend er

'

-
ssessi on,
- - -
. .

3 common in 0 1 E nglish, b ut ha d al most died out in

the 1 4t h cent ury .

’ ‘
Compare i n in S cot ch carl i n ( femal e ea r l old woman)
- -
.

S te r re mal ns in s
p inster
’
.

‘ ‘ ‘
S p inst er i s a feminine word, as meanin an unmarri ed
‘ g ,

femal e ; it originall y mea nt femal e spi nner

’
I n old
’
a .

English t he mal e agent was d enot ed b y ere, t he female b l

y
-

‘
-estr e : base er e ( b a er) , beec estr e k
sa ng er e ( singer) , sa ng estr e
’

“
- -

‘ ’
A good many feminines i n ster
webber e ( w eav er) , w ebbestre .
-

w ere in use as l at e a s t he l 6th ent u ry ; b ut w hen ess b ecam e

c
-

t he p rev a iling feminine termina t i on i n t he 1 4t h cent ury, w ords

in ster ca me gr ad uall y a nd largely t o b e u sed as mas cul ine, or
‘
as exp ressing t he agent in
‘ g
enera l ence songst er
’
as m as . H
culi ne, f orms song str ess , wi th d oub le femini ne end ing ; a nd
- -

‘ ‘
sea m str ess
-
’
sp in str ess
-
’ ’
t ap str ess , & c -
show a li e
- -
k
hist ory S ter now indica t es most l t he agent : t hrowst er
y
~
.

‘ ‘ a
whip ster
’

p unster
’ ’
t ric st er , g mester , & c.
f
The k
sense of d ep recia t ion connect ed wi th some of the w ords,
from t he nature of the act ion more t han from t he sp ecial

‘ id
.
ar forms w ow er
f
’
( masc
) from . widow
‘ ‘
In 0 the forms w ere w iduwa
E ( masc ) a nd
’ ’
. . . w id uw e
( fem ) b ut when t he dist inct iv e t ermina tions w ere lost , w id ow
.

was appropriat ed t o t he feminine, a nd t he necessity a rose for a

masc u line form .

Dra k e , a nd hav e al rea dy b een ment ioned a s

’ ’

gand er ,

other ma sci i l ines formed f1 om feminines, end ( du ck ) , a ri d ga ns

’

‘
( older form of goose
B nd e o r oo
"
m ar c ompound was previ ously no ted as forme d
‘
from b ride
’
.
12 2
b
I NFLEXI ON .
— GE ND ER or nouns .

6 . P o et ic a l g e nd e r o r P e rso nific a t ionr f

,
I nani ma te ob j ects a r e some times sp oken of a s male or
female a nd are t hen sa id t o b e p ersonified
, l hus, it
'
.

is c ustomary w i th us, as wi th the Greek s a nd R omans,

to sp eak of the S un as masc uline, a nd of the Moon as
feminine .

The sun ( fem in O E a nd mod ern German) , time; summer;

. . .

w i nte r, t he morn, dea t h, a n er , fear, d es ai r, are m ade masc u

g p
line t he moon ( ma sc in O E a nd mod ern German) , t he ea rt h,
. . .

t li e d a wn, night ,
'

a t ure, t he Church, H ope,

N ity, a re feminine P .

The p lanet s are some masc ul ine a nd some feminine, a cc ording

t o the sex of t he d eiti es t hat t hey owe t heir names t o Jupit er,
S a t urn, Mercury, a o This is nowP ’

V enus , all as, V esta, & c

. .

considered a p oe t ic l icence .
1

The mod ern English p ra ctice of con ning distinct ion of fi

g endel t o d ifference of sex, renders th ose occasiona l d ev iatidns
’
'

ery im ressi ve, b e mind t he id ea of

v y a ct ua l l
y su gg es t in g t o t h
“
p e rson a e x iste nc e a nd a tt rib ut es ; w h e re as i n O ld En o l ish
, ,

Greek , L
a t in, F rench, & c , t he assi nin f g ender t o t in

d
g o .

ina nimate p rod uces no ef fect on t he min A German sp ea s

‘

of his sp oon as he, his f ork as she, a nd his k nife as i t .

Th e m ot iv es for ass igning t he masculine g end er t o som e t hi n

’

and
‘
the fem ini ne gend er t o ot h ers, are su p p osed t o b e th e follow i ng
’
l li in gs
re ma rk a b l e for s t re ng th , su p er i ori t y , ma est y , sub l i m i t y , as j
ea th Ti me , D ’

G
,

Wint er , Wa r, ha v e b een l oo k ed u po n as m asculine ent l eness , b ea u t y

’

a nd g rac e fert ili t y or p r od u ct i v enes s b el ong i ng or i m a ned t o b el ong,

fi gi H
, ,

t o thi ng s su gg es t a femi nine p er soni ca ti on as t h e B a rt S p rin o e,

p
V M P
,

irt u e, Tru t h , J us t i ce , er cy , ea ce Thin gs v ery m u ch i d enti ed W 1th

.

th eir ow n er are occasi ona ll y sp ok en of as she t h e sea me n ca lls his ship

sh e t o ca ll a w a tch or a cl oc k sh e is a comm on S cot t icis m .

7 The know led g Gender of a Noun is

'

f the
”
'
. e o

necess a ry in o rd e r t o t he .
. c o r re c t us e of t he
P ro no u ns, he she , it ’ ‘ and their infiex mns and "

d eriv a tiv es .
1

The the common gender is arranged thus

c oncord of F or .

t he more dist ingui shed b ei ngs, we may u se t he mascul ine, in

it s representa t iv e sense ; as in sp ea k in of a m emb er of the
’

h uma n fa mily, we may sa y ‘he , a l t ough w omen a re also

’

incl uded The most correct form, a l t hough somewhat clumsy;

.

“
is t o say he or she C oncord of Pronouns )
( S e e S y nta x— .
 NUMB ER
l S ing ula r a nd P lu ra l
. W hen a N oun ( or .
-

P ronoun) na mes a single ob j ect , it is sa id t o b e of the

‘ ma n
'
v

S ing ula r N umb er as b ook

W hen more than one are named , t he N oun usu ally
und ergoes a change, and is the n said to b e of the
P lura l N umb er as b ooks men
Q
The singular is t he original form of t he noun
‘
.

I n old E ngl ish a d ual numb er exist ed , b ut only in the per

sona l p ronouns of t he first a nd second p ersons .

2 . T he P lura l is fo r me d in E nglish, w ith a few

b y a d d ing - s ( o r -e s) to t he S mg ula r :
'

except ions,
’

‘shi ship s
p,
I n Old E nglish ther e was a class of masculine nouns formin
.

the p lura l b y t he a d d it ion of -a s t o the singul ar ; a s smit h

g
‘
m a me
'
p l u r s i
.t h -
as I n l a t er .E n gl ish t his as b ec es as - -

smith m m x Of
’

p l u r s it h es . Thi s ca e v-
er y nea
. r t h e -s or -

N q
_

t he orman F rench; a nd t he conse uenc e w a s t ha t the f

- orm in
-es w as ext ended t o E nglish nouns generally, all t he other
ol d E n lish
g p l ura l e nd in g s b ein g d ro pp e d Th e c ha ng e ca m e .

int o op era tion as early as t he t hirt eent h cent ury I n the next .

cent ury, es b egan t o cea se t o b e p ronounced as a sep a ra te

-
,
.

‘
sylla b le, a nd t he e w a s d rop t -
smit hes b ec a me smit hs

The b ringing of t he -8 into t he sa me sylla b le w it h p recedi ng

’

l ett ers ( ot her tha n e led to cert ain phonet ic mod i ca t ions fi .

W hen the N oun ends in a surd or sha rp eon

p f t th [ a s in smith t he
’
sona nt -
,
-
,
-
,
-
,
-
s
ha s it s ow n p ro p e r s u rd o r s ha r p s o u nd as in .

‘ ’
gas, sea as crops b eliefs ca ts w reaths
b ook s
necessity of p ronunciati on ; we are unab l e t o p ro
This is a .

‘
nounce a surd a nd a sona nt t ogether ; we ca nnot sa y crop z
'

‘ ’ ‘
b eliefz ca t z
w it hout su ch a p au se b et ween t he let ters a s
w ould const it ut e a new sylla b le The same reason det erm ines .

t he next rul e

’
E xcep tions i n f N ouns of nativ e -
. origin ending
in f receded b y a long v ow el ( excep t b y
p or
-

,
$12 6 mn emon — NUM B ER
‘

on N ew s .

‘ "
foregomg are t he r e g ular a nd mod e r n
'

:The
'

ce s s of forming the p l ural in E n lish

p ro e s g .

3 . O b so le t e m o d e s of
infl ex i o n are still seen

mall numb er
‘ma n, men ‘
in a s of N ouns as ox,

b rother,
’
oxen b rethren ; cow, k ine chil d,

C ha ng e of v o w el is seen in the foll owing w ords

mGUL AB s . P LU R AL .

Man ( O E ma n) . . Men ( 0 . E . men)

F ( 0 E fét
2
ee t . .

Geese ( O E 9 1) .

Teeth ( 0 E teth) . .

L ous e E hi s) (0 Li ( O E lfi
ce s)
M Mi
. . . .

ouse ( 0 E mtia) ce ( O E mys)

'
. . .

Co w ( 0 E cit) . . Ki ( ne) ( O E of) , S cot Icye . . . .

The yow el change 18 not an inflexion it is onl y a n incid ental

resnl t of t he rea l inflexion, t he endi n
‘ rep resent in w hich i s
now l ost .
‘
The origi nal p lural of man was maum
g’ g a nd t he

modi fyi n infl ue nce of nal 43 softened -a into -e so fi «

t ha t on t e fal lin aw ay of th e infiexional endin , t he plura l

‘m g ‘ ‘o ’ ‘ g ‘u -
S o fet is for f ti lys for l s i
’ ’ ’
en .

m us i & c
’
-
.

”
E a few other nouns similarly mod ified t heir root
.

‘é
b c ( b ook ) , b ec ‘ ‘
’ ’ ’
v ow el s : a s br oc, br ec ( b reeches S cot
’ ’

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
b reeks bu rh ( b urgh b orough) byr ig ; fwrh
’ ’
t urf, tyrf ,

( furrow) , W or fyr ig
‘
w in t ( w eight, crea t ure) , q

‘
T he e nd ing -e n new re mains only in ex en ' -

(O . E . ox a n -

In old n w as a v ery c ommon t ermination ; l a t er

h -a

it w as m to - en Other examples, ot long ob sol ete or

. n
‘ ’

( Chaucer s a nd S penser s
’ ’
st ill in rov incia l use, een
p
a re
"e en ‘
O (
’

y eye en E . . esen ea v es, O . E efesen,

.

esen) , ‘ ’ ‘
hosen and shoon
’
en ,
’
0 E soon) ,
. .
‘
hou se n
’
-

‘ ‘ ’ ’ ‘ ’

( ( fowls) , t oon ( toes)

’

p ea t eu -
p esen p eas ) , p ull - en
,
’
t ree n ,
&c .

A few nouns w ere later a ssimil ated to the -

en
’
ending as b rethren children kine
‘ ‘
B ret hren ’
. The p lura l of b rother w as first b rot hr-u or
‘ ‘
lat er b rothr e
-
b rethr-e
—
 L FORE I GN F OR MATI ON S 1 27
'

OB S O ETE AN D .

‘
Modor ( mother ) d ohter ( daught er) ( sist er)
’

, ,
sweoster ,
w ere
decli ned in t he sa me w ay in 0 . E .
,
a nd ha d a p a rt ly si milar

Children O E eild ( chil d ) ha d for p l ural

. eil d r u
.
- -

‘
w hich w a s modi ed t o childr e a nd child er
‘
fi child r an - - -
.

a nd child er n - -

‘ ‘
Compa re ca lor en ( from O E coa l] ; cal f from
’
(
’ '

eyr en

“
. .

‘ ‘
O E 099, egg a nd la mbr on ( from O E la mb ) , al l long
’ ‘

. . . .

Ob sol et e .

‘
Kine cu ( cow) formed its p lural , a s w e hav e
’
O E . . .

seen,
‘
cy ,
’
or
‘
ky ; lat er, it t oo on
’
en , and b ecame k -
’

‘
Cows is now the
k
‘ ‘ ’ ‘ ’ ’
ine a d oub l e p lura l
’
kin , k en , .

regul ar a nd comm on usage .

4S ome N ouns hav e t he s a me fo r m in b o t h

.

‘ ‘
nu m b e rs ; as
'

deer , sheep g
’ ’ ’ ’
sw ine ,
’
rouse ,
’
t eal , ma ck erel ’
trout , salmon heat hen
‘ ’
cannon .

This corresp onds t o a class ofneut er nouns that ha d lost t heir

( nomi nat i v e) p lural ‘infiex’ion in t he Oldest E ngl ish 0 ‘ E d eo’ r . . .

( sing and p l ur
. d eer ; sceap ( sing a nd p lur
. sheep ; . .

‘ ’
swi n ( sing a nd sw ine ; & c
. .

5 . F o re ig n W o rd s .
-
Many w ords b orrow ed from
other languages re t a in t he ir o r ig ina l p lu ra ls
‘
foc us, foc i
’ ‘
nus n " b u b ea ux
’
g e

b
e era ea
, g ,

cher ub , cheru i m
’
.

The foll owi ng a re a few Of the most usual

SI N UL AR
G P LU RA L SI
‘

N U L AR
G PLU RA L
F mul F A n ly i
. . . .

or a or mul a: a s s
L arva L a r v ae A i x s A x es
Nb l e u a N eb ulae B i as s
Mg A p p nd ix
.

a us e
Ra di us R di a x
Tu mu lu s
'

Tu m ul i V txor e
Anim al cu lu m A ni mal cula S eri es
Dt m a u D at a S p eci es
E fli i m uv u E fii u via S u p e r fici es
M di m e u M e d ia A p p a ra t us
M m nt mo e u M o menta S ir M i e ss eu rs
S t r a t um S t ra ta Ma d a m e M dmes a es
C ri t eri on Cr i t eri a B a n d it B nd itt i
a
P h enom enon Ph m ena
eno V t i
i r u os
Mi as ma . Mi a sm a t a S e r ap h i m
‘ ‘ ‘m
Messieurs 18 F rench ,
m es b eing l it era lly
sieurs y
’

si rs
’
We hav e not a d o t ed t he correspond ing sing ul ar
p
.

‘
monsieur
’

( mon si eu r) .
‘
S O mada
’
m ‘
is our form Of mad ame '
1 28 I nF L E xi oN .
-
NUM BER or N OUN S .
"

‘ ‘
( ma d a me, my and inesd a mes ( mes da mes) is the
’

u nmod ified F rench p lur l W hen a foreign w ord p asses into

a .

common u se t he t endency is t o a dopt t he E ngl ish p l ura l

, .

‘ ‘ ‘
Thu s w e ha v e genius e s v i v ar i ums me mo
’ ' ’
c rocus es
‘ ‘
ra nd ums i encomiums , d obg ma s , formulas ,
’ ’ ’ ’ ’
che rub s
se ra phs b a ndi t s S ome foreig n w ords ha v e ca 1 renc
fl
chie y i n t he p l ura l , as
‘
erra ta
‘
arca na
’ ‘ y
dil et ta nt i ,
‘ ’
a nt ip odes

S ome N ouns hav e t w o p lu ra ls , w it h s e p a ra t e

6 .

mea ning s .

SI N G . P LU R A L .

B rot h er B thro ers b r et hren ( of a comm unit y )

( b y b l ood ) ; .

C l ot h Cl th s ( k i n d s o r p 1 eces of cl ot h) ; cl ot h es ( arm ents

o
g )
Di (
.

Die es sta mp s for c oi ni ng) ; d ice f or g a m i ng )

G G i
.

eni u s e n u ses ( m en o f ori g mal enii ( sp i ri ts)

p ow er g
A
, .

I nd ex I nd ex es ( t o a b oo k ) in d ices ( si u s i n lg eb ra) .

P ea F e: 18 ( s ep a ra te se ed s) ; r ase ( col ct iv e)
P P e p ence ( colle c t iv e : as
g
.

en ny enni e s ( se pa rat e c oi n8
S hot S h o t ( t h e nu mb er Of b a ll s) ; shot s ( t he nu mber of ti mes
‘ ‘
P ea is a mod ern fon na t ion from pease
’
E p rsa , p ese) , .

w hi ch w as si ng ula r The Old pl ural p esen ( a nd p esos) d rop t it s

.

d ist inct iv e end ing, a nd t hu s ) l ura l a nd singula 1 b eca m e t he

sa me in f 0 1 m : t he s end sou n
‘
g ’ra d u a l l y
-
1 est 1 ict ed t he c d
omm on

form t o t he pl ural u se, a nd ca me t o b e u sed a s sing ula r

p
ea

P 1 om p ca , t he p lura l p eas i s a reg ular a nd modern forma

.

" ‘

t ion .

P
enny 1s 0 E p e ning or p enig pl p enigas, l at er p ennyes,
n . . .

p ens,p ence .

The 1 est 1i ction Of t he sep ara t e forms t o t he dif

ferent mean
ings 1s q uit e mod ern .

The P luraJs of a few N ouns t o d iffe r in m

‘

see
m e aning fro m t he S ing u la rs c om p ass, c om
’ ‘ ‘ “ ls
p asses c orn, c orns iron, irons salt, sa t
‘
c ont ent , contents d omino, d ominoes g oo d,
‘
g ood s
’

; v es
p er, Vesp ers
S om e nouns seem t o hav e tw o mea nings i n the singu la r , only
o ne of w hich, a nd t his t he l east c om mon, c orresp ond s t o t he
‘
a mes of ma t eria ls, d o not
’
l u ral C orn , i ron & c , b e in n
p .
g .

k
t a e a pl ura l fo1 m ; orns
‘
irons & c a re t he p l ura l s of new .

singul a 1 s w ith d ifferent meanings ( S ee b el ow , 1 2 and p

“
.

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
Comp ass ,
’ ’ ’
a n i1 on ood a nd
’
a cor n c o nt ent ,
g
ot he r ab st ra c t nouns, similar ly gi v e 1 ise t o new sing ula rs ( or
‘
might d o so) , a nd hence c ompa sses S
’
content s , 81 0 ( ee .

b elow, 1 3 ; and p ag e 2 2 , Other words, such as

 S P ECI AL CA S E S .

‘ ha v e quite dist inct singular mea nings, and conse

domino
’
,

q uently q uit e d ist inct plural mea ni ngs .

‘ ‘
F urther examp les are
’
a nt ic, a nt ics b eef, b eev es ( see
‘
2) d raug ht, dra ught s forfeit , for feit s g ra i n,
‘
scal es
g ra i ns ground, grou nds sca l e, s ect ac le,
p
s ect acles
p
S o me nouns ha v e tw o mea ni ngs i n the p lu r a l, one correspon d
ing t o the singul a r, t he ot her dist inct from i t
P L UR A L .

C ust oms ( 1) ha b it s ( 2 ) r e v enu e d u ti es

L
.

et t ers : ( 1) of al p ha b et : ( 2 ) li te ra t u re
N
.

u mb ers ( l ) i n c ou n t i ng ( 2 ) i n p oe t ry
P in P
.

a a i ns ( l ) s uffer i ng s ( 2 ) t rou b l e , ca re
P t P
.

ar a rts ( 1) b i ts d i v i sions ( 2 ) fa c ul t i es ab il it ies

, , .

Cust om is oft en u sed collect iv ely or ab st ra ct ly in t he second

sense of t he p l ural for m The sec ond mea ning is, in all t hese
.

cases, a rhet orical extension oft he rst fi .

8 . So mN e ou ns are u sed o nly in t he P lu ra l .

Ab origines amends a nnals ant i od es a sset s

p
ar chiv es b a nns b ellow s b illi ard s b ow els
b reeches calends cred entials dregs entra ils

fi li ngs gallow s hu st ings ‘

ides ‘
l ees ma tins
measles molasses new s nones nu pt i a ls oa t s
C
ob seq u res
C
Od d s i ncers
6
p Hers 6

p remi ses
G

p ‘
sc1ssors
‘shamb les . shears snuf fers
,
sp ec tacl es
,
t han s k
z
0

t id ings t ongs
t p
rap l ngs t rou sers t we e r s e

v espers t uals v 1ta ls w ages

m
S o e Of these nouns name co mplex j
ob ects w ith an

ob v ious p l ural ity of p a rts

‘ ‘ in
E sp ecial ly t ools, instrument s, & c as b ellows p cers
‘ l iers scissors
‘
t on s & c
p g .

And arti cles ofclothing ; as b reeches dra wers trousers

Others name collectiv ely masses or aggregates of

ind iv id uals, real or imagined .

‘ ‘ ’ ‘
S uch a re ab origines a rchiv es , a shes
‘
‘
b ow els
’

,
dregs
’

,
‘
filing s
"
molasses
’

ump s measles
’

p roc ee s sulk s

fo rms c o ns t rue d a s S ing ula r are

P lu ra l
not u ncommon ; a mend s , b a rracks
’
b ellow s
‘
gallo w s in nings ( a t cricket ) ,
m ea ns, new s ,
’ ’

p ms , shamb les , tidings & c

3 ’ ’
odds , a .

9
:1 30 I N F LE X I ON .
—
N UM B ER or nor ms .

‘ ‘
( Gol dsmit h) ;
’
A ga llow s t he gal low s i tself ( CooPer) :
’
'

‘
Mea ns a ccord ing t o most gra m m a ria ns is t o b e u se d in
’

, ,

t he sing ula r w hen t he sig nifica t ion is si ngu lar, a n d i n t he

p l ura l w hen t he si n ific a t io n is
g p l ura l W e may say, a c co nl .
~

‘ ‘
i ngly, tlu s means , or these m ea ns , a s t he cas e req u ire s
'
’ ’
.

‘
The singul ar form mean is t o b e found in t he p resen t
’

c ent u ry ( S i r W a milt on, Ca rl l e,

y . H
N ew s in old English wa s c ommonly p lu ral : ‘
these are -

‘
new s i nd eed b ut now i t is u niformly si ngular il l
new s r u ns a p ac e The singular form new nev er existed

“
.

‘
S ma ll p ox is a pl u ra l d isguised b y a new sp ell i ng
-
p ox is

for p oc s k
A s t he na m e of a d isea se, sma ll p ox is singu la r -

‘
Tid ings is plura l I t is commonly used b y S ha esp e a re as . k
a p l ural noun, b u t i n s om e i ns t a nc es he ma es i t si ng ula k
‘ ‘
tha t ti d ing s ca me a t id in s ( A ntony a nd Cl eop a tr a )
g . .

N a m es o f sci ences, or of
p a rt s of s ciences, oft en a pp ea r in
p lural form, b eing lit era l t ra nsl a t ions of t he cla ssie‘al t erm s :
‘ ‘
ma them a t ic s , op tics , p hysics ,
’
a cou sti cs
’ ’

‘
Y
"

m
’ ’
ol it ics , t t i cs , & c t i l l c t iv e i I es o f
p s a e as n a n g co e .

‘
k
.

d oc t rine, t hey ta e a singular v e rb : op tz cs 1s t he sc ie nc e of

’
'

”
light S omet imes the si ng ul ar form is fou nd : log ic ( a nd,
’
.

‘
i n t he I rish un iv ersit ies, metap hysic and
’

p hysics & c , .

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
T he si ngular forms amend , gallow mca n nu pt ial
’

‘
p ai n ,
‘
t
’
id in g ,
‘
t ha n
‘
w a g e occ u r i n ol d
’
E n g l i sh k .

IO S ing u la r fo r m s t re a t e d a s P lu ra l
. .

al m s eav es riches
‘
Al ms O E mlmcsse a l messe a lmes ; pl ur aelmcas an
“
' '

m
. .
.
, ,

el éSSen a lmesses
,
‘
N one w as heard to ask a n a lms .
,
‘
( Ma ca u la y ) T h e a l ms t hey
. r eceiv e a re show s t he

O E afes, afcac, w as u r efesen ( csen) , erases

’
Ea v es
O E mm
. . . . .

‘
( from rench) ; plur richesses
’
. . . .

‘
I n one hour i s se g rea t r i ches come t o na u ght
-

‘
s a n e xai n le o f t he cha ng e d u s t chcs i n a
'

B
’

p fi i
' ' '

r o t no t p e .

c ul t ured commun it y a r e t he st ra ngest of t hings They a v e -

t he rea diest of p ossib ilit ies ( Ca rl yle) :

S umm ons ( 0 F r semonse, O E sermons) , a not her ap parent
’ '

. . . .

l l i l l i l d i s used as such l sum mo nses

'

p u ra, s rea y s ng u a r,
a n p .

r egula rly .

ll . ro er N o u ns sometimes a pp ly t o one p erson,

P p
and ar e t herefore S ingular, and som e t imes t o se v era l
ersons , and the n ad mit of t he P l ura l The B r owns
p .

hav e gone to the . c ountcy

 S P E CI A L CAS E S .

l2 . N a me s of Ma t e r ia ls hav e no P l ural ; as
‘ old a ir b u tte r
j g
B u t w hen there are d ifferent qu a li ti es , or sep a ra t e p or ti ons, of
t he m a t eria l, t he nou n b e c omes a c lass nou n a nd t he p lu ral is,

r eg ula rly used as sug a rs w i nes cl a ys a irs t ea s

fs ou ps S a nd s is used b eca use t he ma t erial is ma d e up of
d is t i nct p a rt ic les, w hic h w e ca n t herefore supp ose t o b e
nu mb e red ( S ee furt her p 2 0)
. .

‘
I3 .
A b st ra c t N o u ns ha v e no P l ural : as wisd om
’
,
‘
m ig ht w hi te ness , el asticit y
’
rid e b aseness
p
a

Opa c it y

Oc casiona lly t hese nou ns seem t o b e in t he p l ural The .

l u ra ls, ho w e v er, a re t he n c l a ss nouns, a nd signi f y not t he

p ,

a b st ra c t q u a li ty, b u t p a r t icu la r a ct ions o r p a r ti cu l a r v a r i eties of

’ ‘ ’
the q u a li ty l b e rt ies v irt ues , v ices , negl ig cnc ies
,

‘
leng t hs
as

lo rc c s
i
Or t hey ma y r ea lly sig ni fy something i n the concr ete
’
as
‘
t ra nspa renc ies ( S e e furt he r 7, a b o ve a nd p 2 2 , .

I4 N o u ns of m u lt it ud e , a lthough singular in
.

form ha ve a p lural me a ning a nd co nstr uct ion : v ermin

,

c a ttle cro w d p eo pl e fo lk i nfa nt ry

t ena nt ry E nglishry p oul t ry fow l fish

I5 T he o m iss io n of t he I nd e finit e A rt ic le
.

w ith N o uns tha t t a k e t hat A rt icle b e fore t hem, is a

si n of t he P l u ra l
g .

‘
The prop er d ecl ension of a noun is : ( sing ul ar ) a. house,
( pl ural ) houses a m a n, men a shee , shee
p p

I6 . P lura l lnfl e x io n d is us e d —
W ith a numeral ,
‘
the si
g of t he
n P lu ra l is often disp ensed w it h : fiv e
o b ra ce of b ird s ,
’ ‘
p o u nd t e n sa i l t w four p ai r
)
t w o d oz en , a three foot rule
’
t w e nty yea r , fort y
‘
hea d of ca t tle a t housa nd hor se t w o mil lion
‘
sta nd of a r ms , thirty cha nge of garme nts
’

This omission p rob a b ly originat ed in connexion w it h t he one

sylla b le flex ionl ess p l ura l s ( nomi na t i v e ) already ment io ned
‘ ‘ ’ ‘ ‘ ‘
such a s hea d , hor e ,
’ ’
d eer ,
’
ou nd , s h
‘
p s e e p
I t has evi de nt ly b ee n much fa v oure d b y t he
’
year , & c .
_

c irc umst ance t ha t t he nu mera l indica tes t he f a ct of l u a l it ,

p r y
13 2 I N FL E XI on .
—N UM B E R or nouns .

a nd therefore the pl ural inflexion unneces sary

rend ers I ndeed .

t he m ea ns of ma ing k k
now n p lura l ity are sup era b undant, a s
w e m ay see from su ch a n inst a nce a s t he fol low ing : F ou r
c hild re n w er e a t t hei r l essons, t he good cr ea t ures
’
er e t he . H
p l uralit y is ex p ressed b y si x diffe rent m a r s l st , t he numeral k
2 u d, t he p l ura l i nflexion,
, chil dren 3 rd , t he v erb w er e
’
4t h, t heir 5 th, t he p lura l of t he w ord i n ap p osit ion,
”
crea t ures 6 t h, the omission o f t he a rt icle .

There a re cert a in furt her cases w her e t he p lural inflexion is

id ioma t ica lly d ropt He has no obj ecti ons ( ob ect ion)
.
‘
I w as j
i n hi s fa vou r s ( fa v our )
‘
t hey w ere d ressed in bla cks ( b lac ) k
I n t he 1 6t h a nd 1 7 t h c ent uries, how ev er , a n a t t ri b ute common t o .

sev eral p ersons w a s oft en p u t i n t he p l ura l S ha espea re has . k

I w ill req uit e your loves b re a k
not your sleep s for that
‘
t hen b rin me t o t heir sights , & c
’
a con a nd S ha es ea reB k
k p
.

ha v e b la c s Milt on has ta e our lea ves k d ep a rt u re) .

l7 S tr ictly sp eaking, t he P l ural form declares only

.

tha t there are more tha n one of the t hing na med b ut

w e a re a b le oft e n t o infe r b e s id es s o m e t hing
a s t o t he e x t e nt o f t he nu m b e r .

W e are t o ha v e fri ends t his ev ening means some or a few .

‘
He k eeps hor ses , i mp l ies t he sa m e He sells b ooks , refers
’ ’
.

t o t he na t ure o f his occ u pa t ion Men sa y is men i n genera l

.

a ll that ha v e a n op port unit y of sp ea ing on t he sub ect k

S heep j .

a re m ee k
a nima ls t he w hole rac e of sheep men a re
m Orta l a ll m en Thus t he cont ext may i ndic ate suf fic ient ly
’
.

k
t hat t he nu mb er sp o en of is a few, a gr ea t nu mber, or the
w hole of the t hing sp o en of k .

I8 . T he P lu ra l of C o m p o u nd N o u ns is
generally formed b y i nfiect ing the p r incip a l N oun ; as
‘ ‘ ‘
—
’
sons in la w , g
-
o ings o u t ‘
m a ids o i hono
-
u r
’
,
ma id - - ‘

man stea lers

’
serv ants -
.

Wh ere t he w ord s ar e so t hat t he meaning is

cl osel y a llied
k ’
incompl ete t ill t he w hole is now n, t he s is a dd ed a t t he end
‘
orget me nots
’
s , t he
’
as p a i lfu l t h ree
p er c e nts f - -
.

W e may sa y eit her t he Misses row n or t he Miss row ns

. B B
or e v e n
‘
t he Misses row nsB ’ ‘
The Mi sses
. row n
’
ha s a B
c oll ec t iv e ef fect ; ‘
t he Miss row ns
’
B
ra t h er imp lies sepa ra t e

a c t ion ~
‘
B ut in c omm ercial l ife w e sa y t he Messrs row n B
A few t it les comp osed o f t w o nouns in ap p osit ion ha v e b ot h
‘
nouns inflec t ed a ft er t he m a nner of the F rench : Knights
Templars j
l ords- ust ices ao .
 CA S E .

lCa s e is an inflexion of the N oun ( or of the

.

P ronoun) s ho w ing it s re la t io n t o o t he r w o rd s ;
,
‘
mas ter s
’
as the v oice w here t he a ddition of -s t o
master ‘ oice ’
show s tha t v is t he p ropert y of
‘
master
I n many la ngu ages those infiexions a re more numerous .

B esides t he relat ion expressed ab ov e, called t he p ossessi ve or

g en i t iv e r el a t io n , t h ere a re se v era l ot hers i n t h e o l d es t E ng l ish,

k
as w ell as in Gree , La t i n, & c , d enominat ed d a tiv e, a b la ti ve,
.

&c . I n mod er n English, p rep osit ions serv e the p urp ose ser v ed
in t hese l a ngua g es b y t he v arious ca se endings -
p a tr i is to
‘
a f a t her ,
’
p a tr e is by a fa t h er W e c a n a lso sub s t it u t e for

t he p ossessiv e inflexion i n our own language the p rep osition

‘ ’ ‘
of t he v oice of t he ma st er

2 There are sa id t o b e t hree c a se s in mod ern

.

E nglish, N o m ina t iv e , P o s s e s s iv e , and O bj e c

—

tiv e ; b ut in nouns the P ossessiv e is t he only ca se

where inflexion occ urs N omina tive, man ; p ossessive,
’
.

‘man’s ’ ob e ti ve m
j j c , a n

I n t he oldest E ngl ish, nouns had six ( or a t l east fou r ) Ca ses .

P
W ith t he excepti on oft he Genit ive or ossessiv e, ha rdly a t ra ce
of t hese rema i ns in t he la ngua ge a s u se d now The ronouns . P
ha v e p reserv ed a few mor e remnant s of t heir old case endings -
.

Excep t for t he p ronouns, t he distinction o f nomin at iv e a nd

obj ect i ve w oul d not b e k ep t u p, a s t he form of t he noun ca n
nev er show whet her it is no mina t iv e or ob j ec t iv e F or nouns, .

t hese na mes ha v e a mea ning only in const ructi on w ith v erb s ;

t he one corresp ond ing t o the sub j ect ( t he nominat iv e) , t he ot her
to the ob j ect of t he sent ence .

The Da tiv e case remains, w ithout inflexion, in some con

‘
st ructi ons giv e the boy a ’ ’enny send the Cap ta i n help
'

w oe wort h the d a y &c . h

I e I nstr u menta l or A bla ti ve case,
whi ch in nouns had the sa me form as t he Dat ive, no long er
shows a ny inflexi on .

T he P oss es s iv e is fo r me d in t he S ing u la r
3 .

‘
b y a d d ing t o t he N o u n the le t t e r s p rec e d ed
’
,

‘
b y a n a p o st ro p he : John, John s
’
13 4 I N F L E X I ON .
—
A
C S E or nouns .

In t he P lu ra l no a d d it io n is m a d e , e x c e p t
t he a p o s t ro p he : ‘
fa thers, fa the rs
” B ut if t he .

P l ura l d oes not end in s, t he genera l rule for the S in

a r is t hen a
’ ’

gu l pp lied : t he c hild re n s b rea d .

The rea son for not a dding s t o t he regul ar p lural s is the

difficul ty of p ronu nc ia t ion : fath ers, fa t hers s
’
.

I n t he E ngl ish, t he genit iv e of m asculine and neut er

ol dest
‘
nouns w a s m ost c omm only formed in es smit h, smi t hes
’
-

‘
de g ( d ay) , desrges
’ ’
sei ( ship , sc i p es Cha ucer has
‘ e p .
,

mu ch l at er, t he
’ ’
b edd es ( b ed s) heed ( hea d )
’
c ri st es g ospel ,
‘ ’
-es cea se d t o b e ronou nc ed as a se pa 1 at e sylla b le, a nd t he e
p
d rop t out in w ri t ing, it s a b sence b ein signified b y t he a p os
t rop he Dr Mor ris t hin s t ha t
g k
w as at first p rob a b ly
”
.

u sed t o d ist ingu is h t he g enit iv e from t he p lu ral su f fix, and

t ha t it s use ma y ha v e b een est ab lished f1 o1n a fa lse t heory of

t he origin of t he genit iv e ca se w hich w as t horoughly b eliev ed .

i n from B en Jonson s t o Addison s time

’ ’
. t hat s w as a con - -

‘ ‘
t ract ion of hi s , w hence such exp i essions as t he p r i nce his
’

’ ’

( for p r i rwe s) hou se

'
This sub st it ut ion of hi s for as da t es
.
-

from t he 1 3 t h c ent ury The full form as yet exi sts in

'
-
.

W e d n es day ( W od en es deeg)
‘ - - -
.

I n t he ol dest E nglish, t he fem ini ne and the plural geni tiv es

w ere formed b y ot her endings ; b ut t he 1 3 t h cent ury t hese
ha d b egu n t o b e dropt a nd es t o ta e t eir pl ace -
k .

The em ission of t he v ow el, a nd t he conseq u ent sound ing of

in t he same syllab le a s t he l et ter p receding , le a d s to
’
the s
v a riet ie s ofp ronuncia tion , such as th ose d escrib ed for t he forma
"
t ion of p lural s t he 3 b eing somet imes sound ed shar p, as
‘ ‘
and someti mes fia t : ( S ee N u mber )
’
God s
’
Jacob .

‘ m itt e d in t he S ing u la r
4 . T he s is o w hen
too many hissing sound s w ould com e t og ether
‘ ’ ‘ ’ ’
or good ne ss
’
S ocra t es w i fe for c ons cience sak e , f
z

sak e for Jesus sa k e

We S t James s and S t Giles s Moses s Douglas s , ’
’ ’ ’ ’
say . .

The g eneral rul e is a dhered t o a s much as p ossib l e

’
B urns s .

‘ ’
W hen t he word consist s of more t han t w o syllab les, t he s i s
E urip id es dramas
’
I n p oet ry i t i s freq u ent ly
’
d rop t , as .

omit t ed : B a cchus , E nea s , E p iru s

’
H ellas
’ ’ ’

In 0 E . . fi
fteenth cent ury, if the noun end ed 111 a sib ilant
or was f ol low ed b y a w ord b eginning wit h a sib il ant, t he p oss ~

‘ ’ ‘ ’
essiv e sign was drop t ; as a goose egg , t he ri ver side
( Morris).
 F OR MA T I ON e r s r ron o r THE P osse ssrv n . 13 5

5 . In C o m p o u nd N o u ns t he
‘

fix
su f
’
is a t tac hed

t o t he las t w ord ; as he ir a t -
t he q u een of
’ ’
E ngla nd s
E v e n w hen t here a re tw o se p rat e na mes, t he s is ad ded only
‘
Rob ei tson a nd Re id s ofli ce ; Jo hn, W illia m,
’ ’
t o t he la st; as,
a nd Mary s unc le
’ ’
.

“
In E ngl ish, dos1 11 to t he 1 6 t h c e nt ury, t he u sual con
o l de 1

s t 1 ut t ie n is se e n i n 5 11 I1 1 xa1 11p l es as S et bci ht es de a t h ea st

1

s ea xna q uo te d b y w er ht s
’
S asha ht , t he Ea st S a xons
’ ’
d e a t h t he Ea st S a xo ns k ing s
,
-

’ ‘
k ing s deat h o r t he d ea t h of S ceb evht the k ing o f t he Ea st
’

‘
t he P lo wm a n)
’
S a xons ; for t he L oades lo ve of
‘
hi s b r other 3 d ea t h the Du ke of
’ ’
t he L or d of he a ve n3 lov e
C la r ence ( S h T More} ;
’ ‘
fm Ki ng Hem y s s
. a e the si xth
’
k ’

( M0 1 e)
‘ ’
B yl on w ri te s fo r th e Q u een s sa e hi s The k ,

s e a ra ti on of t he
p p ossessiv e fro m a mod if y in g a d e c t i v e c la u se is j
v e ry c o mmo n I n t hi s t he cla u se w ou ld b e muc h t oo long
.

t o inte rv ene b efore t he nou n b ut t he b e st p la n is to sub st it ut

‘
e

for t he pow essiv e, a nd a llow t he a ntece dent t o come d ow n c lose

s
,

T his w a y w ill d irec t you to a gent lema n s

’
t o t he r ela ti ve .

h ouse tha t ha th sk i ll t o ta k e of these b u r d ens ( B unya n)

’
sa y

to t he house of a g ent lema n tha t ha t h s ill, & c k

6 T he P o ss e s s iv e l nfl e x 1o n as p r mmp a lly
.

l im it e d t o p e rso ns, a nim a ls, a nd p e rs o nifie d

‘
o bj e c t s W e ma y s ay J ohn s occ upa t ion , the king s
.
‘ ’ ’

‘
the l i on s m a ne , the mountui n s b ro w , b ut
’ ’ ’ ’ ’
c r ow n ,
’ ‘
not ( f
the house s
or th e r oo f of th roof
e house the
’
st r eet s W id t h
’
the b ook s p ric e
Thus it is only a se l ect nu m b e r o f nouns t ha t ad mit of t he
i nflexion fo r t he g rea t mas s w e mus t u se t he I mposit io n of
’
.

T his v ery m uc h d i m inishe s t he i mport a nc e o f t he only ca se

i nfiexi on t ha t t he la nfru ag e reta ins, re nde ring it a n e xc e
p t io n
l a t her t ha n t he r ule The examp les . of it s use may b e c la ss ified
as f ollows
‘
P r op er names of P ‘
John s
’
1
’
.
p er sons : et er s
pence ,

farm F m t hese
’
t he possess ive in fle xion 1s
al t hou h
g

“
.

‘
i t is not e xcl usiv ely emp loyed ; Da vid s p s 1l 111s ( t he Jsa lms
’ '

g
. .

of l la vid
)
’
P
l a to s p hilo sopliy ( t he philosop hy of P l at o
'

‘
‘sol
2Gla ss d esigna ti ons ofp er sons j as ud g e
’

, fal me r
d ier The her o s hm p
’
th my s
’ ’ ’
e l aw r a I u te
’

t he
’
.
, ene
ca mp
’
.

And Z ion s d a u gh t ers p ou r d t h el r la ys

’ ’

Wit h p r iest s a nd zeem w r s v oic e b e t w e en

’ ’ ’
.
136 I N FLE X I ON .
-
A
C SE or N U UN S .

A nimal s :
‘
the
'

ca t s
’
mew t he eagl e s
’
fl ight ‘
the a n
ts
’

ind ust ry t he el e
p ha nt
’
s t us k The ot her for m i s qu
e a ll
y
co mmon .

“
D gmfied ob ] ect s t ha t w e a re accu st omed t o hea r p er
j
'

‘
sonified the moon s rising
’ ’
the ea r th 3 su r
’
t he sun s rav s

fa ce
‘
the tu n emt 1g e the li ghtni ng s
-
a sh ,
’
the v olca no s
‘ ’
fl ’ ‘ ’

‘ ‘
the mow i ng s ra y ma n of w a r s rigging ,
’ ’
heav ings ,
’ ’
a - -

‘ ‘
fc r t zm e s smile , mela’ nchol y s child ,’ t he last t w mp et s
’ ’ ’ ’ ’

a wful v oz ce a nd love 3 a nd fr iemlship s finely p oint ed d a rt

‘ ‘
t he cla mour of the Ch m ch s b eing in d a nger , ti me s
’ ’ ’ '

‘ ‘
cter m ty s st ill ness ,
’ ’
follow r
’ ’
11a t ur e s v oice ,
’

d rea m
e
The ow ers of t he hu an i nd are somet imes p ersoni m m ~

‘ ’ ‘ ‘
fied ; w once w e ha v e 1 ea 3 0n 3 v oice , p assi on s l ure ,
’ ’ ’
tor '

cmw ceence sa e
‘ ’
k
i ma g ina ti ons range
‘ ’
fa awy s ight fl
The coll ect iv e int erest s of humanit y may b e t rea t ed in
‘ ‘ ‘
t he sa me w ay
’ ’
hzstor y s b us iness , socz ety s w ell b ei ng , the
’
’ ’
’
-

’
la w s d el ay
P oets na t urally carr y t he u sa ge fa rt her t ha n p rose w ri ters
S ee k
i ng t he b u b b le rep uta t ion a t the ca nnon s
’
mout h { S hale } .

He ( B yron)
‘ hi m d ow n
’ ’
sa t The1 e 111 e
at a p i l la r s b a se .

inst ances in or dinary sp eech, w here t he p osse ssiv e is

‘
u sed w ithout p e1 sonifica t ion, b ut t hey are rar e as for
app ea ra nces sa e , k
for a cqu a mt mwe s sa e ; a nd ev en in t hese
’ ’
k ’
.

t he ot her form, w it h t he prep osit ion, is more u sua l I n o ld .

~

E gn l ish t he i nfl e xion w a s q u it e c omm on Th e re a re ce a in

rt ‘
.

p h ras es w here a,
p eri od of t ime is g ov erned i n t he p’ ossessiv e
‘
b y t he act ion or st at e t ha t t he t ime rela t es t o : a d a y s lea v e
’

‘ ‘ ‘
a mo n
’ ’
th s holid ay , a few hou rs intercourse
’
t he T hz r ty
’

’ ’
yecw s w a 1
B ut w e are not now p ermit ted t o ma e indisc ri mi nat e use k
‘
w ha t is t he Cheese s
’
of t hi s i nflexion ; su ch exp 1 essions as
‘
Wei ht ?
g
‘
w
’
h
’
o w a s gu np owder s inv ent or ?
’
c
’ ’
op p er s v al ue ,
’

hea t s la w s , w ould b e a v iola t ion of a ll usag e

’
.

I t w ould b e correct to call the P ossessiv e in s

t he infl ex io n of p e rs o na l p o ss e s s io n, or
a t t r ib ut e .

S ent ient b ein may hav e their p ossessions, p ropert ies or

g
s ,

at t mb u t es e xp resse b y b eing infl ect ed in t his manner : t he

’
-

‘
mercha nt s w e al th t he a mba ssa d or s cred ent ials ,
’ ’
t he teger s
’ ’ ’

ferocit y
’
W hen a n inanimat e obj ect so far imp i esses the
.

mind t ha t w e t hink o f it a s hav ing sense a nd w ill w e may

b estow up on i t the pe1 sonal ending s j ust as we may ascn b e ’ '
 CA S E I N F L E XI ON
- t
OF PR ON OUN S ‘
.

‘
t o it hu man passions and fea tures the temp est s fury T i me s
’

hoa ry loc s k
Dea th s fa ta l a rrow
’

F or t he mea nings of t he genitiv e in E nglish as regularl

y
’
exp ressed b y t he p reposit ion of , see r ep osi ti ons P .

8 . F u rt he r re m na nt s of C a Se Infl e x io n
- are

seen i n certa in ronouns a nd ad v erb s.

p

ir 8 1 2
'

I N F LE XI ON OF P R ON OU N S .

l P ro no u ns
. a re infl e c t e d al most so le ly fo r ,

C a se A P r onoun
. differs from
a N oun in hav ing a .

distinct form, called the Q iij eetz ve Ca se, used w hen it“
’

- 'v

sta nd s as t he ob j ect a ft er a v erb or hf P rep osit ion a s

'

‘ ‘
I sa w hi m he sa w me, a nd sp oke t o me
’
Ex .

amp les of the t rue D a t ive infiex ion also remain .

There is no i nflect ion for g end er in t he p ronouns Those .

t hat express differe nce of sex ha v e d ifferent w ords for t he

‘ ‘
p u r ose
p h e, she, it w h o, w hich, w ha t Th e t in it -

‘ ha ’ d oe
‘ ’
t hat , w t , s indeed mar neut er gender k
b ut
only t o the eye o ft he p hil ologist .

The sa me remar k
a ppl ies t o numb er
; t he pl ural is not
exp ressed b y a n a dd i tion t o t he singular , b ut b y a d ist inct w ord
‘
in each numb er :
’
thou, you
’
I, we he, she, it , t hey
—

w hil e t he rela t iv e a nd int errogat ive p ronouns are the sa me for

b oth sing ula r a nd p lur al .

2 .
.

T he P e rso na l P ro no uns are thus declined

S I N GU LA R .

N omz na tive
'

P ss ss i e
. o e v .

l st p erson, I Q
Mine My ,

2 nd p er son, Thou Thine, Thy

PLU R AL .

l st p erson, We Our, Ours Us Us

2 nd p erson, Ye or You Y our , Y ours You You .

i n old E nglish, d ow n t o t he la t t er p art of t he 1 3 th cent ury,

t here exi st ed a d ual d eclension of the p ersonal p ronouns ( first
a nd second ) N om wi t ( w e t w o) , Een u ncer , d at u nc,
l
. . . .

nne ( a nett, archaic a nd p oet ica l) : ‘

I om got ( you t wo) , gen '

.
.

in cor, d at i nc, ace i nc ( i na l , a rchaic a nd

. .
p oetical ) .
1 38 I NFLE XI ON or PR ON OUN S .

I , in t he oldest English, 150 has now l ost the fi nal gut t ural
"
, .

A middle form 1011 seen i n i che m ( I ch a m, I am ) 13cha bbe ( I ch

, ,

ha bbe, I ha v e) , i chz l le ( I ch wi lle, I

’

w ill ) , & c st ill exist s in

"

.
,

d ialects in t he sout h of Engla nd . Comp a re Germ . 1J

eh, Dan .

j g,
e G r a nd L a
. t ego . .

‘
Ye,
y ou . Dow n t ill t he l 6 th cent ury y e ( O E ge) was , . .

nomina t iv e,
’
a nd you ( O E cow ) d a tive a nd a ccusa t iv e . . .

Mine t hine ( O
, ,
. E . m in, thin, t he fin l a mply show s
e si

t ha t t he 12 is l ong) are t he oldest forms , . . M y , t hy , d rop t he

inflexiona l ending n a p rocess d at ing from t he 1 2 t h
-
ce nt ury .

“
Our , y ou r ( 0 E u ser u r e ; e ow er ) ret a in t he genitiv e
. .
,
‘
end ing Ours, y ours, a re d oub l e forms a d ding t o our ,
‘ our a second enit iv e endin
'
ma de t heir first
y g g s ; t hey
-
,

N
fl

a ppea ra nce in t he ort hern d ia l ect s of t he t hirt eent h a nd

’

fou rt eent h centuri es, a nd a re d ue t o S ca nd ina v ia n in uence fl

( Morris) .

Me
, t h ee ,
u s , y ou,
as d a t iv es, c orres ond t o t he O
p E . .

da t iv es, me, the u s eow They st ill a p pea r as d a t iv es in

, , .

‘
c ert a in const ru ct ions ril eseem s methink s .
( it ) seems,
t hink s a
pp ea r s) to m W oe w o rt h hi m w oe w ort h e ,

S how me t ha t You ha d b et t er go wa s
’
b e) to
'
. .

‘
freely u sed i n the 1 6 th cent ury for yon w er e b et t er go
’

t hat i s, ( it) w er e w ou ld b e, sub ) b et ter for you ( t o) g o j .

‘ ‘
I n he st eps me t o a t rencher , t he s ilful sh ep her d p e eled
’
k
‘
me certa in w a nd s , and such li e, me seems t o a p propriate 1
’ ’
k
t he narra t iv e of t he a ct ion t o t he spea er, and t o b e eq u i va lent
'

k
t o mar me k I tel l you ( Ab b ott ) .
1

As ob j ect iv es ,
t he me forms corresp ond t o the O E
sa . . a cc usa

t i v es me ( mes, a rcha ic : comp are Germ

'

( nsic) , eow ( cow ie) .

T he the
’
’

3 . De mo nst ra t iv e s, or P ronouns of
'
r

t hird person, are d ecl ined as follow s

NGULA R
’

SI .

PLUR AL .

Their, Theirs Them Them

‘Hi i original
s is t he regul a r g en tiv e of a n

was d ati v e in O E
onl y . .

was gradually sup p lanted

 P E RS ONA L AN D D E M ON S TR ATI V E .

b y the dati v e form hi nt in t he 1 3 th and 1 4th centuries: Hi m-

show s da t i v e end ing 1n, a t ta ched t o t he root hi -

S he The O E heo died out in t he 1 4th century , hav mg

. . .

‘ ’
b een slow ly sup ersed ed d uring t w o cent uries b y she , a new
a p plica t ion of t he feminine d e nite ar t icle ( 0 E seo, si o seaa, fi . .

sco sche) .

‘
Her, hers ‘ Her ( 0 E hir e, her e) preserv‘
’
.
es t he geni tiv e . .

end i ng rc -
ers . H ’ ‘
is a d oub l e genit iv e l i e ou rs , you rs
’

, k
The d at iv e her al so p r eserv es t he d at iv e end ing of t he
O E forms hi r e, her e
. . The ob ect iv e ‘
her is t he d a t iv e form
’
. j
re ap pli ed, an ea rl y su b st it ut ion for t he O E a cc hi, 7
-
16 0 . . . .

nom h d
a nd ob
rop t t he h of the O rm hi t
It, j . as .
, E fo . . .

‘
Hit is t he regular neuter of he ( hi) b y a d d it ion of the
’ ‘ ~

neut er e nd ing t : comp a re t ha t -

’
w ha t , L a t id ,
‘
u od , .
’
q '

&c . lt d a t iv e, ha s t a en t he p la ce of O E hi m, t he regu lar k . .

infiexion .

I t s st a nds for O E his The form w a s u n nown b efore t he

~

. . . k
sixt e enth c e nt ury , occu rr ing b u t r a rely in S ha e sp ea re, a nd not k
a t a l l in t he t ra nsl at ion of t he ib l e ; t he mea ni ng b eing giv en B
‘
b y his ( t he 1 cgula r O E for n1) and The old
’
~

. .

ossessiv e , hi s, st ood f or b oth ma sc uli ne a nd ne ut er c 1 ea t ing

p ,

an ob st a cle t o t he p ersonif y ing p ow er o f t he w ord Milt on .

seems t o ha v e fel t t his, a nd ne v er u ses t he form

’
his in t he
‘
neu t er sense, w hile he ev a des the occa si ons of r esorting t o it s
Dryden a d op t ed t he new form ful ly .

F rom t he 1 4t h t o t he 1 7 t h cent ury hi t or i t w a s somet imes

u sed in pl a ce o f hi s ( neu t ) or i ts esp eciall y in re ferenc e t o .

‘
child ren or d ep re cia t ingly Tha t w hich g row et h of i t ow n .

a c cord ( L evi t xx v The innocent mil in i t most innoc ent

. . k
mout h W i nter s Ta le, iii
’ '

F rom t he 1 4th t o t he l 6 t h cent ury, the ow n w a s somet imes

‘
used i n p la ce of his ( i ts) ow n
is a t hing so unp rofit a b l e, & c
Gold , which o fthe ow n na t u re
( S ir T More s Utop i a , ii
’
. . .

Rob inson s t ransl ,

’
.

There i s a c uriou s cont ra st b et w een t he p ossess1v e in flexion of

nouns a nd t his p ossessiv e The nou ns so in ect ed are al most . fl
‘ ’
e xcl usi v ely names of p ersons, w hile it is t he p ronou n o f
t hi ngs W e ca nnot say the r oom s height , b ut w e ca n sa y
.
’ ’

i ts height
‘
The form of it is som et im es t o b e p referred
’
W hen the .

noun is em phat ic, t he p rep osit ion is ‘

refera b l e : t hu s, t he
p
t he v alue of i t , b et t er ena b l e s u s t o t hrow t he
’
w eight of i t ,
’

em ha sis on t he noun, t ha n if w e w ere t o sa ‘

p y i ts w eight i ts
V al ue

They , t he m odern form ofO E . . tied , the co mmon nom pl ur; .

1 4: 0
i
I NFLE X I ON or
’

PR ON OU N S .

oft he O E d efinite. .t o d rive out t he regular 0 2 art icl e , b egan

E p lur l, hi ( la ter hi y, heo) in t he 1 3 th c ent ury
.

a .

Their , t heirs Their , t he mod ern form of the O E

’

“
. . .

thei r a , t he c ommon
g it iv e p l ural of t he O E d ef art ,
-
en . . .

S i mi larl
y usurp ed t he p la ce of t he regular 0 E hi m , . .

hi r e, hear e The gen end ing is reser v ed

.
’
Theirs is a d oub l e
. .

g enit iv e, l i e ours
y our s kers

Th em is t he d at p l of t he def art thcem, tha m, repla cing

’

. . . .

t he regula r 0 E hi m la t er heom hem ‘

( ) The ob j t hem is a
’
. . . .
,
new a p li ca t ion of t he da t for m in
p la ce of t he O E a cc hi
p
-
.
, . . .

( hi g, ’eo) B ut for t his t ra nsference of t he d at form, w e should

. .

hav e exp ected t hey for ob a s w ell a s nom O E thci ser vin
j g . . .

T his a nd t ha t hav e no case infiexion they hav e a

p l ural m flex ion, t hes e

, t ho s e .

This wa s v a ried
for gend er in O E thes the es . .

this The neu t er form ha s b een ext ended t o all genders .

common 0

;hi
l ll e
’
E p lur w as thds ; l at er thee, t hese, thise,
. . .

s
That w a s orig inall
y t he neu t er of t he def a rt se, the . .

3 66 (f tha t . B y t he 1 3 th cent ury it w as ext ended t o all

g end ers ; a nd next centu ry, it ha d full d emonst rat iv e force .

The pl ur t hose is O E tha s, b orrow ed in t he 1 4t h cent ury

’

. . .

from t his Tha t had p rev iously ep t it s regula r plur tha , k .

tho, t he p lur of t he d e nit e a rt icl e. fi .

fi
The I nde nit e p ronoun one, in t he sense of one cannot
’
b e sure of t hat , i s d eclined in t he singul ar, b u t ha s no p lural
‘
one s l egitima te expect a t ions should b e r es ) ect ed
’

One as in t he young o nes is decl ine lik e a noun

’ ‘ ’
one s p lu r a l, ones, ones
‘
m
’

Ot her has p oss p l ur n o o

.t hers sing
p ose . ot her s . . .

‘ li e a noun k ‘ ’
The O E p lur wa s ot here hence
’
ot hers . . . .

ot her w as of te n u sed as pl ur b e t w een t he d ropp ing of t he ol d .

inflexion a nd t he a dding of t he reg ular mod ern infiexion s -

.

‘ nother is sim l
A p y‘ a n ot her
‘ N
one ,
‘
a ny ,
’
ea ch
’
eit her ,
‘
neit her , & c , ta e t he
’’
. k
‘
oss essiv e inflexion n onc s & c
p .

T he R efl e x iv e
4 . P ro no uns are mark ed b y the
w ord s e lf .

SI N GU LAR .

Mysel f ( ourself) ,

2 nd p erson : Thysel f, yours el f

imsel f, herself, itsel f, H
Demonstrati ves
Oneself, oll e s self i ’
.
 ”
RE FLE XI VE ,
I N TE RR OGA TI VE ,
R E A TI L VE . 1 41

S elf ad ds emphasis I t wa s
’
. originally an a d ecti v e j
j oined to nouns and p ronouns , a nd fl
in ec t ed reg ula rl
y . Ncm .

i s salf( a ) , gen mi n selfes, da t me selfum, acc m e selfne

. . . .

Then t he d a t iv e of t he pronoun w a s someti mes inser ted b et w een

‘ ‘
t he t wo i c me self ( or sil f) t hu the silf he hi m silf ;
’

w e u s sil fo g e co w silf e h i hi m sil fe

P
The da t iv e of t he ersonal Re flexiv es w a s t urned int o geniti v e

“
‘
sel f ha v ing come t o b e re a rd ed a s a
’
in t he 1 3 th cent ury, g
‘ ‘ ‘
Thus I me self b ecam e I mi ( my) sel f ;
’ ’
nou n t hu the
sel f b eca me
’
.

‘
t hu thi ( thy) se lf ; a nd so
” ou r sel f
’
,

, yo ur self
These last w ere p lu rals, the e a nd eu i nflexions b eing d ropt ; - -

b ut they necessa rily conformed t o the u sage of nouns i n elf -

and b eca me oursel v es yoursel v es a s p lurals, a nd ourself

yo u rse lf as sin g ul a rs .

The dativ e ofthe d emonst ra t iv es remains, excep t in t w o ca ses .

‘ nesel f’ is fre uent l ‘

O y w ri t t en q ‘
one s sel f
’
And his ow n
’
.

sel f ,
’
thei r p r eci ou s sel v es , & c , sh ow t hat w ith a
’
ual if i
y g n . q
w ord b efore self ( which is then rega rded as a noun) , t he p ose .

forms,
‘
his ,
’ ‘
their , & c , ma y b e used
' ‘
Her self , i tself
.
’ ‘ ’
.
-

cont a in the dat iv e f orms her t it not t he p osse ssi v e forms

‘her ‘
its

5T he Int e r ro g a t iv e P ro no u ns that
. unde rgo
declension are w ho and w ha t .

W ho ( O E hw d , ma sc a nd
. .
p oss w hose ( O E . . . .

j
hw ws) d at iv e a nd ob ect iv e, w hom ( O E d d t hweem, hw a m) , . . .
’

‘
The e of whose is not infiexiona l ; i t merely indica tes t ha t
’
-

t he o is l ong the s is a t rue g enit iv e ending -

The O E acc . . . .

hw one ga v e way t o the d at form in t he 1 3 th cent ury t he - m

’

of whom p reserv es the old d a ti v e end ing .

‘
W ho m ay al so b e regarded a s a m od ern ob ect iv e for m,
’
j
side b y sid e w ith w hom F or ma ny good w riters a nd
"
k
sp ea e rs sa y w ho a re yo u tal ing of l w ho d oes t he gar den k
‘
w ho from ? & c
’ ’
b eloncr to w ho is t his for ? .

h
W at ( 0 E hw aet, neut comp a re 3 ,
. .
p oss w hose . .

( O E hw ces) ; d at a nd ob j w hat ( 0 E a cc hwazt ; t he O E

. . . . . . . . .

da t w a s h waem, hw a m)
’

. .

W hi ch is often the nominativ e corresponding i n mea ni ng to

‘ ‘ ‘
whose nev er was a geni t iv e from which
’ ’
whose ; b ut
historica lly .

R e la t iv eT he P ro no u ns hav e only t wo
inflected forms : w ho se a nd w ho m .

W ho ( masc . a nd fe m . so met imes ne ut ) . ca n har dly b e regarded

as a rela ti v e t ill t he 1 6t h
The pose cent ury . . w hose a nd the
ob j .
w hom ha d b een relati v es in t he 1 2 t h ce nt ury
-
.
142 I NFLE X I ON or P RON OUN S .

‘
W hat is etymol ogically the neu t er
‘
b ut pra cti ca lly of w ho

it is now eq uiv al ent t o that which

’
I t s funct ion a s neu t er .

‘
rela t iv e a s w el l a s it s p oss
, w hose l ong ago went over t o .

‘
w hich and t hat
’
.

W hich is now the neut er p ract ically corresp onding t o w ho , ’

b ut t ill recent ly it w a s often u sed a s masc or fem al so I t b or . . .

r o w e d from
’
w ho and w h a t t he p oss w hose .

Tha t. is u sed for a ll genders an d b oth numb ers I t is i nd e .

cli na b le ; b ut i t sup p lies t he w a nt of a p oss b y b orrow ing

'

‘ ‘
from b ecame cl ea rly
’
a nd wha t l hat
? ’
w hose w ho
'
.

rel a t iv e i n t he 1 2 th cent ury Cha ucer indica tes dist inct ions .

of
g e n d er a nd c a se b
y a ssocia t in
g a d emonst ra t i v e w ith i t
‘ ‘ ‘
( nom )
’
t ha t
’ ’ ’
that he wh o , or t ha t his
’
whose .

tha t hi m w hom or t ha t

Cert a i n Comp ou nd R ela ti v es ta e t he p ossessiv e inflexion k .

I w ould’ not hurt a hair ofher hea d , w hose ever d a ughte r she
may b e ( Gold smit h, Good N a tur a l Ma n, v ) t ose t ong ue -
.

’
soe er sp ea s f k
a lse not t rul
y ps ea s ( S hak , K i n
g John, iv k .

S ubstit utes f or Rela tive ‘

I rylex ions .

When we me t o discri minat e t he t w o rela t iv es — t he ce or di

co -

na t ing a nd t he rest rict iv e w e find t he m od es of e xp ressing t he —

ca se meani ngs of t hem in p ra ct ice t o b e somewhat compl ica ted :

- »

To b egi n w it h w ho W hen w e ha v e occasion t o exp ress t he

.

id ea of str ict p er sona l p ossession, w e may say w hose, a nd also

‘
of w hom : God w hose offspring w e a re , of w hom w e are
’
,

Of course w hen t he mea ning is not p ersonal

’
t he ofisp ring
'

‘
p osses sion b u t r efer ence,
,
of w hom i s u sed , o r w h om of —

he encount ered t he k eep er, of w hom he k new not hing ‘

w hom
he knew not hing bf ’
.

W hi ch , W hen w e hav e t o use a possessiv e form of t he

neu t er rela t iv e of c o ord ina t ion, w e ha v e a choice b e t w een of
-

‘
w hi ch, w her eof, The p re fera b le form is
a nd w hose
of .

‘
w hich — of ; t he ot he r for ms a re b ett er suit ed t o
’ ’
w hic h , or
t he rest rict i v e rel a t iv e :
‘
t he al al ine b ases, of w hi ch t he k
p ecul iarit y is t he d oct ri nes in q u est ion, of w hi ch t his is t he
sum w hi ch t his is t he sum of The forms w hose , w here
’ ’
.

of , are al so a d mit t ed ; b u t p er s i c ui t y i s a ined By r eservi ng

’

p g
‘
t hem for t he ot her relat i v e They a g reed in regarding the .

na t ional v oice, w hose ( co ord ina t ing) ind e pend ence t hey m ai n -

ta ined , as exp ressed b y t he rep rese nt a t i ves of t he p eop le in

arlia ment
p .

That N o i nfiexion is p rov id ed for t he relat iv e ofrest rict ion

.
.

To exp ress the mea ning cor responding t o t he possessiv e in

flexion, t hese are the forms a t hat of, w hereof, and w hose - -
.
 RE LA TI VE S AN D T H EI R S U BS TI TU TE S .

k
The first is unmist a ab le, and t o b e p referr ed The ot hers
'

s er v e f or t he c o ord ina t ing rela t i v es ; b ut t hey hav e, t o t he

'

ear fa mi li ar w it h id ioma t ic E n lish, st ill m ore t he rest rict i v e

g
ef fec t : t he p erson tha t I ga v e you t he na me of ‘
t he p erson —

"
u hose na m e 1 g a v e ou t he t rib u nal of p ub l ic Op ini on is one
y ’ ‘
w hose d ecisions i t i s not ea s y t o d espise one tha t it is not
‘
ea sy t o d esp ise t he d ec isions of ; I coul d a t a le unfold w hose
’

’
l ig htest w o1 d , & c could not b e conv eni ent ly cha nged int o
.

‘ ’
t ha t of .

The form whereof i s only one of a cl ass of c om ] ound s

‘ ‘
t ha t p ossess grea t conv enience in
’
w herein ,
’
w heret o , & c .
-

ex p l essi ng t he re osit iona l c onst 1 u ct ions o f t he 1 el a t iv e T h ey

p p .

c o1 resp ond b y p reterence, b u t not exclu siv el , t o t h e 1 est ric t i v e

'

‘
rel a t iv e t ha t
’
The p oint w her ei n I e1 1 ed ,
.
y
t he p oint tha t “
I er red i n ( rest rict iv e) A nd b e not drun w ith w ine, w her ei n
. k
‘
is excess ( co ord i nat ing, i n
-

S ome gra mma 1 ia ns w ould confine t he u se of whose t o p ersons,

b ut t he rest rict ion has nev er b een in force t here is not hi ng t o
justi f y it .

7 N o u ns
. a ft e r P lura l P o s s e ss iv e s . As re

g dars the
p ossessi v e 1nfiex ion genera lly, i t is to b e

not ed that a n a bstra ct nou n following a p l ur a l p ossessi v e

‘
should not b e ma d e p lu r a l ; as w e ha v e changed ou r
‘ ‘
mi nd , w e w ould lay d ow n our life ; men s rea son
’ ’ ’

shoul d b id t hem re ar d thei1 hea lth

’

g T h e p lur al is .

‘
not req uired in such an exp ression a s le t not your
hea i ts b e t r oub l ed ee Ca se of N ouns, end )
(
’
S . .

S cotticism in t he possessi v e ca se To mor r ow s morni ng , for

’ ’
-

to- morrow morning S u nd a y s morning

’

I N F L E XI ON OF A DJE CTI V E S .

I A dj e c t iv e s a re infl e c t e d t o s ig nify d if
e
.

fe re nc of d e me ‘ ’
: t t rea test
g1 ea , g rea er , g .

This 1 8 ca lle d t heir o m p a rl s o n .

j
I n m a ny l a ngu ages a d ect iv es are in ect ed t o mar the gend er fl k
oft he nouns t hey a re oined t o j
in mod ern Engl ish no difieren
'

is ma d e on t his a ccou nt N or d oes t h e c a se or numb er of t he

.

nou n a f j
fect t he a d ect iv e i n mod ern E nglish Ou r langu ag e h a s .

ga ined i n simplicit y a nd ease b y disca rding these a dj ec ti i e .

 144g; I NFLE X I ON or ADJE CTI VE S .

infiexions, a nd has l ost onl y a cert a in

pow er of varying the
‘

order of w ord s B ut in the old est English, the Ad ect iv e w as

. j
fl
fully i n ec t ed for gend er numb er , a nd ca se ind eed, it had a lso
, .

a spe c ia l d ec l ension w hen

p rec eded b y a d em onst ra t iv e .

I n t he 1 4t h cent ury, t he i nfle xiona l end ings of t he Ad ect iv e j

ha d d w indled d ow n t o e, w hich oft en app ears as a sepa ra t e
-

sylla b le, a fter a d emonst ra t iv e, or b efore a p l ural noun Dr . .

Morris not es an excellent ill ustrat ion from t he Op ening l ines of

P
Cha ucer 8 r ologu e to the Ca nter bu r y Ta les
W han Z ep hi ru s eek w i t h his m et e b rea t he
E nsp ired b a t h i n e v er y b olt s a nd b oot h e
Th e t end : e cr o pp es a nd t h e y o ng e sonne
H
,

a t h i n t h e Ra m h is ha lfe c ou rs i r onne,
"
A nd sma l e fo w l es m a k e n m el od 1c
‘
.

In 0 E . .
, j
b orrow ed from
a d ect i ves orman F rench someti mes N -

t oo k es ( or s) i n t he p lu ra l
- -
p art ie s mer i d i ona les ( M au nd e

v ille) , t he b est of all v er tu es, t ha t ca r d i na les b en ca lled

( La ngl ey) , places deli ta b les ea p i ta l les let t res ( Cha ucer)

I n ca s es li e mot iv es k w o rthies
‘
inca pa b l es ext rem es ,
’

‘b ‘
cont emp ora ries , g reens , & c t he omission of
’
rillia nts ,
’ ’
.

t he nouns t hrow s the force o f t hese u pon t he a d ect iv es, w hic h j

k
t a e t he noun inflexion al so, a nd t hus b ecome t o a ll int ents and
u rp oses nouns.
p

2 There are said to b e t hree d e g ree s of Com

p a r l so n ; t he P o s it iv e , the C o mp a ra t iv e , an d
t he S u p e r la t iv e .

The P ositiv e is the Adj ectiv e in its s im p le o r u n

‘
infl e c t e d fo r m
’ ’
hi h
’

gr ea t ,
b roa d , g
The Comp arat iv e is form ed b y a d d ing - e r t o
‘ ‘
t he P o s it iv e : greater , b roader , higher
’ ’ ’
.

The S up erla t iv e is formed b y a d d ing - es t t o t he

‘
P o s it iv e : grea test , b roadest , highes t
’ ’ ’
.

The co mpa ra t iv e end ing -

er show s a n -
r repla cing a n earl ier
-
s mpare S ansk rit j a ns, j a s T he S up erl a ti v e est is formed
co - - .
-

b y ad d ing t to t he compa ra t iv e suffix : comp a re S ansk j a ns

-
.
-

ta , -
i stha .

A n ol d comp ara t iv e end ing ter , - ther ( S a ns ta r Gree a nd

-
k .
-
k
La t in ter from t he root of L at tr a ns, thr ou gh,
-
g oi ng .

r ema ins in a few exa mples

’
b eyond or farther af ter , other
w he ther -
eithe r neither und er
‘
An old su p erla t iv e ending 7na is see n in former ( O E
’
-
. .

‘
m a , su perl a t i v e of f hic h w e ha v e ma d e a com pa ra
fo n ore w
t iv e b y adding er )
,
and also in many w or ds end ing in most
- -
 U S U AL MS
“
F OR OF '
COMP A RI S ON .

‘ oremost " " utmost This most is -t he O E

f , inmost &c .
-
. .

« mast - m -
est , a d oub le sup erl a t iv e ending not t he most

p refixed to j
a d ect i ves, as
‘
most ca r eful
’
.

3 . Mo d ifica t io ns in s p e lling take p lace in cer

ta in cases .

Adj ectiv es ending in e silent d rop the - -

e b efore
w hite , c omp ara ti v e w hit er sa erla
’
-er a nd es t p
- -

t iv e w hit est remote, remoter, remotest

-
ab le,

ab ler, ab lest

W hen the j
a d ectiv e ends in y p r eceded by a -

consona nt t he
, y is
-
c hang ed int o i : hol y, hoI i er , - - - -

hol i est
- -
ha pp y, —
hap p i er, hap p i est
— -
b alm y,
-
- - -

b a lm i sr , - -
b alm i est - -

When a v ow el p r eced s e -
y, - sr a nd -
est a re ad d ed
wi thout »

‘
any cha nge coy, coy er , -
coy .
est g y,
a g a y- er , g y est
a -
_

A final consona nt p receded by a shor t accented

‘

sr and est :
‘red
‘

vowel is d oub led b ef ore red d —er , - -

,
-

‘
sa d , sad d er , sa ddest
’
red d est
- -
b ig, b igger , b iggest
F inal l p receded by an - u nac cented -v owel is often d oub led
‘cr uel cr uel l er cr uel l
,

’ ‘
, ,
- - - -
est ; fr ight ful, fright ful ler , fright
’
ful lest .

4 W he n . t han t w o s yl a w o rd has m o re
la b le s , o r is a c o m p o u nd , the comp ariso n usually
ta k es pl ace b yj means of the adv erb s mo re and m os t ;
‘ ‘
more singular, most singular more fruitful, most ,

’
fruit ful .

This for the regular inflexion d at es from t he 1 3 th

sub stitute
‘

ce nt ury I t has made it s w ay v ery lar ely b y b eing a useful

T
.

hel p t owards eup hony W hen a w ord 1113 al ready t hree syl .

lab les, t he add it ion of t he inflexion for d eg ree mak es it too

hard t o p ronounce, a nd pa inful t o hear ev en t hough t he accent
w ere b elow t he first syll ab le S o w hen a word is al rea dy a .

compound , a s fa it h fut t here is a simi lar ob j ect ion to com -

ounding it sti ll f u t h
p r er .

E ven wi t h dissylla b l es generally, the ef fect of adding -er and ,

est ma occasionally sound har sh ; and t her f ore the i second

y e
o

‘ ‘
method 18 foll owed, as more ea rnest , more p ru dent
’

10
1 46 I N FLE X I ON on A DJE C I I V ES
’ ‘
.
3

Another for pre ferring more and most is that e r a nd

rea son
-
est a r e na ti ve sulfi d es , a nd best su i ted to na ti v e w or ds Most .

w ord s oft hr ee sylla b l es a nd u p w ards ar e of cl assi c orig in, a nd

t heir inflexion would p rod uce hyb rids The ol d w rit e1 s, .

how ev er, w ere not b ound b y t hese considera ti ons W e find, in .

‘
S id ney, r ep inin est
g in a con,
‘
a ncie nt er
’
and B ‘
honour
ab l est in Hoo er , not onl y l ea rned est ( a S a xon w ord ) b ut
k ,
‘ ‘ ‘
fa mousest sol emnest
’
v irt u ousest ; in F uller, el oq uent er ,
’

‘
em i11ent est I n our ow n d a y, Ca rl yle has ma ny such exa m p les
’
. .

j ‘
Any ad ect iv e may b e comp ared b y more a nd most , if t he ‘ ’ ’

ear i s b ett er sa t isfied w it h t he comb ina t ion of sound s p 1 0

I t is most t rue ‘ ‘
a mor e w ort hy course
’
d uced
’
. Thus
d oing, on shall b e most a i r , most r i ch, most wi se, most a ll
f
you sha d w ell upon su perlativ es ( S idney) . .

5 . C e rt a in co mp a ra t iv e s in -
io r, d e riv ed
‘ ‘
fro m t he L a t l n, interior , ex terior as
‘
sup er ior ,
’ ’

‘ ’ ‘ ‘ ‘ ’
inferi or , l
’
a nte rior ,
’
steri or , i te rior ,
‘

o p r or u
p
‘ ‘ ‘
senior j unior , maj or , minor , a re not p ro p e r
’ ’ ’

a nd fu ll E ng lis h C o m p a ra t iv e s The end ing i or .

-

is c ognate w i th the E nglish end ing ; b ut they a re not

‘ ‘
f ’
o ll o we d by tha n i n comp osi tion
’
W e say senior to .

’
,
not seni or tha n his b rother .

6 I r re g u la r a nd Defe ct iv e
. C o mp a riso n is
ex emp lifie d 111 a few instances .

Good
B etter
W ell
B ad
E v il W orse
I ll
Good 0 E god , has neither comp arativ e nor superlativ e
, . . .

W ell here 1 3 t he redieate adj ectiv e ( a s in Ane you w ell

‘

a l so uninflect ed et t er B est (
.
g E beter a ,
had l ost .
,

t heir si t iv e ( bet or ba t
) e v e n i n t he ol dest E ngl ish ext a nt
,
.

B ca m e i n a b out t he 1 3 t h c ent ury Chau cer som et imes .

‘
E v il ( 0 E yfel ) a nd I ll ( a cogu
’
u ses b a dd er . na t e S ca ndi
.

nav ia n form) are not infl ect ed W orse ( 0 E m/78a ) and .

w orst ( 0 E w yrr est, w yrst) a re formed from a lost posi t iv e

. .

‘
The is a relic of t he old est form of the er
in
’
w ear .
-
s w orse .

‘
ending : cont ra st t he Da nish v eer r e , w hich has l ong a pea red
’

p
-

in N
o rt hern En li sh
g ( inclu din g S co t ch) as w a rre w ar
’
 I RRE GU LAR AN D DE F E CTI V E CO MPARI S ON . 147

L ittle
M uch
Many
L it t l e ( 0 E lytel ) sup plies from a different root ( las infirm
. .
,
‘

c omp l ess ( 0 E l acs 3 a a nother relic of the s ending) , a nd

. . .
- -

su p erl l ea st ( 0
. E l ees t i e lees est) L esser, a d oub le c om
. .
-
, .
-
.

p ar . i s
, a n a d m it t ed form : t he g re a t er l i ht t o r ul e t he da
g y,
‘
a nd t he l esser l i ht to ru le t he ni ht ( Gen i 1 6 ) t he lesser
g g “
. .

Asia t he lesser grey cent res of t he b ra in L it t l est occurs

once in S ha ( Ha m iii k ‘
.t he l i ttlest d oub ts
’
. This,. .

how ev er, i s i n a sp ecial cont rast where it is d esirab le t o show

‘
t he form lit t le
’
.

M uch ( O E mic cl, la t er mi chel, muehel, moche) is from t he

. .
-

root ma ( g) h g row , b eco me

‘
M ore ( 0 E ma r a . .

ma h ra ) i s u sed a s t he comp of b oth mu ch a nd ma ny

-
Mo, .

time, a short ened form, is common i n t he Eli ab ethan a ge, z

‘
a nd is f ound in S c ot ch as mce ( t he comp of ma ny .

M ost is O E mecet . ma ll st ) . M a ny ( O E ma neg) -

. .

cont ains t he root ma ny, a nasa li ed form of ma y

( ma h) z
( Morris) .

E lder Eld est .

Old er Old est .

01d , 0 . E O E yldr a , eldr a ; eld est , O E

. ca ld ; eld er, . . . .

‘ ‘
yld est, eld est The modi ficat ion of t he v ow el in yld
. eld
i s du e t o t he i nfl uence of a lost i p receding t he endings -
.

‘
(‘Compa re ma n, men & c ’ p ‘1 2 6 ,
’
S o la ng c om
p
. . .

l engra supe rl , l engest st ra n ,

g .
st ren ra,
g st reng est
‘
g eon
g (y o u ng ) n
gy g r a g gest
y n &c .

‘ '

Ol d er Ol d est , formed d irect ly from

’
old , a re now t he
comm on in fies ions Th e genera l u se of t hese has gra d ually '

fi
con ned
‘
el d er ,
‘
eld est
’
t o l i v ing b eings Eld er has lost ‘
’
.

‘
a1t of the com p a rat iv e use ; w e sa y ch is the elder ?
’
p w h i b ut
w e ha v e ceased t o say he is eld er tha n his b rother

N ighe r N ighest , N ext .

N earer N ea rest .

F arther F arthest .

F urthest
[ F orth
] F urther
.

F urt hermost .

Th e fi k l ‘
h
’ ‘near
rst coup l e l B nigh
'

,
oo regu ar ut t e .

‘
really re ular f
g orm w ould b e an apparent mixt ure nigh, near,
next
 I N FL EX I ON or A DJ E cr rvssa
'

N igh, 0 ‘
E nea h, neh, l at er i nei h, neyh N ear, O E
’

. . . . . .

nyr a , nea r r a w as t he reg ul ar co m

’

p ar o f neah it b e an t o be
g .

u sed a s p osit i v e a b ou t t he 1 2 th cent u r

y, t hough i t w as not q uite
disu sed a s comp a r t ill t he 1 7 t h c ent ury N ext i s O E nehst
.
. . .

( ;
r n ea h-
st neh st) Thus nearer is etym ol ogica lly a d oub le
,
-
.

comp a r , a nd near est has r ea ll

.
y t he mod ern sup erl a dd ed t o .

t he old comp a r form . .

P ar , 0 E feor , had 0 E comp ar fyr r a , a nd su p erl

. . . . .

fy rr est The l a t er form of fyr r a , fer r e, t oo on t he common

. k
k
end ing ( li e nerr e, ner r er nea r er a nd b eca m e a d oub l e c om a r
) p , , .

ferr er . F a r r er , fa r r eei, rema in i n S cot ch ; b ut fart her

,
‘
fart hest the E ng lish fo rms, ha v e ad mit ted ih from furt her ~ ~

furt hest on a m ista en a na l o

gy k .

The adv forth ha d n o a d ect iv e c og nat e in O E F urt her

. j . .

(O E . . a re r eg ularly f
‘
orm ed The O E
‘
. . .

sup erl w as fur th m es t ; wh ence furt herm ost

’
. F urther - -
.

more i s an a d v ( used w it h t he force of a conj unct ion) .

-

Ra t hest ] .

Rat he ( O b r eed ) , q uic ,

. E
early ; ra t her ( O E
. k ’ ‘ ’
. .

hr octhr a ) a nd r a t hest ( O E hr a thost — died ou t as ad ect i ve s

) j . .

m t he 1 7th cent ury ‘

The a d v ( O E hr a t hor)
'

ra ther . . .

‘
,

rem a ins, b ut in t he meta p horical sense of b y preference

ref ra b l which a p p ea red a s ea rly as t he 1 2t h cent ury
p e y .

The O E a d v oer ( form erly ‘ ‘

. . b e fore is rad ically con
.

‘
u set ed w it h t he a d v 7? ( ev er I t ap pears ia .

‘ ‘
. ea r for w hich cer , er e, is st il l u sed in S cot ch : a s, an
oer cra
‘
( an ea r ly crop ) , a nd, a dv e1 b ia lly, t o wor la t e and k
( er re is O E te rm for mer a nd erst is O
. E wrest
. . .

j
b ut t he ad ect iv e u se of t he w or d s i s now ob solet e . .

‘ ‘
L at e ( 0 E las t, sl o w , la t e
’
. . lat t er ( 0 E la tr a , lat er . .

Za ttr e) ; l a st ( 0 E la test, la tst

’
sof t ened , li e
.
'
b ot st int o k
b est , i n t he 1 2 th cent ury ) L a t er, l a t est , are regular a nd
'
.

u nmodified .

F oremost ( O E fyr mest)

P am
. .
.

e1
F i 1 st ( 0 E . ,

Hind most
Hm der
Hinder mos
A fter most ( O E . .

I nmost, innermost ( O E innemest) . . .

1
 I RR EGUL Ar
’

AN D D E FECTI VE CO MPA RI S ON .
(1 49

[
. Ou t, Outer Out most, ou termost (O E N

O E a t]
. . U tter U t most , utt ermost a t emest
) .

Mid Midmost ( O E med emest) . . .

U
[ p ,
Up p er Up most, upperm
OE . . u f Ov er Ov er most
High Higher Highest , Highermost ,

L ow L ow er L o w est, L ow erm ost

U nder Und ermost
N ether N e theI m ost ( O E n ithemest ) . .

F or e ( ad v b efore ma de in O E a sup erl adj for ma ,

. . . . .
-

t o w hich t here w a s a dded l ater t he comp a r su f x, making . fi

former The a ddit ion of t he supe rl suf
,
fix e st made a d oub le .

S up erl , O E fyr mest, our for emost

. . . F irst ( 0 E fyfl r ek t) . . .

is t he regula r sup erl form . .

Many ot her forms now ob solet e are fou nd in our 01

‘hind er ’ ‘ ’
u ppe rest ,
‘ ’
ov erest , & c W e hav e a lso some
‘

est , .

endm
’ ‘
most ast most , est most op most ,
’ ’
ot hers in 7 w ost , t
‘st em most ’ & c e
.
,

7 Do ub le
. co mp a ra t iv e s a nd sup e rla t iv e s
t o b e av oid ed as mor e surer p unishments , w orser
’ ’

are

far the most b oldest the ost u nkindest cut of a ll

m
W e hav e j ust few ca ses of d oub l e infiexion, chie y
se en not a fl
how ev er ih circu mst ances where th e common end ing has b een
ad ded t o an older ending no l ong er f a milia r in t he r e uired q
‘
sense lesser u t m ost &c -
.

S o w hen a w ord has of i tself the force of a compa rat iv e or

‘
sup erl a t iv e i t shoul d not b e com p ared ; as the chi efest a mong
‘
t he extremest v erg e a more p erfect w ay
’
t en t housa nd .

Su ch cases arise chie y from t he d esire of excep t ional fl

. n m
8 A dj e c t iv e s o c o p a e d
t r —
A dj ectiv es ex
re ss i ng m ea nings t hat d o not a dmit of chan e ofd egree
p g .

are not co mpa red .

S uch are t he p ronominal ad ecti v es ( this t hat , his, t heir, j ,

t he d efin it e numer al a dj ect i v es ( t wo, fourth, b oth,

j
a nd ma ny ad e t i v es of q u all t y
c ;
.

Th e foll ow ing a r e ex am p es :
l l mi ght y cert ai n
"
Achi ef cir cu lar
’

‘
con ti nu a l d e ad e mp t y ex t r em e eter na l fa ls e l ia l
, ,
’
,
fi ’
,

u
fi d i b l ‘
mfallib l e
’ ’

g old en i i ’
n e x p a e , ,
l i v i ng p a t e rn a l p e rfec t p e rp e t u al r oy al s u p rem e u ni v e r
S ome a re a l rea d y w or d s e xp r ess ing t h e h ig h est p oss ib l e
’
sa l , v oid
’

q A
.

d egree of th e ua l it y ( lm ig ht y) Ot h ers ha v e no sha d es of meaning : a

.
 I NFLE XI ON OF AD JE CTI VE S .

th ing m ust b e either p er p endi cu lar or not , d e ad or not d ea d th ere are ,

no d e grees F ig u r a t iv ely , h ow e v er , w e a scr 1b e d egr ees t o some o f th es e

.

a t t r 1 b u tes W he n w e sp ea k of a n a ssert ion as mor e or l ess cert a in w e

.

d o not mea n t h a t one a ss er t i on i s cer ta in a b solu t e l y , a nd t ha t a not h er

i s m ore so w e mea n th a t t he o t h er a p p roa ch es nea r er t o b ein g c ert a i n
neith er of t h e t w o b eing a b sol ut el y a n d com p let el y c er ta i n S o mor e or
M
.

‘
il t on s d es cr ip t ion of S a tan s d esp a ir is hy p er v
’
fl uid ao
’ ’
l ess full , .

b oli cal : { An d in t he low est d eep , a lower d eep

9 A not he r m o d e o f e x p re ss ing t he s up e r
.

Ia t iv e d e g re e is exemp lified in K ing of kings ,

’

L ord of lords b ra v est of t he b rav e

To eXp ress comp arison t here is also the p ecu liar
‘
idiom seen in the examples, t oo ev id ent to req ui re
p roof
’
too much a man of th e w orld t o b e imp osed

up on

IO T he C o m p a ra t iv e i s u sed w he n t w o t hings
'

m p a re d ; t he S e r la t iv e , w he n mo re
f
a re co
t ha n t w o a re c o m p a re c
Oft wo su ch l essons, w hy forg et
Th e nobler a n d t h e ma ntra o ne ?

B ut the rul e 18 not st ri ctly adhe1 ed t o W rit ers and sp eak ers.

c onti nually use t he su p e1 l a t iv e i n comp aring t w o t hing s : t he

This court ha d b eer; the most
3
’
best of t wo t he lea st of tw o .

fi
magni cent of t he tw o ( Thackeray)
’
Less frequently t he.

com ra t iv e is u sed f or t he sup erla t iv e : I read t he w hole

a cit us, J u v enal a nd Q uint il ian The la tter . IS
seld om sufcient ly app reciated
fi ( J S Mill) The for mer
’
. . .

seemed t he st ra nger sensa t ion of t he thr ee ( Cooper) L ik e .

ma ny ot her d ual for ms t he comp arat iv e d egree is sup erfl uou s ;

a nd p ersp icu it y w oul d b e e qually serv ed b y using t he same forni
of comparison f or t w o, as for more t han t w o .

llThe Comp ara tiv e and S up erlativ e are sometimes

.

used b y w ay of e m ine nc e ; as t he most Hi h

‘
'

g t he

ruder and mor e ba rr en p a rts of t he island

’
.

‘ ‘
mere intensity, the a dv erb s more most
’
In exp ressing a nd
’

‘
a re ma d e use of inst ead of g rea t l
y , s
’
&c.
‘
Hi
arg um ent was most ( v ery) c onv i nci ng
’
There I S in such case s .

no exp r ess comparison, and hence the name, t he superla tiv e of

emi nence .
 I N F L EXI ON OF AD VERB S .

l T he
. o nlyinfl e x io n of A d v e rb s is C o m
p a r iso n . S ome, from t he na ture of the ir mea ning,

comp a red , as
’ ’
c a nnot be then , t here
now nev er ,
’
second ly ,
‘
infinitely W hen t he signification
a dmit s of d egree, they a re com p ared in t he sa m e
‘
m a nne r a s A dj e c t iv e s : soon, sooner , soonest ;
’

easantl , more
’
oftenest l l
’ ’
ofte n , oftener , p y p ea

sa ntly, most p l ea santly

A d v erb s a re usu ally l onger than t he corresponding ad ect iv es, j

a nd theref ore more rar ely ad mit of comp a rison b y er a nd -

‘ ’
l at elier , ent lier
’
e st. S uch ca ses as g ( Tennyson) ,
a rlyle ) , are excep ti ons, al lo w ed b y eup hony
’

p rou dl ie r ( C I n .

t he old w riters, such t erms w ere more common

’
w iselier ,
‘ ‘ ’ ‘
ea rliest , a re i nsta nces,
’
éasil ier , ri ht l ier h a rd liest ,
'

g
b ut not for imita t ion Coleridge uses sa feliest
.

2 A fe w . A d v e rb s c o inc id ew it h ir re g u la r
‘ ‘
A dj e c t iv es :
’
w ell, b etter, b est ; b adly or ill ,
much, more, most , & c
’ ’
w orse, w orst .

I N F L EX I ON OF VE RB S .

l R e la t io s t o b e e p e sse
. n x r d —
The Verb is
t he P ar t of S p eech tha t ma kes an a ffirma tion ; a nd in
making an a ffir mation w e ma y ha v e reference to such
’ ‘

c ircu mstances as time, cond it ionality or uncond i

‘

t ional ity, p erson, a nd numb er .

Met hods in ev ery language for expressin t hese numerous

exist
rel at ions I n some langua ges, as t he Gree , t e v erb it self is
. k
fl
c ha nged or in ec t ed for nea rl
y ev ery v ari et
y of t i me, per son,
numb er, & c I n E nglish t he actual inflexions are few
. b ut b y
means of auxilia ry w ords we can exp ress all t he v arious
Ci rcumsta nces of a ffirmat mn .

2 T he co mm o nly e nu me ra t e d infl e x ions

'

of t he V e r b a re Voice, M ood , Tense, P erson, N umber .

15 2 mm mor
’

xxo v a nes .

3 . W ith reference V o ic e Verb s

to , a re A ct iv e or
P a s s iv e E v ery . Transit iv e Verb has
an ac t iv e form,
or v oice form ,
‘
and a p a ssi v e or v oice Caesa r
m
, .

‘ m
d efea ted P o p ey )
’
ctive ; P
( a o p e
y w as d efea ted
b y Ceesar ( p assiv e)
’

S ince t he obj ect of t he t ransit iv e v erb b ecomes the sub ect of . j

t he affir mati on in t he p a ssiv e v oice w here t here is no ob ect ( as
, j
i n i ntr a nsi ti v e v erb s) t h ere ca n b e no c ha ng e of v oice ‘
His .

a r d our cooled is int ra nsit iv e, a nd a d mit s no su ch v a ria t ion as

’ ”

oc cur s in t he sent ence ,

"
‘
he st ruc the ba ll ,
‘
k
the ba l l w as
’

str u c k .

The p assiv e v oice ex pr esses the same fact a s t he

’

a c tiv e, b u t in a form t hat call s a tt ention to t he ob j ect

of the a c tion, ra t her tha n t o t he a gent .

I nd eed, t he a gent may b e un now n, and t herefore t here k

w oul d b e a b la n in t he a f k firm a t ion if w e ha d not t he p assiv e
form .
'

k
The gla ss w a s b ro en i s a comp let ea sse rt ion , a l t hough

w e ma y not b e ab l e t o name t he a gent, or consider it unimp or

t a nt t o d o so .

The E ngl ish has no real inflexion for t he P a ssi v e V oice The .

singl e w ord
’
hight is or was 0 : E ha tte, heht, is a .

v ery d ou b t f ul exa mp l e W e re qu ire t o t a e in t he help of

. k
a not her v erb W here a p a ssiv e inflexion exists in
l a ng uages nearly all ied t o t he E ngl ish, it seems t o hav e arisen
from a mode of ap p l ying a re exi v e p ronou n
’
fl Old or se a t . N
ka lla , t o call , a t ka l last ( for a t ka l la slc, r: a t [ca lla silo, to -

‘
c a ll Da nish a t ka ld e show s a st ill
’
t o b e call ed .

‘
furt her w orn p assiv e, a t ha ld es, t o b e c alled S o t he Gree
’

. k
i f m w a t first ad op t ed from t he middl e v oice
p as s v e or s er e
fl
( re exiv e) Th e L a t in p a ssiv e i s most p rob ab ly a r e ex iv e
. fl
‘ ‘
forma tion a mor ( I a m l ov ed a mos a mo
’
se ( I
l ove sel f am a ii s t hou ar t l ov ed z a nms i s a ma s - -

a m at u r h e is lov ed ) a mat u se
’ ’
se t hou l ov es t self ) - -

a ma t se he l ov es &c Com p are F rench se méler ,

.

t o b e m ingled t o b e call ed
’
s ap p el er &c .

4 . T he Mo o d s
the I nd icative, S u bj zmctiveh
are

I rnp er a tive, a nd I nfini t ive Under the sa me head w e

. .

may incl ud e t he P a rt icip le and t he Ger u nd .

-
Mo o d means the ma nner of the action .
 1 ind ica t iv e a nd S ubj unc t iv e .
-
One imp ortant ,

distinction of manner is t he d isti nction of unc ondi

t ional and conditional .

if I see the signal , 1 3

’ ’
I t he signal , is unconditional ;
see
t he sa me fact ex pressed in t he form of a c ondit ion The one .

for m is sa id t o b e in t he I nd iea ti v é mood , t he mood t hat simpl y

sta tes or i nd ica tes t he a ct ion t he ot her form is in t he S u bj unc
ti ve, c ond it ional , or con unct iv e mood j
There is somet im es a .

“
slight v aria t ion ma de in E nglish t o show t hat a n a f fir ma t ion i s , ,

made as a condition The m ood is called . sub unct iv e j

fi fi
.

b eca use the af rmat ion is subj oi ned to a nother af rma t ion
‘

’
if
I see the signa l, I w ill call out .

S u ch for m s as m a y see I
I ca n see ha v e som et im es b e en consid ere d
as a v a riet y of mood t o w hi ch t h e na m e ot en tial
, i s g i v en B ut t his P ’
.

c annot p rop erly b e m ai nt a i ned Th er e is no t i a ce of a ny in fle m on

j M
.

corresp ond i ng t o t h is m ea ni ng as w e fin d w i t h t h e s ub u nct i v e , ore .

over su ch a mood w ou l d ha v e itse lf to b e s u b di v i d e d i nto i nd i ca ti v e a nd

j
,

sub u nct i v e for m s : I m ay g o if I m a y g o A nd far t h er w e m i g h t

’
.
,

other mood s on t h e sa me an al og y , as for ex a m p l e

p roc e e d t o const it u te ‘ .
,

mood — I m ust g o or I ough t t o g o ; a mood of_r esolu ’

a n ob lig at e
’

tion I g o y ou shall go , a m ood of g ra ti fica t i on I am d elig h t e d

of d ep r eca t i on I a m gri ev ed to g o The only di ffer ence in t h e
’
to g o .

t w o last insta nces is t h e use of th e sig n of t h e in finit iv e t o w hi ch d oe s

‘ ‘
may , ca n mu st , oug ht , & c b u t t ha t 18 not a n
’ ’
not oc cu r aft er
' ’
.

essenti al difi er ence S om e g ra m ma ria ns consi d er t h e form I d o g o a

.
.

sepa ra te m ood ; and t e rm 1t t h e e m p h a t i c m ood B u t all the ab o v e

.

j
.

ob ec ti ons ap p ly to i t lik e w ise, as w ell as many ot hers .

The Imp e ra t iv e mood is the expression of com

mand, desire, entreaty
“ ‘

F rom t he nature of the meani n it can b e used only i n the

g ,
.

sec ond p erson I n mod ern Engli sh, t here is no inflexion for
.

‘ ‘
ii t he simpl e form of t he v erb is emp loyed : b ind
’

go ,

I n 0 E t he I mpera tiv e singular wa s exp ressed simp ly b y t he

. .

‘ ‘
form of t he v erb :
’
b ind , re w a s no m ood
’
root ga ; t he .

su f fix F or t he p l ural , t he usual endi ng for t he second p erson

.

‘ ‘
Yet w hen t he p ronoun
’ ’
- t t w as a dded b ind a th , a th
l -
g
- -
.

follow ed, b ind e ge ca me t o t a k e t he p la ce of b ind a th ge

- -

rob a b ly t hrough a confused sub st itut ion of t he sub j unct iv e .

b us t he si ng a nd p lur forms ea sily b eca m e id ent ica l

. As . . .

l at e, howev er, as the end of t he 1 4th cent ury, Cha ucer retained
t he pl ur ersonal ending
g
.

er k netht hese b li si nl b r id d é s ( bi r ds) h ow t h ey sin

And se th ( see) t h e fr esh s fl ow er es h o w t h ey sp ring
’
.

I nma k ing p rop osa l or expressi ng a d esire i n reference t o first

a
or thi r d p ersons, there 1 8 no inflexiona l form a v a il a b l e
; we
sub st itut e t he su b unc t i v e or an a uxiliar
y ( comm jon l ’
y let ) as ,

Well sit w e d ow n , ,

And let us hear B ernard o sp eak ofthis ( 11am i 13 . .

15 4 mr ns xron or va n s .

The te rm imperativ e is somewhat misl eading, as the mood 18

emp loyed in sup p lica t ion a s w ell as in c omma nd ; a nd for t he .

st rong est forms of comma nd it is insuf ficient The legisla t ure .

‘
sha ll t o signify it s c ommands ; a not her form used i n
’
u ses
com mon li fe 18 must

5 T he Infinit iv e , as to go is not a mood in the

.

sa me sense as the others I t is t he form of the v erb

.

t hat contains neither afli rmation nor c omma nd , b ut

‘
mer ely n ames the a ction i n the ma nner of a nou n to
r eign is w or th amb ition for the act of reigning
T here is no t ime signified b y t he in nit iv e as t here is b y the fi
‘
ot her mood s The name infini ti v e exp resses t he fa ct
’
.

is not li mi ted in t hose cir cumst a nces oft ime t hat l imit t he ot her
art s, w hich p a rt s a re ca ll e d coll ecti v ely t he F i ni te c ar t)
p .

The rep osit ion t o is not essential t o t he i n nit iv e, and is fi

p
dr op pe a ft er certa i n v erb s The O E infini tiv e w as formed
‘
. . .

b y a su fli x a n as b inda n ( t o b ind
’
-
w ri ta n t o write
fl k
I t w as p a rt ially in ect ed li e a noun, ta ing a d a ti v e in - e a ft er k
t o for t he exp r ess ion of p ur p ose to b ind anne - nne
e
’
to wr it anne or enne — our g erund
-
B y t he 1 3 th cent ury .

. k
t he infin a n ha d b ecome w ea ened t o en a nd e, and somet imes
- - -

t he -e w a s silent t he d at a nne, .enne ha d a l so f

- -
all en a wa y t o
- ene
,
- n
e , e -
a nd t o not only remained w it h t he d at or .

g e ru nd m ea n in g, b u t w a s a l so t ra nsferred t o t he sim p l e i n fin i ti ve .

T he t w o form s t hus b eca me ident ical, a nd t o now ap pears in

t he in fin , w het her it b e nom or ob j or dat
. . .

Theform b indin is also infinitiv e f

’

g oing an o
g ,

the v erb .

fi
This for m in i ng ful ls t he functi on of a noun in the same
-

ma nner as t he other ‘
goi ng ( sub ) is sa d j
he d read s goi ng
.

( ob j ) ; b ind i ng to b i nd ) themsel v es b y t hese t erm s w as

i mpru d ent This is t he mod em p ra ct ical usa ge a nd, in cases
k ‘
l i e t he l ast , w hil e w e regard b inding
’
as eq ui va l ent t o a

nou n, b eing sub ect t o

‘
jw a s im p r ud ent w e a c now ledge its k
force a s a v erb b y sa ying t ha t t hemsel v es is ob ect t o it j .

H ist orically, t he c onnexion b et ween the ol d infin in en and .

-

t he mod ern form in ing is not q u ite sa t isfa ct orily esta b lished
-
.

I n t he 1 3 th cent ur y, indeed , t he p a rt ici pial t erm ina t ion e nd e -

or -
i nd e wa s occa siona lly u sed in p la ce o f t he da t infin or . .

g eru nd form ; a nd in t he 1 4t h cent ury b ot h forms were som e

t imes t urned int o i ng B ut p resent ly t his i ng i nfin died ou t
- .
s
. .

Ag a in, a n infin ing ap p ea rs for en a b out t he b eg inning of t he

.
- -

l oth century ; b ut i t is in a different const ructi on from the

 I NFI NI TI V E AN D PARTI CI PLE . 15 5

mod ern use of i ng

-
I n t he sa m e cent ury ev en the en of a st
.

p
-

a rt i ciples w a s int ercha nged w it h i ng S ome st ress mi ght

p
-
.

ust ly b e la id on t he s trong t end ency t o c onv ert al l simi la r

j
e nd in s i nt o i ng ; b ut m ost p rob a b ly t he - i ng shoul d b e t raced
g
-

‘ ’
t o t he v erb a l noun in u ng ( l at er i ng) , t he prep osition
- ~
of

hav ing d rop t a w a y, lea v ing t he v er b al noun a nd t he fol low ing

nou n or p ronou n in close p roximit y According t o t his v ie w ,
.

t he real ex pla na t ion of t he ab ov e exa mp le is b i ndi ng ( v erb a l

o mit te d ] ; emsel ves
noun) ;
‘
[ f
o
p p
re . th ( g o v ern ed , not by
b ind ing b ut b y B ut , a d mit ting t his t o b e t he histori cal
orig in of t he i ng form in such constru ctions, the p ract ical
-

k q
u sag e has b r o en uit e a w a y from it .

T he P a rt ic ip le affords a p eculiar and con

6 .
~

venient means of j oining a sub ordinate fa ct t o a prin

firmat ion
cip al a f .

The na me P art iciple w a s giv en b ecause of the sup posed

p a r ti cip a ti on , or s ha
g in t he funct ions of t he v erb , t he
r in ,

j
ad ect iv e, a nd t he nou n .

k
S p ea ing correct ly, t h e articiple is neither an ad ect iv e nor j
a nou n . j
A d ect iv es a re eri v ed from p a rt ici ples, a nd v erb al
nouns occu r wi th t he form oft he p art ic ip le in ing , b u t d eri v ed
’

in rea lit y from other sources The p a rt icipl e coincid es w it h

.

j
t he v erb in ha v ing a sub ect a nd ( if t ra nsit iv e) a n ob ect , and j
in exp ressing some v ari eties oft he act ion b u t it ha s no p ow er
of indepe nd ent a f rm a t ionfi I n constru ct ion it is sub sidia ry t o
.

a v er b in some of t he fi
nit e mood s ( ind ica t iv e, a nd d eri ves
fi
its af rma t iv e force from t he v erb t hus cou p led ‘
A scend i ng .

t he mou nta in, w e ha d a w id e p r osp ect

’
This is a conv enient
.

a nd el eg a nt a b b rev ia t ion f or w e a scend ed t he m ou nta in a nd ha d

‘
B ea ten a t one p oint , w e ma d e for a not her
’
&c . w e w er e
‘ ‘
b ea ten, a nd mad e I sa w him crossing t he st reet I
sa w him, a nd w hen I sa w hi m, he w as c rossing t he st reet

The P articip le has t w o p r inc ip a l m e a ning s, and

t hre e fo rms .

The p rese nt , imp e rfe c t , inc o m p le t e p articiple

ex p resses a n ac tion a s d oing, and not ye t finished a nd

t he form is in ih g ( O E end , end e, i nd e )

-
. b ea t i ng
.
- - -

goi ng c all ing

The p a s t o r c o m le te ti i l n
p p ar c p e ex p r esses a
a c t ion a s d one a nd finished and the f orms are n a nd -

-d
’
b ea ten , gone called
15 6 mnnnxron or va nes .
t

I n t ransitiv e v erb s t he p a rt icipl e in i ng has al so an acti ve

‘
-

fi
signi ca t ion, a s b ea t ing ca l ling
’
a nd t hose i n n a nd d - -

hav e a p a ssi ve significa t ion, a s b ea t en ca ll ed a nd form t he

b a sis of our pa ssiv e v oice I n i nt ransit iv e v erb s, t he only .

d ifference of mea ning is t hat of incomp l et e a nd

g oin g one co m ing c om e ( O E ca m en , c omen . .

-
B ot t he p resent a nd t he p a st pa rt icip les may often b e
reg a rded as i ndefinit e, t he ti m of t he act ion v arying a ccordin
g e

t o t he t ense of t he v erb of t he p rin cip al clau se .

The new form i ng came in d ul i ng t he 1 2 t h cent ury

-
The .

ol d er f orms ga v e w a y gra d ua lly t he ort hern a nd b ein

g u sed N -

d ow n t ill ab out t he b egi nning of t he 1 7 t h cent ury .

‘
The ending n ( or en, e b ei ng m erely a connect ing or b inding
’
o -

l et t er ) b elongs t o t he v erb s called stro ng or old I t ha s fa llen .

of f from m any of t hem 57 , I t is t he same as the en -

for mat iv e of a d ect iv es g old en j w ooden d enot ing p osses

sion o f t he p ro p ert ies i mp lied in t he root t hat is, it exp resses
t he a ction of t he v erb a s communica t ed t o t he sub ect t hat t he j
p a rt icipl e is oined t o j .

The ending d ( or ed , e b eing merely connectiv e) b elongs t o

- ~ -

k
t he v erb s called w ea or new I t i s somet imes modi ed t o t 62 ,
. fi -

I t is cogna t e w ith Got h d as, L at ti ts tos) , Gr tos ; .

-
.
-
.
-

a nd ha s t he sa me mea ni ng as -n I t al so a pp ears simil arly in a .

v ast num b e r of ad ect i v es j .

I n t he ab sence of a ny other p re x, ge w as genera lly p refixed fi

t o t he ast pa rticip le ( a nd oft en t o ot her p a rt s of t he v erb ) in
O E. . p
his ge w as lat er modified t o y i yb ro en ygone k
i ma d e i ronne ( r un) .

I n many l angua ges ( incl ud ing Old E ngl ish) , t he p a rt iciple is

’

fl
in ect ed t o agree w it h t he sub ect in gend er, nu mb er, a nd ca se, j
w hi ch giv es it t he appea ra nce o f a n a d ectiv e B ut it is st ill j .

essent ia lly a v erb w it h t he l im ita t ions a b ov e st a t ed .

m i c on t a ins p a rt icip le
’
The h ras e a k n g a n u nop p osed l a nd ing
p ,

j ‘
a d ec t i ve ( u n opp osed
‘
a n d nou n ( l a n d ing a ll W i t h p a rt i

ci p ial form S o, a p ers on p assi g ( p a r t

n
‘
a p a ssing t h o ug h t
'

( a d ect i v e) , j
D
. .

‘ ou ro ( nou n te r sa t isfy i ng t h e c h u r ch ( p a r t or
'

t h e p a ssi ng of t h e
;
.

i nfln ) a sa tisfying p or t i on ( a d j
. a mp es t d r op p i ng fire ( par t )
. n ow
is t h e w i t ching t i m e of nig h t ( a d j ) .

The p a rt ici p l e is k n ow n b y i t s g ov erni ng a nou n li k e a v erb , w hi ch

0

j
nei t he r a n a d ect i v e nor a n ou n ca n d o B ut a rti ci p i al p h ra se ( th a t i s
.

a p a r t ic i p l e w i th i t s g ov ern m ent ) m ay b e i t se g o v ern ed b y a p r ep os i

‘ b y foll ow ing t he s t ra ig h t cou rs e , after
’

t i on on hea ri ng th e n ew s
w a r m ing hi m self , & c Th ese a r e b ri ef an d el eg a nt su b st it u te s for a con
’
.
.

‘
a nd a c l au se w h e n th ey h ea r d t h e n ew s i f y ou foll ow
j u n c t i on
a ft er h e h a d w a r m ed Th e p a ssiv e p a r t ic ip l e ( t h e eq u i v a le nt of a clau se
w i t h a p a ssi v e v erb ) is kn ow n b y i t s r efere nc e t o a su b j ec t : a ft e r b ei ng
wel l w a r m ed w .e w e n t o u r w a y T h ese f or m s i n -i n
g m a y a lso b e r ega r d ed

as in fini t i v es .

m h f t h l t f b
‘

A p art i cipia l p hr a se s
‘
e t h t e u o o ri n
p
y
~

r er c i a ri g
'

e s o a v e e a
‘
d i J hn l i n t h u
’
rse ou r m t ing t he
j i
o n e t o a p o sses s v e : o s ea v g e co e e
 PA RTI CI PL E '
AN D G E RUND . TE N§ E .

my a d mit ti ng th e fa ct
e x r essi ons for
d is sol v e &c L
t h e ki ng s d issolv i ng parlia ment
’

t h e fa ct t ha t J oh n l eft ,
j
’
w e m et ,
’
are
th e ki ng
j
ik e w i se a d e m on st ra t i v e a d ect i v e m a y b e oine d i n the
“
’
,

H
.

‘
sa m e w a y : the se n d ing t h em t h e light of thy oly S p i r it tha t b u rning
t h e ca p itol w as a w a nt on ou t r a g e
’
.

nou ns .

7 T he Ge r und
. is form in modern
not a sep arate
E nglish, b ut a p eculiar a pp licat ion ofthe t w o infinitiv e
forms, t o w rite and w rit ing
‘
I n 0 E ( see
. . t he d at iv e form of the I n nit iv e, fi to
writ a nne ( or enne -
wa s u sed t o exp ress p u rp ose or intent ion .

’
N ow t hat t he sp ecial i nflexion is d rop t , to wri t e a nd for
w riti ng the i nfinit e forms w it h a p p rop riate p repositio ns, give
‘
t he mea ning intend ed, a nd are ca lled ger u nd s : I com e to
‘ ‘read y for
wr ite I ha v e w ork to d o t he course to steer by
sa i li ng shar ened f
p or cu tti ng I t is use ful t o p oint out t his
fi
signi ca t ion of t hese forms, p a rtl y to faci lit a t e t ra nsl a t ion i nto
t he cla ssical la nguages, a nd p art ly t o expl ain some idioms of
‘ ‘
I hav e w ork to d o ,
’ ’
our own la nguage . A house to let ,
t here is no m ore t o sa g a re p hrases w here t he v erb i s not in

the common i nfinit iv e, b ut in t he form of t he ger und He is

’

t he m a n to d o i t , or for doing it
’
W hen t he to ceased i n the
.

1 2 th cent ury t o b e a dist inctiv e mark of the dat infin or . .

w a s int roduced to ma ke the w rit er s intent ion

‘ ’ ’
erund, f
g or -

‘
clea r . H ence t he familiar form in what w ent ye out for to
‘
‘
lsee
they came for to show him the t empl e
8T e nse is the v ariation of the v erb to express
.

the time of a n a ction, modified b y the other c ircum

stances of comp le teness a nd incomp leteness ab ov e
"
mentioned in connexion wi th the p art icip le I come .

‘I came ’ ‘ ‘
(p ) (p )
’
I ll I d
’
ast ; ca r es , call e

sha ll com e ,
’
he wi ll come
“
These are t he only tenses made b y infiexion ; b ut b y com
b ina tion w ith ot her w or ds fu tu r e t i me is al so exp ressed ,
‘
I n 0 E t he w ant of a fut ure
. .
I

form w as usually sup p lied b y the p resent t ense ( Comp are .

These comp ou nd forms, a nd a great v ari ety of mod es of

a st , resent , and future, are represent ed in the full scheme of
p p
t he v erb

S t ro ng V e rb s are such esform the p ast tense

’

h ‘
a ng e o f t he ro o t v o w e l : old, h eld
’

p h 4

fell ; " ‘ c ome, came

’
.
15 8 I N FLE XI ON or VE R BS .

As in all the other I ndo E urop ea n la nguages, so in E ngl ish, -

ev en t he p r esent t ense is a form consid era b l

y mod ified from t he
ori i nal m et The c hiefmea ns of cha ng e i n English hav e b een
g .

v ow el a u m e nta t ion a nd t he insert ion of v a ri ous for ma t iv e su f

g
fixes b efore t he p e rsonal endings t he orthern E ng lish g a ng
’
N
( Got h ga gga ) is a ca se of red up licat ion ( from g a , t o go
. a
co mmon mod e in t he cla ssica l la ngu a es
g .

To form t he p a st tense, E n l ish, like t he other I nd o E uropean

i
-

languages, a nd p art icularl y H e t he ot her Teut onic la ngua ges,

‘
had recourse t o R edup li ca t ion D
’
id , 0 E did e, is a
“
. . .

d oub ling of d o The cu rious v erb hight w a s call ed

in O E a lso = is called ) a ppea rs in Got h ha i ta n ( to
.
‘
.
‘
.

O E ha ta n ; pa st , Goth ha i ha it, O E héht, het ( as w el l as

'
.
-
. . . .

ha tte) Got h ha ld a n
. t o hold O E hea ld a n pa st , Goth
. . . .

ha iha ld , O H Germ ki a l t . heiha l t ) , mod Ge rm hi elt, O E

. . . . . .

‘
heold , mod E hel d Comp are Gr r im r m, p f r é r iipa ,
. . .
-
.
-

n a ti w , p f n é rra v xa . L a t p el lo, p f p ep ti li ; tend o ( n

-
. .

eup honic) ,
p f te tend i tu n a (
/e n eu honic
p.
) -
, té té d i fugio, p f -
.

f ug i ( f f g ) tollo, p f tid i ( for te til li )

: u- u i .
-
.

The st rong v er b s ca nnot a l l b e t rac ed clearly t o their original

'

red uplica tion b ut j udging from t hose t hat we ca n t race, w e

b eliev e t ha t t he rest follo wed the sa me rule They ha v e al so .

‘
b een call ed old v erb s, b eca use t hey are t he ol d est i n t he
la nguage .

W e a k V e rb s form t he p ast tense b y are su ch as

a d d i n g
-
d t o t h e p r e s e n t o r s im p le v e r b ;
‘ ‘ ‘
,

’
l ov e, lov ed hear, heard ; l
’

p la nt,
p a nte d ;
‘w hi ‘
h
’

p ,
w hi pp ed or w ip t ; c a r ry ,
carr i ed l ea d ,
‘ i ’ ‘
l ed b u ld, b uilded or b uilt b uy, b ought
The a dd it ion of d is ac com a nied with v arious mod ifi ca tions
-

in spelling lik e t hose in t he p ural of nouns and t he comp ari

,
‘
son of a d ect iv es j . H eard
’
short ens t he v ow el of
‘
hear
’

l anted i nserts a b indin or c onnect iv e e ot he rw ise it could

p g
-

‘ ’
not b e p ronou nced ; w hipp ed ( final p doub led a fter short -

‘
a cce nt ed v ow el ) , a nd w hip t are b oth wri t t en, b ut in eit her
’

c a se w e mu st p ronounce w hip t ca rried cha nges y ( nal

-
fi
y o
a ft er a consona nt ) int o -i , b e fo re t h e connect ing e a n d t he -

i n fiexional d
’
L ed l oo s li e a st rong p a st ; b ut t his is a
-
. k k
‘ ‘
form str ipp ed of it s ea rl ier e nd ing
’
leed de
’
led de , t he - -

v o wel is a lso short ened uil d a nd som e ot hers ending in d . B -

p reced e d b y a l iq u id, m odif y t h e nal d i nt o t ; a short er fi - -

mod e t ha n t he regular forma t ion The cha nge of v ow el in su ch .

" ‘
b ou ght from b uy is d ue, not t o red uplicat ion ( li e i h k
p
as
st rong y er b s) , b ut t o t he i n uence of certain v owels in ancien
,
fl
forms of the words .
 S TR O NG AN D WE AK v a nes . P E R soN , NUM BE R . 15 9
'

The -d of the past tense is a modi ficat ion of the v erb

'

did
I loved b eing a short form for l love did I la id for I -

l a y did
-
This a ppears b est in t he Got hic forms, esp ecially
t he p lural ones, w hich are l east corr up t ed or w orn d ow n The .

‘
root la g ( l ay formed it s pa st t ense in Got hic t hus
SI N GULAR . PLU R AL .

1 lag i d a ( = ol d er lagi ded am)

.
- - - - -
. l ag i d ed um - - -
.

2 l ag i des
. old er lagi d ed t a
- - - -
lag i d ed —u t h
- -
.

3 lag i d —a
.
- -
. l ag i d ed un - - -
.

W e hav e al rea dy O H G -i is
not ed that t he - e ( Goth . and . . .

simply a connecting link I n O E ( as w ell as in Got h and . . . .

O H G ) some v erb s t ook 0 as t he b ind ing let t er

. . . Got h -a i -
. .

O H G e hav e no exta nt cogna te form i n E nglish

'
- .
. . .

The w ea k verb s t ak e t heir na me fr om t heir i nab ilit y t o for m

a p a st t ense w it hout t he a id of a not her v erb did t he st rong ,

v erb s d oub l e t hemsel v es, a nd need no foreign help They are .

ca lled a l so new v erb s, t he f orma tion b ein

g m o re r ec ent t ha n t he

ot her They great ly out nu m b er t he v ery small forc c of strong

.
.

v erb s ; a nd hence t he la t t er hav e b een ca lled i r r eg u la r , b eing

a p pa re nt excep t ions t o t he modern r u le of for ming in d The -
.

ov er p ow ering inf luence of t he commoner w ea k form has b een

g ra d ually b rea k ing dow n t he old er st rong form .

9 . P e rs o n a nd There are cert ain d isN um b e r .

t inctions of form according a s the sub j ect of t he v erb

is the spe ak er, the p erson or p ersons sp ok en t o, or the
e o n s or things s ok en a b out t h t i f r t he l st, 2 u d ,
p rs
p a s, o

a nd 3 rd p e rsons, singular a nd l ura l ; as

‘ I w
’
rite ,
p
he w rit es, & c
’
thou w ritest .

The p ersonal suffi xes w ere originally p ronominal el em ent s

j oined on t o t he v er b ( a ft er the t ense format iv e) They hav e .

al most disa p pea red from m od ern E ngl ish .

The suffix of t he first p erson sing ular m r emains in t he ,

-
, ,

w ord am al one ( O E eo m) I t w as p rev iously mi ( w eak ened

’
. .
-
.
-

from a n earlier ma ) I Comp a re S ansk ri t a s mi Gr eip i

- -
, . .

( f
or t or
p i) L at s um ( for os u m) G E G p i m ( mod Ger m
- - -
. .
, , . . . .

bi n) O E ( N ort h ern) beam ‘ ’

, . . In O E b ind e &c , . .
,
.

t he is m erely the connecting lett er, which ha s usur ped t he

-
e
l a ce of t he rea l p ersonal end in
p g .

The su ffix of the second p erson sing ul ar , st, ap p ears in the -

‘
p rese nt a nd p a st i ndica t iv e The root twa , te a , to t hou . ,

seem s t o ha v e c ha n ed int o ti , a nd t hen int o si , w hich g iv es

g
- -

t he end ing -3 , common i n O E , regula r in l

or ther n E ng ish
,
. . N
‘
t hou b ears , t hou b inds The t form rema ins in ar t
’
- -
 I NFLEXI ON OF V ERBS .
’

‘ ‘
The past t ense of st ron
’
was t -
wer t , shal t
- - w il
g
v erb s d r0 p t - t of t he 2 md person singul ar , a nd show ed no endi n
‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
g
b ut e : t hu b unde ( t hou
-
’
t hu feelle ( t hou
b ut in t he 1 4th century t he w ea ending -st w as k
shared with t hem The p eculiari t ies of sp elling w hen -st is
.

ad ded a re t he sa me as w hen -0l of t he

The suf
“ p a st t e
fix oft he t hird p erson singul a r, -t h, s, is d escend ed
n se i s a dd ed
-
.

from t he d emonst ra t iv e root , ta ‘ ‘

he seen in the tha t
The modified form 4 7 5 b eca me in t he oldest E ngli sh tlz , -al, a nd -

-t
, a n d ev en i n t he l o t h ce n t u ry 3 , which is now the ordinary
-

form . I t a p pe ars onl y in t he p resent indie The same p ecul i .

arit ies of sp elling a tt end t he a ddit ion of s as of st a nd a

’
- - -
.

The su f fixes of t he p l ural ha v e all b een d rop t in modern

E nglish . The form s i n O E a nd cognat e languages hav e b een
. .

t raced b ac,
k
to t hese ( 1 ) m e
t al : m a + 31 3 ( = ti, ta ; tw i , tw a )
thou , or ma + sa =
‘ ’ ‘ ’
I t ha t is, w e ; ( 2 ) tasi
ta 87} t hou + t hou or ta an t hou he t ha t is,
‘ ‘
a nd ( 3 ) ( 0 0 t hat is,
’
you 1 013
7 a n + ti t hey
m
.

( B ut t his exp lana t ion of ( a ti is not univ ersally

There is no t race of t he s uf x of t he rst p erson fi l ural in fi '

Engl ish . Goth has siyu m . we a re -

com a re r éa p ev .
-

‘ ‘
( Doric ci y ég z éa p éc) , L a t su mus ( cs u mus) l he suffix ofthe
’
- - - - -
. .

second p erson p l ura l, 4511, w a s ext end ed in O E t o a ll t he p l ur al

‘
. .

‘
ersons of t he p resent indica t iv e b ind —a th w e, you , t hey
p
-

i nd laer a th -
w e, you , t hey
-
W e ha v e alrea dy
menti oned t he - ih of t he I mpe ra tiv e p l ural The su ffix of
t he t hird person p l ural , n, w as extended in O E t o a ll t he -
. .

‘ ‘
m ’
on )
’
l ra l persons of t he p ast indica t i v e d l d
(
p u b u n c , aer - -

a nd of t he p r esent and a st sub unct iv e b inden, - ou j leer en,

lb
-

‘
« m b und e n, on -
erd m , on
-
I n t he 1 2 th cent ury, Midz
- -

l a nd E nglish used -n for t he pl ura l endings of the p resent

ind icat i ve, w hile S outhern E nglish reta ined t h ; ort hern -
N
k
E nglish ha d t a en 3 , sev eral cent uries earlier, in the p lura l
-

ersons of t he p resent indica t i v e a nd i n t he p lu ral imp erat iv e

‘
.

he forms in en died out of general u se in t he 1 6 t h ce ntury

-
.

The l oss of t his short syllab le has b een reg ret ted b y p oets:
fi
The suf x of t he O E singula r sub unct iv e, p r esent a nd p ast ,
. . j
w a s - e, a m ere remnant of fuller forms E v en t his is now lost . .

I n l oose w rit ing, the forms of t he second and third p ersons

singular of t he p resent indica t iv e are oft en u sed w here w e
shoul d exp ect t he flexionl ess sub unc t iv e ; a nd Mr j S w eet . H .

ha s p oint ed ou t instances ofa simi lar usage in t he second p erson

singu la r p a st sub unct iv e of wea j v erb s in lat e W est S a xon k .

F or wert see 1 5 , b elow .

F or encral p ur ose s, all the inflexions of numb er and person

might ave b een sp ensed with t ogether. di
 CO N JUGATI ON ,
sr a oue
'
AND WE A K .
«
1 61

IO T he E ng lis h V e rb reta ins b ut a v ery s ma ll

.

nu m b e r o f infl e x io ns comp ared w ith other lan

ua
g g es .

‘
W rit e wr ote w riting w ri tten w ri tes w rit est
w rotest b eing sev en forms, — a re a ll t he cha nges of a st rong
v erb . The w ea k v erb s, such a s l ov e ha v e onl y six forms .

ll . C o nj ug a t io n
To b ring t ogether all the forms
.

of the v erb is t o con j uga te it There are in E nglish .

t w o c o nj ug a t io ns : the O ld or S t ro ng , a nd the
N e w or W e a k .

j
The Old or S t rong Con uga t ion a pp lies t o or incl ud e s solely
'

t he old , st rong, or se ca lled I r regula r v erb s-

They a re v ery few .

i n numb er, a nd t hey a re all of na tiv e ori gin T he new or .

k j
W ea Con ugat ion a pplies to or includ es all other v erb s, — a n
i ndefinit ely more num erous cla ss I n 0 E t here w ere v a rious . . .

conj ut a t ions b oth of st rong a nd of w ea v erb s ; a c cordin

g to k
h
t he e a nge of v owel in t he st rong, a nd a ccord ing t o t he .

connect ing v ow el in t he w ea W e d o not ent er int o t his k .

icat ion here

su b d iv ision a nd cla ssif .

j
Ord inari ly, t o con uga t e a v er b mea ns simpl t o giv e t he p re
sent a nd pa st indica t i v e ( f irst p erson sing u r ) a nd t he pa st la
sa rt ic i lo F rom t hese t hree forms all t he ot hers are easily
.

eriv e Thus
( 1 ) F all ( p m ) ( 2 ) F ell ( p a st) ( 3 ) Fall en ( 17 p a r t ) . .

( 4) F all est -
(7) F ell -
est

( 5 ) F all s -

( 6) F a ll i ng -
.

l2 . T he C o nj uga t io n of t he S t ro ng or O ld
V e rb s is seen in the foll ow ing exa mp le

To W r it e .

W ri te . W rote . W rit ten .

IN D I CAT I VE M OOD .

Present Tense .

S i ng l st P er so n, (I) w r it e Plu r l st P erson .

, e) write
2M ( Thou) w ri test 2 nd w rit e
3r d ( He) writes . 3r d
16 2 I NFLE XI ON or m ass .

S ing 1 ( I )
. . w r ote Plur ( W e) wr ote
. 1 .

2 .
( T hou) w rot est 2 ( You) w rot e .

3 .
( He) w rot e . 3 ( They) w rot e . .

I MP E R A I I V E :
' ‘
W rite . rnr rnr rrv n : ( To) wri te ; Writi ng
'
.

PA R TI CI PL ES .

P r esent, W riting . Past W ritt en , .

l3 T he C o nj ug a t io n of t he W e a k
. or New
V e r b s is seen i n the follow ing examp le
T o L ov e .

L ov ed . L ov e d .

I N DI CA T I V E M OOI) .

S ing I sl . Person , ( I ) lov e P lnr l sl P er so n,

.
( W e) l ov e
2 nd ( Thou) l ov est 2 nd ( You) l ov e
3rd ( He) lov es . 3rd ( They) lov e .

S ing 1 .
( I ) l ov ed
. Plu r. ( W e)
1 l o v ed
.

2 ( Thou) l ov ed st
. 2 ( You) l ov ed .

3 ( He) lov ed
. . 3 ( They) l ov ed . .

I M PE R ATI V E : L o ve . I N F I N I T I V E : ( To) l ov e ; l ov ing .

PA RTI CI PLE S .

P resent, Lov i ng . P ast, Lov ed .

A ux ilia ry V e r b s
T he .

I4 . T he A ux ilia ry V e rb s are j oined to the other

v erb s to a ss is t in e x p r e s s ing t he t e ns e s no t
‘ ‘
e x p r es s e d b y lnfl e x io ns They are : b e , hav e ,
’ ’
.

‘ ’ ‘ ’
shall n ll a d wi .

May a nd ca n w ould b e
if w e w er era n k ed a s a u xilia ri es

t o ad m it t he p ot ent ial m ood into t he c on u gat ion of t he v e rb j .

Do is excl ud ed as t he he] in ma ing t he em pha t ic form of k

t he v erb : i t has a v ery mu c b ett er claim t o b e rega rded a s a n
a u xil ia ry in ex p ressi n negati on, and in t he i nv ert ed forms
g .

T hes e ar e all v erb s of i mpor ta nce in t he la nguage .

 m Aue ms s an
'

Tri rA .

mplete conj ugationis p ieced ou

. ’

I5 . To B e . t A co

b y ga thering form s from t hree d is t inct ro o t s a s ,

w a s , and b hu ( b u) .

P esent
r Tense .

I ND I CATI VE M OOD .

1 W as .

2 . W e st ( wert ) ,

3 . W as .

1 . W ere 1 . W ere
2 . W ere , wert 2
. W ere
3 . W ere . 3
. W ere .

I M PE R ATI V E : Be . rur m rr rv n : ( To) b e ; b ei ng .

PAR T I CI PLE S .

P resent, B eing Pa st B e ,
en.

‘
Rema i ns of r oot as A m rs for a r m, for as m . Art — - -

i s for as t I s w as all t ha t re ma ined in t he oldest

'
-

E ngl ish for as ln ( comp a re Got h a nd Germ i s t, Gr i a r i,

-
. .
-
.
-

‘
L at es t,
.
-
A re , O E ( ort hern) a r on a s on, from
’
. . N - -

t he full ori gi na l form S a nsk ri t ha s cut off th e rst fi

n, mak ing sa nte ; L a t s unl ; S outhern English, send , si nd o n
'

pi
. . .

e
p esent sub j unct iv e and i mp era t i v e for ms from t he sa me
r

root hav e lon

g b een su persed ed i n E nglish .

R em a i ns of r oot w as T he w as forms r an t hr ough t he wh ole

’

-
,

v erb ( e x ce p t
p rese nt i ndie ) in t hey a re now confine d .

t o t he p a st ind icat iv e a nd su b unct iv e W a s O E w ees, j . . .

is t e regula r p a st of t he old v er b , w osa n

h ‘'

to b e ha pp e n
W a st 9) is a 1 4t h cent ury ferrn, r ep la cing O E « w er e ( for . .
1 64 rnrnnxron or v naB s .

w oese) , w hich might hav e b een exp ect ed to remain were , ‘ ’

‘
a nd w hich h a s b ecome curiously enough, t he
’
w ert
Got hic ha d w a st W ere ( ind ica t iv e) is O E w o r on, w er en, . .
e

for a n older w oesen comp a re Got hic w ee u m, w es nth, w es nn - - -

.

j
The sub unct iv e w ere has simila rly lost a ll it s endings .

W ert v ery st rongly shares t he genera l t end ency of indicat iv e

second pe rsons sing ul ar to b e t rans fer red a l so t o t he sub unct iv e j .

‘
R ema i ns of r oot b hu ( b u) F rom t his ca me our b e ( as
’
.

w ell as L a t fn i n fu i ,
. The p resent , b co( m) , bi st, & c , .

w as used i n a ll t he p ersons in O E e v en in t he 1 7
. t h cent ury
.

‘
be a nd b eest fill a ll t he pe rsons ma ny examples are
fa milia r i n t he ib l e B Be l exionless, has sup erseded
no w f
.

t he ot her t w o roots in t h e p resent su b un ct iv e and t he impera j

t iv e a nd w esa n, & c , gav e w a y t o it in t he in nit iv e a nd p ar
. fi
ti ci ples, a b out t he 1 2 t h cent ury .

How Be
’
hel p s —
By j oinin
g t h e p a s t p ar t ic ip l e o f a
tra nsi ti ve v erb t o t he v er b b e t hroughou t, w e ma e t he k
‘
ind efini t e form of t he p assiv e v oice a s he is lov ed
w e w ere lov ed t o be l ov ed
. being lov ed
‘
k
The p a rt i cip les ma e t he sol e excep t ion : lov ed giv es t he
’

‘
meaning sufficient ly w i thout b een and it is also u sed con
v ert ib ly w it h b eing lov ed I n 0 E the mea nings of t hese
’
. . .

forms w ere ra ther v ague is ofslaegen i s or ha s been sl ain

was ofsleeg en w a s simpl e p a st t ense, or p rese nt pe rfect, or p ast
e rf ec t a nd much of t his v a gu eness yet re ma ins
p ‘
.

W ith t he p ast p art iciple of a n i ntr a nsiti ee v erb , b e for ms ’

p erfect tenses I a m com e t he t ra in w a s ust gone j Ger man

‘
w e emp loy
’
reta ins t his const ru ct ion i n gr ea t a ct iv it y ha v e
a l so w it h int ra nsit iv e as w ell as w it h t ra nsit iv e v erb s In 0 E . . .

fl
t he pa rt icip le w as in ected t o a g ree w it h t he sub ect hi w eeron j
cu mene t hey w er e ( ha d ) come
j
B y similarly oining th e imp erfect p art icip l e, there arises
a not her form of t he a ct iv e v oi ce, pecu l ia r t o t he E nglish
l a ngua g e. cal led t he p r ogr essiv e, incomp l et e, or imp erfect
‘ ‘
form ; as I a m w ri t i ng , I w as w rit ing &c I n O E , t his
’
. . .

form w a s v ery lit tle, if a nything, more t ha n alt e rna t iv e w ith

-

‘ ’

( ou a re lying )
’
t he r eg ular inflexion g e si n d o n l eo g end e y
ge l e o g ath y o u l ie

F or t he regressiv e forms w it h ha v e see 16 .

’
I n all t ese a pp lica t ions of t he ol d v erb weort han
to b e t o b e come w as a lso u sed i n O E his hors w ea r th
.

g e s iclod (
‘
h i s h or s e b eca m e s i c en edk w as ta en ill C om k
a re Ger m w er den
p . .

B e w it h t he gerund expresses p u rp ose or i ntenti on I am .

‘ ‘
I a m going t o
’
I int end or p u rp ose t o wr it e ,
’
t o w rit e
w rit e
‘
I shall w rite ‘
I was t o write
?
I int ended t o
 ' ‘
r nn AUX I L I A R Y n a vn
’
. 1 65

writ e ’
. Comp are t he for mat ion of L at a ma bo
‘
( t o) lov e .

I w a s t o l ov e l sha t] l ov e 60 b e ing a mod ifica t ion

’
+ be I ,
L a t a ma ba m
’
of t he root bhu be ( t o) lov e + b e I , I .

‘
I loved , p asses from t he intention to t he fact
’ ’
w as t o lovc , .

S o a ma vi a ma fni -
.

l6 . To Ha v e .

Had .

I N D I CATI V E M OOD .

Pl ur . 1 . H a ve
2. H vea

3 . H vea .

S U B J U N CT I V E M OOD .

Pr esent T ense .

P ast Tense .

I M P E RA I I V E
' ‘
H av e . mmmr rv n : ( To) hav e, hav ing;
PAR T I CI PLE S .

Present H ,
a v ing . P ast, Had .

‘
H av e is w ka ea ha bba n ( t o hav e ) declined
v erb . OE . .
‘ ’

it s p resent indic haebbe, hcefst ( hafa st) , hoefth ( ha te th ) , & c

’

. .

a st , hoe cle l a t er ha d d e ; ast p a rt , gelwefd, hae cd , l a t er yha d

p f ( ) p f .

‘
H a d st
’
j
a pe ars a s su b unct i v e : w 1 ite rs hesita t e t o commit
p
‘
t hemselv es t o t he b ar e torm I f t hou ha dst said him nay, it
.

’
had b een sin .

Ha d st t hou b e en k ill ed w hen fi t hou di d st p resum e,

rs t
Th ou Iaa d st not li v e d t o ki ll a so n of mine
’
.

HOW Hav e help 8

’
; ‘
av e
’
is used t o ma e the P er/b et
’
. H k
forms F ollowed by t he past part iciple ofa nother v erb , hav e
’
.
1 66 I NFLE XI ON or v anes.

forms t w o t enses : ‘ho v e lov ed ( p resent p erfect )

’
‘had .

lov ed ( p ast p erfect ) .

‘
N ow , as t he p a rt iciple lov ed merely
e x p resses com le t ed a ct ion, w it l ou re ference t o t ime, and as
‘
p
‘
l hav e means I p ossess ( at t his m ome nt ) , t he union of t he
t w o comes t o exp r ess p er fect a ct ion li ewi se
‘
I hav e w rit ten k .

let t er
’ ’
a l eans I now p ossess a w rit t en let t er ; w hence i t
follow s tha t t he w rit ing of the l et t er is a n act ion finished ,
:

p erfec t , or com p l et e I n O E t he p a rt icipl e w a s in ect ed t o

. . . fl
j
ag ree w it h t he ob ect , t his const ruct ion b eing prima ri ly a pp lied
w it h tr a nsi ti v e v erb s, t hough a ft er w ard s ext ended t o int ra nsi
t i v es w hen t he original forma t ion w as neglec ted Hi .

‘
heefdon hi ne ofsl aegenne , t hey ha d hi m ( a ) sla i n ( ma n)
’

‘
t hey ha d sla i n him B ut t he infle xion b ega n t o drop v ery
‘ ‘
e a rly. I n 0 B , ha v e had , were some times u sed t o ex
’
.

ress t he sim l e
p p p st t ense
a

The infinit iv e follow e d b y a pa st p a rtici pl e forms a p erfect

‘

infinit iv e act iv e to ha ve l ov ed ha vi ng l ov ed
The p resent or im p erfect p a rt icip le ha v ing oined t o the j
ast p a rt i cip le o f a v e rb , yie ld s a erfect p a rt icip l e a ct iv e
p p
‘
ha vi ng lov ed ha v i ng w rit t en
‘
Ha ve + T he pe rfec t forms of b e , m ad e up b y t he
B een .
—
’

hel p of ha v e j
a re al so o ined t o b ot h p resent a nd p a st p art i
‘
cip les . F ollow ed b y a p resent or im per fec t p a rt ici ple, ha v e,
ha d , ha v ing, & c , b een form . ha t ha v e b e e n ca lled cont inuous
‘ ’
t enses, or t e nses of conti nu ed a ction I ha v e been w rit ing ,
-

T hese a re simp ly p r ogr essi v e p erfect

’
t o ha v e been w r it ing .

t e nses t hey sta nd t o t he p erfec t in mu ch t he sa me rela t i on as .

t he so called pr og ressiv e sta nd in t o t he

-
indefinit e t enses .

The me c omb inat ions w ith the p a st p a rt iciple mak e t he

sa

erfect forms of t he p assive

’
I ha ve been lov ed , 5 1 had
‘
een lov ed ha v ing been l ov ed

H follow ed b y the gerund exp resses obliga tion

av e I ha ve
‘ ‘ ‘
I a m ob liged t o w rit e I must w rit e
’
I ha d
’
t o w rit e
°

t o w rit e ex p resses p a st com p ul sion or p ressur e Wit h this .

c omb inat i on comp a re t he forma tion of t he F rench fut ure

°

a i mer a i to l ov e + hav e I
'

I7 S ha ll
. and W ill

Plur . 1 S hall
.

2 S hall
.

3 S hall
. .
 ‘
m 1 67
’ ’
{ sHA L L
'

AND .

1 . W ould 1 . W ould
2 . W oul dst 2 .
‘

W ou l d
3 . W ould . 3 . W ould .

‘ ‘
The ne gati ve w on t is for
’
w ol not
’
, a n ol dfo r m ill . N ’

‘
( w i ll you , nill O E . . nJ lla n fl ne w i ll ( 0 E ne w il la n)
. .

‘ ’
will not

l8 . S ha ll a nd W ill are e mpl oye d to form t he

fut u re t e ns e s in E nglish :
’
I sha ll go he will go
I n 0 E t he1e w as no special inflexion for t he fut ure , a nd t he
. .

‘
resent w as u suall m l d i nst ea d n m i m w in
p y e p o ye
‘
1 a
ge o e .

o i nt o my v ine al d,
’

g aard, a nd 10 syl le cow t hae t r iht b i th g y

a nd I gi ve ( z : sha ll gi v e) yo u w hat i s right ( uot ed b y S weet ) . q .

‘ ‘
S ha ll a nd w ill a re occasionally used , b ut seldom as p ure
’ ’

fut ure a uxiliaries .

19 . S ha ll origina lly mea ns d e b t , Ob lig a t io n .

C hauce r sa
y s t ha t fa ith I sha ll ( I ow e ) to God He
‘
is he owes to suffer , fhe is a bo ut to
’
ll
s ha suf
fer '

suf
fer
Gri mm t ra ces shall
‘
’
G oth ska l) to the p ast
(O . E. seoa l, . -
,

p re se nt mea ning I kil l Thus I sha l l is I

’ ’
t e nse of a .

k ill d , or
e
’ ‘
I ha v e k illed a nd t here fore
‘
I ha ve to pa y t he
‘
lega l ti ne I a m in d eb t, or under ob l iga t ion ,
’ ’

; hence, I
must ’
.

2 0 W ill, . ha nd , means int e nt io n o r

on the othe r

re so lu t io n, o n t he p a r t o f t he a ge nt , he
b e ing fre e to d o a s he p leas es in t he mat ter ‘
I w ill .

go , means t hat it is i n my op t ion to go or not to go,

’

and t ha t I d ec id e for in
g o g .
1 68 I N FLE X I ON or v as es .

Thus there is a ra d ical con tra st of sit uati on implied in the

t w o w or d s, na mel y; t he d if ference b e tw een bei ng u nd er out w ar d
contr ol , coer ci on, comp u lsi on, i nfl u ence, or
p r essu r e a nd b ei ng
'
‘
f r ee t o fo l lo w one s ow n
feeli ngs a nd w i shes I sha l l not b e .

a t home is a s m u c h a s t o any t ha t ci r cumsta nces co m el me t o

p
‘
b e ab se nt I w i l l not b e a t home imp lies t hat neither a ny
’

ot her p ers on s w ill nor a ny e xt e rnal c om u l sion w ha t soev er

’ '

re
p p
-

v e nts m e, b ut t ha t i t i s m
y ow n fr ee w ill a nd p l ea s ur e t o b e
a b sent .

This great opp osit ion of mea ning d et ermines t he ap pr op riat e

e m l oyme nt of the t w o w ord s Th f l l w in h rases a re
p e o o g p .

w rong, a lt hough i n common use b y S cot chm en a nd I rishmen

‘
I w il l b e ob l iged t o you
’
—
I w il l b e u nd er t he necessit y ,
‘ ‘ ‘
w e w il l b e a t a loss , w e wi l l b e comp el led
’
I w i ll b e
nrrrch g ra t if ied As t he v ery na t u re of t hese exp ressions
su p p oses ob liga t ion, or sonre in uence f fl
rom w it hou t , t he u se o f
w i ll w hich exp resses t he a b sence of a l l externa l p ressure is ,
‘
a cont ra d ict ion
’
w e ought to sa y, I sha ll b e ob liged , I sha l l
‘
b e u nder t he necessit y 1 sha l l b e much gra tified, & c
’
.

S hal l is not necessa ri ly limited t o com rrlsion in t he p a infu l

sense : if out w a rd ev ent s ( a nd not inw a r d et ermina t ions) corr
fi
cur t o impa rt b ene ts t o a n ind i v id u a l, t he exp ression is shal l :
’
’

I sha ll b e a grea t gainer I sha l l b e d eligh tfully placed .

2 L S ha ll is the future a uxiliary of t he first p e r

s o n ; w ill, oi t he s e c o nd a nd t hir d p e rs o ns .

‘
Through t he use of shall t he b are fa ct of fu t urity is sig
nified b y t he w ord exp ressing t he compulsion of ev ent s B ut .

it w as na tural tha t t hi s ap plicat ion of shall should come to b e

’

rest rict ed to t he firs t pe rson w ill t he sign of sel fd etermining -

ch oice, ap p ea ri ng t o b e nrore p roper f or ersons ot her tha n t he

k
S p ea er H
ence w e sa y
.
‘
I sha ll come t o ma e now n t he k k
k
fut ure conring , of t he s ) ea er, b ut not , you sha l l come
’
he
sha l l come
‘
l
t he a uxi ia ry for t hese p e rs ons is consid era t ely
‘
ou w i l l c ome , hen simple
’ ’
cha ng ed t o y h e w i ll conre , w
fut rrrity is mea nt j
The con uga t ion of t he future t ens e of t he
.

v erb is, theref ore, as f ol low s

S i ng 1 S ha ll come
. . P lur 1 S ha ll come . .

2 W i lt come. 2 W i ll come .

3 W i l l come
. 3 W i ll come
. . .

22 The expla nat ion of this distr ib ution of the

.

a u xiliaries is found in c onsid erat ions of co u rt es y o r

p o lit e ne ss .

When a person says I sha ll come he uses a phrase which

 ‘ ‘
Use s or S HA LL WI LL
’
AN D

origi nall y mea ns tha t he is to b e under exter nal infl uence m

or c o

nlsion, a nd k
he so fa r spea s hu mb ly of hi mself, a t hing q u it e
cooming B u t the ca se is a l t er ed w hen, a d dressing a second
.

p erson, w e say you sha l l com e t hi s is e ual t o sa ying, q t he

p w
o er of ex t e n a l ev e nt s w il
r l l ea v e
y ou n o ch oice b ut t o

come To use t his for m of lang uage t o a nother cr eon ha s

seemed w ant of d ue cour t esy a nd considemt ion for t e feeli ng s
'

of ot hers ; a nd a ccordingl y we hav e d ep a rt e d from it , a nd

adop te d w i ll , w hich is t he sa me a s t o sa y,
’

your, or t heir, fre e

w ill a nd p leasure will induce you, or t hem, t o come This

“
ha s b een c onsidered ) olit e and deferenti al, a nd has b ecome t he
‘ ‘
form of fut uri t y w en p ersons other t han I or w e are
’ ’

‘
concerned . H
ence t he c orrect usage is, I sha ll b e a t t he
ar dens, a nd s o w il l y ea and Ja mes
g

23 . hen the a im is t o exp ress, not futurity, b ut

T

se lf-
d e t e rm ina t io n o n t he p a rt of t he s p e a k e r,
he says I w ill for t he first p erson,
’ ’
and you sha ll ,

he sha ll for the second a nd third .

H er e k
t he spea er s d et ermina t ion is the c ont rolling pow er
’

throughou t ; it is w ill for him sel f, b ec use he is t he agent ,

’
a

‘ ’
b ut it is sha ll for t he other s, b ecause t hey a r e a ct ed on b y
him, that is, b y an in uence ext ernal t o t hem fl ‘
To say w ill .
’

in t heir case , w o uld b e not t o exercise com pul sion, b ut t o

r ecord t heir ow n Ind epend ent or free d et e rm i na tion Hence .

‘
is the highesl fom n of comma nd a nd ri a l/( onl y
’
sha l l thou
sha lt not ill k
’
I t is t he for m for impo si ng lega l ob ligat ions
.

a nd enal ties i n o ur English Act s of Pa r lia m ent t B ut , a s .

remar ed a b ov e, not t he ha nd of pow e r a nd p a inf ul c onstr ai nt

sim ly, b ut a lso in ue nce f
p fl
or go od , ha s t o b e exp ressed in t he

sa me w ay He sha ll b e b lessed in a ll t ha t b elo ngs to him is

.

a correct expression ii it b e imp lied t ha t t he inst rument al i ty is

not hi s own w ishi ng a nd a ct i ng, b u t a cont roll ing i n uence fl
b eyond . H
ence t he c ommon rul e t ha t
‘
sha ll
’
i n t he second
a nd t hird p ersons comman ds, t hreat ens, and p r om ises .

24 I n w hat is ca lled ind ire ct s p e e c h,

.
‘s ha ll ’
e x p re s s e s fut ur it y in a ll t he p e rs o ns
-

I n a d d r es si ng t h e D j
ei t y t he v ery na t u r e of t he sub ec t e x cl u d es t h e
,

id ea of const rai nt t h ou sha lt e nd u r e, a nd t hy y ear s sha l l not c ha ng e

1 W h en is gi vi ng d ir ec t i ons t o a sub or d ina t e , h e so m et i m es

a su p e r i or
uses as a co rut esy for m ,
.
y ou wi l l y ou w i l l see t ha t d u e p rec au t i o ns
a re t a k e n I t is assu m ed t ha t t h e s u b o r d ina t e i s p e r fe c t ly d is gui se d t o
d o h is d ut y an d t h e la ng ua g e of a u t h ori t y i s so fte ned d ow n to t he fo rm
.

of p red ic t i on , or fu t u ri t
y This is a not her e xa m p le of t he i nfluence oft|
.

consi derati ons of court es i n t hese const r uc t i ons

y .
170 I NFLEX I ON r or v anes.

This ap parent excep tion ill ust ra tes t he rul e for in tha t case
t he rea son for c ha nging from sha ll t o w ill no l onger exist s
.

‘
You Say y ou sha ll w rit e , he says he sha l l w rit e
’
a re no

b reach of court esy, b eca use t he saying is p ut int o t he m outh

o f t he p erson t ha t p er f or ms t he a ct ion These a re t he ex act .

a rall el s of 1 shall w rit e th ea ker sp ea ks o nly for hi mse lf

p e sp .

The follow ing exp r essions are correct : he p romises t ha t his

p ar t sha l l b e ful lle d
‘
fi
w e p led ge ou rsel v es t hat our fut u re
ac t ions sha l l ( not
’
w i ll ) b e in a ccorda nce w it h our v ow s
I f, o n the other ha nd, d et erminat ion on t he p art of t he
‘ ’
sub j ect iS ressed , W ill i s u d i n ll t h n
‘ c p
‘ ’
s e a e p ers o s
’ ’
1 w i ll w ri t e , you say you w ill w ri t e , he says he wi ll w ri t e .

2 5 VVhene v er t he a c t io n o f e xt e r na l e v e nt s
'

c omes int o p lay, t he speak er, u sing t he first p erson,

m ust p ass from w ill to s ha ll

’

If I d ra w a cat g ut ,
y or an t o a g re
a t l en th
ot her c or d, g
b etw een my fi k
ngers, I w il l m a e i t sm all er t ha n b efore
‘
( Gold smith) T he prop er w ord here is sha ll , b e ca use t he
’
.

k
ma ing i t smaller d oes not d ep end imm ediat ely upon the
k ’
S p ea er s w ill, b ut gro w s ou t of the
p rev ious a ct ion A simila r .

c onsid era t ion d ict a t e s t he use of sha ll w hen t he sp ea er ha s

’
k
o nce p l e dged hi msel f to a c er t a i n course , a nd i s merely foll ow ing
out t ha t ledge An a u t hor st a t es a t t he ou t se t t he p l a n ofhis
.

k
w or , a n a s he p roce e d s w it h t he exe cut ion of that pla n, he sa ys,
"
.

[ sha ll next consid er The follo w ing may b e exp lained on

.

‘
t his p rincip le w e sh al l now p roc eed t o m ent ion som e of the
most fa mous I w il l b egi n w it h a p a ssag e of considera b le
b eau ty fi fi
T he rst e xp ression is j ust i a b l e, a s b eing a cont inu
a t ion or f oll ow ing up o f the a ut hor s a n, t o w hich he ha d
’

p l
committ ed himsel f t he ot her indicat es a new sta r t , a nd he ,

t here fore rev ert s t o t he a u xi lia ry of free w ill I w ill may b e

’
.

softened i nt o I shall ev en in cases of d et erm inat i on, t o giv e

less of t he ap peara nce of egot ism t he spea er p retend ing , as it k

w ere, tha t he i s t he hu mb le inst ru ment of ev ent s in w hat he is
‘ ’ ‘ ’
a b out t o d o ; b ut t he su b s ti t ut ion of I w ill for I shal l is
al ways a n error .

26 . In lnt e rro g a t iv e S e nt e nc e s, the second

erson takes t he pla c e of the firs t ; b ut it is onl for

p y

“
d e t e r m ina t io n o n t he p a r t of t he p e rso n in
t e rr o g at e d t hat the three p er sons can b e a ll mad e
‘ ‘ ’
he go 2
’

sha l l
’
use of : w ill you go l shrzll I o ?
g
The corresp onding expressions in the case of me re
,
 ‘S HA LL ’ ‘ ’
uses or: .
AN D e L .

fut urit y
.

‘
w ill he go i
“
exist only

w ill i t
f or

a
p p ea r
two p ersons
soon ?
’
: fisha ll
y u
o go 2
’

‘
The mea nings of t he fi rst form are
’
is i t your w i ll t o go .

‘
( w i ll y )
u ? i s it your w i ll t ha t I g o ( sha ll 1) i is i t you r
'

wi l l t hat he go ( sha ll he) l The second p erson i s ap p ea led to a s

'

the sou rce of w i ll a nd a u thor i ty, and corresp onds t o the fi rst .

erson in a f firmat ory sp eech

p .

B ut w e ca nnot , for simple inq uiry as t o the future, r ev erse

the forms t hroughou t t hus sha l l ye w o
g w ill I g o w i l l
he go ? B y a tt ending t o t he origi na l mea ni ng of t he a uxiliaries
w e shall b e ab l e t o comp rehend t he force of t hese several int er
r oga t ories .

The fi rst sha ll u interp r eta t ion, may b e

i on a strict

g
, yo o
‘
sup p osed t o m ea n, w il ev ent s p ermit or req uire you t o go
w hence it seem s t he a p p rop ria t e int erroga t iv e for m ere fu t uri t y
m
.

W hen w e ar e in t ota l ignorance of t he d et ermining cir cu

sta nces, or a re unab l e t o sa y whet her ev ent s or t he p erson s ow n
’

will a re t o decide the p oint , w e may b e ex root ed t o say shall

y o u i T his f orm is not ob ect ed t o on t re j
ground of rep re l
sent ing t he p erson a dd ressed as a t t he m ercy of out w a rd
ci rcu mstances ; it is a w ell est a b lished E nglish usage The .

form wi ll you is less seldom em l oyed, al though a dmissib l e

p
it seems t o sup p ose that t he p erson s mind is not yet made u p .

W e must regard it as suitab le t o the case where w e appeal t o

a not her p erson, to sta t e wha t his d et erm ina t ion is in a case
‘
d ep ending on him B ut shall is more
’
.
you ?
ap p licab le .

The form fw ill I i is an ab surdity, as t he sp ea er a s s t he k k

other p a rt y w ha t he himself a l one ca n now , nam ely, his ow n k
w ill and d etermina t ion There is no sit ua t ion where t his
.

expression is ad missi b l e ; u nl ess w e ex cept t he pecul ia r

k
w here t he sp ea er r ep ea t s w ith t he rst
p ersonal p ronou n a fi
est ion a s t o his ow n int ent ions, or a ns w ers i t b
q u y anot her
q u est i on simila rly f or m ed W i ll you b e t here i
. W i ll I b e
t here ? Wi ll I b e aliv e Cert ai nly ’
Will I 2 for S hal l I l
’
.
’

is a common S cotticism .

Wi l l he w ould na t urally m ean is i t his wi ll t o d o so and

so 2 a nd t his is p rob ab ly i n a ccord a nce w it h u sage W hen w e .

a re in d oub t a s t o how a p erson w ill a ct in ma t t ers w i thin his

b u t w ill he Q W hen w e are inq uiring into

‘’
ow n p ow er, w e sa y
mere fut urity, how ev er, w e must st ill u se t he sa me form in
‘
a ll he l which p u t s t he ca se as d ep end ing
’ ’

p ref e re n ce t o sh .

u p on t he p erson ad d ressed W e mu st sa y, w i ll he b e there 2

.
’

wi ll t here b e a l arg e a ssemb ly 2’ all intend in

wi ll i t b e fine i
g
ten prefer forms dif m
'

e of
fr
e ent f ro either
172 I NFLEX I ON or va nes .

‘
for t he simple future is he to b e t here ? d o you expect him
t here is t he meeti ng t o ta k e p lac e l
'

There is a S cot ti cism commit t ed in responding t o the int er

‘ ‘ ‘
ro a t iv e wil l you 1
2 I t consist s in sa ying I shal l for I
‘
I shall is ob j ec tionab le, as indica ti ng, not hearty
’ ’
wi l .

good will and concurrence t o d o t he thing req uired, b ut a mere

a cq uiesence in the com ul sion of circum sta nces I t i s a still
p ‘
.

more v ulga r error t o say wi l l t hat b e all you want l for is

’ '

that all you want 2

F a r ther E xa mp les of S ha ll a nd
’
Wi l l — The dist inction
of the t wo w ord s is illust ra ted b y t he su p osed excl ama t ion of

a n I rishma n on f al ling int o t he wa t er ; w i ll he drow ned , and

nob ody s ha ll help me W hile int ending t o exp ress his a pp re
k
hensions a nd t o inv o e help , he in rea lit y d ecla res w ith
em ha sis t ha t it is his d et ermina ti on t o d row n him self, a nd t o
p
r esi st a ny one t hat w oul d resc u e him The follow ing pa ssages
.

‘
discrimina t e t he tw o a uxilia ries w it h p recision The sp iri t of
my fat her grow s strong in me, a nd I w il l no lon er endure it
He tha t esca 8 me w it hout some b r o en limb sha ll
acq uit him w ell ( ironi '

p r omi se)
’
Charles, I t han k
thee for t hy lov e t o me, w hich t hou sha lt find I w i ll most
k indly req uite .
’ ‘
Tr uly, w hen he dies, t hou sha lt
k
b e his heir, for what he hat h ta en aw ay from thy father per
for ce, I wi ll r end er t hee ag ain in affect ion ; b y mine honour, I
wi l l ( S ha ka , A s yo u li ke it, i .

k
W hen Tennyson ma es (E none say I w i ll not die alone he
intimates t ha t she is d et ermined t hat others shall die with her .

‘ ‘
I sha ll not d ie alone means t hat
’
t he course of fat e will
ov erw helm ot her persons a l ong w it h m e
I n t he L itany, F
Glory b e t o t he a ther— as it w as in t he
‘
b eginning, is now , and ev er sha ll
. the shall
—
’
means
em ha t ically t hat a p ow er ha s ord a i n ed this to he .

indley Murray consid ers t he t ransla t ion of t he concluding

‘
v erse of t he 2 3 rd P sa l m t o b e incorrect l y r end ered S u rely
.

good ness and mercy sha l l follow m e a ll t he d ays of my life, and

"
I w i l l dw ell in t he house of t he L ord for e v er ; he w oul d
k
ma e it wi ll follow and sha ll d w ell
’
B u t t his is a q uest ion
.

of meani ng . fi
A s new rend er ed , t he rst cla u se is a p r omise,
‘
g oo d ness a nd m ercy a r e or d a i ned t o follow me w h i ch i s . n ot

irnp rob ab ly the t ru e mea ning The second cla use w ould imp ly,
.

‘
it is my d etermi na ti on a nd p r efer ence t o d w ell in t he house of
‘
t he L ord ; b ut i f t he meaning b e, I a m desti ned t o ha v e
’

b est ow ed upon me a d w ell ing in the house of t he L ord t he

sui ta b le a uxili ar y is shall
I n de ndent clauses t he construction is somew ha t c ompl i
cated . n a sent ence with two co ordina te p arts, li e t he
- .
k
 use s or
‘
S HA LL ’
AN D .
‘
e L
’
.

following, the usage is p lain : I w ill b e there at six o clock ,

’

when it wi ll b e light ; t his mea ns I resol v e t o b e t here a t

’
.

si x, a nd a t t ha t t ime i t w ill b e l ight B u t ift he second clause

is a condit ion oft he fi rst , t he case is alt ered I w ill b e t here
w hen it sha ll b e light w hen here sta nds for w henev er
a nd t he f a ct of it s hein l ight is no l onger a n a ssert ion of
t y ; i n t he ev ent of it s b e ing light ,
'

fut urit y, b ut of ev ent u

or w hen t he course o f t hi ngs b ri ng s a b out t hat c ircu mst a nc e .

‘
I n t he sent enc e, how heavy t hei r p unishm ent w ill b e w ho w i ll
a t a ny t ime resist , t here is a mea ni ng dist inct from w ha t
’

w ould ha v e b een g iv en b y w ho sha ll a t a ny t ime r esist The

fi rst supp oses a defini te ca se of resista nce t here a re a ct ual p er
sons resol v ed u p on r esist ing , a nd t heir p u nishment w ill b e

hea v y . The second is a mer e supp os iti on or conti ngency ifit

ou nd t o r esist ( S ir F
’
shoul d a ri se t ha t a ny p ersons ar e f . .

Hea d, on S ha l l and W i l l) .

The follow ing examp les a re giv en in Connon s Gra mma r a s

’

incorrect , b ut they ma y all b e d efend ed : A n extr act from Mr . .

Hal lam sha ll close t he p resent section a nd introd uce t he next ’

.

Here, t hen, t he p resent int roduct ory course of l e c tures sh all

Theocrit us, in a n epig ra m, w hich sha ll b e ci t ed in t he
ne xt not e d edicat es myrtles t o Ap oll o These ma y all b e
’
.
,

int erpreted a s re mises or pledg es on t he p art of t he a ut hors t o

d o a cer tain t ing, a nd for t his t he exp ression in the t hird
’
e rson i s shall I h ereb y i v e a ssu ra nce t ha t t he rese nt
p .
g p
co u rse sha l l c l ose i s p erfectl y c onsist ent w it h t he m ea ning of
‘ ‘
shall
’
W ill might hav e b een used in t hose ca ses a nd
.
’

t hen w e should hav e i nterp reted t he sp ea k e r a s exp ressing onl y

t he mere fa ct of fut urit y T he fol low ing is m ore q uest iona b l e
.

N ow in an i nq uiry i nt o t he c red ib ility of hist ory the fi rst

, ,

q u est ion w hich w e w i ll consid e r is H ere w i ll i s not

’

‘
’

’
a b sol ut el b sha ll oul d ha v e b e en
y w ro n g u t ,
w p refera b l e,
b e ca use t he w rit er is supp osed t o b e c omm it t ed b y his sub j ect
t o a certa in c ourse This is one of t he d oub t ful sit uat ions
.

w here eit her usage ca n b e j u st i ed fi .

I w il l ( my resol ut ion) g iv e t hem a n ev erla st ing na me, t ha t

sha l l ( my cont rol ling p ow e r) not t o b e cu t o f
’
f .

E v ery p lace w hereon t he soles of your feet sha l l ( ev ent ual it y)

k
t rea d s ha ll ( p romise oft he spea er, w ho cont rols t he ev ent ) b e
’

yours .

N ay, b ut w e w i ll ( our resolu tion) hav e a ing ov er u s

’
. k .

Accid ent s w i l l ha ppen fi

a pe rs oni ca t ion o f a cc id ent s , a s i f
t hey w ere d etermi ned t o hap p en, and conseq ue nt ly d o ha pp en .

T his form ha s l a rgely t he force of t he p resent ind e nit e t e nse fi ,

( Add itional il lust ra t ions may b e found in t he Comp a nio n to

the Higher Gr a mma r , p p 1 7 .
1731 I NFLE X I ON or vanes

”
.

27 . W o uld and S ho uld follow the rules of shall

a nd w hen emp loyed in p arallel c ircu mstances
’
w ill
I
’
should ,
‘
"

’ ‘
h
’
w ould , w l d
y o u e ou ,
e xp ss c o n
re
‘ ‘ ‘
t ing e nt fut u r it y ; I would ,
’ ’
you would , he
w c d d m
’
ould , signif t he
y p a s t o r r e o r e d e t e r in a
‘
t i o n of t he s u bj e c t ; I should , you should
’
he
t he s ubj e c t is c o nt ro lle d
’
should , e x ress t hat
p
b y so m e o t he r p o w e r .

‘
p ast future is a c ont ra dict ion, t he form I should is
’
As a

k
t a en t o exp ress a fu tu re tha t is d ou b tfu l , cond itiona l, or mer ely
s up p osed . I f w e w ere d iscussing a n arra nge me nt t ha t is as yet
u nd et ermined one w a y or other, it w oul d b e a d missib le t o sa y
I shou ld t a e p art k you w ou ld
‘
they w ou ld W hen
ac t ua l ly fi
xed a nd set t led t he la nguage b ecomes I shall ,
,
’
you
w ill t hey w ill This mode of c onv e rting fut ure v erb s i nt o
for ms for cont in ency is not uncommon The rench modif .
y F
i rai ( I shall go b y a slight addition into ira is ( I should go) ,
’

ca lled t he condit iona l m ood .

The sa me error s a re commit t ed wit h w oul d and should

as w it h sha l l a nd will W hen one is u nd er in uence from fl
‘
I w oul d is imp r op er ; it i s w rong t o sa y I w ould
’
w it hout,
‘ ’ ‘
b e surp rised , I w ou ld b e und er the
’
I w ou ld b e ob l iged ,
‘
necessit y I w ou ld b e d el ight ed in none oft hese cases is the
ef fect d ep endent on t he sp ea er s w ill k ’
The correct exp ression
.

is, I should b e surp ri sed & c .

A s rega rd s d et ermi nat ion, w oul d ex a ctly t al lies w ith w ill

’
.

I t exp resses p a st, or r ecord ed d eter mi na ti on I w ould go is a .

reco rd of m y r e sol u tion on some p ast oc ca sion S o you w ou ld .

t hey w ou ld go k
in l i e manner record t ha t you or t hey
h
0

a d in a certa in ast inst a nc e t he resol ut ion t o go

p .

B u t w hen t he d et ermina tion p roceeds from a p ow er ext ernal

shou l d comes i n a s a m at t er of cours e I sa id
’
t o the sub j ect ,
‘
o u a nd the
y shou ld go it w as my w ill t ha t yo u w er e t o go
y

W hen t i me is not inv ol v ed ,

’
28 .
p a st I w ould is
‘I
c o nt ing e nt d e t e r m ina t io n ; mea ns
’
should

d ut y, o b lig a t io n, o r b e ing u nd e r t he infl ue nc e

‘ ’ ‘
o f e v e nt s I w o uld d o it if I w ere you ;
. I
sho uld d o it ( it is m y d u t y t o d o i t ) S o w it h yo u .

should they shou ld ob liga t ion is imp l ied .

‘
29 . T he F ut ure S ubj u nc t ive is I should
’
,
 US ES ‘
UL D ‘ 17
WOULD
’
or S HO AN D .

‘thou should
‘he should ’ & c ‘
if I , you, he, should
, .

find w hat you w ish

I n d ep end ent stat ement s t here are necessari ly tw o clauses .

The one st a t es w hat is conditional, t he other st a t es t he con

d it ion, a nd is introd u ced b y one of t he conj unct ions of condi
‘ ‘ ’ ‘ ’
t hou h , u nl ess ,
’
t ion, if , &c The condit ion is in t h e
d
.

j
sub unct i ve m oo t he condit ioned st a t ement is v ari ously,

ex p ressed. I f he shou ld fa il, I shoul d hav e t o ma e it good,

’
k
or, I shall ha v e t o ma e it good k or
‘
I Will , or w ould ,
’

k
ma e it good
The fol lowing is an error ( if a mere assump t ion w ith regard
to the fut ur e he int end ed , w it hout any sense of w ish or d esire) :
'

‘ k
if I w ou ld d ecl are them, a nd sp ea of t hem, t hey are more
‘
than can b e numb ered I n t he sentence, if I shou ld decl are
t hem, and sp ea k
of t hem, t hey shou ld b e m ore t han I am ab l e

t o express fi
t he rst i s ri ght , t he second is w rong, a s b eing a
ca se of mere cont ingent fut uri ty, w it hout ob ligat ion The sense .

‘ ‘
t hey ought t o b e more t han I am ab l e t o exp ress
’ ’
of should is, .

‘
F urther exa mp les of Wou ld a nd S ho uld W ere he more
diligent , he w ou ld b e more su ccessful
‘
not should W ere
he t o do su ch a thing in E ngland , he w ou ld b e ha nged ex

resses a c ontingent fut ure conseq uence ; b ut sho uld b e hang ed

p
means t ha t he w ould deserv e t o b e ha nged, ow ing t o som e aggra
v a t ion connect ed w it h t he p er f orma nce of t he a ct in E n land
‘

g .

This m an w as tak en of t he Jew s, a nd shou ld hav e b een killed

of t hem t his conv eys t o our ears t he meani ng t hat he ought
t o hav e b een k ill ed
‘
I t is to b e r emark ed t hat should a nd w ould are, in many
‘
insta nces, soft ened forms of shall and w ill
’ ’
I shou ld
b e v ery mu ch surprised may r efer to a n a ct ual fu t ure, a nd is
an ind irect a nd el lip t ica l w ay o f saying I sha ll b e v ery m uch
surp ri sed Bot h
‘ ‘
it shou ld seem a nd it w ou ld seem a re
’

‘
mod estly used for it seems
’
.I n such a sent ence a s t he fol
’
low ing also, should is used a s a n exp ression of difiid ence
‘
I hav e so much conf i d ence i n t he saga city of t he Roma ns
within t he somew ha t na rrow sphere of t heir t hought s t ha t I ,

shou ld b e ca ut ious in cri t icisin

g t heir milit a ry a nd dipl oma t ic
ad minist ra t ion t hat is, I am disp osed t o b eca ut iou s I p refe r ,

t o b e ca ut ious .I f t he w rit er had b een more confid ent a nd

‘
d ogma t ic, he w oul d hav e used a n indica t i v e form, I a m or
’

‘
shall b e ca ut io us I n S ha k sp eare w e ha v e W hat shou ld b e
‘
in t ha t Caesa r l for w ha t is t here I n ot her word s, I should
b e gl a d t o know , I w ond er w hat t here is in t hat Caesa r
( F or additional illu st rat ions, see t he Comp a niou to the Higher
'

Gr a mma r , pp 1 8 5.
176 I NFLE X I ON or v ane s .

‘
30 . In Int e rrog a t io n, would y ou ?
’
should I ?
’

shou ld inq uire w ha t is t he d e t e r m ina t io n of

he
"
o f t he p e rs o n a d d re sse d
’
S hould you ? is con .

t i ngent future ( ex cep t w hen for ought you l )

’ '
w ou ld
I ? is w holly ina dmissib le Would he
’
a sk s infor .

mation a s t o t he p ro b a b le int e nt io ns of t he
‘
k f h h
’
p e rso n s p o e n o : d o yo u t in k e w o u ld go ?
These a re in exa ct a ccordance with t he ‘ ’
usage of will and
shall i n int errogation .

3 l T o Do
. .

P r esent Tense .

Do . Did .

P r esent Tense I d o ; t hou d oest , or dost ;

.
-

or dot h ; w e, you, t hey d o .

P a st Tense — I d id , t hou d idst , he, & c , did . .

Do
’
is a t ense a uxil iary in such cases as thou dost
p ref er ( =
p referrest ) a b o v e all t emp les t he up right heart and
p u re a s if t hey d id r ej oice ( = re oiced ) o er a j
young eart h
’

k ’

q ua e s b irt h a nd es ecially in in v ersions

p not for t hose
‘
d o I repent or change ; nev er d id any ma n lab our
’

more z eal ously

Thus, it is t he form ofint errogat ion ( a n inv er ion oford er) s

‘
Drd v e not hear it ?
’ ’
d o you w rit e ?
'

‘
I t is al so t he neg at iv e form
’

you d o not w rit e ; I d id

This must b e consid ered t he u sual and p roper
’
not hear it .

‘ ‘
form of negation You w rit e not , I heard it not , were
’ ’
.

c om m on for merly, b ut now occur only in p oet ry, a nd in some

rare i nst a nces w here t hey a re t hou ht t o b e e m ) ha t ic I now k
g
l
.

’
not should b e
‘
I d o not now ‘ k
S ome b e iev ed , a nd some
’
.

‘
b eliev ed not , in mod ern r end ering is S ome b eliev ed, and
’
—

some did not ( b eli ev e)

B e sid es t hese uses as a n au xiliar
y o f t en se,
‘
d o m a es t he k
emp ha t ic form of t he v erb ; as
‘ ’
he d i d writ e
’
I do lov e , .

P erdit ion cat c h my soul b ut I d o l ov e t hee

’
.

Do ha s a form p eculi ar t o it sel f; it can b e p ut a s a sub .

st it ut e for other v erb s ( exc ep t

'

be ) ‘
he spea s as w ell as
’
k
y ou d o
’

( for
‘
sp ea h e sp k
o e b e t t er t h an y ok
u cou ld h av e
‘ This cor
’
d one ( s k en) he lov es not pl ays, a s t hou d ost .

respon s w i t h t he power of t he p ronoun t o act as a su b st it ut e

‘
for t he noun, and we might t herefore cal l do t he p r o ver b -
.
 "Do ’ ‘MAY ’ ‘cau ’
.
, ,

32 . Ma y and Can ,

Ma y .

P resent Tense .

S ing 1 May
. . P lur 1
. . May
2 . Ma y (e) st 2 . May
3 . May . 3 . May .

S i ng 1 Might
. . ight
2 Might ( e) st. 2 Might
.

3 Might . . 3 Might
. .

‘ ‘ O E mea hte, mihte

May O E mceg, l at er maei Might
’ ’
.
,
. . .
, . .

The infin w as maga n

. or muga n, and t he meaning in O E wan . .

can b e ab l e

Ca n .

P resent Tense
S ing 1 Can
. .

2 Canst
.

3 Can
. .

S ing 1 Could
. . P lur 1 Coul d
. .

2 C ouldst . 2 Could .

3 Could . . 3 Coul d . .

Ca n originally know hence a m ab l e The infin .

w as cunnan
Coul d O E cuthe ( Goth le untha ) , cou the, coude, has b een
. . .

assimil at ed in sp elling t o should a nd would b y t he intru

sion of l .

T he im erfect p art iciple remains in cunning l it er ally

knowing The p ast p art iciple cuth , lit k now n remains in .

uncout h ( O E u ncuth) , originally

. . unk nown hence
st range unshapel y a w k w a rd

Ma y a nd Can are the v erb s empl oyed t o mak e the ao

ca lled ot ent ial mood Their d iscriminat ion is importa nt , as
“
.

errors are som et i mes commit ted in usin

g t hem .

33 . Ma y now expresses
p e r m is s io n C a n,
p o w e r I m ay go is I a m p ermitted t o go
. I
’ ‘
ca n w alk , I a m physically a ble t o w alk
’
I ca n
sol v e t hat u t i n I h t h bilit k ill r ui
q es o av e e a y or s e
q
site to sol v e t ha t
q estion
u
178 rs r t s xro u or v a se s.

This d if ference somewhat resemb les t he dist inction of shall

’

a nd w ill I t is t he cont rast b et w een t he op erat ion of a

p ow er w it hout or a b ov e, and a p ow er inhering in t he ind iv idu al .

k
I n giv ing or as ing p ermissi on w e must u se may
‘’
y ou m a y

g o m a y I c ome 3 T he S co t ch er roneou sly u se ca n for t his

‘
meaning I n g iv i ng p ermrssib ii t hey o ft en say you ca n go
’ ’

k
a nd in a s ing p erm ission, ca n I see it 12
p A
ort er at a
g a t e on ,

b eing a pplied t o for l ib erty t o ent er, w ill say I ca nnot w hen
he m ea ns t hat he is forb id d en b y his inst ru ct ions, and is not
‘
free t o admit a ny one t he real m ea ning of I cannot w ould
b e , t hat he is p hysical ly unab le to op en t he ga t e Ca n I cross
.

‘
fi
t he el d 2 mea ns is t here a w ay Q
‘
ma y I cross t he eld fi
is am I allow ed t o cross is t here a right of w ay I ca nnot
‘
l ift t hat w eight I ca nnot p la y t he ut e fl ‘
I ca nnot see t he
hill s all im pl y inca p a b il it y on t he p a rt of t he ind iv id ual .

He ma y not w ould m ean that , t hough he m ay hav e t he ca pa

b il it y t o d o t hese t hings, he is forb id d en b y some aut hori t y .

I n L ord Cha t ham s celeb rat ed u t t era nce T he E nglishma n s

’ ’

house is h is castl e e vpp y_ wind may ent er it , b ut t he ing ca nno k

‘
t,
k
t he ing d are not eiit er
'

ca nno t i s u sed for may not b y a

’

figure of sp eech ; so secu re is t he E ngl ishman in t his inv iola

k
b ilit y of his house, t hat t he i ng is as it w ere p hysically unab le
t o p ass his thr eshold .

34 . Ma y alsomeans p o s s ib ilit y o r c o nc e s
‘
s io n he ma y come yet ; t hat ma y b e so, b ut I
’
as

d oub t it you m a y recov er your loss

.

This is m erely a p eculiar case of t he p ri nci al

as it w ere, p ermissi on i n t he mid st of d if ficu t ies
“
.

I n the p hrase he hast ens t hat he may b e i n p i ne w e hav e

d

an e x a mp l e of a not her a p pli ca tidn of t he w ord , st ill u nder the

i
or g inal i d ea tha t i t b e i n hi s p ower—
that he be a b le to b e in
time

3 5 P laced b efore its sub j ect, ma y

. exp resses a

w is h ma y you b e happy
There is here a short ening, or ellip sis, of a rou ndab out ex
‘
ression i t i s my w ish t hat you ma y be hap p y, or that you
p
be a ble t o b e hap py
‘ ‘he
36 .
,
C o u ld
b esides b eing t he p a st o c a n ( f
could not go ex p resses
p r e s e nt p o w e r
c o nd it io na lly ; he could go t o d ay if he w ould
M ig ht exp resses p a s t p e r mis s io n a s re p o rt e d
 ‘
‘
M I GHT ‘ ‘
17
’
9
’ ’ ’
counn , ,
Musr ,
oue u r ,

7
in t he p rese nt he told me that I might go o

M ore rarely it exp resses p a st p e r m iss io n s im p ly

I might not go for I was not a llowed to go

37 . M ust is inv ariab le for t ense, numb er, p erson .

The O E p resent w as mot pa st , moste

. . Mu st now sta nds .

for present a s W ell as for p ast The infiexions a re all gone. .

‘ ‘
Mot meant may ‘ ’
ca n b e allow ed hav e op p ort unity .

‘
N ot so hap py as mol e happ y b e ( S p enser, F aer y Q u eens, 1 ix )
’
. .

mote might or could Must no w m ea ns necessi ty,

in v a rious forms ( 1 ) Com pulsion from wit hou t
. he must
wor k ( 2 ) Uncont rollab le d esire, a mount ing almost t o p hysical
necessity he mu st hav e societ y ( )
3 C ert a int y ,
or necessary
‘
inference, somet hi ng t hat we can count on : it must b e so
P la t o, t hou reasonest w ell

38 . O ug ht signifies mo ra l ob lig a t io n, d ut y
you ought t o go is i t is your d uty to go
‘
W hen p ast t ime is t o b e exp ressed ought is j oined to a
‘ ‘
p erfect infi nit iv e : you ought t o ha ve ,
gone is i t w as you r
d uty t o go
‘
Ought though now u sed as a p resent, is reall y the p ast
t ense of t he v erb ow e in it s old sense of hav e p ossess
Compar e t hat sw eet sl eep w hich t hou owedst ( = hadst ) yest er '

‘
k
da y ( S ha , 0th iii 3 )
. the di sposit ion t hat I owe
. . have,
p ossess ( S h a ,
M acb k ii.i 4 S p enser u se
. s ou.
ght .

‘
ow ned possessed Thus, you o ught to go may b e com
ared w ith you ha ve t o go
p ‘
Owe = t o b e in deb t
’
I S a regul ar wea v erb , wit h p ast k
t ense and p ast part , owed .

39 . Go .

P Tense — I go, thou goest, he goes w e, & c , go

res . . .

P a st Tense — I w ent, t hou w entest, he, & c , w ent . .

P ast P a r ti cip le — Gone .

B y empl oying t he i mp erfect p articipl e of t his v erb as an

auxilia ry , w e ob ta in a series of f orms for ex r essing a n i ntenti on
p
ab out t o b e execut ed
; a s I a m g oi ng t o w rite I hav e b een
goi ng t o w rite I w as goi ng t o w ri te I had b een goi ng t o ,

w rit e I sha ll b e goi ng t o w rite I shall hav e

write, & c Al most t he v ery same meaning
.

‘ ‘
a b out I am a bout to write
180 I N F L E XI o u or v anes .

4 0 The follow ing is a C o m p le t e S c he me oft he

.

V e rb as made up b y means ofthe v arious a uxiliaries

C o nj ug a t io n of a n A c t iv e V e rb .

“
I N DI CA T I V E M OOD .

P r esent .

I write, thou writ est , he w e, you, they

iggl e/infla E
—

W . E S .-

P r ogr essiv e — I am, t hou art, he is, w e, you, they

. are
w rit i ng .

P erfect I ha v e, thou hast , & c — written

.
-
. .

Continuous — I ha v e, t hou hast , & c — b een writ ing

. . .

P ast .

I ndefinite — I wrote thou w rotest, he, w e, you, they— wrote

, .

I w as, t hou w ast , he w as, w e, you, t hey w ere

Pr ogr essi v e -

w ri
P er eat I had , t hou had st & c
— written , .
—
.

Conti nuous — I had, t hou had st , & c — b e en writi ng . .

I nd efinite I shall , thou w il t he will, w e shall, you

— -
.

t hou W ilt , he will , w e shall , you

t hey w ill b e wr it ing
l
—

P er fect — l shall , t iou wilt, he will, & c ha v e writ tem

'

—
.

Continuous — I shall, t hou w ilt , he wi ll, & c — hav e .

S U B J UN CT I V E M OOD .

I ndefinite — (I f) I , thou, he, w e, you, t hey— wri te .

P rogr essi ve — I , t hou, he, w e, you , t hey b e w riting -

.

P erfect I , t hou , he, w e, y ou, t hey hav e w ritten

— -
.

~
€onti nuous — I , t hou, he, w e, you, they— hav e b een writing
. .

P ast .

I nd efini te — I , thou, he, w e, you, t hey wrote

.
—
.

P r ogr essi ve I , t hou , he, w e, you, t hey— were wri ti ng

—
.

P erfect — I thou, he, w e, you , t hey— ha d w ri tten

, .

C on t i nu ou s —
I , t hou, he
.
,
w e, y
ou, t he
y had b een w riting
—
.

F u tu r e .

I ndefinite — I , thou , b e, w e, you, t hey— shoul d write .

P r ogr essi ve — I , t hou , he, w e, you, t hey should b e writing —

.

P erfect — I , thou, he, w e, you, t hey should hav e wri tt en -

.

Cord i nuous I , t hou, he, we, you, t hey— should hav e b een
.
-
 a ct i v n AN D P AS S I VE CO NJ U GATI ON . 18 1

I M P E RA T I V E M OOD
P resent .

W rite .

I NF I NI T I V E M OOD A N D GE R-UN I) .

I nd efini te —
( To) writ e wri t ing .

P r ogr essi ve — ( To) b e w rit ing .

P er fect. w ri tt en .

s tinuoua — ( To) hav e b een writ ing.

P A RT I C I P LE S .

I nd efini te .
-
W riting .
-
Hav ing written .

C o nj uga t io n of a P a ss iv e V e rb .

I NDI CATI VE M OOD .

P resent .

I ndefini te I am, t hou art , he is, & c

—
lov ed .
—
.

P rogr essi ve I a m, t hou art , he is, & c — b eing lov ed

.
-
. .

P erfect — I hav e, thou hast , he has, & c — b e en lov ed

. . .

P ast
I nd efini te — I w as, t hou w ast , he w as, & c — lov ed . .

P r ogr essi v e — I w a s, t hou w ast , he w as, & c — b eing l ov ed . .

P erfect — I had , t hou had st , he had, & c — b een l ov ed . .

I nd efini te — I shall, thou wilt, he w ill , we shall, & c — b e l ov ed . .

P erfect — I shall, t hou w ilt , he will, & c — hav e b een lov ed . .

S U BJ UN CT I V E M OOD .

P r esen t .

I nd efini te — I , thou , he, & c — b e lov ed . .

P erfect — I , t hou, he, & c — ha v e b een lov ed .

.

P ast
I nd efini te — I , thou , he, & c — ere l ov ed . w .

P r ogr ess ive I , t hou, & c

.
—
w ere b eing l ov ed .
—
.

P erfect — I had , & c — b een l ov ed . .

I ndefinite — l , t hou , & c — should b e lov e

. . d .

P erfect — I , & c — should hav e b een lov ed

. .
1 82 mm xrou or vanes .

P r esen
t .

B e lov ed .

m mrr rv s noon AN D GE R U rI D .

I nd efinite .
—
( To) b e lov ed . P erfect .
—
( To) h av e b een lov ed .

P AR T I CI P LE S .

I nd efini te .
-
L ov ed , or B ein
g lov ed P erfect
. .
- Hav ing b een lov ed .

M e a ning s of t he M ood s .

T HE S U B J U N CT I V E M OOD .

4 I I n S ub o rd ina t e C la us e s
. I n a C la us e .
—

e x p re ss ing a c o nd it io n and introd uced b y a Con ,

j unction of conditi on t he V e r b l s s o m e t im e s b ut , ,
‘
not al w ays in t he S u bj u nc t iv e M oo d : if I b e
,

ab le if I were st rong enough if thou should me

co

The j
infiexions hav e b een wholly lost
sub unct iv e The sense .

t hat somet hing i s w ant ing a p ears to ha v e l ed ma ny w rit ers t o

u se indica ti v e forms where t e sub unctiv e mi ht b e ex te
d j
g‘
The t end ency a p p ea rs strong est in t he case of w ert
’
w ich i s ,
.

‘
now u sed a s indi ca t iv e ( for wast only 111 poet ical or elev a ted

t he rule g iv en for t he use of t he sub unctive j

42 W he n in C o nd it io na l C la us e it is
’

. a
int e nd e d t o e x p res s Do ub t o r De nia l, us e t he
S ub ] unct ive M o o d I f I were sure of w hat you .

tell me, I w ould go

’
.

W hen t he is afi rma ti ve and cer ta i n, the

condit ional clause
‘
v erb is i nd i ca tiv e : if t hat is t he ca se ( a s you now t ell me,
‘ ’
a nd I b elieve) I can und erstand you This is eq uiv al ent to a
clause of assump t ion, or sup osit ion : t hat b eing t he case
‘
inasmuch a s t hat 1s t he case , & c
p
A s fut u ri ty is b y it s nat ure u cert ain, the sub j unct iv e is
‘
n
ext ensiv ely u sed for f ut ur e condi t i onali t y if it ra i n, w e
‘
if b o come short ly
’
if I e w ell
’
shall not b e a b l e t o go
‘
;
if t hou r etu r n a t al l i n p eace
"
t hough he sla y me y et w ill b
These ev ents are all in t he uncert a in future,
,

I t rust in him
’
.

a nd a re p ut in t he sub j unct iv e f
‘ '

Dr A ng u s on the E ng lish Tong ue , a rt 5 27

“
. . .

t I n the foll ow ing p a ssag es, t he i nd ica ti v e mood w o u ld b e m ore

a b le t han the sub unct iv e j
If thou be th e S on of God , co mma nd t ha t
.
 mes me m us crrvs
’

a ss u or su noon . 1 83

A
“
fut ure result or conseq uence is exp ressed b y th
’

subj unct iv e in such i nsta nces as t hese :

‘
I w ill wa it t ill he
d
retu r n no fear lest dinner cool ; t hou shalt stone him w ith
’

st ones, t hat he di e k
t a e heed l est at a ny time your heart s be

Uncert aint y p ast ev ent may arise from our

as t o a
own ignora nce, case t he su b j unctiv e is p rop erly
in which
emp l oyed, and serv es t he useful p urpose of dist inguishing our
‘
ignorance from our k now l edge I f a ny of my readers has .

l ook ed with so little att ent ion up on the w orld ar ound him
t his w ould mean as I k now t ha t t hey ha ve The meaning
‘
int ended i s p rob ab ly— as I do not k now whet her they hay e
not , a nd t herefore the sub j unctiv e
’
hav e is p re
or
ferab le ‘
.
‘ ”
I f ignora nce is b liss , w hich I ( ironically) ad mit .

Had P ope b een speaking seriously, he w ould hav e said if ‘

ignorance be b liss he himselfd issent ing from t he prop osition .

A W ish cont rary t o t he fact ta k es t he j

sub unct ive : I
wish he w ere here ( w hich he is not ) .

A n int ent ion not y et carri ed o ut is also sub unctive j

t he sent ence is t hat you be imp risoned
‘ j
The only correct form of t he futu re sub unctiv e i s — if I
‘
should
’
W e may say I do not now w het her or not I sha ll
.
n
k
‘
come b ut if I shall come expressing a condit ion, is not an
‘
I fhe will has a real meaning, a s b eing
’
E ngl ish construction
‘
j
t he p resent sub unctiv e of t he v erb w ill
’
if he b e w illing
‘
»
ii he hav e the will I t is in a cbord ance w ith good u sag e t o
express a f j
ut ure sub u nct iv e meaning b y a p resent t ense b ut .

ln that case t he form must b e st rictly sub unct iv e, a nd not

'

j '

‘
ind ica t iv e I f any mem b er a bsen ts hi n1 self, he shall forfeit a
.
,

p enny for the use o’f the club t his ought t o b e either a b sent ,
‘
or should ab sent I f t hou neglectest, or d oest unw illingly,
.

what I command thee, I will ra c t hee wi th old cramp s k

b ett er,
‘ ‘ ’
if t hou neglect, or d o unw illin ly or if t hou should neglect r
.

j
’
The indica t iv e w ould b e ust i ed b y t he sp ea er s b eli ef t hat k
the supposit ion is sure t o t urn out to b e the fact .

h
t ese st n es b e m d b d ‘if t hou be t he S on of God , com e d ow n
’
o a e rea ;
from t he cr oss F or al th ou gh t h e a d d r ess w as not si nce re on t h e p a rt
of t h e sp ea k ers , th ey r ea lly m ea nt t o ma k e t h e su p p osi t i on or t o gr a nt .

th a t h e w as t he S on o f God ; se ei ng t ha t t h ou a r t t h e S on of God
’

L
.

i k ew is e i n t h e follow i ng : N ow if ( b ri st be p r ea ched , t ha t He rose from

' (

t he d ea d h ow sa y some am ong y ou t ha t t h er e i s no resu rr ec t i on fr om t h e

,

d ea d ? The mea ning is ‘seeing no w t h a t Ch ri st is p r ea ch ed

’
I n t h e c on
ti nu a t ion , t he c ond i t ional c lau ses ar e of a d iffere nt cha r a ct er a n d b e is ,
‘
B u t i f t h er e b e no r es u rrec t mn fr om t h e d ea d , t h e n is
‘

a pp rop r ia t e :

“
,

C hr is t not ris en A nd if Ch r is t b e no t ris en, t he n is ou r p rea chi ng

.

v a i n, an d
you r fai th i s al so v a i n ’ A g a i n, if t hou b r i ng th y g ift t o t he
al t a r , and th er e rem em b erest & c C onsist ency a nd c orrect ness req uire
L
.
,

rememb er u — Harn s on on t he E ng li sh angu age, p 2 8 7

'
. .
18 4 msmxron or vanes.

43 The P ast S ub j unctiv e may imply d e nia l ; as

‘

‘i
f t he b ook w er e in t he lib rar
y ( as it is not) , i t
shoul d b e a t ou i
y r serv ce
‘ ‘
I f t he b ook be in the lib rary , means, I do not k now ’

w hether it b e or not W e ha v e t hus the power of discrimi

‘
na ting three di li erent I f t he b ook is in the
'

sup p osit ions .

lib rary ( as I k now it is) ; ‘ ‘

if it be ( I a m uncerta in) ; if it
’ ’

w er e ( as I k now it is not ) S ,
o if it r
.a i n s
’
if it ra in , ‘
if
‘
it ra ined N ay, and t he v illains march w ide b etw een t he
’
.

ls as i f t hey ha d
g yv es on i mp l yi ng t h a t t he
y had not .

e sa me w er of t he p ast t ense is exem p lifi ed in ‘if I

could , I w oul w hich means, I cannot whereas, if I ca n,
I will means I do not know
’
.

4 4 The P a st S ub j unctiv e may b e expressed b y

'

an inv e rs io n : ha d I the p ower were I as I have

b een ’
.

45 In P rinc ip a l C la use s
. T he p rinc ip a l —

c la us e in a c o nd it io na l s t a t e m e nt a ls o t a k es
t he S u bj u nc t iv e fo r m w hen it refers t o w hat is
fut u re a nd c o nt ing e nt , and w hen it refers to w ha t
is p as t a nd u nc e rt a in, o r d e nie d I i he should .

try, he would succeed ; if I ha d seen him, I should

’

ha v e ask ed him
The u sual j
forms of the su b unct iv e in t he p rincip al clause,
‘
a re w ould shoul d w ould ha v e should hav e a nd i t
is t o b e noted that in t his a plica t ion the second ersons t a e
p k .

the inflexi onal ending ofthe i ndica t iv e shouldst woul dst

I f t w ere d one w hen t is d one th en twm ( w ould b e) w ell
’ ' '

, ,

I t were ( sho u l d b e ) d one q u ickly

’
.

The E ngl ish id iom app ea rs sometimes t o p ermit t he use ofan

i ndicativ e w here we should exp ect a subj uncti v e form Ma ny .

t hat ha d b een otherw ise b la mea b le, w ere employed

’
a c ts,

I had fainte d , unl ess I had b eliev ed & c .

Wh ich els e l ie fu rlc d and shrou d e d in the soul .

’

‘e
In lse t here is i mp l ied a condit ional cl ause t hat w ould
‘
l ie or t he p re s ent ma y b e reg a rd ed as a more v iv id
’
su it
form of expression Ha d may b e indicat iv e j ust as w e some
.

t imes find pl up erfect ind icat ive for p lu pe rfec t subj u nct h e in t he
sa me ci rc um st a nces i n L a t in W e may r efer it t o t he general
.

‘ ‘
t endency, as al ready seen in t he u ses of could ,
’ ’
w ould ,
"
shoul d & c , to exp ress conditi onal ity b y a pas t tense ; or
. .
 THE PB E S E N T I N DE I F N I TE SE NS E .

t he indica tiv e may b e used as a more direct and v iv id mod e

.

Had may b e j su b unct iv e

I ha d fa int ed i s, i n const ructi on,
a na l og ou s t o I shou ld ha v e fa i nted t he w ord for fut urity,
sha ll not b eing ne cessary t o t he sense, is wi t hd ra w n, a nd i t s
‘
p t infiexion t ra nsferred t o
as have Compare Germ w arble .

ha ben and hatte .

T HE I N F I NI T I V E .

‘
46 T he p e rfe c t fo rm of the infinitiv e, to hav e
.

or the simp le
’
w ritten , is often e r ro ne o us l u d f
y s e
or indefinite form, t o w rit e
I int ended to ha ve wr i tten should b e I int ended to w r i te
fi
The perfect in nit iv e is p rop erly u sed onl y w hen t he a ct ion is
‘
comp let ed p rev ious t o t he d at e of t he ov erning v erb as I am
g
glad to ha ve met u
yo
‘ ‘
’
I t is should b e follow ed b y t he in niti v e with t o , a nd fi ’

fi
not b y t he in nit iv e in ing I t is easy d istingu i shi ng oug ht
‘
t o b e it is easy to distingu ish

M e a ning s of t he T e ns e s .

T HE P R E S E NT I N DE F I N I T E .

4 7 The princip al use of the P resent I ndefinite is

.

t o exp ress w ha t is t r ue a t a ll t im e s :
‘
the sun
‘ ‘
m m
’
l
’ ’
g ives light ; t w ice t w o is four ; an i s o r ta ;
conscience ma kes cow ar ds of u s all

Hence a more suitab le name w oul d b e t he Uni versa l t ense .

It exp resses p r t ime only as rep resent ing all t ime

esent The .

p erm a nent a rra n ement s a nd l aw s of na t ure, t he p ecu l iarit ies,

g
hab it s, and p rop ensit ies of living b eings, a nd w hat ev er is con
orm, ha v e t o b e rep resent ed b y t he

“
stant , regul a r, a nd unif
fi
p resent ind e nite .

Th e m ounta ins look on M ara t hon,

A nd M ara t h on l ooks on th e sea .
’

A b t- C
u
1
b ot ( g 5 a

S o in expressing men s cha ra ct ers and hab itu al occu p a t ions ;

’

‘
as he w or ks ha rd he sup eri ntends the har b our he si ngs a
‘
good song he ha s a good na me

48 .I t is only b y a s p e c ia l Ad v e rb , or b y t he
c o nt e x t , t ha t w e can confine this tense t o mean
‘
a p re s e nt a c t s o le l :
’

y I n ew cha rge this j ar ;

a t p r esent I d o d ut r a nother
’

y fo p e rson
5 ne w t rea d

we a measure, said young L ochinv ar

’
.
18 6 I NFLE XI ON or va ses .

F req uently we know from t he cont ext t hat t he af firmation is

‘
for t he p r esent only W hen any one sa ys t he d oor is op en ,
.
’

w e und ersta nd t hat it is not al w a ys 0 en, b ut is so a t p resent .

‘ ‘ ‘
The w ind b low s hard , w e a r e late
’
t he st ra nger sp ea ks t o
y u
o . k
Mr S p ea er is in t he chair are d ecla ra ti ons now n from k
he Cl rcumsta nces t o b e st rictly prese nt , as op p osed t o past and
pt
u ure .

49 This Te nse has somet imes a fut u re m ea n

.

‘ ‘
ing ; as D uncan comes here to night ; I go to my
’
-

’
fa t her .

k
I t has alr ea dy b een remar ed t hat t he p resent w as the usual
ex ressi on of f
p uture t ime i n O E , t here b eing no fu ture in . .

fiexion .

fi
I n t he rst examp l e ab ov e, th e fu t urit y is d e nit ely exp ressed fi
b y the ad v erb t o night I n t he se cond exa mple , t he meaning
~

‘ ’
of t he v erb p oints t o t he f ut ure ; t he ac t ion I go is a con
t inning act ion .

Also in such a phrase as how is t he gov ernment t o b e ca rried

futurity is i nv olv ed in t he gerund form to b e ca rried on
’
on .

W e hav e seen t hat a fu ture sub unct i ve is expressed b y a j .

p resent t ense .

There is a rhetorical employment of t he t ense now n as t he k

histor i c p resent T his consist s in d escrib ing p ast ev ents as if
.

t he narra tor sa w t hem p a ssing b efore his eyes

Fi e rce as he mov es, h is sil v er shafts resound .
‘

T HE P R E S E NT P R OG RE S S I VE I M P E RF E CT
, , OR I NCOM P L E TE .

‘
T he P ro g re ss iv e form, I a m w riting ,
’
50 .

ex p resses t he c o nt m ua nc e o f t he a c t io n o v e r
so me t im e . I t is, moreov er, a tr ue or str i ct p r esent

This p eculiarly E ngli sh form enab les u s b oth t o con ne an fi

act ion or a f a ct t o t he resent , i nst ead of ext ending it ov er all
p
t i me, a nd t o i nt ima t e t ha t t he a ent is now engrossed , a nd is g
b arr ed fro m
ot her occu p a t ion Ev en w hen t he i nd e nit e t ense
. fi
is limited b y t he cont ext to a p resent op erat ion i t d oes not ,

mea n t he sam e a s t he p ro "ressiv e He writ es merely st at es the

g .

a cti on t ha t he is enga ed in, a nd imp lies t ha t h e d oes not read,

g
or w a lk k
or t a l , or sit id l e
,
He i s w rit ing ind ica tes t hat he
.
’

is now fully occup ied , a nd is not a v a ilab le for a ny other w or k .

Hence, in d escrib ing immediat e occu p a t ion this t ense is u sed ,

he is ba la nc i ng his b oo s
"
k
he is revisi ng his mat hemat ics ;
’

he is p ursu i ng his i nv est iga t ions ; the b oys a r e p la yi ng

 THE P ROGRESS I VE TE N S ES . 187

T HE P AS T T E NS E S .

5 l T he P a st Ind e fi nit e sta t es s o m et hing t ha t

.

w a s fo r m e r ly t r ue , b ut is no lo ng e r s o at
’ ‘
A t hens t he p oets sa ng, and the sages ta ught ; there
my young footstep s in infancy wa nd er ed he died ,
no one knew how
-

The v ery nature of t his t ense implies l imit at ion as comp a red
w ith the p resent I t may i ndicat e v a rious d egrees of extent of
.

‘
t ime . I n t he g eol ogi ca l a ges, t he a ir ha d more carb on may
a p ly t o a p eriod of mi lli ons of yea rs i t is a l aw of natu re
p
app licab le t o a eriod of grea t d ura ti on, b ut now a ssed O r it
p p .

ma y d enot e a sm gle ac t of the leas t p ossib l e ext ent of t ime

‘ ’ ‘
t he t ree w a s shi vered
’
t he light ning flashed , The t e nse .

k
d oes not indica t e how far b ac in t he p a st gt he ev ent t oo p l ace k .

5 2 T he P a st P rog re s s iv e , like the P resent,

.

‘ ‘ “
firms c o nt inua nc e : I wa s musing ;
’
af he wa s
‘
shi ning
’
sp ea k ing ; the sun was
The p rogr essiv e t enses, b ot h p resent and p ast , are oft en
erroneously u sed for t he ind efini t e W hen t he ob ect is
. j
m erely t o sp ecify a n a ct ion, and not t o p oint out t he fa ct of it s
fi
c ont inuing for som e t ime, t he ind e nit e forms a re t o b e u sed
‘ ‘ ’ ‘ ‘ ‘
I w a lk ; he ri d es ; you go i n t he b oat ; I rea d
’ ’ ’
he
‘
t hey stood b y
’
sketched I n all t hese exp ressions nothing
furt her is int end ed t han t o assign t o ea ch p arty concerned t he ir
sev era l a ct ions it is not m eant t o sa y w het her t he a ct ions a re
of l on er or shorter cont i nua nce B a m w a lki ng ,
’
'

g ut , I . I
t hey w ere gaz i ng a t t he scene
’
w a s r i di ng , signi fy t ha t t he
a ct ion la st ed f or some t ime, a nd c onst it ut ed t he occu at ion of
p
t he p ersons concerned W hen, therefore, w ithout w ishing t o
.

sig nif y cont inuance or occup a t ion, w e empl oy a p rog re ssiv e

t ense, w e v iola t e t he b est E nglish usa ge The expressions, .

‘
t he master is ca lli ng you h e is sp ea ki ng t o you were yo u
’ ’
r i ngi ng ? l w as supp osing , he i s not i ntend ing a re

S cot t icisms for t he mast er ca lls he sp ea ks t o you d i d yo u

’ ‘ ‘ ‘
I supp osed , he d oes not intend
’
r i ng ? I ta lked yest erd ay
w it h a foreigner I sa w in t he pa p ers I hea r d i n t he morn
ing , are m ore in a ccorda nce w it h id iom tha n w ould b e t he
’

p rog ressiv e f o r m i n t h ose insta nces, if w e su

pp ose no stress l aid
on t he cont inua nce of t he a ct ion He lea ves t ow n t o morrow
.
-

is b ett er t ha n he is lea vi ng t ow n t o morr ow He is lea v ing

-

j fi
for I ndi a , m a y b e u st i ed on t he gr ound t hat he is to b e
’

o ccu ied f
p or som e t ime with the
p rep a ra t ions implied in so
d istant a migration;
18 8 mr w xron or VERB S .

NS E S F
T HE P E R E CT T E .

5 3 T he P re s e nt P e rfe c t expresses ( I) a n
.

a c t io n j us t finis he d , ( 2 ) a n a c t io n d o ne in
a s p a c e of t ime no t ye t e x ha us t e d ( 3 ) s o m e ,

t hing w ho s e c o ns e q ue nc e s s t ill re m a in .

‘h
t e messeng er has come
’
I ha ve sent t he letter ;
’
.

‘
I t has r a ined all the w eek ( up to t his
w e ha ve seen grea t ev ents this year I ha ve been
a gr ea t sinner mea ning I w as so in my you th, and
now b ea r t he conseq uences .

The perfect , b y expressing t hat an act ion is fi nished or

co mp let e, indicat es t ha t i t is st b ut t his t ense should not b e
u sed t o ex p ress past ti me w it out some of the a cc ompa niments
‘
ab ov e d escrib ed This mod e of e xp ression has b een formerly
.

v ery much a d mired should b e was

F rom expressing the fi nishing of an a ction, the perfect
‘
b een u sed to sig nify t he sta te of v a c uity t ha t follows he
‘ ‘ ‘
he i s no more ; he i s d ead
' ’ ’
been ( L a t via i t, he has
‘
.

li ved l ha ve been y oung is I a m now old

The perfec t of cont inued act ion, t he P erfect P r ogr essiv e
or Cont inuou k
I ha v e b een w or ing is correc t ly u nd erstood
b y co mb ining t e mea ning of a progressiv e and of a perfect
t ense I t is an action exp ressed as going on up to t he present
.

t ime .

The so- called p r esent i ntenti ona l, I am going ( or ab out) t o

w rite is t he exa ct op p osi te of t he pe rfect T he one is a n
.

j ust fi nished , t he ot her a n a ct ion j ust commencing .

T HE P R OGR ES S I VE TE NS E S OF T HE P A S S I V E V OI CE .

54 In t he P a s s iv e V o ic e , t he P ro g re s s iv e
.

T e nses a re, I a m b eing lov ed I w as b eing l ov ed

‘
( )
ii I ere b ein lov ed Th m
’
w g ese for s ar e of. rec ent

introduction .

The E ngl ish v erb has no str ictly imp erfect part icipl e p a ssive .

L ov ed is pa st a nd indefi nit e, d ep endin for its p recise shad e of

g
t ime mea ning up on t he p ri ncip al v erb it I S j oined in const ru ct ion
w it h . Hence, alt hough w e ca n const it ute a p ro essiv e t ense
in t he a ct iv e v oice, b y t he a ctiv e p a rt icip le a nd t e v erb b e
he is l iv ing w e hav e no corresp onding p assiv e form am

lov ed mak es t he i nd efi nite form ‘

’
To t ry t o gi v e lov ed t he
.

de sired m ea ning of cont inuance, t he impe rfect or i ncom plete

b cing has b een prefi xed b eing loved existi ng in t he
’
 a cr rvn F OR M S AP P A RE N TLY IN PA S S I V E SE NS E . 189

lov ed st at e or condition is t hus an i ndefi nite p articipl e that

may ea sily b e int er ret ed in t he sense of a c ont inuing a ct ion
p .

The for m, indeed, i s ob j ec tiona b l e, p a rt l as b eing c umb rous,

y
a nd
p ar tly b e ca use i t is v er
y oft en u sed i n a p urely pa st mea n
‘
ing w ithout r eference t o cont inuance N a poleon, bei ng .

defea ted a t W aterloo, surr endered t o t he English is t he same

‘
N a p oleon w as d efeated a nd surrend er ed ’
as .

F ormerly t he m eaning was v ery oft en giv en b y an appar ent

u se of t he act iv e form in the
"
p assiv e sense the house i s
‘ ’
bu i ld i ng for the house is being bu i lt B ut t he t ra nsferr ed
’

n
.

‘
a l
p p icat io of t he act iv e f orm is not real The hou se i s .

’ ‘
bu i ldi ng is a d egenera te form of t he house is a bui ld fi
’

g
/

t he origi nal exp ression of w hich 1s seen fully in exam pl es ke

forty a nd six years w as t his t emp le i n bu i ld i ng uilding ,
’
. B
t hen, is origina lly a v erb al noun , b ut it has come t o ha v e t he
.

force of an a cti v e pa rti cip le u sed in t he passiv e or intransitiv e

sense .

I t 1S v ery sel d om t hat t he old usage cau ses any amb iguity or
hesita t ion, a s nu mb erless exa m l es w ould show Johnso n says .

‘m ‘
y L iv es are repri nt ing e c onst a nt ly sa y
. t he hou se is
‘
fi nishing ,
’
t he d eclara t ion w as rea ding ,
’
t he deb t 1 3 owing ,
’

‘ ‘
t he p ap er is missing fiv e p ound s 13 w ant ing t he cow s a re
‘ ‘
k
m il ing '
t he drums are b ea t ing ,
’
t he ca nnon are ring ,
’
fi
the t roop s a re arming
’
.

S imilar i nst ances of t he em ployment of the act iv e form for

t he general ex ression ofthe ac t ion oft he v erb — inst ances where
p
t he v erb is i nt ra nsit iv e, a nd m ight in one v i ew hav e b een
ex ected t o b ecome p assiv e
p are v ery com mon
—
W e ha v e t hem .

‘ ’
in such 0gerund phrases as a house to let ha rd to u nd er sta nd
’

( ha rd for one t o understand , hard, ifyou w ant to’ und erst and
2

( it) , ’ i e‘
. hard t o be u nd er stood ) ,
.
g ood to ea t , b oo s to k
he 18 to b la me , dr inki ng w ater ( fit for d rink ing, or t o
’
sell ,
‘ "
be a r id i ng horse
’
Mil ton sa ys, tha t ca nnot b ut
-
.

55 . Int ra ns it iv e v e rb s ha v e no p a s s iv e
vor e c .

There is t he m am l es l ik e
p a p earance of a
f o r i n ex pa ssiv e
p
‘
is come B ut t his constru ction is merel y t he
’
was arriv ed .

rema ins oft he re ul ar f orma t ion of t he e rf ect t ense of int ran

g p
‘ re the Germa n
siti ves b y hel m
’

p’ of t he a u x iliary b e C o p a .

u sag e Hav e originally b elongs t o t he transitiv e v erb s, b ut

.

has imp roperly b een t ra nsferred t o t he int ransit iv es al so We .

‘ ‘
ha s come as well as is come I t w ould seem adv an
’ ’
say .

‘Th cse and

‘ ‘ ’
the g enuine
hones t o be let
'
, not a , to bc sold , are
l 90 I NFLE XI ON or vas es .

tage01t s t o t he t w o form s for dif

ut ili se ferent mea nings Has .
‘
come a p p ears more sui t a b l e t o t he case of a n ac t i v e or
p ersonal
s ubj ect John ha s come t he ot her t o a passiv e or i na nima t e
‘
sub j ect : the box i s come
’
Hence, for t he nob le rut us is
‘
. B
ascend ed w e shoul d now p refer ha s ascend ed He w as ( had)
ent ered i nto t he con nexi on is a S cott icism .

T he S t ro ng C o nj uga t io n .

56 T he O ld o r S t ro ng V e r b s fo r m t he ir
.

p a s t t e ns e b y m o d if i
y g n t h e v o w e l o f t h e

p r e s e n t a n d t he ir p a s t p a rt ic ip le e nd s ( 0 1
e nd e d ) in n -
e n) -
.

W e ha v e al ready seen 8) that the mod ifi ca tion of the root

v ow el fi
in t he rst i nst a nce as a result of reduplicat ion
a rose .

The n end ing of t he a rticip le is oft e n d rop t

b
- .

The follow ing classi ca t ion p roceed s a ccording t o

form s of the P a st Tense a nd oft he P ast P a rticip le, no
t o the original infiexions .

5 7 1 S ome strong v erb s c ha ng e t he v o w e l oi

. .

t he P re s e nt fo r t he P a st T e nse a nd le a v e it
u nc ha ng e d in t he P a st P a rt ic ip le .

a st V owel, é
( )
1 P
P resent Tense .

t
a
co me me
ca me
co

The co mp ounds forgiv e b ecome ov erco me — are con

j ugat ed similarly .

( )
2 P ast Vowel , a
i

F orb id i s con u gat ed j b id lik e

a de ( O E bred ) ha B
s a . .

‘
a d op t ed from p
‘ ’
c omp anion form R
’
b id p a rt un . .

y rns , ri nne
a ) o rig inall y b el ong s t o th e cl a ss in 5 9,
3 ,

b egin & c .
 OL D on S TR O G CO N NJU GA TI ON . ,
19 1

0
fall
B efall ta k es the same forms .

’
( )
4 P ast Vowel, 5

see

P ast Vo wel, ll or yii -

ew
)
d a or y fi ( ew)
slew

3
d ra w drew drawn
Th er e is also the w eak form crowed

ast V owel, 0
( )
6 P
d fi ( 0 0)
forsak e forsook
sha k e shook sha k en
ta ke t oo k ta k en
I n the 1 6t h a nd 17th cent uries t he p ast forms forsook
shoo k t oo k mist oo k w ere oft en u sed for t he pa st p arti
cipl e . F or sha k en k
t he w ea form sha ed is also found k .

5 8 2 S ome strong v erb s cha ng e t he v o w e l of

. .

t he P rese nt in t he s a m e ma nne r fo r b ot h
P a st T e ns e a nd P a st P a rt ic ip le .

owel é
( )
1 V .

a a
i lie la y l a in
The p ast p art . li en was not uncommon in the 1 6 th and 1 7
th
centuries .

( )
2 V owel a
a
-
i sit sat
sp at sp at
‘
n
,

S at p p art , has b een t ra sferred from the p ast t ense t o

.

t ak e the pl ace of sit t en O E setén S at e p ast and p

p
“ .
. . . .

used t o b e common a short time ago .

 “
1 92 I NF L E X I ON or v anes .

is historically weak in the p ast ,

’
S p at and in the past
t h as repl aced sp itt en
p a r .

3 ) Vowel é
e b
b eheld b eheld
hold held held
B
ehol den and holden past p art , hav e giv en w ay, excep t
occa sionall y in sp ecial exp ressw ns, t o t he p ast forms b eheld
hel d S o up hold wit hhold

owel l
( )
4 V
l
i b it e b itt en, b it
chide chidd en, chid
hide hidd en, hid
sl idd en, sli d
Bite chide and slid e were formerly con ugat ed li e j k
a rise driv e & c , . 5 9, 3 t he p ast forms b eing b ot
chod e ( in B
ib l e) , slod e ba t , cad , slad ) B it and
.

‘
slid hav e b een a ssimilat ed t o the p ast p art icip les Chid .

‘
( O. E ci.dd e,
chidd e) i s Weak H.
’
id , p ast , ( O E hidd e) , is a lso
. .

k ‘
fl
‘

smit ,
’ ’
w ea . Rid writ , & c , al so in uenced b y t he
.

art i cipl e, w ere common p ast f orms i n t he l 6 t h a nd 1 7 th

p
c enturies . B
etide woul d seem t o b el on
g h ere, b ut i t is w ea k

Va
'

( )
5 mei 6

d : aw a e k
b ear ( carry)
.

b ear ( t o b ring

sw ear
t orn
w ear w orn
’
cl eav e ( sp lit) cl ov en
’
e

fr eez e froz en
shorn"
S po k en
st ol en
w eav e wov en
ab id e ab ode
'
z
12 ( oo) z choose chosen
awak ed , cleav ed, cleft ,
sheared
 0

ran sr a ons c om ue s nort . 1 93 .

,
Bear 3 ( t o carry)
'
b ear to b r ing forth) are not dif
and ferent
’

W ord s, b ut t he sa me w ord in di f ferent meanings

‘ ’
a nd B

“
orne .

‘ r ’
b o n are mere v arieti es o f spelling fo1 t he d ifference in
’

ap pl ica ti on
"
orb ear a nd .
‘ "

F
ov e1 b ear ta e t he form
‘ ’ ’
k
‘ ‘
B
‘ are
,
’
b ra e sha re sp a e , k ’
t are ( O E beer, ba r ; k ’
. .

b raec, bra s ; secer , scha r ; sp r ees, sp a s ; teer , t d ) , are olde r forms

r
'

of t he past
‘
S o sw are occu rs freq u ent ly i n t he
. ib l e, b ut
‘
B
‘
t he old est form i s sw or W ea1 had a n ob sol ete form wa1 e
’ ’
.

‘
for w ore ; it is a w ea v erb a ssimila t ed t o t his c las s of st rong
’
k
v e1 b s .
" ‘
Cleav e ( t o sp lit ) ha d ela v e ( O E d ea f) ; st eal
' ’ ‘
. .
’

‘ ’ ’
h ad 0 E, steel, st o l, a nd i n S cot ch it, st ill has sta l o1 sta
. c hoose
‘
ha d also chase ( O E sea s)
'
. Cleav e ( t o sp l it) has t he w ea
. . .
'
k
‘ ‘
forms cle ft and clea ved in p a st and p p
' ’
The w ea ‘
cl ea v e . . k '

( t o c l in or st ic t o) , O E ; e l ifi n
a , s ee mk
s s ome t im es '
to b e. .

‘ ‘
conf ouu e d with c leav e ( t o s pl it) , t a ing cl a v e as p ast in
’
k ’

t he B
ib le ‘
has p ast F
‘ ’
froz en ( 0 E frer en in
B
reez e . . . .

‘ "
‘
S p enser, frore in Milto n) omp a re
’
c hosen ( 0 E cor en)
Z
. .

a nd O E los n
‘ ’ ‘ k
. . lor n ( e Aw o e ; a nd ab od e .

‘
a nd
p p d eriv ed from p ast ; a nd
’
a hid e n
( for a re . .

most of t he ot hers a p p ear t o i hav e t he sa me usage in t he l 6 t h l

”
a nd 1 7 th ce nt ln ies, t h0 11gh w e ma y a lso account foi it b y t he
'
r

" k
d pp g
r o in o f t h e n o f t h e
p p b ro e
’
,
-
sp o e , & c . . k .

( )
6 V owel b

6
4 : seethe s od den, sodz
’

é : get g ot ten,
g ot .

t read t rodden, trod .

.

iz ,
shine s hone.

?5 ( oo) shoot shot.

"c
B et
’
and A
forget
’
l i ke get
’
An ol derp ast tense w as
“
eg
W
‘Sh
(O E
’
at . . one
p . 18 the pa st, sup ei s eding
O . sei ners
, s
k i nen.
r
7
( ) Vowel 6 ( on) ,

t
a
fought fought
has l ost the ending S hak has thi s wen?
’

p.
p .
, . .

( )
8 Vowel ( K)
oo

fl
( 2: sta nd st ood
" S to d ’
o is a new a
pplica t ionof the p a st In E . 6 . .

the ast
w w U d ( whi ch ha d former lyd
’

p p art, as sl a , _
n ersta nd

l3
.
 1 94 mrnnxron or vanes.

‘understanden ’ ‘understa nd ’
(p p .
, ,
and
‘ nde
u rstanded
‘
’
) an d
withsta nd follow t he simp le v erb
’
. The n in stand b — 3
‘ ’ ‘
in gang (g o) , b ring , & c
’
L at findo, fu nd o, & c . . .
— streng
t hens t he p resent form it is no part of t he root .

( )
9 V owel C
I

6
i
3 : d ig ‘
d ug
cling cl ung
fl ing fiung
sl i slun
sl
'

sl uh i
sp i n sp un
st ick st uck
st i ng st ung st ung
swung sw u ng
w on won
wri ng w ru ng wrung
Th e p arts mark ed thus ha v e al so the w eak for m .

‘Hun heng) , has b een t ransferred to p p

g past , (0 . E . . .

w ea k
forms are more common for t he sense of strangl e
‘ ’
k
S truc , O E a nd S cot ch str ae ; O E p p strieen a p p ea rs
. . . . . .
'
'

l ate r as strueken, str ooken, stric en now st ru c W e st ill k k

‘ ‘ ’
u sua lly sa y str i cken in years or str icken with a ny disea se
or in rmity
. fi Dig a nd st ic
. w ere originall y w ea k k .

Cling ing sl ing fl

& c , had a p rev ious a in t he p ast .

t ense
. clang ,
’ ‘ ’
fiang , &c li e the class in 5 9, 3 , ( I ) ,
. k
‘b e in & B t t h e pasts n ow for t he most
u a re a rt
g c .

p
a ssimila ted t o t he parti ciples These have all l ost the e n endmg. .

( )
10 Dip hthong o n
0 11
i b ind b ound b ound
find found found
i d ground ground
'

g r n
wi nd w ound w ound
L ik e most of the ab ov e cl as s, t hese four had originally a in
'

t he p ast b a nd fa nd & c ) a nd u in t he p art iciple .

as in m od Germ Bou nden remains as an adj

. .
‘
one s
’
.
’

‘
S ir W S cot t, i n his horn he w ound ( L a d y
’
bou nd en d uty .

L k e) f i d d sim il at es tw o dif
ferent v erb s
of th e a or w n e as .

5 91 3 S ome ol d v erb s c ha nge in d iffe re nt w a ys]

(

b ot h P a st T e nse a nd P a st P a rt ic ip le .
 r a n ers ons CO NJU GATI ON . 1 95

l 0 els a, ll
h
b egun
d run k
rung
shrunk
sung
sun k
Sp rung
st un k
sw i m swu m
W hile the v erb s hav e most ly d isca rded a and
in 58 , 2, ( 9)
k
t a en up i t in the p a st , t he p resent v erb s eep t he original a k
a nd now p ref er not t o use t he u , as t hey of ten did in t he 1 6 t h
a nd 1 7 th cent uri es ( Comp are t he sa me v erb s in Germa n ) The
. .

a rt ici ia l en has b een l ost , rema inin only in a f ew cases, now

p p g
-

‘
j
ad ect iv a l drun en k
shrun en
‘
sun en k k
‘
2 Vowels i1 lJ
i 11
t ( o) do d id d one
‘
Did ( O E di de) ,
’
. . as w e ha v e seen shows the original
redup licat ion t o form the past t ense .

V owels 6, l 3

i arise

roSe
shrov e
smot e smitt en
st rode st rid den
st rov e st ri v en
t hrov e t hriv en
w rit e w rote w ri tt en
Th e p arts mark ed thus ha v e also the w ea k form .

Most of these v erb s hav e g ot t heir 0 from a n ori ginal a ( O H . .

a r as,dr af ,
w hich ap peared in d r a ve stra w & c in t he , , .
,

l 6th and 1 7 t h cent uries W it hin t he sa me p eriod short ened‘ '

.
,

form s of t he p art ici le w ere oft en used— emi t, w r i t, & c a nd

were ev en t ransferre t o the p ast tense ( co p are 58 , 2 , ( 4) ,

m
( )
4 Vowels ( I , 6
19§ m rnnxxou or va ne s.

Flow ’
ha s giv en up t his conj ugation
fl ow ed .
‘
F lee in lik e m anner, has ”
.

fled .

6 0 4 S ome strong v erb s ha v e t he

. . s a me v ow e l
t hro ug ho ut .

. b eat
«2 l et l et l et
i : b id b id hidd en, bid
12 b urst
b u rst b u rst
The p ast b eat now t ak es the v ow el of the resent , and may
‘
‘
be considered w eak , b ut in O E it w a s beot, at er bet L et
’
. .

ha d a wea k past in t he i 2 th cent ury F or 57

’
see
,
1 , .

‘
B urst
’
has b een infl uenced t hroughout from t he p art iciple :
0 E berste ( p r es ) had past bea r st, bar st, or br ast, a nd p p
. . . .

borsten, b ursten .

6l 5 . The following str ong form s are inc o mp le t e

.

The v erb s are ne a r ly a ll a ls o c o nj ug a t e d in

w e a k for ms .

heav e
wa ke

( O E code m od
'

.
. .
,

( gr af gr ov e)
’
,
*
( keow he w*)

“
,

( hlod *lod )
,

l ea s) 1

( m ea l t ma l t
,)’
( meow mew ) ,
?
ri v e
n
shap en
sha v en
‘ "
( seow ,
sew ) so wn 5
’
sw ol en, sw oln
l
 i nnwm x
‘
corz J UGArI ON
'

'
.

I l‘ov ( O
'

e . E hof) is now almost

.

‘
exclusive l y nautical
' ‘
li ove
Go ( 0 E inf ga ri ga ri , cont racted ga n ;
’ ’
li ove 1 n sight
’
o ,
. . . .

indic ga ) ha d a n O E p ast geong, geng, long si nce disused, its

’

. . .

‘ ’
la ce b eing now sup p lied b y w e nt , t he pa st of t he w ea v erb k
p
‘
w end
’

( O E w enda n, t o t u 1 n
‘
.
’
. An ea rlier sub st i
t u te w as eed e, yod e, t he p ast of a l ost w ea v erb fro m t he root k
i t o go L or ( e) n hav e turned 3 int o r , a
common cha nge in l a noruage : t hey a re f o r l osen , f
or losen 58 ,
‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
Molt en , s av en
’ ’ ’
2, sow n rot t en &c are onl
y .

‘
fl
or chie y u sed a s a dj ect iv es
’ ‘
molten gold , sha ven c row n ,
’
.

&c . sa w
’
a r e w ea . v erb s wi t h t he k
si ngl e st r on
Q
f 0 1 m a t ion o f t he g
a r tici l e
p een
’
su
pp l ies . B
‘
am ,
" ‘
uot h
’
m
Q
’

p r es i n d ie b y and
p a st
y w as a
y b e

g
. .

su pplied from
‘
sa y ,
’ ‘
sa i d Hight ori inally 18 onl y p ast, ’
.

b ut also t oo t he p lace ofha ten, hoten ( called) k now archaic .

T he W e a k C o nj ug a t io n .

62 . T he N e w o r W e a k V e rb s fo r m t he ir
p a s t t e nse a nd p a st p a rt ic ip le in d ( o r cd, - -

or - t)
We hav e al rea dy Seen 8 ) t ha t t he ending of t he p ast t ense,
E d e) is a modifi cat io n of did , t he 1 edu plica t ed p ast
‘ ’
- d (O . .
-
,
‘ ‘
of d o ; a nd t hat t he end ing of t he p art icip le, t hough now of
t he sa me form , has a d if ferent Ol igi n
m
.

Most usual ly t he for -cd 1s w ritt en, though t he e is merely

‘
-

a connect ing v ow el seld om p ronou nced no w The p r onu nc ia .

t ion i s infl uenced b y t he sou nds i mm ed ia t ely p reced i ng, a nd , t o

agr ee w ith t his, - t is som et i mes w rit t en i n l a ce of d or ed
p
- -
.

63 . l . T he most c o mm o n e nd ing is -
cd .

The insert ion of t he b i nd ing v ow el I S necessa ry in p ronunci a

‘
t ion w hen t he simpl e v erb ends in a d ent al t or d p l a nt , - -

‘
I n cases l ik e cit e cit ( e ) ed ,
’ ‘
lant ed ; p roceed , p roceed ed
’ ’

p
. ,

‘
reced e, p reced ( e) ed , t he fi nal
’ ‘ ’
ra t e, ra t e ( e) ed , f h
'

p e o t e -

Simpl e v erb i s a me re d ev i ce o f s ellin , w hich

p g gi es n ay b elo1 e .

t he infiexional ending or is ut iliz ed as connect m g v ow el The .

b inding v ow el a lso ap ears in ca ses w here i t is not w a nt ed l o1

p
t he usual ronunciat i on, a nd t h e a ddit ion a t t he end i n
g is
a ceomp a ni e w it h som e pe culiarit ies of sp elling, a s in t he p l ura l
o f nou ns, t he com a rison of a d ect iv es an d v e1 b s, t he
p j a nd
‘
i nfiexion of second a nd t hird p ersons sinc)gul a r o f v e1 b s : lov e,
‘ ‘ ‘
l m ed , sa v e, sa v ed
’ ’
fel l fell ed ,
’ ’
t111 n, t u rned , op os ,
.
p ,
e

‘ ’ ‘
o p osed ,
’
p v et o v e to ed , sip, si d i d i cd
p p g g g
- - -
,
‘
ca rr - i - cd
'

c a rr
y,
 1 98 I ur nnxrox or v a nes .

6 4 2 I n some . . ca ses, -
d a lo ne is a d d ed and
t he v o w e l of t he s im p le v e r b is m o d ifie d .

( )
1 W ith shortened v o wel

fl ee fled
hea r heard
shoe shod

( )
2 W i th leng thened vowel
( é i nto (5
)
sell sol d sol d

t ell t old told

‘ ll ’ ‘
Se , &c . : O E
. . sella n, sea ld e, ( ge) sea ld or sa ld Tell .

& c : O E tel la n, te nld e, tea ld

. . . or ta ld . The e of t he
p rese nt
a nd t he o of t he
pa st a re mod i fic a t io ns of a n o1i ina
g l a.

( )
3 W ith cha nge o f sp elling
la y

“
la id laid

‘L a &c
p ay
sa y
stay

0 E leoga n,
pa id
sa id

st a id
p aid
sa id
st a id

l st sing p res indie leege, later

“
y . . . . . .

leye p a st l ecgdc, legd e, leg/de p p a rt l oyed , leyd

. . S a
y & c .

O E seoga n, indie secge, seye pa st seegd e, sued e, sei d e ; p p a rt

. . . . .

soegd , seed
‘ ’
S ta id is u sua l ly an a d ect iv e, or int ransit iv e
. j .

‘ ‘
is origi nal ly t he p
’ ’
Afr a i d p a rt of afii a y , and w as . .

re v iou sly s elt a fir a ed

'

p p y

( )
4 W ith other cha nge cla d had made
" ’
cl ot he cla d cl a d
hav e had had
ma k e ma de made
‘
Clothedc or cl ethede, cleth dc, cledd e, cled , clad on anal o
’

of ledd e, la dd e, la d ,
‘
led ‘ ’
F or had , see 1 65
‘
Ma e
gy ’
. k
&c O E ma cia n, ma ced o, maced 0 fa ll s ou t b y the 1 3 t h
. . .

cent u ry Cha u cer has p p b o t h ma ked a nd ma a d . . .

65 . 3 . Oft e n -
t is a d d ed fo r - d .

A fter a surd ( sha rp ) consona nt (p f ( )

,
v , k . s ( z) ,

a nd l , m, n r eced ed b a shor t or shor tened vowel

'

p y

“
creep c r ep t
p :

k ee p k e
pt k pet
‘ l eapt
l e ap l eéip t
r

sl eep sl ep t sl ep t
'

sw ep t S w ep t

w eep w ep t w ept
The p art s mark ed t hu s ha v e also th e form i n -
cd .
 m
m : WsA K ,
. CONJUGAII I ON .
‘
1 99

f( v) b ereav e
: bere b e re f
t ‘ ft ”
cl ea v e l f
c e t
" l
c ef t "
leav e left l eft
‘ ‘
& c , ar e w ritten though w e sp ea k p u it
‘ ‘
P u fied st ufied .
,

st uft &c .

lickt lock t & c , may b e

f
k cra ckt , .

forms in cd are t he common ones

-
.

‘
ast
lest?
rest"
p
l
ress

8 ( )
z : ose i
‘
l ost
The drop one 3 b efore t ; b ut this formation is
v erb s in -
ss -

not common I t is more freq uent in p oet ry t han in p rose, as

.
.

it represents the p ronunciat ion to the eye .

I dea l dealt
feel
k neel
dw ell
s mell
sp ell

sp ill

One of t he Is is dropt b efore t -

.

m d ream
'
d reamt dreamt
"
n : lea n l ea nt
mean mea nt meant
"
en ( shut) nt ent

ea rn f
i m r ea rnt
b urn b urnt b u rnt
such
’ ‘d r
clench ,
'
In 0 . E . v erb s b lanch ,
as ench
‘ uench singe & c , left out t he ch or g in the past tense a nd ’
q .

‘
p pa rt
. . bl ent , b lent cleynte, cleynt &c , seynd e, .

seynd &c .

W ont as
‘
in he was wont : iS t he p p a rt of the ob solete . .

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘

v er b ( O E w u ni a n) , t o d wel l hence wont ( part )

’
wone . .

The p art s m ar k e d t hus ha v e als o th e form in . cd .

 ‘ ‘
in the hab it ( of) ( noun) , hab it custom
'
andf wont
“
“
‘ ‘
lS ometiines w ont w as u sed as a pa st t ense, for wa s w ont
’ '

‘
is accust dmed accust omed
’

.Al so w ants a nd wont ed

u sual p l p art as adj ective . .

( )
2 Aft er vowel cha nged to 5 ( a n or on
) s
cat ch
’
an ca ught
‘

t ea ch ta ught ta
m
Ca tch has a ssi il at ed i ts forms t o t ea ch O E twca n ' ’
. . . .

( i nd icf tw ee) , tcehte, twht

‘
.

‘
W e hav e al so fraught ( for freight ed ) and distraught
‘ ’ ’ ’

stret ch
( f or d is tra c te d —
O E strecca n ( ind ie str ecce
‘
. .

‘
fe n n ,

Reach at one ti me had raught ( for

’ ’
s cing strea hte, streaht
-
.

on b eseech b esou ht b esought

b ri ng b roug t b roug ht
b uy b ought b ought
see k sought sought
t hought thought
m
( )e thinks m
( )
e t hou h
g t
k wrought wrought

“
w or
‘B eseech
‘
is from seek , O E seca n ( i ndie secs) , sohéc,
' ’
. . .

coht . ri n
g B
a nd t hi nk hav e i nser t ed a n on ra d ica l n like
‘
-
'

sta nd 5, & c 5 8, 2, . B
esid es br ohte, br oht, bri nga nha d i n
‘

O E a lso br a ng, br u ngen l ik e ‘ ’

. . sing , & c 59, 3 , .

T henca n ha d thohtc thoht Methinks ( lit ( t o) me ( i t) s ems )

, . .
e
’

‘
‘

:i s cogna te : O E
’
thyncth, thuhte, thu ht B uy , & c O E
’
. . . . . .

b ycga n ( indie bycge) , bohte; boht t W ork , & c

’
. w yr ca n,
. .

w or htc, w er kt .

66 . 4 .t he s im p le ve rb is s o me
F ina l -
d of
t im e s c ha ng e d t
‘

-
t , w he n p re c e d e d b y a
liq u id —
n, I, or r
‘
The liq uid is also p reced ed b y a
.

s hor t vo w el .

end b end
b lend
l e nd
rend
se nd
 "
b an
anaArmn
-

E am
i

TH .

p
‘

The p a s t chding d e readilycoal esced w ithf

i

- the d ofthe sim l e .

v erb a nd this i nfl uence of t he p reced ing short v owel and li uid

q
ea sily t urned d i nto t W ent supp lies a p a st form t o go
i

- - .
.

6 1,

7 ome weak v erb s m e r e l

6 5 $ y s ho rt e n t he
lo ng v o w e l of t he s imp le fo r m
. .

b l eed b led
b red
feed fed
l ead l ed
read r ea d

s p eed sp ed
b et ide b etid
chid e chid
'

hi de hid
meet met
light l it
M
ost of t hese end in d -
. I n O E the p asts show t he in
. .
“
fiexional end ing ‘ ’
fed de , &c
’
Alight t a es the full
. k
form, alighted
'

68 S ome w eak v erb s oft e n s ho w no d if

. 6
. fe r
enc e offo r m in t he p ast t ense a nd p ast p art icip le .

b ea t 6 0 4) , b eat
b et b et b et
b id 6 0, 4) b id b id
And sim ilarly : b urst 6 0, ca st , cut , d urst , hit, hurt
k nit, let, p ut, rid, set, shed, shred, shut , sl t , sp lit , sp rea d,
i

t hrust .

I n the Eliz ab et han a g e t he cd -

of w ea k v erb s was often di s,

n sed wit h, es ecially in p oet ry

p e
p .

69I n add iti on t o those already mentioned , the

'
‘ *
.

follow ing v erb s, o r ig ina lly s t ro ng , ha v e b e c o m e

w ea k
a che

b ellow
b e rea ve
-

b ow
b ra id
b rew
b u rn
ca rv e
 I NFLE XI ON OF V ERBS .

let row starv e

l ie ( tell lies) ru e st ep weep
l oc k scathe st int W ei gh
lot ( ca st lots) sh ed ( divide) suc k w ell
lout ( b ow) shov e sup whoop
low sigh sw all ow wield
mete sl eep sw ee w ort h ( be)
milk slip t h ra s iil wrea k
mourn slit t hrong wrea the
q u ell s mok e t ug ( d ra w) writhe
q u ench snea k w ade (go) yell
rea spe w w al k l
l
y c

ree sp urn wash yie d

70 A few of the m ost c o m mo n
. in the
e r ro rs
j
con ugation of t he m ore irregul ar v erb s, w hether old
or new , may b e not ed .

Th e chief misl eadin circu mstance is that in t he newv erb s

w e are hab it u at ed t o t e id ent ity of form of the p a st t ense a nd
t he p ast p a rt icipl e, w hence w e a re ap t t o ap ly t he sa m e ru l e
‘ ‘
t o t he old v erb s . The lett er w as w r ote ( or the
‘
w ine w as d r a nk ( for he has br oke ( br oken) t he w in
‘ ‘
d ow ; I hav e much mi stook your p a ssion ;
’
I hav e alrea dy
’

‘
chose ( chosen) my of
’
ficer . I hav e str uck is new in u se for t he
a ncient f orm, I ha v e st rick en I had neither a te nor d r a nk
‘ ‘
should b e ea ten nor d r am / f; and now t he years a nu merous

t ra in hav e ra n ( for r u n ) .

‘ ‘
There is a confusion b et w een t he v erb s l ay and lie
’
We
‘
ten see su ch error s a s t he b ook la ys ( for li es) on t he t ab l e ;
’
of
‘let it la ’ for li e
y ( ).

I n p oet ry esp eciall y t here is a strong t end ency t o confound

‘ ’
the p ast t ense a nd t he p ast p art icipl e : I begu n ( for b ega n) ,
‘t he l at est minst rel sun
g
‘
Technical l anguage reta ins old er forms : t he charge w as
‘
found p r or en ( the ord inary p p art b eing proved
’
. .
 DERI V ATI ON .

S OURCE S OF E N GL I S H W ORDS .

I T he E ng lis h V o c a b u la ry ha s d ra w n
m
.

w o rd s fro m m a ny l a ng ua g e s ; esp ecially fro

L a t in, d irectly or indirectly .

T he G ra m ma r of our language is e x c lus iv e ly

-

na t iv e .

I n the early centuri es of t he Christian era , B

ritain w as in
v a d ed from t he cou nt ry t ha t ne w forms Denmar a nd t he k
N o rt h w est of Ger many b y cert ain t ri b es under t he names of
-

Ju tes, Angles, a nd S axons . The year 449 is assigned as t he

J
da te of t he lan di n of t he utes in t he I sle of Tha net , in ent , K
und er Hengist a n Horse Other inv asions followed ; and in
.

t he cou rse of a hu nd red years t he Ju tes, S axons, and Angles

w ere est ab lished ov er the gr ea t er p art of E ngl and There w ere
.

d ifferent d ial ects s k en among t hese sev eral t rib es, alt hough
t hey w ere closely a lied t o each othe r The early com osit ions
.

t ha t ha v e come d own t o us nearly all exemplify one e lect

t he dialec t of t he w est ern count ies A few fragments ill ust ra te
.

t he d ialect ical peculiarit ies of t he count ies of t he N ort h In .

t he mid land cou nt ies t here w as yet a t hird d ialect ; a nd from

t his t he mod ern E ngl ish of litera ture has more d irect ly d e
-

sc ended .

As t he Angles or Engl ish estab lished t he p olit ical sup eriori ty

of t hei r nam e , so t he c ommon t erm for t he l a ng uage of t he
Teutonic conq u erors w a s E nglish k
Ta ing t oget her t he cont ri
.

b ut ip ns of all t he u nit ed t rib es, W e assu me t hese as t he b asis of

t he resent E ngl ish t ong ue .

T e ot her great el ement is the Roman, b y which is mea nt t he

a r e a t e of E n lish w ords d rawn from t he L a t in la n u a e, b ut
gg g g g g
d eriv ed b y Us for t he most p art t hrough t he rench F The ea rly.

E nc lish a nd L at in t oget her constitu t e t he mass ofou r v oca b ula ry .

The remaining const it uent s a re : w ords from la nguages b e

k
longing to t he common st oc cal led Teut onic, of w hich E nglish
i s a memb er— Du t ch, German, a nd S ca nd inav ian ; w ord s from
t he K k
el tie l a ngua cr es sp o en i n B
rit a in b efore t he E nglish con

q u es t —
W elsh a nd Ga elic ; w ord s from t he Gree ; a nd w ordsk
from t he langu ages of d ista nt countries connected wit h us b y
col onisa ti on, t ra d e, & c
.
 2 04 V
DE RI A TI O N .
— SOURCE S or WORDS .

T he C la ss ic a l e le me nt of
Q . our l no uage, b y
a

w hich is meant t he L atin, t ogether w ith the Gr eek,

w as intr od uced at d ifferen t p eri ods :

3 I Du r ing t he R o m a n O cc up a t io n of t he
. .

is la nd , b e t w e e n A D 4 3 a nd A D 4 . . .

The w ords t hat remain from t his p eriod a re c hiefl y

'

lo ca l na me s co nne c t e d w it h m ilit a ry s t a t io ns
' ‘
'

‘ ‘ ‘
Castra ( a ca m p ) gi ves L ancast er , Gloucester Winchest er
’ ’ ’ ’

, ,

E xet er &c .

Coloni a ( a Roman set tl ement ) L incol n

F ossa ( a t renc h) F ossw ay osb roo F
F ossb ury k
P or tu s ( a ha rb our) o rt P or t smout h P orchest er
p
S tra ta ( p a v ed roa d ) S t rat ford S trea t ha m st ree t &c
V a llnm ( a p alisad ed ramp art ) b a iliff Ol d ailey B
W a ll b ury
4 I I Du r ing t he fo ur c e nt u r ie s fo llo w ing
. .

t he int ro d uc t io n of C hr ist ia nit y, A D 5 9 6 . .

The contrib utions d uring t his int er v al include ma nyr

’

w ords of a re lig io us c ha ra c t e r, and t he names of

institu tions and nat ural p r od uctions introd uced b y the
missionaries .

E cc mssmsr w a n . L a ti n .

al ta r cowl d isciple pall sai nt

cha l ice creed feas t p orch shrine
ment
'

cl oister cross font p reach sa cra

Greek .

al ms b ishop cl er k
a ngel ca non d ea con
a p ost l e chu rch heret ic
N A T URA L OB J E CT S . L a ti n

b eet fig
b ox l a urel
c edar l et t uce
 i nr aonucr rorr or CL AS S I CA L worms .
20§

Mi sennm nnous L a tin

. . .

a cid cha ncell or ell

anchor chest empire

'

a rk circl e fev er
a xle cit y
b elt coo k
b ench coult er
b ile cri sp
ca ndl e crest
”
cap it al crown

Gr eek .

metre
h il oso her
p p
p l a ter s
‘ " ’
The w ords b aptiz e synag ogu e , discipl e resurrecti on ,
a ra b le r ep ent ance a nd m a n others sup erseded na me s of
p y
nat iv e origin for th e same t hings . .

. I I I T he re a t a cc e s s io n of L a t in w o rd s
5 . .

t oo k p la c e s u se q u e n t t o t he N o r m a n C o n
u t f m in w h t i ll ed t he N o r ma n F re nc h
q e s s -
,
o r
g a c a
‘
e le m e nt of our L an u
g ga e?

The N ormans gav e the names p ert aining to fe ud a l

N
Th e orm ans w ere orig inall y S candina vi a ns , w ho sett led in ra nce F
as t he ir b ret h r en ha d d one in E n l a nd I n 91 2 , Cha r les I I I cod ed t o
N
. .

t h em t he p r ov i nce ca ll ed orm a n y a ft er t h em Her e t hey cam e into

L
.

c ont a c t w it h a p e op le sp ea k i ng a la ng u ag e d eri v e d fro m t h e a t i n, a n d

'

F
lik e t h e r a nk s a nd t h e ot h er b a rb a ria n i nv a d er s of Ga u l , I taly , a n

Sp
. a in, t h e y g ra d u a ll y ceased t o u se t h eir o w n S cand i na v ian t ong ue , a nd
op t e d th e la ng u a g e sp ok e n b y t h e inha b it a nt s of th eir new h ome
F F
,

This la ngu a ge h a s ob ta in e d t h e nam e of r en ch from t h e rank s w h o

fi
. ,

conq u ere d Ga u l i n t h e ft h cent u ry , a nd , li k e th e I t al ian , S pa ni sh , a nd

ot h er la ng u a g es d eri v ed from th e L
a t in , i s fr eq u ent l y ca ll ed a R om a nce
la ng u a g e t o comm em ora t e i t s R om a n origi n Th e r st introd u cti on of fi
F
, .

r e nch i nt o E ng l and d a t es f r om t h e t i m e of t h e l at e r S a x on ki ng s -

N
.

E t he lr ed I I m arri e d Emm a d a u g h t e r of R ich ar d , Du k e of orm a nd y ;

N
.
,

a nd hi s son, E d w ar d t h e C onfessor , w h o w as b r ou g h t u p a t t h e or man

cou r t a nd sp ok e t h e F
re nch l a ng u a g e , ga v e reat o f fence t o h i s E nglish
j F
,

su b ec t s b y hi s p a r t ia lit y for t his t ong u e, a n b y his i nt r od uci n r ench

eccl esias t i es i nto t h e k i ng d om B u t t h e i mp or ta nt ev ent , w hi c rm l y fi
F
.

p la n t e d t h e r en ch l a ng u a g e in E ng la nd w a s t h e conq u est of t h e
N
,

cou nt ry b y W illia m Du k e o f or m a n d y i n t h e y ea r 1 06 6 F or t w o
F N
, ,
.

cen t u ri es r ench w as t h e la ng u ag e of t he E ng l i s h c our t ; orm an

set t lers sp ea ki n g F
r ench , w er e sp r ea d b v er t h e c o u nt r y a n d fill ed a ll
F
, ,

t h e ec cl esias t ical an d c iv il p os ts and r ench w as sp ok en i n t h e c ou rt s

of la w and t a u h t i n t he sch ools I n th is w a y a lar g e m a ss of t
”

F
.

p op u l ati on m u st av e b ecom e a cq u a in t e d w i t h r ench a nd a v er y grea

numb er of F
rench w or d s w as gr a d uall
y int rod uced int o t h e E nglish
'

la nguag e -
’
Q ri arsh s L ectures, I I ) .
 nnm worms
‘
4
~
va r i on. — souncs s or .

is m, w a r, la w , and the c ha se, as w ell as additions

to the ge ne ra l v o c a b ula ry .

a nd wa r .

b uc ler k guardian mail trum et

ca stl e ha ub er k peer trunc eon
cham ion harness r elief v assa l
'

array
assa ult chiv a herald scut a ge v iz or
b anner d ow er homage scut cheon war
j oust t allage ward
b a t tl e l ance t enant warden
L aw .

a d v ocat e p ara mount stat u te

ap prov er j udge p l aint su e
a rrest j ust ice p l ea suit
assiz e l arceny sent ence surety
The Chase .

b ay coupl e ( )v , for est q uarry t iercel

b race c ov ert l ea sh recla i m v enison
chase mew
fa lconer spor t v erderer

B ut in a d di tion t o t he names on these sp ecial sub j ects, man

y
hundred s, if not t hou sand s, of w ord s of F rench origin w ere ih
corp ora t ed w it h t he genera l voca bu la r y in t he course of t hree or
four centuries I n L aya mon, in Chaucer, in Wycliffe, the
.

a cq uisit ion of F rench w ords is seen g oing on .

F ew w ord s seem t o hav e b een d er iv ed at t his p eriod from t he

L a tin directly I t cannot, how ev er, in all cases b e k nown
.

w hether word s from t he L a t in ha v e p assed through t he F rench ;

b ut nouns in ou r ( ardou r ) , ier ( cav alier ) , chre ( se ulchre) ,
eer
’
( a u cti oneer ) , a dj ect iv es i
‘
n
‘
q u e ( u niqu e) , an w ords d
b eginning w ith cou nter p ur a nd sur ( cou ntera ct,
u r p ose, sur p r ise) , are of t his cla ss A nd , generally sp eak ing,
p .

w hen w ord s of cl assical origi n a re grea tly al t ered in t he English

sp elling, t hey ha v e not come direct ly from t he L a t in as

( F r m eson, L at r a ti onem) , j ournal (‘F r j ou rna l,’

‘ ’
reason . . .

L a t di u rna lis) , ally ( Fr a lli er L a t a l lega r e) , a ccomplice

. .
,
.

( F r comp lice, L at comp lex) , b eaut y ( F r b ea ut é, L a t bellus) ,

’
. . . .

ob ey ( F r ob ei r , L at obedi re, from

’

. .

6 . Aft e r t he Re v iv a l of L e a r ning , many

IV .

w ords w ere taken directly fr om the L a tin, a nd a smaller

numb er from the Greek .

The greater numb er ofw or d b ea ring ev idence ofb eing ob tained

directly from the L a t in, hav e b een int rod uced since the reviv al
oflett ers in t he b eginning of t he sixteent h cent ury .

Angu s on the E nglish L anguage, 16.

 a r m or s on THE V VA L
RE I or LE ARN I NG . 207

sel ect ed b y w ay of sp ecimen

adhere b ea t ify ca rdinal
a d mire b enev olence ca se
a dop t b iennal cau se
affi rm b iped cel eb ra t e
ag ent ca la mity cel est ial
a gravat e call ous cha in
g
a a crit y camp cha nce
all oca t e ca nt cha rit y
a ccede al t erna t e cap ill ary circumference
ad dress announce carb on cir cl e

Our ab stract nouns ending in y and ion— a p ret ty nu merous

class — are v ery sl ightly alt ered f rom t he L a t in ori ginal :
‘
cal a mit ( m m m m
’
l a ni tfi te ) as i n ( co p a ssi b ne ) The
h
ca r -
co p s o -
.

e forms of t he ea rlier deri v a t ion of these t hroug

'

i ollow
h rench
The di ffusion of L atin w ords in E nglish is most comp rehen
siv ely seen b y exa mining a list of L a t i n roots, a nd not in
g their
r especti v e p rev al ence in t he language .The foll owing are a few
oft he b est known

anima

firmus magnus
mal us
b onus medms u nus

The numb er of Greek roots is s aller, b ut some m of them are

fruitful of compounds Consp icuous exampl es are
.

d emos ( the p eople)

/

ago ( t o lead) logos ( sp eech)

archo ( t o b e in od e ( a song)
g ) ho ( to write)
ga
p
r
cyclos
(a circle
) 11 or ( water) pan ( all)
 DE B I V ATI ON u r S O RCE S OF WORDS
-
U .

p athos ( feeling) ( t ithé mi

h i
po l is
oi o ( t o m k e)
a city )
p a no
( t o show, ap p e a t opos (a
p ear ) ( t o see) (
z o<5n , a n a ni ma l)
ii
sc o eo

( t o l ov e) t ec né ( a rt ) &c .

Oft he w ord s d eriv ed from t hese root s, t he follow ing are a few
exa mpl es — d ema o ue archaeo logy, hyd i og ra p hy, cy cl o aed ia,
g g p
v

melody, p antheon, sym p a thy, ph enomenon, t el escope, t echnica l,

hy pot hesis, t op ogra phy, z o ol ogy .

T he i mp ort a nc e of th ese r oot s ma y b e seen fr om t h e fa ct t ha t from

p ono and p osi t u m w e h a v e in E ng lish t w o h u n d r ed a nd fi fty w or ds ; from
p li co t w o hu n d r e d ; fr om fero a n d l a t u m one hu nd red a nd nine t y eigh t ;
, ,
-

fr om sp ecio, o ne h u nd r ed a n d sev ent y se v en ; fr om mi tto and missu m one -

,

h u nd r e d a nd sev e nt fo u r ; fr om t ence a n d tent u m, one h u n d r ed a nd

y
-

six t y eig h t ; from ca p i o a nd ca p t a m, one hu n d r e d a nd ni ne t y se v en

-
fr om ,

t end o a n d tens um, one h und r ed a nd si x t y t w o ; fr om d a ce a n d d u ct um one ,

h und re d a nd fift y si x L ogos gi v es us one hu nd r e d a n d fift y 8 1 x

-
.
-

g r a p hei n, one hu nd red a nd fift y t w o Th ese t w elv e w or d s, t h er e fore ,

.

e n t er i nt o t h e com p os it io n o f n ea r ly t w o t h ou sa nd fiv e h u nd r ed E ng lish
w or d s One hu nd red a nd fifty fo ur Gr eek a nd -
a t in p r i m it i v es
yi e ld L
L
.

near ly t hir t een t h ousa nd w or d s ( A ng us E nglish a ng uag e, p

.
-
.

'

A great many L at in and Gree w ord s are still i mp erfectl y i n k

co ip or a tcd i n t he la ngu age All t he nouns t ha t ma e t he p lural
. k
a cco1 di ng t o classica l forms, and not a ccording t o t he E ngli sh
form, m e oft hi s ind k .

The d emands o f science, and ev eno find ust ry and t he common

art s, d ead t o t he unceasing int rod uct ion of new clsssi cal

w ords : t elegrap h, mic rop hone, t elep hone, b icycl e, p hot ogi a p hy,
l ocomotiv e, t e rminus, cal oric, b a sic, coll oid, aerona ut , d iag nosis,
a malga m, ca t aclysm , onomat op oeia, & c .

I t w oul d form a u seful exercise t o note and comp are w ords

‘
t hat hav e come dir ect ly, a nd w ord s t hat hav e come indi rect ly
’

through F
rench, f rom L a t in or Gree F or exa mp l e ‘
agg ra k . .

‘ ‘
v a te, aggi1 ev e
"
b enedict ioni b enison b lasp heme, b la me
’ ‘ ’

‘ ‘
ca p t i v e, ca i t 1if
’
d iu1 nal , ou rnal fa ct , teat ; j ‘
fa ction,
’ ’

“
‘ ’ ‘
fa shion ; fragil e, frail ; gau d, j ew el, j oy ,
’ ‘
unct ure, oi ntu re ,
.
'
j j '
’

‘ ‘
maj o1 , mayor
’
l oyal, royal , l egal, regal ;
‘
nou rishm en anta
’
h
’
t , p sy, f a nc y p ed est ria n,
,
p ’
ro
y id en
’ ‘ ‘ ’
ce, p urveyance, ru d ence , seq uel , suit ; spe cies, s 1 oe
‘
p ‘ ‘
p ;
sup reme,
'
su erficies, surf a ce , sov ereign , t radition, t rea
son
p
’
the

7 Ke lt ic d ia le c t s : existed at an early p eriod, and

st il l a rtly exist
i n B ri ta i n
p .

i The K el tic d ia lects now remainin are the W e ls h,

g
G a e lic, M a nx, and Ir is h .

One l rge cla ss of a

na me s of p la ces
‘

.
 m i me
'

e f7 ii.
‘
i N FL UE NC
: -
r

Rivers s - Clyde, Don ( Doon, Dev on, Tyne, Tei n, Tone) , Dee,
Thames, Av on, S t our, S ev ern, Trent , Esk ( Us Exe, Wash, g
Ouse ) , L ev en, W ye, t he Tors ( Derb y a nd Dev on) .

Hi lls : — Ma l v ern, Me ndip Chev iot , Chiltern, Grampian, & c

, .

I sla nd s — W ight , Man, A 1 ra n, u t e, Mull - '

B .

Count ies — ent,K Dev on, Glamorgan, Dar-set, Dur ha m, -

W ilt s
-
.

Towns — L iv er p ool , Carlisl e, P enz ance, P eel , P en rith, Car

- -

*
di ff, L la11da ff .

Am ong K el tic names of pla ces we are t o include those con

taining t he follow ing element s

A b er ( m out h of ri v er) Ab er deen, Ab erb rothw ick ( Arb roath) ,
Ab erw i ck ( B erw ick ) , Ab eryst wit h .

A l ( white ) : Alb yn, Alla n, L u ne .

A r d , Air d ( high) Ard rossan, Arran Dysa rt , L iz ard .

A t h ( ford ) : At hlone .

A uch, anchiu ( fi eld ) Au chmul l, Au chinleck ; Aughrim.

A ucht er ( height ) : Au cht erai der Auchterga v en, Aucht erl ess
’

'

.
,

B al , B all y ( v illage) : B algow nie B a llyma hon , .

B a l a ( issue of riv er from l ak e) B ala, B all och

, .

B nd n B nn
a o ,
a a .

B eg ( lit tle) 3 e , Ba llyb g K illyb egs .

B en, or P en ( head, mou ntain ) : Benlomond, P endleton,

.

P enmaenmaw r P entla nd , .

B l air ( fi eld, cl ear of w ood ) : B la irgowrie B la ir Athole . .

B ot t om ( v a lley) : comm on i n S ussex, a nd in p ersonal na mes .

B r ae ( hilly rough piece of land) B raema r .

Ca er , Car ( fort , t own) : Ca erleon, Ca rdiff, Cardow

Cain ( W hite) Ken, K ennet .

Cairn ( hea p of st ones, roc k y hill) Ca irnb anno, Cairngorm .

Cam ( crook ed ) : Ge mb eck , Camb usk enne th .

Cefn ( b a ck chi ne) Chev i n, Chev iot, Keynton

, .

Coed ( w ood ) Cot sw old, Chat moss

Comb e, comp ( hollow or bent side of 11 hi ll ) : Comp t on, ,
.
-

Il fra comb e , Mel comb e, W yc omb e .

,
Craig, Garri ck , cri ck ( rock, crag) Craigdam, Carrick ~

fer s Crick la de
, .

111 ( b ac k or hind art ) Culdaff Culross , .

Dal, d ol ( pla in) a lk eith, Da l r , Dol ell

y g y .

Dhu ( b lack ) Douglas, Diggles Dub lin, Ca rdow, Tomdow , .

Don ( wat er) B and on ( S ee al so ab ov e R i v er s )

. .

, Dour (
w a t er) : Da rent , Da rt , Darwin Derw ent , .

Drum ( ridge) : Dromore Dundru m, Tyndru m , .

Dun ( hill) : Dunb lane, Dunk eld, Dumb art on, the DownS,
S nowdon .

Ada ms on the E nglish La ngu ag e.

14
2
p
L
m ,
DE RI ATI O V N .
—
U
S O RCES 0 11 WORDS.

w at er, current ) . Esk er, Esthwaite,

s.
( S ee also a b ov e :
R i ver s ) .

F ell ( hill) Ca rt erfell, S ca fall, S naefell

.
.

Garw ( rough) : Ga rry, Yarrow .

Gl en, gl n ( narrow v alley) : Glencoe, Glenshee, Glynneath

y
.

Germ ( b ue Cairngorm .

Gw ent ( pla in) : N a ntglyn, W inchester .

I nch, E nnis ( isl and) I nchcol m, I nchkeith, E nnis il len . k .

I nver ( mouth of riv er, l and fit for t illage) z I nv erness .

K en, Kin ( hea d) : enmare, enmore, en t , K

innaird, K K K
Kinross, Ca nt ire .

Kill ( cell, chap el, b urying ground) : Kilmarnoc , Kilsyt h, k

‘

I col mkill .

L in ( deep o l ) : L inlith ow , Dublin, Roslin. g

L i s ( moun L ism or e po .

L lann ( chur ch) : L l anda ff

l
.

Ma gh ( plain) : l I aynooth, Armagh.

M or ( grea t ) : B en m ore .

Mora y Glamorgan
g ( sea)
or : ,

a t h ( mou nd ) : Ra t hli n .

R in ( p oint ) : P enrhyn B ins ( of Gall oway )

“
.
,

ROS ( p romont ory ) : Ross K inross Mel rose Roseneath , , ,

S t rat h ( b roa d v a lley) : S trat hmore S t rat hspey , .

am ( spread ing b road ) : Tam ar Thames

'

.
, ,

( t ow n) : Coventry Osw est ry , .

a ter) : Conw a y Med way, S ol w a y

’
y ( w , .

The w ords in the general v ocab ula ry d eriv ed from the Kel ti c
dial ect s ar e giv en in t he Appendix I .

Our intercourse w ith the Danes and other nor

8 ,

therm nat ions has b rought us a considerab le numb er of

S c a nd ina v i a n w o rd s
'

These a re chiefy l na mes of p la c e s a nd of

.

rso ns .
p e

The S ca ndinav ian na t ions the I cela nd ers, Danes, N or are

w egia ns, and S w ed es The old est S ca ndinav ian l a nguage is the
.

Ol d N orse of N orw a y, new spo en w it h lit tle alt erat i on in k

I cel and The Danish i nv asions of Grea t B ii t a in hav e left u s
.

a nurfib er of S ca ndi na v ia n w ord s I n the count ies no rth of t i e

'

W a sh a nd t he Mersey many of t he names of p l aces are from

“
t his source

5 Ang us on
in E t) m ology
.

.
th e E nglish L anguage , p 18. . See also Chamb ers 8 ’

Ex er ci seu
 ‘
A ( island) S tafia, Cumb ray, Chelsea,
’

ay , ea, ey , oe :
An ,essy
Ork ney , F arc e
E
, .

ea . ey ( w a t er, r iv er) : Greta,

.
, ,

A rk ( t emple) : Arkholm .

B eck , b a t ch ( b rook) Caldb eck, W ansb eck, S nailb at ch . .

B rek ( st ee N orb rek

g
( orse yr, farm, v illage) Derb y, Grimsb y, N etherbyres,
? g
3 .

N et 1 er
Dal e (v all ey) : Borrowdale Tweed dale, Amndel , .

Dan (Da ne) : Da nb y

Den, Dean ( hollow v all ey) : Hawthor
.

nden,
S out hdean .

Ding t hin (meet in pl a ce) Din all

g Eb b : Mil forg S ea ford Wiz
e
.

I i or d ( inl e
'
rford
’
.

N ort hf
,

Fl eet ( fl ood) : l eet, P urf

sf
leet ,
leet .

F orce ( for a, a w at erfall) : Mickl eforce .

Gar t h (ya r d, enclosure) : Appl egart h, Dalegart h,

Gat e ( passage, way ) : Gallowga t e, Margat e, Re a te .

Gil (narrow cl eft in side of v all ey) : Oimes ‘

in I celand .

Holm (isla nd i n la e or river ; p lain near river) : Arkholm,

k
Fl a t holm, L a ngholm .

K ell ( sp ri ng) : elb y K .

Kirk ( church) L a urencek ir , L a dykirk. k .

L ax (sal mon) : L axa y, L a xford, L a xw eir .

N ess (hea dl and) : owness, Ca ithness B .

S cal e ( shealing) : P orti nscale, S hield s,

S car S carb orough, the S erries k .

( w ood) : S ca fv fell .

S ki p ( ship) : S i pwit h, S ip tori k k .

S t et ( pl ace) : L yb st er , Ul b st er, Ulster;

S ut her ( sout h) : S u therland .

T arn (mountain la e) : Ta rnsyk e k

l
.

Thorp e, Tht op ( v illage) : Rav ensthorpe, W oo thorpe, Hey

thro
T hW ait e ( iece of la nd) : Crosthwaite
pfi
.

T oft ( smal eld) : L ow estoft .

W ick , ; W i g , W ich ( N orse vile, creek, b ay) : I pswi ch,

Sa ndw i ch .

‘
ended t o names is N orse : S wain
’
The t erni inat ion son
pp a
‘ ‘
Ulf or Ulp h , found in proper names, is
’ ’
E ricson
? ’
son
‘
N orse for Wolf ,

The S candina v ia n word sin the general v ocab ulary are giv en 3

in t he ,Ap pendix I I .
2 12 nm uva r ron. — sons css or
:

wor ms .

9 . V a r ious o t he r me m b e rs of t he T e ut o nic
sto ck l angu ages
of
( t o w hich E nglish b el g )
on s have

cont rib uted w ord s t o the E n l ish v ocab ulary

g .

I t ha p p ens t ha t a cert ain numb er of E nglish w ord s a re not

fou nd in early E nglish w rit ings, b ut occur in Dut ch, Gen na n,
Fl emish, 81 0 W e t hence infer t hat su ch words ha v e b een
.

d eriv ed from those l ang uages, al though it is also p ossi bl e t ha t

t hey ma y ha ve existe d i n a ncient E nglish d ial ects , as sp o en, k
if not as w ritt en, or t ha t t hey ma y b elon in on gin t o a p ei iod
'

when Engl ish a nd these ot h er languages a d not yet b ranched g

of f from t he common st oc k
W e d o not now the history of
. k
the a ctual int rod uc tion of all ou r foreign w ord s .

The word s d eriv ed from t he other Teut onic languages are

giv en in t he Ap p endix 111 .

IO .
W ord s introd uced from the F re nc h ,
and more
or less erfec tl simil a ted , hav e reference to v arious
p y as

m ammz ‘

W ar :
a i de - de- ca mp é meute mat eriel
b ayonet ep a ul et 111 61é e rev eill e
b ivouac é
fu s e U mit ra il leuse ru se
ca sern la cis mob ilise sca r
p
chev alier h ers d e
-
p a rl ey sort 1e
cordon p a r ole sq ua d
corp s manoeuvre p icq u et t ira de
é lan ma rq ue (lettre de) l e dan tira il leur

Lit erat ur e, art , a nd affairs :

a pe r qu crit iq ue
a t t a ch é cu e mise -
en- scéne

b allet d é b ut nai v ete r egime

b ell es let tres d é nouement nom de plume rena issa nce

b rochure d oct ri naire pa rl ia ment resum é

b urea u role
encore pa rv enu
cl ef es pri t p ers iflage r ond ea u
cliq ue fa cad e p erso nnel rout ine
connoisseur feuillet on p ort foli o sav a nt

coup d etat
'

fi nesse p ort ra it t a p is
cou p on haii t b oy t rou b a dour
crayon j eu d esp rit w
’
v ers de soci é té
F ashi on, manners , and p leasure
al a ni ode b a d inag e b illet doux
- b las é
mi ende honorab le b ea u— b elle b iz a rre b onb on
 TE UTONI C— F RE N
CH— I TAL I AN . 2 1a

croq uet
dist ingué recherch é
ea u d e Colo ne
g mé sa lliance rou é
é clat millionaire rouleau
é lite l e b eau monde sangfroi d
ennui nonchalance soir e é
é
ent r e out r é t on
cong é et iq uet te
pas v al et

Dr ess :
b lond s chi on crochet modist e q ueue ( cue)
b louse coi
'
moire rouge
b onnet coi flure fichu p al et ot surt out
husk cri noline golosh p elisse t rousseau
Cook ery mer,
: b iscuit, d éj ef entrees, entreméts, fricassé e,

g t, menu,
ou omel et , ragout .

Miscella neous
a ccou chement creche é clat rapport
cul d e sac ent ourage r ev eri e
é
d b ris fra cas soi-d isant
ca nard d epot i mmortelles souv enir
d ernier ressort lieu t et e a-t et e
-

'

chat eau d ev oir enchant t ic douloureux

p
-

chef d ouceur p rest ige vis a- vis

-

cor tege douche p ot

r égé v ogue

11 I t alian has cont rib ute d w ords rel ating t o musi c,

.

scul p t ur e, and p aint ing , wit h some miscell aneous W ords .

a k i mb o b riga nd carmine
al ert b rigant ine carniv al
all egro b rocad e cart el
al t o b roccoli cart oon
ar ueb use b ronz e casino
q
ask a nce b ru sh cassock
ask a nt b ub ble ca st l e
a t t it ude b url esq ue cha rla t an
a v ast b uz z cicerone
b al lad c am eo citad el
b andit cannon comp a ny
b a nq uet cant een comp anion
b a ss ca p e conceit
b assoon cap er c oncert
b igot c a pt ain cosset
b oa ca rav el ( a k ind of coz en
ship ) cra te
b rev e carica t ure cryp t
Q IQ nnmva rrron .
—sour ions or wor m s.

cuf
f (b low ) p i r eon
'

a i l
p g m ri
c urry ( d ress l eather) p ist ol
c u tlass
p olicy ( insura'nce)
curt a l ( axe)
i
orcu ine
p p
d esp a tch p ort ico
d ilet ta nte p r o fi
l e
d im ity T i nd Pli nt h ( stage urp et )
'

a
.

ditt o inv p u rl ( ed i n t r la ce
g g )
d omino inv oi ce p ut toc k
d ra m l ist ( ca t alogue) rega t ta
emb roc ati on lu p i nes sc ara mouch
ferret l urch k
s et ch
fib .
l uscious sop ra no
,

fit ( an atta ck ofpain) mac a roni st a nz a

folio mad rig al st ilet to
k
frea ( w him) mere ( a dj ) st uc co

gab ion mongrel st udi o

g alla nt m ot to t enor
gamb ado nu n t err ai cotta
-

garnet op e ra t orso
gaz et t e' p d in
a la

d ola
o
g p p a let t e
ra p et
gorge p a

g ra nit e p a rasol
grapple p ed e s ta l

al cov e ca sta nets fumadoes

a l li at or
g c iga r g ab ardine
al mond cl a rion g ala

ar ma d a c ochinea l ga lleon
a rma dillo k
coc a tr ice g a r b age
j ork
b a ri ll a c ga rb l e
b a tt led ore c orrid or rand ee

b ez el ( b asil ) c orsa ir g idal go

b oob y c ra b (a W indl ass) j a de

d esp erad o a v elin

b orachio j
d isc ard
b usta rd
d ismay
j unta j unt
ennet

c al ab ash
’
o —

"
cal ent ure d on a wn ( clot h)
ca p ar ison lev a nt (v ) .

ca p on e mbarrass maroon
cara col
’
filig ree molasses
ca rgo
’
filib uster mosq uito
ca s k ( cask et , )
casq ue
’
llot illa mulat to
negro p ic ark
oo
n p ou n
ce( th e t al on of
pillion b ir d 0
A
ninny a

a il i t il i 5
p p t n p u n c o

p a mphlet p l a t e ( v essel s of old

g sa v annah
a w n ( chess man) a nd sil v er) sh erry
p
p eccad illo p o t at o t orn a d o

1 3 P ort uguese
.

c a st e L
cocoa mandarin
co mmodore marmalad e
14 The foll owing wo
rds ar e t raced t o
m di t
,

p k
o en in so e s rict s in t he nort h
B elgiu m : fest er, fun k ,
harrid an .

15 S wiss
.

daw di smal 1 fetlock gli mpse haggle

16 Turkish
.

b ey ca ndy
b osh
ca f
ta n
caiq ue

ad miral

c a ra t
chem st ryi
cip her
a mu let civet
a rra c k '

coflee
a rsen al cot t on
art icho e k d ragoni an
a sa ( foet ida) el ixir

assa ssin em ir sherb et ( drink)

18 . Heb rew
a b b ey
2 16 DERI V ATI O N .
—
S OUB CES or worms,

19 P ersian
.
'

az ur e
b a ck sheesh
b alcony
b ar b ica n
b asha w
b az a ar
ca ra v an
chec k mate
-

coolie muslin
cow rie na b ob
'

ungle oda
c ( 1 00, 000 rupees) glli hq
a an u in
p ar a

punch
chintz p undit

21 Malay
.

a- mu ck

b antam ( Java) gw g a m

22 Chinese
.

b ohea congou

gong

23 P oly nesian
.

al p a ca hurri ca ne mocassi n
erk ed ( b eef
canni bal
ja ) ( Chili) pamp as
k unk
m
c anoe J gu a r ( B ra n
) s

c ay man p ( More ) sq ua w

ca out chouc a. ta p ioca

cond or m ahogany ta p ir
hammoc k maiz e to bacco

25 N ames of P ersons
.

b rag gadocio hermeti c orrery si mony

cinc li o na l a z a rett o ott o man sp encer
d a v y ( sa fety lamp) maca damiz e p a nd er st ent orian

g al v anism macint osh p hilip ic p tantal iz e

hercul ean uixoti c
q
 N ATI V E w oa ns nrsoni n rnxr a n . 214

26 N ames ofP laces

.

a cad emy dama sk p ar ch ment ( P erga

mm e ( Armenia ) mos)

m
er
ui nea 11 Persis
b ayonet
g
j apan g iel ( Hisp aniola )
curra nt s ( Corinth) magnet t ol edo
cop p er ( Cyp ru s) milliner Worst ed ( W orstea d )
ca mb ric ( Camb ray) muslin ( Mussoul) &c .

2 7 F or p ra ctical p urposes it is useful to b e ab le t o

.

d is c rim ina t e t he w o rd s of c la s s ic a l o r ig in
fro m t ho s e b e lo ng ing o r ig ina lly t o E ng lis h .

This m ay b e done t o a considera b l e ext ent b y t he help of a

few genera l rules .

28 l . . C e rt a in d iv is io ns of t he p a rt s of
s p ee c h a r e na t iv e E ng lis h
The p ronou ns A d ect iv es j
ronomi nal , numeral , irregul arly
g
.

comp a re d, a nd t he A rt icl es er b s a uxilia ry a nd d ef

. ect iv e .

Adv erb s : t he sim p le a dv er b s of p l ac e, t ime, a nd cau se and

effect The p rep ositions
. The c on u nct ions
"
. j
The except ions .

are ext remely few

’
se cond ,
’
ex cep t , sav e , & c .

2 9 I I A ll w o rd s u nd e rg o ing
. . v ow el c ha ng e s
a re Old E ng lis h .

N ouns forming v erb s : b liss, b l ess b lood, b l eed N ouns

‘
cha ngi ng v ow el in t he p l u ra l : m an, men ; t ooth, teeth
’

‘
Adj ect iv es forming nouns l ong, leng th st rong , st rengt h
V erb s t he old or st rong v er b s ; t he new v erb s m ak ing v owel
‘
b er eav e, b ereft ; t he causa t iv e v erb s formed b y
’
cha nges :
v ow el changes :
‘
li e, la y W ord s m odifying the fi nal con
sonant stick , st it ch
grass, graz e

3 0 Ill M o s t w o rd s w it h d is t inc t iv e E ng lis h

. .

en d ing s a re of ho me ma ke .

I f w e ha d a compl et e list of t he Hybr ids formed b y j oining ,

E nglish r oot s t o cl a ssical endings, or t he conv erse, su ch a list

woul d giv e all t he excep t ions t o t his rul e These w ords a re
.

v ery nu merous The follow ing are exampl es

.

Classi ca l r oots wi th E ngli sh end i ngs ri ncip al ly , p ol it e ly;

p
round ly , b east ly a p t ness, cor rect ness, i v eness, right eousness,
p as s
rud eness ; artfu l , dir u l,
ef g racefu l, g ra t efu l , p eac efu l ; a rmless,
art lcss, cheerless,
~

moti onless, resistless, useless, v iewless ;

 2 18 n e w l i n es —
se r m ons or
f
West s .

hum ursome, j uicy, falsehood , sub scrib er, mar tyrdom, suretis
’

klp ,
m onl ish q .

E ng l ish w or ds wi th Classica l end ings shep herdess, songstress , -

ond ro s, w itt ici sm, furt hera nce, b ehav iou r , w ithdrawa l,
'

g y
'

ea ra b l

3 1 IV . . M o st w o rd s w it h d is t inc t iv e E ng lis h
p efix es
r a re o f ho m e m a ke .

S o me of t he p re x es, how ev er, a re amb iguous

‘
fi Thus a .

a nd
’
in a r e E nglish, L a t in, and Gree ‘
mis is E nglish and k
L a t in B ut w here ther e i s no a mb iguity, w e may p resu m e t hat
.

a n E n lish
g fi k
p re x b et o ens an E nglish w ord, a nd a classic al
fi
p re x a cla ssi cal w ord .

The unmista ab l e E ngl ish p re xes are k al ,

’
af t er befi
for , ful
’
on ov er o ut u nd er up w ith
W hen w e find w ords commencing w ith t he p re xes ‘circum fi
‘
,

c ont ra ex t ra inter f, ob omni

i
r ae ro r
‘r
p p e
s up e r , w e ma
y al most al w a ys ta k e for gra nted t ha t
’
et ro

t hey a re of L a t in origi n when w e find ca t a ep i hy er

p
‘
hypo pa n
’
p eri , sym w e m ay i nfer a Gree or i gin k .

S ome of these a re in ha rdly a ny case j oined w ith E ngl ish roots .

There are a good ma ny except ions, or hyb rid s The follow ing '
.

few : b e ca use, b el ab our, b es iege, out face, p rew a rn;

’

a re a m -

s u b l et ,
°
sup er ne, fi
t horough b ass, t horough p aced, uncha in,
- -

un ust
'

t
.

meet mpounds
’
en we w ith su ch p ea ce’:
co as gra ce u l f ,

f u l ,
w
’
e ought al so t o ta e not ice t ha t t hese r oot s k g ra ce ,
a re far more f re uent ly a ll ied w ith cl assica l p refixes
'
a ce
p e q
a nd endin s a s ra ciou s in g ra tit u d e ing ra t ia t e
g g
r a ti f if I f i t i s t he hab it of a ny w ord
g y c y a pp e ase

t o contra ct 0 a ssical al lia nces, w e ma y p resume classical,

u nl ess it is recog nised a s a hyb rid;

b le
'

3 2 V M o s t w o rd s of One s y lla
‘

. . a re
na t iv e E ng lis h o r T e ut o nic .

The list of ex cep t ions, t hat is t o say, of w ords of one s l l ab le

y
deri v ed from t he L a t in, rench, F or Greek, is giv en in t he
Appendi x I V .

3 3 V I M o s t w o rd s
. . of m o re t ha n o ne
s ylla b le a re of c la ss ic a l o r ig in.

The w ords of more t han one s ylla b l e of native origin almost

al l oc cur i n t he f oll ow ing ill ust ra tio ns of t he t hing s d enot e d b y

native names ( i i 35 a nd foll owing ) A few not ot herwise

'

. .
 ”
? N ATI VE
a . W ORDS D E GRI MI N ATE D
- .

mention
b rustle, cal trop , cha fer, commark ( a
ha rb inger, hob nob , holster, nether,
utt er .

34 . V II.P ro v inc ia l t e rms are to b e assumed as

no t of c lé ss n
c a l o r ig in .

I fnot E nglish, they are either Kel tic or Teutonic .

T he t hings d e ot e d b y na t ive t e rms

35 . n
a re t o a g re a t e x t e nt d is t inc t fr o m t hos e
d e note d b y na me s of c la ss ic a l o rig in .

3 6 I F ro m na t iv e s o urc e s w e ob tain the

names con
.

nected w it h k ind re d , ho me , d o m e st ic
life a nd t he s t ro ng na t u ra l fee ling s a nd t he ir
,

ex p res s io n
father gaf fer
mot her g am m er
(hu sb and home
’

b undle
wife hea rth
friend r oof
k ind red fi reside
lema n ( sw eet shel ter
heart ) ashes

widow emb ers

neio hb our s moul der
g
heuchman b ed .

carle

a tti r e :

ha t
‘

shirt

ha rm ( lit gri ef) w onder

.
groa n
hunger w ea ry weep
sorrow b it t er earn

a nger t ear urd en

3 7 II F rom the same source are deriv ed the n

. . a mes
of t he fa m ilia r o bj e c ts o f s e ns e , and the fa milia r
mo v e me nts of mo ving things
as DERI VATI O N—
. S OUB OES OF WORDS .

P la nts and A ni ma ls

li nden herring
hornet
lav erock
linnet
l ob st er
l ou se
morn maggot
mart en
tw ilight sil v er moul dwarp ( a mole)
light mou se
. heat ot ter
col d ousel (a b lackb ird)
r ain owl et
snow oyster

stor m p ea cock
w ind er iwinkle ( whelk)
p
t ha w ra v en
frost rei nd eer

cl oud rudd oc k ( a red b reast)

show er sparrow
t hunder b ri stle sta rling
lightning sw all ow
w ea t her ,
da isy t a dpole
summer throst le ( the thrush)
winter t u rt le
harv est w easel
hill hemlock w eev il ( an insect)
d ale honey whel k
w ood holly worm
~

N ames ofp a r ts of the bod y

b ody w his ers k elb ow sinew
head t hroat ng er fi sha n k
ear l ungs nu c lek k p i m l
p e
eye w ea sa nd ( the mid rifi
'

k
w rin le
t ongue w i ndp ip e) li v er t e tt er ( a scab )
k bo sorn na v el
p
ec

m li Ile b elly
i l
1

cl in hee b la dder
limb ha m t hu mb
hair ha nd a n le k
shoulder b one
 THI N GS DEN OTE D B Y NATI VE WOR DS. 22 1

straddle
st raggle
sw a llow
t ru ndle
t umb l e
k
t win le ( w ith
t he eyes)
w ander
W el t er
wheez e
w hiff
whimp er
whip
w hir
w hirl
w his k
whit tle

b rit tle hard

b road hea vy
b uxom lea n
f the menta l ha bi ts
A fow o a nd cha r acteri stics

b old ea rnest eedy

b usy fi k
c le flgg ar d f

c ha ry frolic id le s u rl y
'
froward
'

cunning l easing ( lies) st al w art

d iz z y fulsome merry w heedle
d oughty gi dd y nimb le wi c edk
.
B ut for states of the mind t hat hav e not a st rong outw ard
expression, t he na t iv e v oca b ula ry is v ery scantily sup plied
such as t he v a ri ous mod es ofthought a nd int elligence
‘
Thin ,
’
. k
‘mind ‘
b eliev e a nd a f
t rust ew ot hers a re to b e found ,
b ut t he great ma ss of words for t he mental opera tions are of
cl assi cal origi n
.

This rule may b e otherwise exp ressed b y saying tha t the

j
names of t he ob ect iv e w orld a re, b y preference, nat i e of
v
the subj ect iv e world, b y preference, cl assical ,
2 22 namv xr rom ~
soua cs s or WORDS C

38 . I I I T he k ind s
. Ind ust ry p ra c t ise d b y
of
c
o u r a n e s t o rs ar e show n b y the na mes tha t hav e
,

come d ow n t o us .

Thus in agr i culture and it s all ied op era tions

acre hedge sic le k
b a con fa rrow (l itt er heifer sow ( n and v . )
'

harm of pi s)
g h en st eer
b arn fen horse st irru
p
b arrow fern hu r dle t a llow
b oa r fiel d loa f t a me
b ra ird fodder mar e t hrash .

tw k
,

b rea d furrow ma t t oc ib ill

b rid le mea dow u d d er
’

b ul l net tle ,

calf orchard ,

coc k
cow
corn
end
ea r (v an d n) haw
fallow hay

eddi ce ( adz e ) y:ferr needle

a ngl e ( to fish) furl ong oa kum
anv il hab ergeon
,

p ea t
arrow hammer “ ier
p
b oa rd harb our ra ddl e ( tot wis t)
b oa t fhav en rid d le ( siev e)
coa l
c ob b l e ( a b oat ) lad d er se mp st er
l ea ther sha c k le
ea rn lev el shut t le

fa thom madder sl a ughter

f
elly sha mb les
B earing more p art icularly up on tr ad e
b uy, chap man, chea p
,
d ea r, firki n, ha nd sel , na r ot, k ~

monger,
fart hing, p edl ar, p enny, shilling , rec kon
, sell .

3 9 IV T he c iv il a nd re lig io us I nst it ut io ns
. . ,

o f o u r a nc e s t o rs are indicat ed in their la nguage :

al der ma n b ury fet ter hustings
b ead le corsnead ( in trial fi end l ad y
b od e by ordea l) l ord
murder
ordeal
sheri f
f
S unday
Monday
Tuesday
W ednesday holy
Thursd ay holiday

N at io na l P ro v e r b s nat urall y
'

40 . V . are ex

p re ssed in w ords d eriv ed from our p miri

t iv e s
pe ech .

’
4 I V I The language of inv e c t iv e, c o nt e m p t ,
. .

e a sa nt ry, hum o u r, s a t ire , a nd c o llo q u ia l w it

18 home mad e .

The t erms,
‘ ’ ‘
d arling ,
' ‘d ’
asta rd ,
c
st rong cur se ,
‘l ‘
nidg et
‘
(a
’ ’
cow ard
’
rascal ,
’
sha b b
az y ), y , slut
‘ l ar e ofna tiv e
z
ug y growt h .

. 4 2 V II T he p a rt ic ula r or indi v id ua l o bj e cts

. .
'
.

of na t u re , as op p osed t o the genera l or a bstract, are

na med b y nativ e w ord s .

Thi s is merely t he second rul e in another aspect. Thus the

‘ ‘ ‘
tfi mov ement s,
c cr ee
p
’

, fly ru n w al k ’
, &c .
,
a re ;

nglish ; b ut t he enera l i dea by a L a t in w ord—

Lois e xp ressed
‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
moti on
’
lac .
’
b lue , ‘
‘
g B
reen ,
’
r ed ,
’

y ell ow
’
&c , ; .

‘ ‘ ‘
’
are English : col our is L a t in
’
uz z , grow l ,
’
runt ,
’ ‘
hiss ,
’
B
g
”
.

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
‘
hum , roar , rus
’ ’
tl e sin
psea ,
’

,
a
’
w histl e ,
’
k sq ue k
& c , are Engl ish : sound is a afin
. S o w hil e speci c mod es of . fi
wr ongd oin are English ill lie murd er rob k
t heft ,
’

t he gener t eM S crime in ury ,

’

“
ar e L a t in j .

The special numb ers are E nglish th e gener al word numb er

-

is L a ti n .

4 3 T he s e rules must b e
t a k e n w it h s o me
' '

la t it ud e , and ar e not t o b e empl oyed as ab solu tely

de cisiv e of the ori in of any

g gi v en w ord .

F or al t hou
g h t h e m or e fa m ili ar ob ec t s o f se n s e a d of t he j n
outer w orld are d escrib ed b y E nglish na m es, w e ha v e a pp rop ri
at ed cl a ssical nam e s t o a dd t o our means of exp ressing t he sa me .

t hings ; as a nimal comm erce

’
. b east cha p el count ry ,

family firma ment

’
dist ri ct fa ce fore st furnit ure ,
g a rm ent
’
l a e
’
,
m in u k m o un t a in
‘
m u t t o n p alace
’ ‘ ’
m h
p le , p l a in riv er sea so n ser
p en t ,
sto a c
d innumera b le others .
224 V
DERI ATI ON .
—
CO M P OS I TI ON or WORDS .

4 4 P o re i n na me s
. c a me in w it h fo re ig n
o bj e c t s o r a c t s .

I t ha s b een seen t hat w hen a rticl es or occup at ions w ere im

p ort ed from other na tions, t he names, as w a s t o b e exp ecte d,
.

ca me t oo .

45 . N a t iv e w o rd s a re s e ldo m g e ne ra l .

A fw e S axon w ords hav e b een employed as t erms

of our ow n
‘
‘ ‘
of the highest g eneral it
’
y ; as b ein w ell b eing , t ruth -

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
falsehood , w ill , feel ing , good
’ ’ ’ ’ ’
right ,
’
ev il , w rong .

This, howev er, i s ra re W e might, like the Germa ns, ha v e

.

const ra ined ou r na t i v e v ocab ul a ry t o serv e for g enera l a nd a h

st ra ct t erms, b ut w e hav e p ref erre d t o d eri v e t hese from the

cla ssical sour ces Vi e a lso in ma ny inst a nces u se a na t iv e w ord

l
.

and also t he corresp onding w ord s in Greek a nd L a t in g ood

‘
moral , ethical monad
’
t rut h ri n
’
one unit p
ax iom
’
cip le happ iness felicity ; l
'

g ue , v iscid ,
coll oid

I n all the L a t in and Gree w ords serv e to indicate

such cases k
new meanings or sha des of meaning, t hereb y ext ending our v oca
b ulary The use of a d if
. ferent w ord is al w ays a cc omp anied w ith
t he t endency t o restrict its ap plica t ion t o S ome pa rt icular phase

COMP OS I TI ON OF W ORDS .

1 Most of the w ord s of the langu age are c omp ounds,

.

T he p ro c e ss of c o m p o s it io n tak es p lace int w o :

w a ys first , by a d d ing to the si mp le wor ds sylla bles ; .

or word s, d suffix es or end ings, which

called p refix es,
an

ma y or ma y not ha ve a n ind ep endent existence ; as

secondly, by p utting
( y)
l d
’
out run , one lg n n '
-
o a -

together wor d s tha t ha ve ea ch a n i nd ep endent mea ning

as b reak w ater lion hunter
- -

A s regards the first p rocess, there are a numb er of

recognised p refix e s and suf fixes hab it ually empl oyed m
forming compound w ords, nearly all of them impar ti ng
.

a definite significa tion to t he comp ounds .

 N ATI VE P RE F I XES .

P re fix e s .

2 . E ng lish P refixe s .
—
The p refixes of nativ e
origin used for al l ur o ses
p p ma y b e e nu merated as

follow s
form of the p repos it ion ‘on ’
a .
(l) A
‘ a k a ed a fi eld a foo a li
shorte ned ,

ab c , b , , t, v e, asi d , a shore, a w ay z
‘ ‘
Thefull form remai ns in a ne nt a nv il
’
a non ,

T he other ca ses a re much l ess im iiortant .

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
( 278 ( Got hic us) , out of , from , a wa y , np : a ghast,
’ ’ ’ ’
.

ago, a lig ht , al ise, a rou se, a wa k e

’
The forc e of t his p re fix
.

a t ura lly b ec ome s me rel y i nt ensiv e

n ‘ ‘ ‘
.

2
( 3 3 ? O E a ev er a l way s ,
’
a ye a u ht ( : a
. .
g
‘ ‘
1 1s d is now di sguised l n ea ch ,
’ ’ ’
e it he r , ev er , one .

‘
Ought ( not t he v erb ) i s the sa me word as a11ght
’ ’

a l ong ( o
.

4
( ) a = O E go, 31, i . .
‘
a tford, a l ik e, f) , among” ,
"
a nough ( enoug h) , a w a re Alik e a nd a mong w ere al so m
’ ’
o

‘ ’ ‘
fiuenced by on an , a : a The 9 6 of the p a st pa rt .

Wa s often modi fi ed t o a st ill a no t u ncomm on

p rov i ncia l ism .

( 5) a ( ol der a nd ) , b a ck a c k now le dge,

‘ ‘
a b id e, . a a i n,
g
ag ainst, a lo ng fi The olde r fom 1 emai ns less a b ridg ed in
‘a nsw er ,"a nd ‘a mb assad or ’ .

Afore ma y be
’ ’
( 6) a , shor‘t ened fo’r act at

eit her D E . cct f

. oran or onf ora n

At b e fore t he infini ti v e app ea rs 111 ( C m

’
a do o p ar e
‘ a ’
af f ir , § 4, und er ad ) .

‘ " ‘ ‘
(7 ) a s h o rt e n ed 1 1 0 m q f af, o fl fro m ’
a d o w n ( O E
m
.
, .
, ,

h (‘ qffeor‘) , a k in, a new

’

of d u n e ,
f 1 o t e d o w n or h ill a f a r z .

e xceed ing ly
’
I n a fe w w ords, it is int ensiv e, v ei y
‘ old a hu n ered asham ed a t hi rst aw ee 1 ’
ac , g , , , y ’
af t ernoon af t eit hought
a l th
.

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
a l mighty ,
’ ’ ’
all ( all) : a l one ough , a l wa ys I t is .

‘
ob scured m as d l so) -
.

‘
, th
t e p re osi tion a tone
a p .

a bov e
t
The t fa lls a w ay in a few cases , see a The a . .

‘ ‘
is drop t 111 twi t , ( O E wtw i ta n, t o reproach , lit to know
’
. . .

( wi ta n ) some thing a ga i ns’t ( art)

b e, b y , t he p rop b y , t a k en as su ch, or use d adv erb i ally

“
. .

‘ ’
1 I n N ou ns B eha l f, b ehest, b ehoof ; oft enest , how ev er,
by na me, b y sta nder b yw ord
. .

‘
in t he for m b y -
, .

‘
i s connec t ed b y so me w it h t he S ca n
’
B y law , or bye l a w
’
-

‘
d ina v ian by ( ha mlet a l a w ma d e b y a ha ml et 0 1 t ow nship
'

1 the i eg ula tion of i ts o w n a fia i i s .

2 I n V e1 b s, b e reta ins much ofitso 1 i i na1 f

’

g o1 e a round
.

c
t ; i a nd gene1 ally exp resses t he f act of
’
’

15
2 6
2 DER I ATI O V N .
—
CO M P OS I TI ON ,
or worms .

co mmunica t ing t o a n ob ec t j the p rominent q ualities indicat ed

b y t he ot her
p a rt of t he c o mp ou nd .

‘
( 1) bec loud , b ed ew , b efriend, b etroth
’
B e nou n ,
&c
:
,
all t ra nsi ti v e .

1
I n o ne, behea d be has p riv ati v e force .

(2) B e a dj ect iv e bec alm, b edim

( 3) B e v e rb W ith t ra nsitiv e v erb s, t he sense of be
.

a b o ut l’ v er
o u p on is somet im es v ery d ist inct , a nd al w ays
t o some d egr ee int ensiv e : bod a ub , b egird, b ese t, b esmea r, b e .

k
sp rin le y b ehol d , b ese ech, b est ir, b est ow , d ed eck d edaz z le
The mea ning of t he new v erb is al so t ra nsit iv e — W i t h i nt ransi .

ti v e v erb s, b e st ill ma int ains t he sa me sense, a nd somet ime s

‘
rend ers t he n ew v erb t ra nsit iv e : bemoan, b esp ea , b est rid e, k
’

b et hin kAt other t imes, i t signi es m ore p oint edly direc tion fi ’

t ow ard s a n end, a nd t he new v erb t hen often r em ains intra nsi o

tiv e bec ome, b efall, b ehov e, b elong, b et a e, b etid e k

3 I n Ad v erb s ( sometimes b ecoming p repositions or conj u nc
.

t ions) : beca use, b efore, b ehind, b etimes, b et w een

B ul ( lar e) bu lrush
F or ( O or . E
cp Ger man var , L at p ar and p r o) ,
. . t hrough, .

t horoughly int ensiv e ; t hen t he contra ry, wr ongness, p er

’
v ersion, riv a t ion, p rohi b it ion
p ‘
.

P refix ed t o v erb s : for b ea r, forb id , for ( e) fend, forget , for

g iv e, for ( e) go, forlorn, forsa e, forsw ear k
fi
This p re x i s a t b ot tom t he same w ord a s t he follow ing, fore
‘ ’
.

F ore ( O E for e cp Germ v ar, L at

. . . . .

i n front, p rev i ous .

‘ d
N ouns f ehea d f
‘
f o r c
gr ou n , or or enoon

V erb s : for eb ode, foreordain, fo

‘
F ort h : forthcoming
P 111 (full)
‘
fi
fu l ll ; full b lown, full grown -

Gain ( b ac , aga inst ) k ga i nsa y

I n, im ( in, int o, wi thin) i nb orn, inb red, income, inland,
inl ay, insid e, insig ht i mb ed, imb itt er, imb ody, imb rown,
imb rue
I n, im ha s som etim es giv en pl ace t o the Romance en, em
"
end ear, en indl e, enl iv en, k e nshroud, enta ngle, ent ru st , en
‘
emb ed , emb it t er, emb ody, emb olden, emb osom, em
’
'

t wine
’
b ow er .

The force of t he p re x is freq u ent ly int ensiv e, somet imes fi

e rha p s ( t hough not n ecessa rily) ca u sa t iv e
p ‘
.

Mis ( w rong, ill, failure) m isb ehav e, misgi v e, mislay, mis

lead , misna me , mist ru st misd eed
’
.

j
Mis is oined at will t o w ords of classical origin : misap ply,
ni iscall, miscount , misint erpret, m ispl a ce
‘ "
B ut in cert ain appa rent cases of t his natu re, the mis is
re all y ofclassi cal origin ( S ee 4. under this) . .
 N ATI V E P RE I F X ES . 2 27
}

N e ( not) na ught , nought , not, nay, n eit her, nev er, none,
’
nor .

‘
Ofi fal ( o lfa ll S ee modi
’

of z
fi ) ,
of
fset , offshoot, o f
fsp ring
fied forms und er a a b ov e . .

On onl ook e r, onset , onsl a u ht

g
F or modifi ed forms see a a b ov e ; nu b el ow , a nd .

‘
Out ( O E a t) op posit e t o in
. . b eyond, excelling
, Out
b rea k , out ca st , out fi t , out pour, outside, out house ou td oor,
ou tla w ; ou tsp rea d, ou tst retc h ; ou tb id , ou td o, ou tl ast , out l iv e,
ou t ru n, out v ot e
‘
Ov er ( 0 E . . o erf )
b eyond, excess, d own , Over a b ov c ,

fl
arch, o v er o w , ov er ha ng , ov erla p ; o ver hea r, ov ersight ; or er

b oa rd : or er coat ; over d ue, ov erw ise ; over d raw , ov er est imat e, -

ov erloa d, ov erw or k
ov er hea r, ov ert hrow , o v ert u rn
‘
Th orough from sid e t o side ; c omplet ely
’
, Thor ough .

fare thor oughb red t horoughpa ced

’
.

To ( the, t his) ; to d ay , t o mon ow , t o night

’
- -
'
-
.

‘
To ( the p rep ) tog et her .

‘
T o ( Germ z er , L a t di s )
’
a su nd er, in i s , w a s v e1
.
p ece .
y ,

com m on in O E A certa in w oman ca st a p iece of millst o ne

. .

up on Ab ini el ech s hea d , a nd a ll to b ra ke his s ull

’

( Jud ges k ’

’
ix 5 3 ) a ll ( : a l t o et hcr uit e) to ( in p ieces) br a ke , & c
.
g , q .

‘
Tw i ( t w o)
’
twi light .

Un ( 1 ) ( O E on Gothic a nd Germ ent

, . . b a c ; rev ersa l . k
ofa n a ct ion
'

Unb ind , u nd o, unfold , unhand, u nhorse, unlearn, unsay

’
.

‘
W it h v erb s of classical origin, freely : u nfix, unnerv e, nu
eo l e, u nt une, u nyo e
p p ‘ k ’
.

‘
I n u nloose , t he p re x is int ensiv e
’
a w ay fi ‘
l oose
’

itsel fimp lying rev ersal ( Cp t he ca ses w here a nd on, has b e

. .

. come a a b o v e, a,
Un .
not . N ou ns i mb elief, unreason, unrest ,
u nt ru th , unw isd om
j
Ad ect iv es u nfa ir, u nw ise , u n now n, u nseen k
‘
Un ( 3 ) ( on)
, u nl ess, u nt il , u nt o
Und er , b el ow ; t oo little or d e ciency ; sup p ort Und er fi .

cu rrent , und ergrow t h u nd er ground u nderest ima te, u nd er sell

u nd er ha nd u nder g o, u nderst a nd , u nd ert a e k
'

‘
Up u p hea v e u p hold, u p lift , u p root ; , up roa r, up shot , up
st a rt up hill up la nd Up b raid .

W an ( root of w an, w a ne, w ant w ant ing Cp n u . . .

Our only remaining exa m pl e is u a nt on = w a n tow en or

‘ ’ '
f -

u nt ra ined , u nd iscip li ned , w ild , f rom teo n ( d ra w , l ea d)

’
-to en
g , .

‘
Ther e were many i n O E w a nhal ( unhealt hy) wa nhope
’

. .

( air
s h ow; d ir ) .

W el, w e w el f
a re w ell b e i g,
n w e ll -
b red .
 2 28
‘

DER I VATI ON .
-
COM P OS I TI ON for W OR DS .

W i t h ( against k; wi thdraw, w ithhol d,

’

,
b ac op posit ion ) :
w ithsta nd

S ometimes a l ett er has b een p re xed for great er ca se or ful fi

ness ofp ronuncia t ion, especial ly s scra t ch, scr ea m, s ip , smelt , k
sneez e, sni p , sp lash, sq ua b b le, sq ua sh, sq uea mish, sq ueez e,
sw ear, sw ord
On t he ot her hand , a l etter is somet imes d ropt Gif is now .

‘
if genoh has b ecome enough , gelie , a li e ( see a
’ ’
a nd k ,

g e has d isa
pp ea re d fro m p as t p a rt i ci p l es S i m ila rl y, i nit ia l 9 a nd .

‘
k , t hough w rit ten, ar e not pronounced b efore n g na rl, k nee
Comp are al so ni t and knet
’
not a nd nod e k
I nit ial it ,
w hile o ft en silent b e fore a v ow el , has fa llen a w ay b efore l, n r ,
‘
la ugh ( O E . . lord ( O E loud ( hlu d) ;
. .

k
nec ( hnecca ) n) , r ough ( hreoh) , ring ( b ri ng) , ridg e
ra v e n ( hrae f
‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
S o it w a s formerly hit , a nd ost ler w as hostler
’ ’ ’ ’

( b ryeg ) , .

I nit ia l w is not u sed no w b e fore I ( w ) l isp a nd it is not

ronou nced b ef
p ‘ ore 7 w rec , w rit e k
Ora nge d rop t init ia l n from a mista en a ssocia t ion w ith
’
k
L a t a ur u m ( gold )
. . I n ot her ca ses t here has b een a t ransfere nce
.

of n t o or from t he a rt ic le a n na d d er is now a n a d der a

‘
w hile a n ew t ha s b ecom e a new t ,
’ ’
na p ( e ) ro n is a n ap ron
‘
a nd a n ouc h a n ouc h A nag may b e for a n ag ( cp
'

L a t eq u us)
. .

3 C la ss ic a l
. P re fi x e s — There ar e a numb er o f
re fixes d eriv ed from t he classical la n ua es S u h f
p g g c o .

t he m a s are s till e m ployed to form new comp ounds

may b e considered E nglish p refixes a nte in
‘

as

a nt ed a te
S om e of t he L atin a nd Gree refixes and su f fixes are nown k k
only as a rt s of t he w ords t ha t t ey ar e found in, a nd w e nev er
p
k
t hin 0 t t heir sepa ra t e m eani ng , nor emp loy t hem t o ma e new k
com b ina t ions S uch are t he Gree
. a in a t ro phy a na rchy k ’

‘
a nd m a n ood m a ny of
’
ca t a in cat a st rop he ot hers A
y g .

fi
t he L at in p re xes a nd su fii xe s, a nd a small nu mb er of t he a

k
Gree , m ay b e regard ed a s of li v ing a p lica t ion, b eing ad op t ed
.
ih t hei r separat e chara ct er int o t he Eng ish la ngu age p .

4 The follow ing P refixes a re from t he L a t in

. .

Ma ny of the secondary forms are d ue t o F re nc h

influence .

‘
ab , a, ab s ( from away from) a bj ect
,
a b hor, abol ish, ,
,

ab ound a b solv e
, a b sorb
a b use ; a ma nuensis
,
av ert , e v oca tion,
, ,

a b scess, ab scon
'
a v oid d ,a b sent, a b st rac t
 RO M AN CE P RE FI X E S .

is disguised in a dcance, ad r a nt age, a v aunt , oan

’
The
a— a ll t F r a va nt ( L a t a b
. a nte) . .

Comp are a b ri dge a nd a bb rev iate

‘
fi rst through F r .

a b r eg er , t he ot her d irect , from L a t a bbr evi a r e

‘
A ssoil z ie in
'

. .

S cot s l aw , com es t hrough F r from L at a b sol vcr e . .

a d a , F r a ( t o) , w it h nume1 ou s a ssimil at ions ac af, ag, —

.

ad
‘
a n a p , ar as, a t : a d d i ess, a dhe1 e a d mi t, 0 1 e,
,
to in host ile sense, a g ai nst
‘ ‘
a d ula t i on, ad v er se ( a d, here,
’

a d v ert ; a b and on, ad roi t , agree , a l l oy ( F r a la loi ) , a m ass -

.

a cce d e, a ccl aim ,

'

a sc end , a p a rt , av a l a nche, a v enue ; a ccou nt,

a cq u it ; a f f l a i 1 ( l r d fa ir e) , a] feet, affi rm , a ffront ; a gg1 av a t e,

-

a ll ege , a ll o w , a ll
y ; a nni hil a t e, ; a nni1 1 ; ap p al,
ai el , a rov e , a r b it er, ar ra n e, arrear ; ascer ta in, a ssent,
a
pp pp g
mp t , a t t 1 a ct
’
a sist ; a tt e
s

m
.

‘
A 1 a rm
‘
a l ei t I tal , t hrough F r
’ ‘ ’
-
fro are Ai d is . .

‘
L at a dj u ta r e N ew forma tions a d m easui em c
’
. . nt, a t tune .

The p1 efix ha s b een d rop t in raiment , siz e, cess ( a ssess)

m
amb i , a mb , a , a n ( b oth, on b ot h or all sid es)
i
amb ig u ou s, a ni b i t ion, a mb ul a nce, a mp u t a t e, a ncipital .

‘
a ntec ed ent , a nt ed a t e , a nt eroom
’

ant e ( b e fOr e) : .

A nti cip at e mu st not b e r eferred t o t he Greek p re x

’
fi
‘
i t b rou ght t he i from t he L a t
’
. Ant e is a t t he root of .

a nt e rior, a nt iq ue, a nt ic ; a ncient

b ene ( wel l) : b enefi t , benev ol ent b enign

’
, .

‘
b i, b is, b ini ( t w ice, two b y t w o) : bi ennial , b ifurcat e , b isect ,
b i va l v e ; biscu it , b issext il e ; bi nocular N ew comp ound s . .

P i mp ernel is a curious corrup t ion F r p i mp r enel/e, I t al

’
. . .

p i mp i nella , low L a t bip i nnella , from bi p ennis,

’
. t w o w inged , -

d oub le lea v ed .

circum circu ( ab out , l ound) ci r cu mcise, ci rc uml oc ut ion,

circ umscri N ew comp ounds
’
; ci r cu it . .

‘
m ( L at cu m , orig com,
’
w it h, t ogether ; oft en l it tl e
'

2
co . .
-

m0 1 e t han intensiv e) also a s col con cor a nd co com b a t ,

c om b ine, comm it , co m
p ound ; colla pse colleagu e, c oll ide .

eoncea l , conced e, concent rat e, conc ur cond emn, consa ngui neou s, ,

c ontra ct , correct , corru p t ; cog nat e, cogni tion, co op era t e, c o -

o r d i na t e c o
, p a rt n
-
er , c ov ena nt ’ N ew format ions a b u nd a nt , .
,

‘
e spe c iall y w it h co commingl e, com a t ri ot ; corresp ond,
p
correla t e co p a st or , co t ena nt , co w ork er , & c
’
- - -
.

The p refi x is furt her modifi ed , or ev en ob scured , in a few

w ord s : cogent ( L at cc a gent ) , cost ( 0 . F r coa ster , I t al . . .

costa r e, L a t consta r e) , cost i 1 c ( I tal costip a ti r o L a t cons tip a r e) , .

,
.

cost ume ( t hrou gh F r a nd l t a l , ti om L a t consu etu d z nem) , c ouc h

. . .

( F r coucher 0 F r colcher , L a t colloca r e) council , c ou nsel,

.
, . . .
,

co u nt ( v erb 0 F 1 center , L a t comp u t ar e) , 1 ount ( noun, t 1t l e

. . . . .

m
F r co bo, L at comitem fi om com itu m, go 1i 1th
.
‘
cou nt ena nce, -
2 30 DE RI ATI O V N .
—
CO M P OS I TI ON or worms .

coupl e and cop ul a fthm(cc root ap , to j oin) ,

cousin ( Fr .
,

L at consobr i nus) cov er ( F r cou vr ir , L at cc op er i r e) , cull

.
, . .
-

( F r cu ei lli r , L at colli /er e) cu rry ( F r corr oyer , I ta l cor r ed

. . . .

a re roo t r ed z p rep a re, cu st om ( F r cou tu me, .

I t al a nd L a t cost u ma , from L at cons a ct ud inem), q uail ( I t al

. . . .

u
q g a l ia r e,
F r ca il/er , 0 F r coa iller , L a t coa g u la r e) , q uaint
. . . .

( F r coi nt, L at comp lus)

. . .

cont r a, contr o, N F r count er . .

( L at . con tra from ; con
‘ ‘
Fr cen tr e,
. aga inst contra dict , contr a st ; contr ov ersy ;
coun ter feit , cou nt er ma nd

N ew for mti a ons

‘
contr a b a nd , . eb ntra d ist in u ish,
g cont ra
v e ne contr ov ert ; co unter a ct , cou nt er b a la nce, count er oise,
; p sca rp ,
-

’
si v a il &c
fi
- -
.
,
‘ ’ ’
nes Count er is u se d as a n ind epe ndent
c ont ra ry .

‘ ‘
a d v a nd adj Count ry is the la nd opp osit e you, F r contr é e,
’
. . .

L at contr a ta . Comp a re Germ geg end fro m gcgcn

. Co untr y . .

d a nce is a con up tion of F r contr e d a nse ( t’he p a rt ners b eing .

-

ra ng ed in lines fa cin g ea ch other ) Cont rol , Ih contr ole, ‘

. .

contr e r ole, counte r roll

- 1
‘
d e ( d own, a w ay, from ) decay, d ecl are, d educt , d ej ect,
d elegat e, deny, d escend
’
W hile oft en merely int ensiv e, it .
‘

so met i mes i nd ica t es d e c iency or rev erses t he root m ea ning

‘
fi
dep let ion, d e pop ulat e, d ement ed
’
.

A l arge nu mb er o f w ords d eriv e init ial de from dis ( rench F

‘
des d e , de) , w hich i s merel y anot her form d e D eb onair
’ ’
,

a nd demure cont a in d e a s p re posit ion .

‘
N ew c om ou nd s a re com mon : d eb ase, d ec ipher, d ecom
p ou n d ,
d efe u t , dena t ional ise & c a nd in t echni ca l w ords li e . k
‘
deca rb o nise, d eod oriz e &c .

‘
d emi ( F r L at d imi di u m half) . d emigod .
,

d i, di s, F r d es, d é ( asunder in t w o) , w i th a ssimil ati on to

.
,

dif d igr ess, dil1ge nt , d ilu t e, div erge d i sb eliev e d isfa v our, ,

disl ik e, d ismem b er, d isl oyal d ist urb ; d iffer, d if ficult ,

.

D escent , descry , d esha b ille, desp a t ch .

a t a m) , d el u e &
e f , d ela
y y ( L a t d i l g c . .

Di rge i s a contr act ion of L at d i r ige N e w comp ounds are . .

ab unda nt, wi t h na ti v e as w ell as w i th cl assical root s : d i la cera te;

d ipet alous di sab le, disa b use, d isa d v a nt ag e, d ishonour, d is
resp ect , di st r ust &c .

e, ex, 0 F r es, ( o) s ( from, ou t of exceeding . rev ersa l

.

of act ion) , w ith assi mila t ion t o ef z eccent ric edit , ed u ca t e , -

egregi ous, elect , eminent , enormou s ( out of, beyond rule or

meas ure) , emerge ( opp of merge , lit
’
lunge ex ac t , . .

exa spera t e , exceed, excul p a t e , exp ress ; e cient, effete, ef gy fi

L ess ob vious cases : esca pe, esc heat , essay, issue ; sa mple,
scarce, scorch, ( F r escoreher L a t excortica r e, fro m
. .
 RO MAN CE P RE F I XE S . 2 31

‘
ma b ark
cor ti ct , scourge ( F r escoa rg ée, L a t excor rigi a ta ) . .
,

soar ( Fr essor er L at ex a u r a r e from a u r a ) ; a b a sh ( F r

.
, .
-
,
.

esba lzi r ) , a fra id F r efir a yer exfr i gid a r e)

’
( t errify L at .
, ,
.
,
‘
a mend ( em end a w a1 d ( esw a r d er
‘
look a st onish Fr ,
.

‘
L at extona r e)
’
eetonner ,
assa y ( 2 ess
. a y , F r essa i ,
L at
, . .

cxa gi i t m) .

N ew m p ounds are esp ecially freq u ent t o exp ress p ast offi ce
co .

‘
ex emp eror, ex m ayor
’
-
&c .

‘
eq ui , eq u ( eq u al) eq u i a ng ul a r, eq uil ib ri um, eq ui nox,
.

eq uip mse , eq uiv a l ent ; equ a ni ni it y

’
.

‘
ext ra ( from ex : w it hout , b eyond ) ea tr aj udicia l, ext ra
'
,

mu ra l , extr a ord ina r

y ; extra c ha rge .

‘ ‘
E xt ra forms
'
e x t ra neous st range .

‘ ’
for ( L a t for i s, .
for
f f orf
ou t o f d oors, out
o1 t
) : or cep s .

in ( n o t : c omp a n w it h w h ic h i t i s .fie q u e n t ly i n t er

w it h mod ifi cat ions t o i, na ct ion

‘
cha nged ) ,
iI, i m , ir i ,

i ndiscip line, infant, i n j ust ice inac tiv e, infi rm, inhu man ; ,

i gnob l e, ig nom iny, ig nore ; i llega l , illib eral ; i mma cula t e,

i mp iet y, i m u re ; i r rat i ona l, irregular , irresp onsi b le
. ’

‘ p .

E nemy i s F r ennemi, L a t i ni mi cus ( i n, amic us)

’ ’
. . .

‘ ‘
i nfi d el it y
‘
Cempa1 e i nab ilit a nd a nd
’ ’
nna b le un
y
o

‘ ‘
inj ust ice a nd u nj ust , ince1 t it ude a nd a ncer
’ ’
fa it hful ,
t ainty , & c N ew for mations are ab u nda nt
'

. .

in F r en, em ( in, int o, upon) , wi th assimil a t ions t o il ,

.

im, ir :
‘
i ncome, inmease, i ncur, induce, infer, i nna te ;
il lusion, illumine ; i mb e cile , immerse, imp ai 1 , impo1t , imp rison;
i i 1 a dia te , in igat e ; ena mel enca ge, enclose, eng1 a v e emb a l k,

emb owei , emb roil, cm

‘ ‘
A good many w ords a v e i n 0 1 en i nq uire or enq uire
’
as
‘ nser ’ a n ‘ ‘
d p 1 int w ant the p refix : comp
’ ’
Ce i ncense and .

‘
i mp rint Disguised forms a re : a mb ush ( Fr emb ttcke, I t al
’
. . .

‘
a nnoy ( I tal
‘
i mbosca r e, from i m, i bosco, b u sh, .

a nnoi a r e, F 1 ennu yer , L a t i n od i o) , a noint F 1 en oi nd r e, L at

.
( . .
-
.

i n” t enet N ew forma t ions a re a b und ant .

int er, 0 F r ent er ( from i n . b etw een, among) , w ith

. .

‘
assi mi la t ion t o int el : in ter c ed e, int erd ict , int ermarry,
'

’
i nt ei v a l ; i ntellect, int ell ig ent ; enter p rise, ent er ta in .

‘
( from i n w it hin, int o t he i nsid e) : i ntr od uce,
int romit , inti os pect ion .

‘
j ( ear t o, cl ose b ) j
’
u x t a n ,
y u act a osit ion
p .

magni, magu ( grea t ) ‘

ma gni loq uent ; magnani mous
’
.

mal e, mal ( b a dl y, ill) ‘

ma lefac t or, ma ltrea t
’
a nd ne w
comp o unds .

M a ugre ( in spit e of) is F r ma lgr e _ L at ma le gr a tu m,

’
.
’
.
‘

‘d isa reea ‘
bl e ; ma la dy is from F r ma la de, ill , from L a t
’ ’ ’

g . .

ma le ap tu3
-
.
 “
DER I V ATI ON .
’

COM P OS I TI ON ? OF wor ms .

manu manifma n , ,
Fr . ma in man ( L at M u m s
,
-
,
‘ma nn la ct u re m a numit m anu scrip t ; ma ni fest , ma nipulate ;
‘

, ,

M a n da t e ma i nta in ; ma noeu v re, a nother for m of w hi ch, w ith

'

a not her sense, is ma nu re

medi ( mid, middle) : med i aev al , m editerrane n a

Meri d ia n is comm only accept ed as from med i w d i es ( mid -

d a y) .

mis ,
O . l F mes
ess, not, wrongness)
. m is ( L at mi nus . :
‘

ad v ent u re, m isc hanc e, m is chief miscreant

’

,
I t has pra c t ica lly .

t he sa me e f fect a s t h e E nglish mis

‘
ne, nec L a ti n comp ounds :
( not ) ,
only in nefa rious,
nesci ence, n eu t ra l nega t ion, negligent , negot ia t e
‘
non ( not ; eenu m n nnm,
’
no not one t hing ) is v ery
‘
u seful in new for ma tions nonage nonent it y, nonsense ;
a
nonz poli t ic l , non resist a nce -

oh, 0 , o( b ) s, w ith assi mila t ions cc , of, op ( t o, t ow ar ds,

u pon ; in t he w a y Of a gain st d ow n, a w a y) com es t o us in . .

L at in compounds : ob d ura t e, Ob ey, ob j ec t omit ; ost ensi b l e ;

occ asion, oc cu r of fend, offer op port une, op p ress

C ihoe ( L a t ofiici nm, op i fici nm, help ma ing
’
.
‘
is some - -
k
ti mes w rongly gi v en a s from Ob
'

‘
( F L l m ) p eninsula, penul t imat e,
’

e n r at n t :
p p oe e a os
'

. .
,

p en u m b ra
‘
e
p , r F r
p ar ( hrough ; t horoughly) : p er ceiv e, perdit ion,
t .

renn ial, er l ex, t ra mour, a rd on N w

p p p ‘erv e r p a p e

rmat i on s a r e comm on er a d v ent ure, p erchance, perd ura b l e,

o p
eroxid e &
p ‘ c .

‘
,
P ellu ciil f is a n a ssimila t ion P ilgrim is for P ro .

”
v encal peleg i n, I t a l ellegr i no L at er tgri nns C om a e
r p p p r . .

‘ ‘
m
’

( Fr
’ ’
a p er ta in a nd p nr t enance , ap r t ena nc e a p ar
p p .

t ena nce Pi e rce is a g reat cont ra ct ion ; F r p ercer , l tal . .

p er t ugi a r e, L at p er ti ma m ( t a nd em) .
-
.

p o s t i n p l a ce, a nd chie
y in t i m e) :
‘
p ostda t e, fl
os t ti x ost Ob it , ost p r and ia l
p ‘ p p
-
,
‘
P nny ( P ni sne (j udg es) p reserv es t he older a nd fuller
fo r m) F r p n z ne = 1nt i s ne, L a t p ost na tus
’ ’ '
- -
. . .

‘
p r e , L a t p m ,
F r p
. r e b e for e ; su per iori ty , . & c ) : p re .

&c auti on d i i i exist ence, re f

re p re p
pg
p ce e,
p r c ce e c se er,
e
p
-
, , ,

reord a in , p rese nce , p re v a i l e w com ou nds a re 11 11 m e r ou s

'

p p .

‘ ‘
" ’
Q F r p r echer ( L a t p r eed ica r e) gi v es p r ea ch
. . . P r ov ost
‘ ’
i s F r p r euot, L at. p r eep os itn3
. P r ov end er -
.

p ret er ( F r p r e te r ,
L a t p r
. octer , fro m e : p st , b eyond )
a .
m
r tm i t e e t er mit, : re t rna t ural
p p
' '
e

p e , 1

p x, p
o u r ( L a t p r o, F p.
ou r , p e r ,
sa m e roo t as .

b f f w d f t h i n l Of f 0 r : c om En lish
p r ae ; e o r e ,
or a r s ,
o r ; p ac e , p g . .
 "
RO A M N CE ’

P RE F I X ES .
’ '
'

s 2 33
“

‘fore ‘ r eed rofess ro ect j

p oc , p , p , prop ound p roconsu l ,
pronoun ; p ol lute ; p ort end , port rai t ; p ur chase, p ursue;
p ul v ey

Cont ract ions are p r omp t , p roc t or p rocurat m ) , p r oxy , .

(z :
p 1 ose ( L at p rosa , p r o vcrsa ) , p r ud ent
-
.

( L at .
p rud p r o vid ens , p rune
-
( F r p r or i gner, L at :
.

p ro a
p ga r e ) .

‘
q uasi (a s if; of si milar or analogou s chara ct er ) .
quasi
’
contra ct , int uit ion
uasi
&
.

re, re k
( b‘ac ; aga i n ; ag a inst ; rev ersal or negat ion of root
mea ni ng) r eceiv e , recom mend , reconsid er ; _r ecla im, rel uc

ta nt , resist ; r ep rov e, rev eal ; r e d eem , redound, red u nd ant -

N ew comp ound s are formed at w ill .

L e$s ob v ious ca ses are r al ly L a t r e a lli ga r e) , r amp art

’

‘
( .
-

( F r r e
.mp a r t,
fro m so r em p a r er ,
i n t re nc h o u rsel f r a nsom
-

( Fr r a ncon ’L a t r ed emp ti onem) , remna nt ( comp r emain

’
. . .

r encount er , r ender ( Fr r end r e, L a t r edd er e) , r ent . .

‘
‘

1
r est r use ( F r r u ser , r e u ser , r ea ser
.
,
L a t r ecu sa r e) . .

1
ret r o ( from re b ack wa rds) r etr oc ession, ret rograd e }
’
retrosp ect .

The F r form mer e gi v es

.
"rear r ea r guard
’

” ‘
se, so ( 1 ( ap art , away ) . seclu d e, secu re , sel ec t , sep a ra te,

(Fr ) sev eral d it iou

’
sevr er , L at se a r a r e ; se
seve r . .

p ,

( L at sobri us) is from

’ ’
According t o one conj ecture sob ei .
'

not drunk
‘
se ebr i us, S ure is a F r . . cont ra ct ion ( se a r , scu r ,

sur ) OfL a t . secu r us

‘
( secure) .

"S i nci ut
se mi ( half) : se mi circle, se mit one p
’
is from?
semi -
cap i t t .

‘
sine l
(‘a t er f o rm for se ,
sed w it ho u t ) si necur e M ost
’
.

’ ‘ ’
rob a b ly si ncere i s not connec t ed w it h si ne
p .

sub , F r sou , so ( s e ) ( und er ; from b el ow , inferiori ty ) , w ith

’

numerous sun , sup , sur , sus i

su b al t ern, sub li me, su b merg e, su b s ml, sub v e1 t ; s ucceed,

su ccumb ; suj fix, sulfuse , s uggest ; su mmon , sup p lant , supp l e,

Supp ort ; su rroga t e suscep t ib l e, suspe nd , sust a in souv enir,

soj our n ( F r sej ourner , I ta l

. s ggi or na r e, L a t s ub d i ur na r e) . o . .

N ew form a t ions are a b undant .

‘ ‘ = ‘
S ubt ile ( short ened su btle L at s ubti li s su b teazilis, finel
y
~
‘
.

w ov en S omb re ,
’
r , f rom L a t su b u m br a , F ‘
u 11 d e1 sha d e
. .
-
.

‘
S udd en , F r sou d a i n, L at su bi ta n( e) u s, s ubi t us, su b i tu m ( eo ) ,
'

. .

t o g o under, or st eal thily S ump tuou s , from L a t s ump tu s

’ ’
«
. .

‘
( exp ense) , from su mp tu m ( sumo) , su b emtu m ( emo, ta e up k
L at sup i nus, from s ub
’
S up ine . .

S urge from L at su r ger e ri gor e regere) ; whence

.
- -

‘
also source
’
t hrough rench F .

sub t er ( f rom su b sub terfuge .

 V ATI ON M P OS I TI ON wor ms
i

2 34 DERI .
—
CO or .

m
‘
sup er, F r sur ( ab ov e, b eyond, sup eriority, excess)
. bu rl
ab u nd a nt , sup era dd sup eri nt end , sup erna t ura l , sup ernu m era ry ; r
,

su rcha rge, s ur fa ce
( cp
‘
sup er cia l su rf ei t , su rmount , . fi
surt ou t N ew compounds a re no t u ncomm on .

‘ ‘
Hence sup erb ( L a t s up er bus) , sup erior ,
‘ ’

p
’
su ernal ; .

(
S ir l oin F r su r longe, from sur lo nge, ov er t he loin
.
r
.

sup ra, ( from sup er a b ove ) s up r a mundane, su

p ra na t u ral
’
ist , su p ra renal
'

Hence sov ereign ’

” ( Fr . sou ver a i n, I tal . sovra no ) , so mer q

merset , summerset ( corrup t ions of‘F r sou br esa ut

°

sa ul t , so .
,

S pa n . sobresa lto, L at sup ra sa ltus

.
) a nd sup reme ( L at -
..

t ra ns, t ra n, t ra , F r . t r es, t ra ( a cross, ov er, t hrough.

‘
b eyond ) : tr a nsa ct , t ra nsa t lant m, transfer, t ra nsit , tra nsship ;
tra nq u il, t ra nsce nd , t ra nscrib e, t ra nsom tr a dit ion, t ra duce,
‘
t ra monta ne ( as w ell as tr a nsmontane : com p
’
.

’
tr esp a ss, tr a v erse, t rav esty .

‘ ‘t reache L
Tra it or ( F r tra i tr e, L a t tr a d itor ) , .
( O E . . .

‘ ’
treehour , P rov tr a eha r , L a t tr a d er s) , t reason ( O
. r tr a i son, . . .

F r tr a hison, L at tr ad iti onem) , may b e comp ared w ith

. .

’
t ion
‘
F r tr a nse, L at tr a nsi tus
’ ’
Tra nce t ra nse ,
or Tra v el . . .

k
j

t ra v a il , from F r tra va i l ( orig a b rea for v icious

’
a nd . .

from L at tr a ba eu l um, from tr a bs ( a b eam)

. .

t ri, t re ; t er ( L at treis, tr is, tres ; ter : three, t hrice) .

‘
.

‘ i n le t ri b e t ricol ou r trident t ri le t ri od t riv ial tr eb le

1

tr a g , , , , p , p , ; , ‘

t refoi l, t rellis ( F r tr ei llis, L a t tr ilicem, tr es .

,
t hree .

t w illed tercent ena ry Trammel is F r tr a na i l, former]

tr a ma i l , from L a t s tr emae ulu m, from tres ma eu la , three mesh
'
- -

F rom ter ni , tr i ni ( t hr ee b y t hree ) come t erna ry trinity

ult r a, ( b eyond) u ltr a li b eral , ult rama ri ne
Ou t rage is F r 0 F r ou ltr age, l ow L a t u ltr a giu m
. . . . .

1111 , um ( one) u na nimous u ni cor n, u nison, u niv erse

Hence union, uni q ue, unit, unite, u nity, unit aria n
v eh, v e ( nega ti ves or rev erses t he root mea ning)
ment ( lit not reasonab le .

W id ow L at v id ua , is generally giv en as from s o ( w ithout) ,

.

dha va ( husb and ) b etter, from root mid ( sep arat e) i n div ide
‘

&c .

‘
v i ce, F r v is ( in p l ace of) oi ce a dmi ral, v ice chai rman,
.
- -

vi ceroy v isco u nt N ew compounds are frequent .

Hence v icar

5 . The following are the G re e k P refix e s

a p hm
i ( b oth on b ot h si des : L a t a mb . O E . .
ymb mnbe;
:

m
, , ,
‘

Ge nn, u m a mp hi b ious, a p hi t heatre

 GRE EK P RE I F XES .

L at i n, E ng] n) a rchy, anecdot e,

a ( negativ e a : an

a
. . .
,
nod yne, a nony mou s ab
yss, a da mant, a mnest y, a
p ath ,
y
asyl u m
r
.

ana, ( up , b a c , ag ai n) a na b ap t ist , k . anach onis m, a na

glyp h,
ana lysis, anat omy .

‘ ‘
Ant hem
’
ant i ( against ) : a nti dote, ant ip a t hy a ntag onist .
,
‘
O E a ntefn, a utem, is t he sa me w o1 d as a nti p hon
’
. .

N ew format ions ant ip op e, a nt i sl av ery, & c .

-
.

‘
a p o ( from, aw ay L at a b, Engl of ) : ap ocalyp se, a ogee,
ap ol ogy , a pop lexy , a p osta sy a p ost le
.

a p helion , ap horism
p . .

.
,
‘ ’
h ( chief) a r clza ngel , a r chb isho ,
p archit ect N .

for mat ions arch consp irat or, arch her et ic, & c
.
-
.

a u tog ra p h, a ut onomy
’
aut o ( sel f) . a u thent ic .

‘
ca t a (d ow n) : ca ta logu e, ca ta r rh, ca t a str ophe ca taract ,
ca t echi se ; ca thedral, ca tholic Chair is F r cha i re, L a t and
’
. . .

di a, di ( through connect ed w ith L at f dis, d o) : di a d em,

‘
.

‘
osis diam eter ; d i ocese, di o1 sma Com p a re d ia conat e ,
’ ’
di
b
.
, .

‘ ’ ‘ ‘ ’
de a con ( Greek di a ka nos) d ia ol ica l a nd dev il ( Gr
’
.

dia bolos, O E d eqfol) . . .

Di a mond i s an a ccidental similarity F r d ia ma nt, Gr . . .

a ‘da ma nt ( see an a ) .
,
di ra h, d ilemma , dip thd ng, dipl oma ,
‘
d i ( t wo, t w ice) :
dist ich .
g p
Di ss ylla ble should hav e only one s
. .

‘
d y 3 ( hard , ill ) : d ysent ery, d isp ep sia
’

l
.

‘
ec, ex ( f1 om, out of) : ecclesia stic, ecl ectic, ec ipse, ec stasy
exegesis, exodus
’

n
.

‘
en, e ol m
( G en, in e cyclop aedia, en emi c, ener y, ) d
g
r .
,
ent husiasm emb lem, emb ryo, emp hasis, em orium ;
p
‘
ep i, ep ( up on) : ep i demi c, ep ig ram, e iscop al, ep ist l e,
p
meral
'
ep it a p h ep he
'

; .

‘ ’
on ( w ell ) : eu charist , eu l ogy, eu t ha na sia .

“
‘
The 11 in ev ang el l o, - ica] , - ist , & c is d ue t o L a t in
’ f
.

m ‘
he i ( L at semi hal f) : hemi sphere, hemist ich
’
. . .

hyp er ( L a t sup er , Germ ii ber , E ng] over ( comp up , upp er )

. . .

‘
ov er, b eyond , ex c ess)
’
ln
Jp er b orea n, hyp ercritica l .

‘
hyp o, hyp ( L at . sub : ,
. und er) hyp ocri t e,
hyp ot hesis , hyp hen .

met a , met ( among, with ; aft er , change) meta morp hose

me ta p hor, meta physics meta l , met t le met eor method , ,
’
.

mi cr o ( small) ‘
micr ocosm ( opp osed t o
microphone, mi croscop e .

‘
mono, mon ( alone) monogamy, monog rap h, monomania ,
’

monotone ; mona rch, monod y ’

.

‘
p an, p a nt o ( al l ) : p a norama, pa nt heism, p a ntomime .

p ar a , p ar ( b esi de, a a inst )

g p a r a b le, pa rad ox, paragraph .

p a r e nt hesis, p a1 l1 elion, p a rish, p arod y .

 2 36 VATI ON comr os
‘

DE RI .
— i r l oi
i
~ or wonns .

P arab ola, p arab le, p arla ce, p ai ley, p arl iam ent ,
n
p a r l al l fro m Gr
p a ra bole, some of t hem t hrough
o e —
.

p a r a bola r e, I t a l p a r la r e, F r p a r lor
. . .

‘ ’
p eri ( round ) : p er i ca rdium , p eriod , peripa t et ic
‘ ’
J eri winkle ( pla nt) is O E p inewi ncle, p er ui nce,
’ '

m
. .

p oncho, L at p er r i nea , or mncap er vi nea , fro

.
p er a nd mu oi o f

‘
P eri wig is a corrupt ion of p eruk e
‘
( b ind )
’
N eit her has a ny
’
. .

connexion w it h G
‘
t o) : p hi lo At henian, p hilo S p art an ( Grot e)
’
p hil o ( fri endly ‘ .

p oly ( many) i/ am ,
’

p o l g .
y p ygol on o
p y l t h eis1n ,
.

mme, p rologu e
’
p ro ( b efore) z p r ob lem, p roem, p rogra
’

‘ ’

p ros ( t ow a rds) p r osel yt e, p roso d y .

‘
p seud o ( false) p seu d onym, p seu do marty r
. .

syn ( comp L at cu m : w ith) , modifi ed t o syl , sy m, sy

.

synagogue, synod , syno si s ( comp L a t consp ectus) , syntax

p ’ . .

syllab le ; symp at hy ; syst em .

De riv a t io n oft he .
P a rt s of S p ee c h .

THE NOU N .

6 Ro ot No uns S ome N ouns a re simp le,

'

mi tive
.

p ri ,
or under ived w ord s . These a re sometimes
ca lled
‘ ’ ‘ ’ ‘ha nd ’ ‘foot ’ ‘cow ’
ro o t s ; as . eye ea r , , , ,
’
sheep
’
, hea rt, hop e
These a r e root w ords a s far a s concerns nglish grammar E
I n t he comp ari son of l anguages t hey may somet im es b e t raced
t o forms st ill more ra d ical or fund ament al To d o so is t he .

p rov ince of comp arativ e gra mmar, or p hil ology .

7 De riv e d N ou o s are formed from sim

. l
p e N ouns ,

from Adj ecti ves and from V e1 bs

The m ea ns of format ion are : ( 1 ) I nt ernal mod ificat ion
cha nge in t he v ow el, or in t he consena nts, o r in b ot h , ( 2 )
P refixes; and ( 3 ) S uffixes or E ndings .

A dj ect i v es ar e v ery commonly u sed as N ouns b y simple

oni ission of t he nouns t hey shoul d l imit ; b ut t hese must a lw ays
.

b e read ily und e1 st ood V erbs are a lso somet imes used as
.

nouns wit hout any change .

8 I N ouns are d eriv ed fro m o t he r N o u ns

. .

( 1 ) B y i nterna l mod ifica ti on B y cha nge of v o‘

w el or ofv ow el .
,

d consonant , w e ha v e such d erivati v es

"
as chic k ’
(O E. .

‘ ‘
from kit
’

( t p)
’
ceck ti o p . In such
‘
 NO UN S FOR M E D FR OM , NO UN S ,

‘
w e mu st i nfer from the na ture of t he case,
t“
ip from . top
or from a nal ogy , w hich is t he p ri miti v e a nd w hich t he d eriv at i v e;
‘

‘
Kit a nd chic
’
a re a b b re v ia t ions of
‘
k
it t en , ‘
chi c en
’
k ’
k
a nd t he v ow el cha ng e i s o w ing t o t he inf
’
'
l uence of t he nal ~ -
fi
sylla ble now d ropt Thes a re a ll diminuti v es . e .

B y P refixes Alrea dy exemp l i ed 2 . fi

B y S ufi /res, N at iv e an d Cla ssica l
'

The following grou p hav e r eached , from v arious original

ngs, t he same ge neral sig nifica t ion of st a t e; q ualit y or
, ,

cond it ion I n acco rd a nce w it h t he u sual t end ency, t he

.

a b st ra ct na me has i n ma ny ca ses b een t ak en t o exp ress col

l ect iv eness, t he b od y of indiv id uals p ossess ing t he a b st ract

a l it y S ome exa m pl es ha v e p a ssed t o t he m o re r em ot e
’
'

q u .

ap plicat ion ofg eneral or cl a ss, or ev en ma t eri al , na mes .

"N a ti ve S n i r es — o
fi ra.ft ( st rength, s ill , condit ion) :
. b oo k
'
k
or afi , p riest cra ft , w it c hc ra ft , w ood c ra ft .

d om (j urisdict ion, a ut hority, condit ion) Chri st endom,

'

hea t hendom k ingdom ( in O E , how ever, it w as eynedom : see

, . .

9, m a rtyrd om rasc ald om ser fd om , ,

hood , hea d ( 0 E ha d : ra nk , condit ion) . b oyhood .

b r t herhood , chil dhood, ma nhood ; g odhea d , m a id enhea d

( tl p ‘
l ock ( 0 E lac : gi ft pl ay)
. w ed locle
. In 0 E br yd lae
, . .

f b rid e l ock , mar ria e) , gu thla c ( w ar p la y , b at tl e) , & c

‘
’ ’

( -
g ‘ ‘
-
.

ness ( st a t e condi t ion) : w ild erness from w il ( d ) deor,

. w ild
b east not hingness, somet hi ngness ( Goldsmit h) Also,
erha p s, w it ness
p
red ( O E r oed en : reck oning, l a w , condition) : k indr ed
’
. .

‘ ’
( Q E
. cy n
. r ed , ey n r en,
for cyn r azd en) hat r ed is a la te
ejxam ple ( 1 2 t h cent Hund r ed is d oub t ful .
’
.

‘
ri c ( rul e j u risd ic t ion)
,
b ishopr i c
‘
shi p ( 0 E scip e : shap e, ma nner, condit ion)
. . fellow ship ,
‘
friends hip gu ard ia nship , l ord ship w orship w or thship )
’

, ,

The chie f o f t hese su ffixes— d a m, hood ship , seem t o b e ,

employed som ew ha t indiscrimina t ely i n new comp ound s t he ,

ef erence b ei ng g ov er ned p r ob a b ly b y su it ab ilit y of soun d .

hen t he sa me w ord is comb ined w it h more t ha n o ne suffi x, a

dist inct iv e meaning is connect ed w it h each comp ou nd comp are
k ingdom a nd k ingship
Cla ssica l S nfi nes — a, cy ( L a t ai ns condit ion, of ce)
. . fi
cel ib a cy, m agist ra cy So c u ra cy, p a p a cy, & c l
.

a d e ( on a nal ogy of sa me su f x t o v erb root s)

‘
b al ustrad e, fi
sol onna de , fusila d e, l emona de
‘
a ge ( F r
. L at -a tie as
.
, o ig
r forming adj ectives) ; homa ge,
. .
2 38 DE RI ATI O V N .
'

CO M P OS I TI O N '
OF wo r ms .

v a ssal a e
g , v oyage , b ro k erage ,
mileage cella age r ,

erb a
’
cot ta ge,
p ersona ge
ge ;
‘
( Gr r ul e) : sq ui1 ea r chy
’
. .

of c e) :
‘
consula te, m arshal ate, fi
Compa re a cy
’

p rot ect ora te . Celi b a te, magist rat e, p ot ent

’
a te , a re c oncrete a l i
pp ca t ions .

‘
cid e ( L a t eid 1 a m, mu1d er) mat mcid e, regicide, suicide
'
’
- -
. . .

S helley has lib ert icid e

’
.

‘
cracy ( Gr Jer a ti a ; rul e) : . d emocra cy, ochl oc racy, p luto
cra cy ; b urea ucr acy, mob oc ra cy
a d v ocac y , b a nkr u t c , colonelc , ensi nc
‘
cy ( see acy ) :
’

‘
p y y g ’y .

ine ( L a t i na ) : discipli ne, d oct 1 ine, m ed icine fa mine

.

i sm ( a s from Gree v e1 b s in iz o ; se e ma. k s m, § 1 0, -

3 ‘
a b senteeism, d espoti sm, ournalism, mat eri al ism, j
i et ism
’

p
‘
mony ( L at 1non i a , - . ceremony, m a t rimon ,
y p tri
a
mony, t estimony .

‘
ry , ery ( L a t a r ia er ia , F r . ca r entr y, chiv alr ,
p , y .

’
k
d e v ilry, nav ery, p oet ry So b u ffoonery, coq u et ry, p op ery,
ri v a l ry
‘
t y ( L at tat em F r to)
’
. a uthority, cit y . S o, la ity .

‘
( l1 at a l a s, 4t h d ecl count y, d uc hy
y . .

G a nd L a t eia , i a , F 1 ie) :
'

y ( r . b.a rony, ener

gy, eup hony, .

I t a ly, mona1 chy, p ha nta sy

‘ ‘
( L a t i u m) ’: mast ery, minist ry, mystery
’
S O, b urglary,
h
-
. .

fis cry, rob b ery

Ot her cases i n y are seen in -ao y, a r ch y, erac y, mon y
- - - - - - - -
.

( b ) The
. next g rou p conta ins ex a mp l es of end ings w hose
prev a iling force is dimi nut iv e There mu st ha v e b e en some .

p o w er ful m ot i v es a t w 0 1 k t o l ea d t o so ma n
y for ms of ex ressin
p g
diminut ion I n this case we must loo t o t he feelings ev en
. k .

more t han to the intellect The t w o st rong sent iment s .

e ndearment a nd cont e m t a re gi a t i fied b y t hese m od es of

p
—

d esignat ing t hings They a re al so a p plied t o the young of all

.

l iv ing b ei ngs, a nd t o t he inst a nces of t hings occu rri ng b el ow

t he av erage siz e Ma ny of t he t ei ms ha v e now l ost their
.

d i minut iv e f0 1 ce, a nd are a pp lied t o d iscrim inate t hings

fi
sp eci cally or g eneric al ly d if ferent , so that t he emot ional

i mpul ses hav e here, as in ot he1 insta nces c on t ri b u t ed to ext end

t he numb ei of w ords av a ilab le for t he ob ect s of na ture and a rt
,

j .

‘
N ati ve S ufix s k ock b ul locle, hillock ; haw k
e
-
.

(O E ’
. . P a t i onymics P oll oc k ( P a ul) , W illock,
W illox l assi ck as w el l as lassoc k
‘
’ ’
I n S cot h, 1ele :
’
c
-
. .

‘
iki n, kin ( 007
0 -
b ooti k in, n1 annik in ; firkin ( four) ,
n) :
la mb ki h, napkin . P a t w nymics : ( Dav id) , Haw
 “
N OUN S F ORM E D FROM NO UN S .

kin( s) ( Hal, Henry) ; P er kin (s) , P et erk in ; Tomk in, Tomk yhs ;
W ilk in( s) V at kin( s) ( W at
V I
al t erj ,

ing ( na saliz ed Jr d imin ) fa rt hi ng ( fourt h) , tithing ( t it he,

, .

‘
te nt h) , riding ( York shire ; for thriding
‘
t hird
’
t hri d
P a t ronymics E t hel wulfi ng, VV ect ing , a nd reg ula rl y in
’
.

ol d est English S o aet hcling f i ng ( O E cyni ny, ci ny) is

.
‘
k . .

not cert ain .

ling l i ng) du c li ng, gosl ing , sq uireling , yea rling

-
k
‘
i e b ab y, W illy ; lassi e, l a ss ick i e Th is e ndi ng ma y
y,
- -

k
.

b e r egard ed as a w ea er mod e of Jo ( oak,

en chic en ( c oc ) , k
it t en ( ca t ) , ma id en k k
‘
ful (full ; t he op p osit e of diminu tion) : capfu l, hand ful ,
'

et lul
'

p ock
Classica l S a ast er m
ol east er ( w i ld ol iv e) , p inast er ;
ar a —

p ilast er illa r
o nly
p a rt ly sh ow n ) p
, oet a st er ( infe r i or

cul e, c e, ul e, l e, 6 1, 11 ( L at eu lu m, u lns, ellus, i l lns, & c )

-
. .

‘a n m
i a lcule, ret ic ule ; p art icle ( p arcel) , t ub ercul e, u ncle, v en
tri cl e, v ersi cl e
glob u le, nod ul e , p ilule ; c a st le, cha pel, ’ lib el ,
;
m orsel, v essel ( v a sen l ar ) , c odici l, p ugi list Grill , F r -
.

gr i lle, is L a t cr a ti cula . .

r cl , ar el
-
coc er el, m ac erel , p ic erel ( p i e)
-
k k k k
i sk ( Gr isJeos) a st erisk, b asil is , ob el is
. k k
t , et , 013 ( F r et, ette, oi , otte) b illet, ca s et , circlet,
. k
cor onet , l ancet , p oc et , t ic et , t urret b a llot, chariot k k
‘
l et z look let, ringlet , lea flet , sp eechl et
-

1 ( c) . A t hird group c onta ins so me e ndin

gs that exp ress an
p er son, or an i nstr u me nt
’
a gent or or thi ng, connected wit h t he
j
ob ect t hat t he root w ord na mes .

le t himb le ( t humb ) .

‘
( O E lea e,
.
’
l ee ,
.
‘
p lant k ‘

gi k;
a rl c

b a rley Cowslip is p erhap s a corrup ti on

‘
of leek
’ ’
c ow s -
.

man , w oman churchma n, -

1vo ma n, count ry man, p riz e
man
‘
en ( S ee I NFL E X I ON
Gend er , 5 ) v ixen ( fox)
,
’
.

er : b encher , execut ioner, glov er, ha t t er, i slander ; 7 4

pounder, t hr ee d cck er, p orringer
'

-
’ ‘
F ruit er er has d oub le .
- -
.

Through F rench infl uence come clothi er , la wyer , & c

‘ ’
ending
‘

. .

‘ ’
st er : songster , t onguest er ; roa dster

Classi ca l S nfiwes ad , id ( Gr a nd L a t -a d id . of, or

-
. .
-

‘ a
b el onging t o ; na mes of d escend ant s and of p oems) I li ol
( l lion) , S est ia d ( S est os) JEnei d ( E ‘
neas) Hera cl id , N ereid
farra go, p lu mb ago V
’ '

a go ( L a t ; cp i go
,
-
. . irago, ,

v i rg in lan ugi n- ous, ole a gi n ous -

Ca i t il age ( L at ca r - -
.

til dyo) .
2 401 De nrvar mm— c ou r osrr rou or w or ms .

‘ca na l n 7
al ,
el , ( S ee § 1 3 ) ( channel ), fu n era l , ge er al, hos
piti
(hot el) , j ew el, ma t erial , & c a l l origi na l ly a dj ec t iv es
’
. .
1

Ad ec t iv es from N ou ns, j ‘
a n, ain, 81 0 .
( S ee gram
mari a n, li b rarian ; chapla i n, v illain ; ca mp a ign F
unda
mentally a n a dj ectiv e format ion .

ar , er, or, eer, i er,

'

ary
‘
schola r , v ica r
p ; b ut ler , ca r ent er, cellarer, d raper, messenger
p l ov er,
p risoner, sorcerer, sq uire ( Old er sq uyer t reasurer,
usher ; c ha ncellor , p roprietor ; b riga d ier , cha nd el ier ; engineer ,
mou ntaineer ; digni t a r y, funct ionary, missiona ry
‘
a r , er , ry , ary ( L a t a ri a m l a ce or t hi ng) c ell a r ,
p .

cha rt er, exem p l a r ( sa mp ler ) d ow er, la rd er, saucer ; d ow r yh

lib ra ry, semina ry, v ocab ulary
’
v est ry ; a v ia ry, g ra na ry, .

‘
A rmory
ar d ( N F r a r d , Germ ha r t, O E hea r d : int ensiv e)
. . . . .

‘ wa r ‘
d (L at
’
co ea u d a , ta il ; cp . I tal cod a r do : ha s no . .

co nnexion w i th st a gga r d, ta n a rd ; S a v oya r d ; k

L eonard ‘
Giz z a rd is assi mila t ed from F r gosier , L a t gigemu m "
’ ’ '

. . . .

L iz a rd is
’
F
rench l ez a rd , L a t l acer ta
'

. .

‘ ’
a t e ( su b st ances) cera te, ca rb ona t e, hydrate .

‘
b rum ( L a t p l ac e) ca n d.el a br u m, cereb r um
’
ch g e ( L a t J ens, i ca ) perc h, porch ; forge, serge
.
-
.

ci e ( L at wi da il ler) . m a t ricid e, regicide,

-
k ‘

cra t ( Gr , rul er) : d emocr a t, p l utocr a t

’
. .

em : caser n, cist ern, t av ern

ess ( L a t i ssa , F r esse : see I F L E I O , Gend er ,

. .
5) N X N
fib aroness, duchess, manageress, poet ess
‘
,

ess, i s, ese, ( L a t ens is, of , b elonging t o) : b u rgess,

. .

marq uis ( ma rq uess) Mil a nese, S ia mese Originall y ad ect i v es

’
. j
see 11 .

‘
ic, t i c (originally a d ecti v e end ing) ; cleri e ( cler ) , mystic ;
- -
j k
l ogi e( s) , mat hema t ics, meta p hysic( s) &c .

ina, ine ( Gr i ne L at i na see I N F L E I O , Gender , .

, 5) .
.
X N '

her oi ne, Josephine

i ne, in ( sub stances : fundam entally a d ectiv e ending ) j
casei ne, fiuori ne, p ep sine, t a nni n
.

i st ( 0 11 t he a na logy of nouns from Gree v erb s in isb ) k

‘a ist
rt ,
cal v inist , excursioni st, orist, monarchist , p ianist, fl
t ob a cconist, t olera t ionist
i st er z b a r r i st er , chor istl er , sophist er
’
- - - - -

‘
it e, it ( Gr i l Es L a t i ta ) . cos mop ol i te, hopl it e, I sra el it e,
, .

N ea poli ta n ; Jesui t
’
And in scienti c na mes of sub sta nces . fi
ammoni te, d ol omit e, w eb sterit e

IX . S ee tr ix, b elow . .

a nimals, (
,

on, eon 1on, 0 0 11, one L a t

'

5n 1 bn . .
~ -

or t hing s, li e t o or Connect ed W i th t he Ob j ect denot ed b y t he

,

k .

‘
 NO UN S F ROM A DJE CTI V E S .

root word ; somet imes diminut iv e, somet imes augmentati ve)

‘
c ent u rion, cha mp ion, matron, p at ron fal con, st allion
h al lon, ( enna nt ) , ta lon, b a lloon, b a ssoon,
( e ) s cu t c eon , g p en n on p
k
mu s et oon, sa loon, t rom bone
'
P a wn ( chessma n) is F r p i on,
. .

I ta l p ed one
. .

‘
ry , ery ( L a t a ri a , er ia , F 1 ( e) r i e : collect i ve) :
. . b utt er y,
ca v a l ry, pa nt ry d r a r
p y
e , E n g li sh r y’, g en t r
y ,
m ac hi n er
y,
k
m a sonry, mus et ry, pe asa nt ry, poul t ry .

‘
t or ( S ee v erb root s) : gla d ia tor , anit or
’
j .

‘a
t ri x tor i x, fem of tor
- - . see v erb root s) . ni ir ike, j - -

rop riet rix

p .

y ( L a.t i u-
m p la c
. e) a u d it ory , d or m i t ory , re gi st ra ry

9 II N o u ns d eriv ed fro m A dj e c t iv e s , b y
'

. . a re

means of safixes .

( a ) The chieffor mat ion yie lds a bstr act nouns .

S ufi s ee The follow ing tw o a re t he p rincipal

.
-

ness l his is b y fa r t he chief suf x for conv ert hrg t he

'
fi
a dj t ct i v e int o t he corresp ond ing a b st ra ct noun b old ness,
g ood ness , k
ind ness, sharp ness, w hiteness There are ma ny .

hundreds of t hese comp ou nds i n English

t h, 1; ( sa me as t he a rticipial ending ol) : b rea dth ( b roa d ) ,
p
-

d earth, d ep th, d rong t ( d ry) , heal th ( hale) , height ( form erly

l engt h ( long) , st rengt h, slot h, w idtlr
’
a lso The .

v ow el is short ened or ot herwise cha nged, a nd somet imes

t he f ina l consonant of t he a d ec t iv e is a lso mod i ed j fi .

The ot her a b st ra ct suf xes are l ess u sed fi

‘ ‘
d om : freed om, halidom, w isdom Kingd om is a new
’
.

‘
forma t ion on t he b asis of O E oyned om, royal ( cyne) j u riS w
. .

d ict ion or a uthority ( d am, d oom )

‘
hood : falsehood , hardihood, li elihoo d
’
L i vel ihood
’
k .

‘
once mea nt l iv eliness
’
b ut i t ha s t a en t he p lace of liflode
’
k
( lif la d u, life lea ding mea ns of liv ing .

‘ ‘
b liss is for bli the, from b lithe
’ ’
.

S hip hardship
Classi ca l S uffixes — any ( see y ) .

‘
cracy ( Gr , r ule) ari st ocr a cy, a u t ocrac , oli ocrac
.
y g y
‘
ice i se ess ( L a t i t i a ; F r ice, i se, esse) : j usti ce, m alice ;
.
-
.

‘
fra nchise, merchand ise , p row ess, riches ( for r ichess
‘
i sm 10, I I I a b sol ut ism, conv ent iona lism, o t imism ,
.
p
ssim i sm , roma nt ic ism , t ru ism
p e
‘
l ence l enc y ( from lent) : corp ulenee, opul ence, t urb ulence,
-

’
t urb a lenc y , v irul ence
-
.

mon y ( L a t mon i a , i um) . a crimo n y, sa nctimony

-
’
.

nce, no y ( L a t nt ia , F r no e z from irnp ll part nt)

‘

- o - -
. . .
‘

16
2 42 : DE R I A TI O V N .
— CO M P OS I TI ON or? worms .

‘
a b unda nce, b rilliance, a nc y, delinq uency, eminence, enc y; - - - -

e vid enc e , p re ced e nce, ency -

ry , ery b ra v er y fi nery, pl ea sant ry ,

t ud e ( L a t tud ( i a ) em ) a t itud e,
.
p c ert itu d e,
-
la ssit ud e,
-

magnit ude, mult it ude q uietu de (for q ui et til d e) , plenit ude ,

-

Custom is cmtsaetndi nc m F r cmet ume , . .

t y ( L a t ta t em, F r te ) b ea u ty, b ou nt y cert a int y, cha rit y,

'
' ’
-
.
,
.

cruelty , f acu lt y, fi d el ity ( fea l t ) , honest

y y ( for h o nest ty) , l ib e rt y, -

p uri t y, security (s u ret y) , v ariet y

y ( G r a n d L a t . i a F r i e) m ,
iser .
l
y, p erfidy, phi osophy ; , .

effica cy d elicacy, p ri v acy & c

, , .

F or ot her ca ses of y, see lenc y man y, no y, a b ov e - -

,
- -
.

( b) A f w suffi x e es exp resses a gent or p erson, or i nstr u ment or

rel at ed ob ect j .

N a ti ve S ufi sm er, st er : rit isher , foreigner , p hiloso

—
‘
B
p her ; you ngster
‘
ingJin g ( o ften dimin ) - sw eet ing , w hiti ng da rli ng (d ear) , .

‘
first h ng , you ngling, w ea l ing S ca ntling is a n a ss imilat ion
’
k
of F r eeha nti l lon, w hic h is a di min from a noun, and has
'

. .

not hing t o d o w ith scant

h ( G l ) hi a r ch, monarch
C lass i ca l S nfi xe e —
ar c r ,
r u er : e r . .

ary ( L at a r t a s u m) a d v e rsa r y , secreta r

y ; mort ua r y
’
- -
. . .

k
at e ( l i e pa rt ic ip l es in J u ne) c a nd id a te
‘
cra t ( Gr , rul er) a ristocr a t, a ut oc ra t
.

i st ( on a nal ogy of nouns from Gr v erb s i n ez o) economist, .

-

op timist , p urist , roya li st , spec ia list

11 , an, ai n, en, in, on ( om) ( L a t

‘
6n en 8 u ) z d ea n, .
- -

fou nta in, mou nta in al ie n, d oz en, sov ereign ; chai n, v erm i n ;
da nrson ( d am ascene) , v enom cl ari on, oni on, simp le t on Most
’
- -
.

o f t hese a re origi nally ad ec t iv es j .

s t er ( L a t )
-
mas te r ( ma gisfl r ) , minist er
t , i t (e) , ot ( ) ’
e ( Gr -tes
,
L a t ta ) : h erm it ( erem i
. te) , idiot, .
-

t ri ot ; Cyp riote
p a

IO I I I . . N o u ns are d eriv ed fro m V e rb s .

1 B
( ) y i nter nal mod if
ica tion .

‘ ‘
( a) B y cha nge of r owel : b a nd, b ond ( from b i nd food
( feed) , st ro k ( e st rik e )
( b ) B y m o d i f i
y gn t h e fina l con son a nt b eli )
ef ( b elieve , d itc h

d
( gi ) ,
sp eec h
( ) y
0 B m od i f i
y gn b oth vo w e l a nd cons o
na nt ch oic e ( choose) ,

k
b rea ch ( b rea ) , life (l iv e) , wa tch ( Wa e) , b rea th ( b rea the) , l oss k
( lose ) , li llt
 “
g; a rous e r aom v e n e; 2 43

‘
g ( 2) B y P refiaes 2 Thi s p rocess is indirect : income,
.
out come, out t urn, o ver tu rn, &c

( 3) B y S ttfiixes .

( a ) Exp ressing a gent or p er son, or i nstr u ment or relat ed

‘
N a ti ve S ztfieesL l , el , I e b ea d le, b eetl e ( the a nimal) , fow l
—

B
eet l e ( ma llet) , b r id le, b u ndl e,
g i r dl e, nee d le, ridd l e, sa dd le, - -

k
sail, set t l e (sea t ) , shov el , si c le, s it t les, sp in d le, stile ( O E k - -
. .

stigel) , w hitt le
‘
l ing ( diminuti v e ; som et imes p assiv e)
-
changeli ng, f oster
ling, hireling, suc l ing k
m, om : b a rm ( b ea r) , b loom (blow ) leam ( gl ow) , qu alm
‘

g
,

( q uell) , seam ( sow ) , t eam ( t ow) b lossom ( b ow ) , b osom, b ot t om,

man hangma n P loughman, w a tchman , w ork man

&c .
,
m ayfrom nouns come .

‘
11 , en, on ( p ast p art ie ending) : b airn ( b ea r) , b eacon ( b ec ) ,
. k
b urd en ( b ea r) , hea v en ( heav e) , ma in ( may, 0 E ma g be . .

son b a irn) , t hane ( O E theg ( e) n, then, from v e rb .

‘
serv e t o en ( from v erb k ‘
show wagg on, wain ( from
O E wega n, t o carry
. .

‘ ‘
nd ( O E imp f p a rt ending)
. . ficnd ( from fla n, t o hat e
. .

‘ ‘
friend ( 0 E fr eond , fromfr eon, t o lov e
. . E rra nd (from v erb
b e q u ic k
wi nd ( from v erb b low
‘
ar , er, or : k
b a er , b oOr, b uild er, d elv er, d igg er, idler,
l ant er, p rint er, singer, sp ea er ; b egga r ( formerly k
ia r ; sa ilor ( O E . ow er , chopper, cool er,
. dis B
cla imer, fi j
nger, l air, re oind er, reminder, roller, stair, st reamer,
ti mb er
’
.

‘
st er ( see I nF L e x rox, Gender , § 5) b axter ( O E boecestr e, . .

from b a e k
b rewst er, d eemster or d emp ster (j udge, in I sle of
Ma n and in Channel I slands O E dema n, to d eem or udge) , . . j
rhym est er, sp inst er, t hrow st er
‘
( 1 (pas t pa rt ie ending) : wreath ; cl eft, gift ; b lad e,
.

eed ( d o) , ood, seed fl

Cp ab st ra ct s in these .

end i ngs .

t her t er, d er father , mother, daughter ladder , B

(
b lister bl ow) , fea ther ( from v erb
‘
fly fod der, ladder ( fr om
v erb cl imb rudd er

Cla ssi ca l S ufixes — ad e, ad o ( see b elow . renega de,

d esperad o
ar d , art ( see 8 mixed up with sense of agency) b l in k
a r d , b ra g g a r t ( formerly -
b ragga r d
-
l agga rd p oniard
b ulum ( L a t b ul e, b l e p a.b u ln m ; v estib ul e ; fa b le, st ab le,

v oc a b le -
‘
b ra, a s in v ert ebra is a slight modi cat ion for , fi
eu phony.
2 44
« DE RI A TI O V N .
—
CO M P OS I TI ON or wor ms .

cul u m
‘
( L at ) , ght l y m odi ed t o
, cul e, cl e sli fi dr um (L at ) ,

chre : curricu l u m ; ri d icu le ; mi rac le, art icle, v ehicle ; ful

cr u m, si 1n ula cru m ; se ulchr e
’

p .

‘
p l e ( L at p u lu m) exa mp le te m l e
’
.
p .

C omp a re a lso t rum .

‘
( L e t p p a rt
’
Fr lega tee S o,
'
cc . .
-
at us, -
a ta ; . e, .

a b se ntee, co mmitt ee
ig nee, d ev ot ee, pa yee, r efugee , c ons
’

ma, m, me, 8 m ( Gr a nd L a t , ma , moe ( mus) s m -

. .
- -
,
-

d ip loma , p oe m, p roblem, scheme, t heme c hasm, s a srn,

b a ti sm, chrism , p ri sm, isth mus, cosmos, microc osnr
’
T e s
p
- .

b e ongs origi nal ly t o d eri v a t i v es from Gree v e rb s i n iz o k - .

Many of t hese w ord s are, in t he rst inst ance, a b st ract ; a s fi

‘
b a p t ism, sp asm
’
.

mus, m, me ( L at mue, & c , instrumental agency) anim us, .

-
.

arm f a me, , a me, f u me fl ’

.

men, me, 111 ( L a t m en, p assiv e sub ect)’ ‘

spe cimen, crime,
. j .

v ol ume, c ha rm,
‘ ‘
g er m N oun is from no men ,
’

t hrough rench F .

mnus, mn ( L’ at mnus, & c , passiv e sub ect) : al umnue, .

‘ . j
aut umn, column
‘
11 no ( L at n a s, a , u m ; Gr nos, & c
’

p ossessrng ; cogna te
- - -
. . .

‘
w it h n, on of p p a rt ) :
-
fane, pe n, p la in, p la ne, reign, si gn,
.

th rone .

‘
nd um ( L a t nd g erund ) .m em ora nd u m ; d eod a nd , .

mult ip lica nd, re p rima nd , v ia nd ; dev idend , l egend , p reb e nd

’
.

‘
nt, ( L at irnp t p ar t ) :
. d e fend a nt, m e rcha nt,
. serv a nt ;

Cp A dj ect iv es in ui , ma ny of
'

a cc ident, a gent , c urre nt , st ud ent . .

-

‘
w hich b ecome nou ns, som et i mes wi t h cha ng e of ent t o
’ ’
a nt - -
.

‘
i on on, eon oon ( L at on legion, region ; dra
'
-
.

l u t t on l esson ( l e ct ion) , mason , i eon

p g ; b u ffoon, sp i t toon
’

E
g ,

a b st rac ts
p .

ess I ( see
L E I ON , Gender ,NF X cateress, murderess , p ro
The fem endi ng rep la ces, inst ea d ofb e ing a dd ed t o,
’
ca ress . .

‘
t he m asc ending Emp ress is a n a ssimila t ion ; cont rac t ed ,
'
. s

F
through rench, from i mp er a tr z eem t rix ) -
.

‘
t , a t e, it ( e 1, s( e) , c e, t e, ut e ( L a t p a rts of v erb s) ad v o . . .

c a te, cura t e, l eg a t e, ma nda t e ( Cp ad e) d eb t, conv ent , d ese rt , °

-
.

fact, fru it , insect, j et, j oint , post, r ent , t rac t , v erdict ; spouse,
assiz e, exp ense fosse, resp onse, v erse ; sa uce, source ; note,
v ot e ; sta t u te, t ri b ut e .

‘
t , t e ( Gr tee L at ta ) : ap ost ate, comet, p lanet
’
. . .
,

8 t , ast , ist ( t he s b elongs original ly t o t he Gree v e1 b )

-
k
‘ k
d i ast, ent hu siasm , b ap t ist, ca t echist , Ch ri st
’
S imila r forma
°
.

t ions from nouns a nd a dj ect iv es b y i st a re ab u nda nt -

.

or s or or, er ( L at t or cm, s or em , F r tea r , sea r , & c )

- - - -
. . .

‘
creditor , d eb t or, doc t or, fa ct or, monitor, v ic tor ; censor ,
 N OUN S FR OM V E R B S .

sp onsor, successor Au thor rs a missp ell ing ofL at . a nd

OE . .

‘
E mp eror, gov ernor, j uror, & c ha v e b een
’
a u ctor . . cur t a ile d .

’ ‘
E r ha s oft en u su r ped t he p la ce of or int erp ret er ( L a t i n -
.

terp r cta tor em) , l ev er, prea che r, & c

’
.

t ”or y , S or y , or , our , er ( L at t or i u m, s or i u m -
Fr .
- - °
.

‘
a ud itor y , d ormi t ory, or a t or y, refector
y mirror , raz or ,
°

’
scissors , p a rlou r ; censer , cou nter , l a v er .

t rum, t r e, t er s t r ( L a t tru m) : rostr u m, spectre, cl oister ,

‘ - -
.

monster ’
.

Zita , F r ée) ‘arm mb ly d est iny,

y, ey ( L at p part . .
, .
y, asse ,

ent ry, j ell y, j et t y, j u ry, lev y, q ua rry ; chimney, cov ey, medl ey .

y ( F r .
-
ie) : b at t ery .

( 2 ) Expressi ng acti on w it h freq uent ne w a

p plica t ions t o con
cret e meani ngs .

‘
N a ti ve S ufiaees ing ( 0 E u ng : v erb al nouns) : b eginning, .
-
. .

b lessing ( O E bletsung) , cleansing, draw ing, ending, meet ing,

. .

reasoni ng su f fering, w rit ing,

l ed ge ( O E, la c ; see 10 0k , k now ledge ( O E cna wlac,

. . .

‘
t er : l aughter , sla ught er
th t ( past p art ie end ing)
. . : b irth ( b e ar) , b rot h ( b rew ) , eart h
( ea r , to fi lth (file) , grow th, rut h ( rue) , t il th , dr aught,
°

drift , flight , frost , thought

'
.

” ‘
d d d Md ( L ad
’
Classi ca l S ll 9 —
a a e a a , a/ o a t a tu s,
a : .
-

‘ ‘ ‘
I tal t hrough F r ad o , S p a n )
’ ’
for F r ad e ; ad e ad a
’
. . . .

b alla d , sa lad ; b a rrica de, b l oc ade, escapad e, p romenad e, k

t ira de ; arma d a , b rav a d o .

ag e ( L at a ticu m, F r a ge . orig -
ad ect iv e endin , the
g n . . . j
‘
collect iv e, fi
nall y ab st r a ct) b r ea a ge, carri age, clea v age, m . k
a g e, marriag e, p assa ge, t illage
’
.

‘
al ( L a t a lis ; cp ag e) :
. a rr iv a l, commi ttal, denial, re.

mov al, rev ersal , rev i val, up heav al , w ithd rawal .

‘
r
el , l e ( L a t ca nd le, caut el , q ua rrel, t utel a g e
.
-

‘
i g o ( L a t cp ag o, 8) . impe t i go, v ert igo ; origin (L at:
.

r i gi nem )
o .

‘ ’
in, ine ( L at i na ) rui n ; rapi ne
“
. .

‘
ment ( L at mentum) : at t ainment, argument’ , b ewilderment ,
.

fi
c on nement , f ul lment , imp al ement, t orment fiN ew forma .

k
t ions, l i e some of t he foreog oing, are v ery a b u nd ant They all .

t end strongly t o b e u sed in t he conc ret e ap plica tion as

°

"
a rgument , d ocum ent inst ru ment or na ment .
, ,

mon y ’( Gr and L at man’ i a i u m) : alimony, harmony, .

‘
.
-
,
-

‘
p arsimony (for p arci mony from v erb p a rco, or from adj :

(
nce S ee nouns from Adj ectives) . N ew formatiaons from verh ,
 2 46 DER I A TI O V N .
—
CO M P OS I TI ON or wor ms .

root s are p .l en t i fu l : all ia nce insist a nce -ence

) , rememb rance,
,

t a rriance, v a ri a nce ; existencc, occu rrence

‘
our ( L a t or em, F r cu r ) : cla mou r , fav our,
'

or . err or ,
.

honour la b our , .

‘
sis, sy , se ( Gr a nd L at sis , F r sic, se)
. a nal sis, b asis ,
.
y .

met a morp hosis, periphrasis, t hesis , ep ilepsy, hyp ocrisy, p a lsy

(p a ralysis) , poe sy ; b ase, d ose, elli‘p se, p hra se .

t , it ( e) , s( e) , & c ( see ab ov e) : app et ite, a udit, credit , hab it ,

.

merit ; d ese rt, q u est ; applause, course, lapse, use , a ccess, p ro

S ee al so forms l n acy a nd y
’
c ess .
- -
.

t i on, s ion, ion, son, som, a t i on ( L a t 5 ncm, F r on)

-
.
- .
-

‘
a cti on, conv ict ion, det rit ion, fi ct ion, lotion, restit ut ion,
st a tion cession, conv ul sion, fusion, op p ression , conta i on,
g
ob liv ion, Opinion, su sp icion ; fashion ( f act ion , oison ( p oti on)
) p
"
rea son ( ra t ion) , se a son, t reason ( t ra di t ion) , v eni son Ransom
’

is t hrough F r from L at r cdemp ti onem

. The e ding a ti on
. . n -

i es t he a p p ea ra nce of d eriv a t ion from v erb s of t he a r e con

g v -

era ti on, insulta t ion

’
b h a nd es eciall
j u t i o n : o t p y wi t h ; flc
‘
b e ore it : g
‘
‘ l ori cat ion
fi , y st ifi ca t ion
’
m
corr es ondin
p g to v erb s
i n fy, glorify, mystify , w hich m odify t he L a t form fa c or
’
- -
.

fi c u n d er Fr ench i nfl uence
; .

‘
t ur e , s ar e, ( L at i2ra ; oft en b ecoming concrete) : cap
- .
-

ta r e, censu re, comp osu re, fi ssure, gest ure, p osture, p ressure
a dv entu re, ap erture, crea t ure, d iscomfit u re, emb rasur e, failure,
‘
Armou r ( L at
’
for fei t ure, lect ure, ) ict ure, seiz ure, soil ure
’

l
. .

1
a ma t ur a ) S ev era w ords ta ke thi s end ing b y assimila ti on
. .

‘l eisure l easure, t reasu re

’ '

, p

y, iu m , ( L a t i u m ) . : c ol l oq uy, st udy odi u m N ew

forma t ions : d eliv ery, d iscov ery , inq uiry , and many others .

Compare simil ar ab stracts from nouns .

F or other cases of y, see mon y, ab ov e - - -

.

VATI ON OF A DJECT I V E SDERI .

n De r iv ed Adj e c t iv es are formed from N ouns,

m th
.

fro o er Adj ect ives, a nd from V er bs .

N ouns are v ery largely used as adj ectiv es w ithout any change

“
of form V erb s a re v ery sp aringly emp loyed in t he same w ay
. .

I . A dj ectiv es are d eriv ed fro m N o uns, b y means

N a ti v e S ufixes — d , ed ( past p art ic end ing :

. endowed .

‘
furni shed wi t h : cer t i ca ted , feat hered, ei erienced, gi ft ed , fi
moneyed , regg e saint ed, s illed )’

a n a dj ect iv e ac comp a ni es t he noun

‘
i common w hen
0 ose-fisted, l eft handed,
k . p
mi ddl e aged rigM -mh ded wrong-headed a a ’
.
 A D ECT I J V ES F R OM N OUN S .

‘ ‘
ma teri al) b raz en, fl a xen,
‘
’
of
'
en ( b elonging t o of
o l d e n, lea t hern, oa kcn, wa xen, W hea t en, w ood en w ool len
g ,
‘
er n : -
east er n, nort hern, sout her n, w e s t e rn
- -

er ly (
-
co m pa r e -
l y, b el ow) easter ly, & c .

‘
fa st ( 0 E ftest, firm)
. . rootfast, sha m ef a st ( u su ally s elled
p
sha me fa‘ced sted f a st
’
ful a wfu l , ca r eful , ga inf ul , hop eful , t ru thf ul

ish ( possessing some lea ding q u al ity of t he noun ; a tt a ched

to b elongi ng t o) b ook ish, b oyish, foolish, sel fi sh, sl av ish ;
E nglish, W elsh, Dut ch
’
.

‘
l ess ( 0 E lea s, loose ; ;priva t ion or negation)
’
a
. .

c hee rless, f ea rl ess, frie ndless, l a w le ss, sensel ess, sl ee les

p
lik e, ly ( resemb la nce, li keness) childl ik e, court ly, godl ik e,
l or dl y, lov ely, ma nlike, manly, yea rly, w a rl ik e
‘
some ( 0 E sum, Germ sa m ; a nother f orm of same ;
’
- -
. . .

p ossessing t he q ua lit y of t he noun) : a dv e n t ureso m e,

b u rden
some, d elight some, ha nd some
’
.

‘
w ard ( b ecoming, t urned in t he direction of) : homewa r d,
These w ords are p rob ab ly to b e con
’
land w ar d, sout hw ard . .

side red a s ad v erb s .

‘
e ( t he q ua l it y of t he noun) a iry, b almy, l oudy,
y, y c
fl owery, foggy, grassy, lofty, oily, see dy, silv ery, wa t ery, & c .

Cla ssi ca l S ufixcs — ab l e ( S ee . fa shiona ble, mark etab le,

’
ob j ect iona b l e serv i c eab le . .

‘
c, ac,
a
i c, t ic, -
L at ic ti c -
e =demonia c,
g ( Gr . and .
- -

maniac B
rita nnic, civ ic, cl eric , d ogmati c, generi c magic,
myst ic, ub l ic, schismat ic, st ra t egic a q uati c, Asiat ic, domest ic,
fa nat ic un t c a i
’ ‘
W ith ist chara ct eri stic, fet ichistic, medium -

ist ic, ri t ual ist ic

‘
W ith additional ending cl eri c al, magical , mystical , -

ragma ti c a l b el li c ose
p
- -

S a v age is L a t si lv a tia u s, t hrough F r sa nv a gc .

-
.
-
.

d , id ( Gr ci d és l ik e) : alk aloid , ov oid , t yphoid

-
‘ ’

m
. .

for ( L a t for mis) . dend rifor m, penniform , p orifonn -

‘
1, al , el , il ( e) , l e, ( L a t d lis, EZi s, i lis) annua l , ca p it al,
'

- L .
- -

l it eral, nom inal, rega l ad di t ional , fessional , regiment al ,

p ro

&c cru el ; civ i l, g en t i le ( nt le n t e l ) h t ile j u nt y,

.
g e , g e e , os , a

u erile h u m b le V ery ma ny a dj ec t i ves in a t are conv ert ed

p
- -

i nt o nouns ( S ee .

Occasionally a t is add ed t o or t ak es t he pl ace of ot her end ings .

‘
E sp ecially it is a dd ed to i c ( S ee ab ov e) b ib l ic a l, cub ical ,
‘
- -

l ogic al ( l ogic ha v i ng b ec ome a norm ) Op celcs t i a l ( L a t

‘
- - -
. . .

ca l est i s) , f
- -
est i v a l ( L at fest i v a s) , p a t er n a l ( L a t p a ter nu s)
- -
.
- - - -
.
-
.

l ent ( L at lcnt us) . corp u le

'

nt, fraud ulent, op ul ent, somnoa l

l ent , t u rb ulent
‘huma n,
11, an, ane, ian ( L at dna s, F r a n, a in, a ine, icn) . .
2 48 Dnnrv a r i on .
— co nr osrrrox or t
wonns .

p agan ; America n, E liz ab ethan, Roman ; huma ne munda ne, ,

u rb a ne Christ ia n, Ciceronian, prac torian N eap ol ita n, cosmo

ol it a n
p
There are numerous new format ions w ithout reference t o t he
ori ginal L a tin endi n
g b arb a ria n ( L a t a s) , Corint hia n, .
-

E t ru scan, p leb eian, Unita ria n ; ci v ilia n ( L at is) , eq uestria n .

-

-
cstr i s) , p ed est ria n S penserian W alp olia n .

n, an eous, a n ean, aign, eign, en, ( L a t a n

- - o
.
-
eu s, Fr . a in)
cont emp ora neous, s onta neou s,
p s ub t erra nea n, cha mpa ig n;
foreign ( old er foren
’
sud d en .

‘
-
n, ene. ine ( L a t 5n ia .
- - t errene ; N az arene ; a d ama n
t ine, asini ne, b ov ine, di v ine, equ ine, feli ne, ma rine, saline
J ugurt hine
( L at (i ri s
) p rt icula r , p erp endi cular , op ul a r,
t}
-
r , ar , a . a
p
regul ar, sec milita ry p a lmary ar ,

-
r, ar y ari ous, ari a n ( L a t ar ia s)
-
, arb it ra ry, cust om i -
.
-

ary, hered ita ry honorary, i maginary, l egi onary, p ar l ia menta ry,

,

rev ol ut iona ry t rib u tar y ; g re a ri ous, nef

a rious ; v al et udin a r i
g
-
,

a n, lat it udina rian, ut il ita ri an

‘
ese ( L a t ensis, I t al ese) : Chinese, Mal tese ; Johnsonese
’
. . .

‘ urt eous ’ 0 F r m rteis) has assi mila t ed itself t o m es

Co (
‘

. . .

P ea sa nt is F r p a ysa n L a t p a gmi sis .

, . .

esq u e ,
-
i ce ,
-
is ( L at i scus, F r esq ue : op E n.
gl i sh) . . .

‘
a ra b esq ue, rot esq u e Moresq ue ( morri ce m orri s dance,
Moorish
g . or

p icturesq ue, sta tuesqu e

‘
ose, ous ( L a t bsus, F r ea se, ouse) :
. op erose, schistose, .

v erb ose cala mitous, env ious, gl ori ou s, p eri lous, p ernicious,
st u diou s, v i ct orious N ew forma t ions are ab unda nt : a v ari
cious, b u rglari ous, fel onious , m urderous, rap t urous, sl and erou s,

“
u p roa rious, w ondrous ;
i ous, ost enta tious
’
c ont entious,
.
cont radi ctions, disp ut a

‘ ‘
F or L at us :
. consa nguineou s ( Cp
-
sa nguine d ecorous, .

igneous, noxious, u xorious

‘ ’
F or L a t is .
-
ill ust rious, scurril ou s .

‘
Ad d ed to ac fa ri n a c-e ous ( L a t n a e a s) , gallinaceous,
- - -
.
-

‘
h erb aceous so ca rb onaceou s, cru st aceou s, p earl a ceous To
-
ari r
g g e a r i o u -s ( L a t a
-
r- i -a s
) , n ef a ri ou s, p reca ri ou s
. To -

‘ ‘
-
ic b ell i c ose - To fer
-
au ri fer ous ( L a t for ) , car
- - -
.

b o niferous To g er a rmi-ger ou s ( L a t ger ) , p lumigerous - -

-
.

‘ ‘
B oisterou s ( O E bostois) , co urt eous ( see ese) , a nd right
’
. .

O ) re assimilat ions
’
( f i h i E h
’
eou s or r g t w se ,
r-i tw i s , a . . .

t ( L a t tus)
. honest , mod est , rob u st
‘
t , at e, ut e ( on analo’gy of p ar tici pl es) delica te, d enta te,
laur eate a st ute, cornut e S o, af fect ionat e, ( com )p a ssionate
.
-

‘
t ime ( L at timus) maritime ; l egiti m at e
’
-
. .

iv e ( L at i vus) . festi ve, furti v e, inst inctive

 ADJ E CTI V E S F R OM A DJ E CTI V E S .

‘
y ( L a t iv
u s ,
F r f)
i .: oll y, massy ( m assive) , t est y
. j ’
.

‘
as if a dd ed t o nouns in sor ) :
y ( L a t i us t or , a ccessory, - -
, .

ama t ory, hort a t ory, ma nd a t ory, p ersua sory

’
.

l2 . II . Adj e c t iv e s form ed fro m o t he r A d ar e

j e c t iv e s , p a rtl b
y y P refixes, and p ar tl y b
y S u f
fix es .

B
P r efixes — ot h N a tiv e and Classical P re xes hav e a lready
. fi
‘
2 5 ) b een exemp li ed : a w eary n one, over confid e nt , nu fi -
,
-

d ogmat ic, Co t erminou s, d emi pa ga n,

’
ab le, -
w ield y, & c -
.

d is courteous,
-
credit ab le, i nt erest ed, p ass
-
i o n a t e, i l l i b eral , - - -

i m mutab le, i n a t t ent iv e, i nter colonial , - nat ional, non seq ua

- - - -

ciou s, p ost d il uv ian, p r e scient ific ,

-
eter na t ura l, su b a ci d su er
, p
-
m - -

fine, s up r a renal , u ltr a Cat holic p hi lo T ur ish

-
’
-
,
-
k .

‘
N a ti ve S i lW CS f0 1d tenfold , sixt yfold, m anifol d
—

‘
ish ( diminut iv e : slightly
‘
b la cki sh, du llish
’
.

‘
l y z cl eanly, d eadly, elderly, good ly, li kely, l onely, only
( one ) , sickl‘
y, weakly
’

some : d arksome, irk some, lissom e ( lit he) , l onesome

te
‘
t een ( n) : t hi rteen, ninet een
t h, d ( ordinal numb ers) : fourt h fi ft h, hundred th ; t hi rd
’
,

t y ( t en) : t wenty, t hirty, ninet y

’

‘
Cla ssi ca l S ufixcs ar d , heart dulla r d, sw eethea r t,
.
—

’
wiz ard .

‘
c, ic
- Add ed t o ens for ens ic ( L at for cnsi s : cp l - - -
.

‘
l o est : a gr est i c ( L a t r esti s

(
ese) a g cp -
. - -
. . .

i q ue L a t nous,
c
.

‘a
l , al ( Add ed t o ic ngel ic a l , ca noni ca l, comi al, - - -

hist ori cal , whimsical Oft en t he form i n i c d oes not now

’
-
.

e xi st To -id ( C 1 -ei d d alo id a l, ov oid a l To

y
-
. . .

‘ ’
-
r n-
ete rna l ( L a t oeter nus) , inferna , noc turna l T o es t
. .
- -

‘ ‘ ’

( L at coel est is) To st r t err estr i a l ( L at ;

’
ceL est ia l -
.
- -
.
- - - -

( W W ) ’
-
l, e1 ( L at . el lus, &c .
) nov el .

‘
.

ian ai n, & c . en ( L at . an en mea n, tert ian,

’
v et e ra n ; d oz en
certa i n ; alien, .

‘ ’
Add ed t o ari a nt iq u a ri a n, se t u ag enaria n To ic
p’
- - - -
.

‘
u b l ic an ; a t r i c i a n, t rib un 1 cia n To e3 t r e u cei r
p p q
- - - - - -

‘ ’
i a n, p ed est ria n .

‘ ‘
m (
’
l
p , e b l e ( L a t p leat ,
f old ) z si p le, d ou b le L a t d up lex
) ,
.

’
t reb le, t rip le, q uad ru l e, q ui nt up l e, & c
p
.

‘
S imil a r 1s for L a t simi l-is
’
r, ar ( L at a r ts) :
.
sing ula r . . .

‘
p ri ma r y, sec’onda ry, solita ry .
’
-
r , ary ( L at a r i a s) : .

‘
ous p recip it ous, wrongou s .

Added to a o ic a11-
fer ger - see § I L - - -
i2 50 DERI ATI O V N .
—
CO M P OS I TI ON or WOR DS .

‘
et , et t e ( F L ) : b runette, dulcet, russet .

‘
-
t , at e 1 1) a ureat e, cand ida te
( orig an adj . . roseat e ,
int ir h a te, legit im- ate

IS I I I Many A dj e c t iv es are formed fro m V e r b s

. . .

( 1) The P a r ticip les, imperfect and perfect , of t he V erb are

‘ ‘
often c onv ert ed i nt o Adj ect iv es
'
a p a y ing occu a t ion a
p
‘ ‘
a seemi ng di sere a ncy
’
ou tlyi ng dist rict s ,
’
r oa ri ng l ion ,
'

‘
conq uer ed p rov inces ,
’
d ep a r ted sp irit s , t he d oc shi
‘ sca ed crimi nals
e p ,
‘
p ent up energy ,
‘
‘ ’
r u na u a y horses ,
‘
u ls
bou nd en dut
y m g
olten old ; u nt au ht, u ncomfort ed,
g
‘
‘
Uncouth I S lit erally u n now n
’
k .

( 2) Adj ect iv es formed from V erb s b y S uficces

are .

‘
N ati v e S ufizees —
ful forgetfu l, w a eful
. Comp are 0 E k . .

assimila t ion
'

f g
or i tol,
w a col T h e f. u l 1 s a n -
.

fik
l e : b ritt le, c le ( O E ficol, nimb le ( O E numb . . . .

‘
l ess : exhaust less, q uenchless, shunless
‘
b it ter ( b it e) , slipper y
’
r , er -
.

‘
some b uxom ( z b ugh some, from buga n, to b ow
meddlesome , noisome ( F r noisi r ) , t iresome . .

‘
b right, right , swi ft
’

( past p a rt ie .

‘
.

b l ow y, d oughty ( f rom d uga n, t o b e ab l e, t o

y .

k k
sha y, st ic y, sul t ry ( swelter y) - .

‘
Cla ssica l S uffi xes id ( L at id us) —
arid , candid, f rigid, .
’
-

humid, rap id , spl endid , t imid, turb id

‘
N ea t , F r net, is L a t ni tid us
’
. . .

-
l , b l, b il e, ab l e, ib l e, ( i) l e ( L at
- b) il is) , ab le , most ly .
- -

‘
as siv e, somet im es act iv e) m ob i le ; commenda ble, l au da b l e,
p
p rob ab l e ; c redib le, d ef ensib le, h orrib l e,
p l a usib le, t er rib l e

feeb le ( L a t fle bi lis) , nob l e, sta b l e, v olu b le ; fert i le ,

.
-
ssile, fi
fragil e ( frail ) , v ersa t ile ab le ( formerly ha b le L at ha b i lis) .
-

N umerous new format ions a t ta ina b l e, b elie v a b l e, cred ib l e,

changeab l e ( mutab l e) , ea t ab l e ( ed ib le) , illab l e, maint a inab le, k

k
renov a b l e, t hin ab l e, w arra nt ab le
’
.

-
nd, und , b und , cund, ond ( L a t ; gerund form ; p art i
‘
cip ial se nse) fac und , j ocu nd, morib und , rotund ( round) ,
.

ru b icu nd , second , v aga b ond .

‘
nt ( L at i mp f
. ab u nda nt, d ist ant , const ant , d orm a nt ;
.

eminent, l a t ent , p rov ident (p ru d ent ) , urgent .

‘
cl ear , dir e, m ea g re, p ure
’
-
r, re ( L at r -
.

-i
.

‘ n m fl
ou s co sc iou s ( L a t a ) , o n iv orous, su er u ous,
p .

vi v i pa rous
’
A d ded t o a, o cap ao i ous ( I at a o s) , f
- -
alla cious, t enaci ous
-
.
-
.

u ous ( L at u us _ v us ; p art icip sense, a cti ve or p a ssiv e)

. .

‘ on ruous cons i cuous d eciduous

m 1 ( L
’
c g , p , , g e n u ou s 11 o n e at .
 A ura cr rv a s F ROM va nes . v a ne s FROM nouns .
t
2 51

‘
ul one to p art ici ia l sense ) b ib u lou s, credul ous, garm
-a s 1
, p , p
it ious ( L a t i c i u s, add ed t o
’
l ous, q uerulous, sed ulous .
-
.
-
&c .

‘
a d v enti ti ous, nut rit ious su p osit it ious
’
sup i ne) .
p surrep t it ious .

‘
-
t , a t e, et e, it e, ut e, se ( L a t p p a rt ) c og na te, c on . . .

sid e ra t e, d esola t e, p ri v a t e ; c ompl ete, conc rete, d iscreet , secret ;

comp osi te, fi
nit e , e1 ect, st ric t , a cu te, m inu t e, m ut e, resolut e
c lose, i mmense, sp a rse, t ense, t erse
’
cha st e .

s or y , t or y L a t -s or - i u s, t or i ns) : a m atory, exp osit ory,

(
- - o -
.

p romi ssor y, sensory Compa re 10, a nd

’
ho1 ta t o1y 1 1, y, .

end

iv e, ifl , y ( L at i vu s, -us, F r if ; oined t o sup ines w it h

'

. .
-
j
‘
sense of impf p art icip l e, ra 1 el y of p . a ct i ve, a t t ent iv e, .

execut iv e, i ngi t iv e, p ensiv e, sub v ersiv e , ca ti v e, na ti v e ( na i ve) ,

p
‘
ca itifi ( ca pt iv e) Many of t hese are u sed as nouns
'

. B ailifi, .

p l a int if f are , p erha p s alw ays nouns now H a st y, p ursy ( F r . .

p o u r cif, p o u s sif ) N e w fo rma t ions a re not uncomm on

. com
b a t iv e, forget iv e, t al at iv e k
The p assi v e ap pl icat ion, a s in -
’

k ‘
S ha esp eare s insuppressi ve mett le , is not t o b e encouraged
’ ’

DE R I VATI ON OF V E R B S .

14 De r iv e d V e r b s a re formed from N ouns, from

.

Adj ecti ves, and from other Ver bs .

N ou ns A d ect iv es a nd j are v ery freq u ently used as V erb s

wit hout a ny change .

I . V e rb s are deriv ed fro m N o uns;

B y P r efixes, 2

(2 . B y S ufixes .

k muffle, quib b le ( quip) , ‘ neel

N ati v e S ufia es l, e] : .
-
,

sp a 1 kl e, t hrot t le .

-
n, en ( ca usa t iv e) heighten, lengthen, strengt hen .

‘
Cla ssica l S ufixes —
at e ( L at sup ine, Etu m) anima te; .

cul minat e , exagg erat e, germina te, mili ta t e, mod ulat e, p op ula t e,
’
sta gnat e .

eer, er ( L at . a r e, a ri ; Fr .
-
er ) : domineer ( cp . d ominate
’
ca t er .

fy fy edify, mod ify de

‘
1- ,

iz e, i se, ( Gr i z o, F r iser cau sat iv e) . appeti z e, . . . ep it o miz e,

1l v eriz e serm oniz e, sub sid iz e, t ant aliz e, t yra nniz e
’

p 1 ,

i sh and it s S ee § 16 .

( )
c o f b oth .
2 52 Dnnrv a r ros .
—
co mp os1r 10 N or wonns .

(a ) . Bl d ee ( b lood) , gild (g old)

’
.

B ulg e ( b u l k) , cal v e, cl ot he, halv e, house,

p n z e ( price) ,
shel v e, t hiev e, w reat he
’
.

B
a t he ( b at h) , b reat he, gl az e,
graz e (grass) , hit ch
Ma ny w ords a re nouns or v erb s a ccor ding to the p la ce of the
accent : ab st ra ct , — ab st ract acc ent — ac c ent augm ent,
— a ugment c omp ou nd , — comp o und confli ct , — c on fli ct
c ont rast , cont 1n st
-
d igest , — d ig est i m port, — imp ort
su bj ect , — sub j ect s ur v ey, — surv é t orment — torm ent
y
These a re al l of L at in ori n
'

h
.

I t has also b een seen t at our l anguage p ermit s the free con
v ersion of a noun into a v erb , and t he opp osit e, wit hout a ny
cha nge .

The g eneral effect of t hese deriv at ions is t o enab l e t he m ea ning

of t he noun t o b eco me ac t i v e, or t o ex ress t he fact of its b eing
p ,

imp arted to som et hing The chi ef excep tion is seen in t he.

negat iv e p re xes fi .

15 . II . V e rb s are d eri ved fro m A dj e c t iv e s .

B y P r efixes 2
B y S ufixes .

N a ti ve S ufia ea — m, en ( causativ e) : b l ac en, fatt en, k ripen,

short en, sweet en

r,
.
e r ( ca u sa t
. iv e) : hi n d er ,
l ow er
‘
se ( c a usat iv e) cl ea nse, ri nse ( cp Germ r ei n, pure . .

Cla ssica l S ufia es —at e ( L a t su ine,

p . &tu m) aliena te, .

cel eb r a t e, int eg r
at e,
p art icip a t e

W ith forma ti ve syll ab le i t d eb il it a te, facili ta t e, grav i

- - -

t at e

‘
iz e, is 1 4) civ il iz e , fert iliz e, humaniz e, r ealiz e

ish S ee § 1 6
. .

B y Cha nge of V owel : fil l ( full) .

The erfect oft his conv ersion is almost uni formly t o signify t he
impart ing of t he q u al ity connot ed b y t he a dj ect iv e .

I6 I I I
. . V e rb s a re extensiv ely deri v ed fro m V e rb s .

B y P r efixes 2
By S q .

ve S ufl xes k( q fre .u en
— t a t iv e) h ar ( hea r), t al ( )
t ell k k
I e (t h e same) c r ump l e ( crim ) d az z l e ( daz e) , drib b l e ( d rip) ,
p ,

ra l ( r i ) st ra d dl e ( st rid e) , w a dd l e
g pp e g p ,

er ( d iminut ive and freq uent a tiv e) b a tter (b ea t), ut t er, fl

gli mm e r (g l ea m ) p
, a t t er (p ) , p ter
at s u t
 . F OR
‘

M ATI ON OF VE RB S AN D AD E RB S V .
'

‘
Cla ssi l S ufixes at e ( L at sup ine, &tu m)
.
—
crea te, dictate,
, .

inst igat e, mig rat e nav ig at e ,

W ith format iv e sy lla b le -it ( freq uent ativ e) : ag -ii a te, -

’
cog ita te, hesita t e, pal pita t e .

esce, ish ( L at escere ; F r iss ( L a t isc e se ) in v erb s in

’

-
.
- . . .
.

.i r , L at i r e gro wing or t ending to ) :

.
-
coalesce, ef ferv esce ;
languish, p erish, rav ish, rel inq uish
A step fu rt her b a c k
w ould somet imes b ri ng us t o nouns
‘ a mish
f fi ’
nish , p unish ; or t o a d ec tiv es :
‘
ourish, cherish, j fl
m
,

di inish, emb ellish, esta b lish, replenish

g e ( L a t -
i cdr e.
, F r ger ) : cha rge, u dge ,.
-
v en e
g
’
j .

‘
l t , it e ( L a t supine l tum) :
’
ed i t ; exp edite, i nit e The
.
g .

L a tin forms ofthe t wo la st are from noun roots .

‘
B y mod ifyi ng the V owels, or Cmi sona nts, or both drip
( drop) , fell ( fall) roost ( rest ) , raise ( rise) , reel ( roll) , set ( sit )
,

snu ff ( sniff) , d odge ( d og) , b l ench (b lin ) , dredge ( dra g) , drench k

k
( drin ) , tw it ch ( t wea ) , w at ch ( w a e) , wrench k Most k
oft hese d eriv a t iv es a re causa tiv e v erb s .

‘ ’
B y p ostfia i ng A dver bs a nd P r ep ositi ons : ou t , as find
‘ ‘
k
l uc ou t ,
’ ‘
b ea r w i th b ri ng i n ‘
fa ll in cl imb up ,
’

li
ea v e to d esp air of These p ost fixed w ords are t o b e con
’
.

sidered in ma ny ca ses as a rt of t he v erb , al though not onl not

fused with it , li e the o inary suf k fixes, b ut suscept ib le of ing
remov ed t o a dista nce b y t he ob ect coming b et w een find hi m j
b ut p l uc i t ou t kb ring th messenger in send the thi ngs e .

They oft en a cq uire a mea ning not expl ained b y t he

’
a w ay .

‘
sepa ra t e mea nings of t he p art s : find out is no more t o b e
‘
p a rsed a s tw o w ords t han in vent M oreov er, w e find v erb al
‘
nouns formed from t hem t he l oc k er on entra nce i n
‘
g o ing s o u t t he cl imb e r u pw ar d W e m ay

hav e t w o d if ferent m eanings from t he same c onst itu ent s differ

‘ ‘
ov ercom e com e ov er
’
ently p l ac ed : a s .

To sum up in deriv ing v erb s from v erb s, w e hav e somet imes

li ttle more t han a synonyme a rise in ot her ca ses, a d iminu tiv e,
or freq uenta t iv e force a nd i n some inst a nces a n int e nsiv e ef fect .

T he ca usati v e v erb s are a dist inct cla ss Among t he m ost imp ort .

a nt d eriv a t iv es a re t hose t ha t nega t i ve in some w a or ot her t he

y
meaning of t he simple v erb
‘
.

DE R I V AT I ON OF A D VERB S .

I7 A d v e r b s are formed
.
p r in c ip a lly fro m
A dj e c t iv e s a nd N o u ns .

B y P r efixes Th ese hav e already b een exempli

. fi ed
‘a-
b ed, -ground , -head a wry ; a down ; ( l l one, -
-
25 41 n e wl i n es ov Wonns
'

-
hind , ides, times n-ev er
-s -
or to day, m ight ; u nder ground
- -
’
.
‘A a
p ce, a p art , a cross per a d v ent ure cha nce, hap s
- - -

B y N a ti ve S uficces .

l y is now b y fa r t he p rincip al ending w hereb y adv erb s a re

'

d eri ed from a dj ecti ves ca reful ly, gent ly ( f

‘
v or
gentle ly
-

hone t ly, hopelessly, prob ab ly ( for p rob a b le ly smoot hly;

s
-

sw i f
t y
Also from p a r ti cip les b eseechingly, confidingly,
111gly , fal t eringly, p erp lexi ngly unflinch ingly ;
d isconnect edly, p oint edly unw eariedly
F rom nouns
‘
ha ly, p urposely ; monthly, W ee ly k
‘
lingf long : dar li ng, fla t ling head long
mea l ( d iv ision) limb mea l, p iec emea l
w ar d , w ar ds d ow nw a r d ( s) , forw ard (s) forth
F
rowa r d a nd w ayw a r d are a d ect iv es j .

w y, w st ra ightu a y, nowa ys
‘
a a s
y
-

w i se l1k ew ise, ot herw ise

V a rious i nflex imm l endi ngs may also b e noted
‘
Genitives end in 3 , es, se, ce a l wa ys b esid es, b et imes, ,

needs, now a days, u na wares, u p w a rd s else ( 0 E ell es) once; . .

tw ice, t hrice ( older ones, t wi es, thr ies)

The - t in some w ords of t his class is a n a ccret ion a midst,
a mong st , b et w ixt, w hil st , f or
‘ a middes , & c
’ '
.

‘
Da ti ves seldom, w hilom ( O E I n Oldest English,
. .

t he a d v w as formed from t he corresponding a dj ect i v e b y a cl d ing

.

-
e -
a da t iv e suf x fif oes t fast -
e fa st
A ccusa ti ves al wa y, now ay, ot her wi se, sometime, b ac k
w ard ; t hen, t han
I nstr umenta ls the ( with comparativ es) , t hus ( t his) , how ,
why
‘
Here, there, w here, hither , t hither, whither a re loca t ives
from p ronominal roots Hence, t hence, whence , seem t o
.
’

‘
c omb ine a loca t iv e a nd a genit iv e sufli x -
n cc es) -
.

S et t ing a sid e the regula r format ion in ly a nd t he instance s

o finf lexi onal endings, the rema ining a d v erb s are r eally p hrases .

One leading cla ss show s a union of rep osit ion ( chie y a a nd fl

noun a sl eep ,
-
be sid es, p er c ance
-
Ot hers show a n -

a dj ect iv e a nd a noun c oal escing, t he p reposition b eing a b sent

now ay, ot herwise

DE R I V AT I ON ' '

on P nnr osrr rons.

I8 } The chief P rep ositions are p rimit iv e w ord s of the

E ng lish l ang uage, a nd hav e corresp onding forms in the
other la nguages of t he I ndo E urop ean family -
a t, b y,
for, in, of, on, to, w i th ,
1
 P nnr osrr rons AN D c o m us cr rons . 255

I n from , t he m is a superlat iv e ending

’
- .

‘
Comp a ra ti ve endings a ppear in a few prep osit ions af ter (af .

‘ E of er , f1 om root of o
of, from ov er ( 0
‘
.
f) .
; und er
( comp are L a t i nter : from i n) Also in ere
. E cc r
. .

ea rlier,
‘ ‘
To w a r d (s) is in t he direction of , in t he direct ion indi
’
-

ca te d b
y to
A la rge numb er of p r ositions are really shortened phras es
b esid e, b ehin e
p
in t he mid st mi d des t,
mi d b eing a dj and t a n accret ion) of , b y t he side of , & c
’
. .

L k
‘ i e near next &c
’
a dj ect i v e
p ra ctica lly used a s
‘ s
, , , are .

‘
p reposi t ions, through t he omissi on of t o
’
l i e to near t o ,k ’

&c .

‘ ’
P a r ti cip les notw it hst a nding, owi ng t o .

‘ ‘
S i mp le : per, p ro, sans
’
Cla ssi ca l P r epositi ons . Across
‘
is a short ened phrase Maugre , mi nu s, rou nd a d ecti v es
. j .

The chi ef i nst a nces are o1 iginally p a r ticip les c onc e rnin ,
g
d ur ing, excep ting, regardi ng, t ouchi ng excep t (ed ) , pa st, sav e .

DE RI VATI ON OF CO NJ U NCT I ONS .

l9 A v ery few ar e simp le w ords of the language

.

‘and if t hat
, ,

N early all the w ords that serv e as Conj unctions are

app rop ria te d from other p ar ts of speech, chiefly a nd

more immediately fro m t he A d v e rb a nd t he P re

p o s it io n .

‘
j
A dver bi a l con uncti ons : also li ewise, t hen, furt he1 , st ill, k
ore, a ccordingly, el se, b e ca u se, since, as, w hen
’
only, t heref .

‘ ‘ ‘
Or, nor , are condensa t ions of other or either ,
’ ’
nother or
neither
’
.

P r ep osi ti ona l con unctions j

b ut , for, excep t , after,
And some ofthese are fundamentall y ad v erbi al
’
until . .

2 0 Of all the p urp oses of forming deriv ativ es, none

.

is of more conseq uence than t he signifying of h eg a

t io n, c o nt ra r ie t y, or o p p o s it io n .

After exp r essing a thing, q uali ty, or act ion, w e need t o ha v e

t he means of exp ressing t he a b sence or nega t ion of t he t hi ng .

This has b een largely p l ov ided for i n our s st em ofP 1 efixes a nd

y
fi
S u f xes, b ut still not a deq uat ely and it i s u sefu l t o now t he k
circ uml ocu t ions t hat a re in reserv e w hen these fa il u s .

‘
The chief p refixes are, di s, in, m is, 11 , non, 1 c, nu
’
a nd t he

s ufie is less The emp loyment of these ha s b een cap riciously

25 6 DERI ATI O V N .
— CO M P OS I TI ON or wo r ms .

limited b ut the use of nega ti v e pr efi xes t o nou ns is slowly

rev iv in Tennyson uses disfame, misfait h, u nfa it h, e m
cha rit y
g &c
.

I n some ca ses w e hav e sep a ra te wor ds for t he opp osit e of a

mea ning : L ight , d ark ‘ ‘ ’
hot , c old light, hea vy hard ,
soft ri ch, ind ust riou s, idle nmt h, sout h
le sure, pa in
p oor
’

b i
a ct ion , cl ev er , st up id seein ,
p a ssion g
1 11

I n t echnical a nd scient i c la nguage w e c an pre x not fi To fi

‘
si gnif y all c’olours excep t w hit e, w e may sa y
’
not white ; -

‘
me not me , round, not round
.
- -

The c hief ci r c nmloeut i ons a re seen i n such examples as t he

“
follow ing That w as t he ver y Op p osi te ( or r everse) of ca nd our
t ha t w ould b e a nything bu t reasonab l e
‘
‘
v ery fa r fr om
’

reasonab le ;
’
his cond uct show ed a gr ea t w a nt (a bsence) of
fi
sel shness These for ms are oft en used t o a v oid t he ha rshness
of t he ot her m ore di rec t nega t i v e forms t o rel at e d isagreea b le
‘
t i n tha of a neighb our is fa r fr om i nnocent ; so, fa r fro m
’

ret ty is softer t han ugly rea t w a nt of consid era t ion

p a
g
1s b a ldl y so st rong as i nconsid erat e

2I . M o d ifie d F o rms .

The follow i ng a re exa mpl es ofshor te ned forms a im ( 0 Fr . .

esmer , L a t oesti ina r e, to. a lms ( Gr eleévnj sgné , .

r

‘ ‘
O E w lmesse) , ant ( O E oemet , b inna cle ( formerly
’ ’
. . . .

fib it ta cl e ; F r ha bi ta cle, L a t h a bi ta cu l um) ; ‘b ri
’ ’
. .
g ( b ri a nt ine) ,
g
‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
b us ( omnib u s) , ca b ( ca b riolet )
’ ’ ’ ’
ca d ( ca dg e r) , cha nge ( ex
‘ ’ ‘ ‘ ’ ‘
cha nge) , censer ( i ncense) , cess
‘
( asses) ,
‘
cit ( ci t iz en) , con
‘ ’ ’

( for con‘ tra in p ro a nd c onsol s ( consolidat ed

‘ ‘
money s) , coz ( cousin) , dra wing room ( withd ra w ing) , dropsy
’ ’
-

‘
(‘forme’ rly hydropisy from Gr Ii i/d r op s, from hyd or w at er
.

‘
b undle up ) ; j ury ma st ,
’
fu rl r udd er
- -
( inj ury)
‘ ‘ ‘
larceny ( L at la tr ocini u m)
. li mn ( illu m ina te) , l one
‘
( a lone) , miss ( mist ress) , mit e ( minute) mob ( O E m’ obi le,
’
. .
,
‘ ‘
L a t mobi le ( v ulg us) ,
. easily m ov ed , p arrot ( Fr .

‘ ‘
m (
’
h i ) i re nt ice) ,
’

p e rr oq zte t ) , p hi z ( p y s o g n o y , p r en t c e a
pp
‘ ‘
p rint ( i m p rint F emp r einte, i m ression i m p r i mer ,
‘ ‘ ‘
a t i m p r i mero) ;
’
L l ( rfiler ,
’

p rint ; .
p u r
p u r e ,
F r p o u . to
ov erc ast w it h gol d t hrea d
‘
si r ( F r s i r e s i eu .r ,
,
L a t se n io r
)
.

(
’
siz e ( a ss iz e ), s p i t e ( d es
p i t e) , s p o rt d e s p or t ) ,
s t o re ( F r .

‘
estor er , L at i nsta u r a r e)
. t ire w om a n
'

(-
a tt ire) st ory
‘ ’
( a v a il ) , v a n ( cara v a n) , w‘are (a war e) ,
’

( hist o’ry) , v a il

w ig
‘
( for periwig , it sel f a corrup t ion of p eru e
’
Fr k .

p er r a q zte) .

F
req u ently a w ord is assimi la ted t o a m ore fa milia r form , o r

otherwi se c ha n ed a corn ( O. E r ( acor n, oft he oak a s if

g
~ -
 CO M P OUN D W OR DS .

~
oak - corn ) t ransp osit ion ofconsona nts )
b ea v er ( L at fiber .

ca rt ridge (
’
corr u t ion o f F r ca r tou che as p orri d e of
p g
i
.

‘ ’ ‘ ’ ‘ ‘ ’
tt s t ri d e f t i h 1 ora l ( F ca p or a l ,
p o a g e , e g o o s r c co p r .

‘
L at eap nt ; not conne ct ed wi th corp us) ;
. co y ( F r eoi , L a t . .

’ ‘
q u i et a s) c u rse ( i n n o t car e a c u r s e i s f or h er e, a n older
‘ ‘
for m of c ress ) F r cotel ette, d im from edte, L at
’ ’
cut l et ( . . .

‘ ‘
d afiodil ( asphod el) O
( ‘
' ’
E
’
oosta , e w er ha v
er , F r . . .

from o igi ee, L at a q u a , l ia s ( laye rs)

’
a igu i er e, ‘
.

‘ ‘
b el ongs t o t he in fie xi on o f t he d emonst r adj
;

nonc e ( n
’
.

‘
. for than ‘
oa um
’

( k
O E a eumba , cemba ;
’

.
‘
what is .

‘ ‘
combed , r vela s, from
’

) l ( F
’ ’
t ow p o x ( p ee k s s a v e oy ” r e e .

‘
cer ebellu m
‘
eer vel le, L at . t a nsy ( F r ta na is ie, Gr
‘
.
.

a tha na s ia ,
‘
in1mo1t al it y ‘
w ha c (t hwa c ) ; wherry ( ferry)
'
k k .

F
u rt her e xam pl es o f s hort eni ng ; a ssi mila t ion, a nd ot her

v a ri et ies o f c ha nge m a y b e seen u nd er t he P re xes, or may b e fi

ga th ered b y ca re ful ob serv at ion in t he course of using t he
e ty mol og ical d ictiona ry .

C o mp o und W o rd s .

22 . C o mp o u nd
w o r d s are those that a re mad e
up of simp le w o rd s o f inde p endent significa nce ; as

d ay sta r sun b ea m
-
free ma n ros e tinte d - - -

stou t he a rted c omma nde r in chief

- - -

As a general rule
the first w or d qu al ifies the second F i nger .

ring
'
is a ring fo r t he nge r ”
g
’
r i ng fin e r i s t he nger t ha t fi -
fi
w ea rs t he ring A rose t re e is a t re e o f t he ind t hat grow s
.
-
k
r oses ; a
‘ ’
t ree rose is a rose of t he ind t ha t g row s on t rees
-
k .

A grou nd nu t is a nut gro w i ng in t he g round a nut ground

’
- -

is a ground for p roducing nut s,

A cha nge of accent is us ually req u ired to m a e tw o wo rds int o k
a. c o m pou nd The crow is a b l ac b ird
w ord . not a b lac
‘
k ‘
k
‘
mad house
’
red hé use is a house t ha t is r ed
’ ’

b ird ; a A .

w ould b e a fa m il y a l l gone de ra ng ed b ut a mad ho use is a -

ho us e for rece iv ing ma d pe rs ons .

L ay thy b o w o fp ea rl a part
’
A nd t hy sil v er shini ng q u i v er .

This is either t hy shi ning q u iv er m ad e of si lv er ( silve r

’

sh i ning ); or thy q ui v er shinm g l i e sil v er ( si lv er shining)

’
k -
.

E up hony may so met imes i nt erfere w it h t his rule ; a s mon s k

hood we ll hea d hop p ole w hi ch ca n ha rd ly a v oid a ccent
- -

on b ot h membe rs .

Those c omp ound w ord s ar e o ftenco nne cted with t he hy phen .

The compou nd w it h t he hy p he n e na b les us t o exp ress a

’

‘
di stinction, see n i n compa ring ‘
with a horse s
’
horse ha ir -

17
2 58 DE RI V A TI ON .
—
COMP OS I TI O N or W OR DS .

ha i r t he one is t he m a teria l, w it hou t regard t o q u ant ity

t he ot her t he hai r of one horse .

2 3 C o mp osition
. N ou n are c omb ined of N o u ns .
s

w ith nea r ly a l l the other P a r ts of S p eech ; a nd in a few

c a ses com p o und nouns a re formed b un i n of t w o
y o

w ords b el onging t o ot her p ar ts of sp eech .

N ou ns N ouns w ith irthd a y, churchyard , cof

. B
feehouse,
co pp e rsmi t h c orn eld , , fi
ha nd b oo , m oonlight , roseb ud To k
‘
t h ese w e shoul d a d d d ra w ing room , rest ing pla ce, rid ing w hip , - - -

t urning l at he, w a l ing st ic

-
k
a s t he w ord s -
k
d ra w ing , rid ing ,
’ ’

‘ ‘
a o , a re v erb al eq ui v a l ent s t o nouns I n selflov e
’
. sel f i. .
-

sub sta nt ia lly a nou n .

S omet imes a genit iv e ca se ending is ret ained : cra ft s man, - - -

k
herdsma n, insma n, l a ndsm an ( comp are sea ma n ‘
’
ca tspa w -

d ea thshea d T hursda y Cynos ure d og s t a il) .

‘
In ‘
Ja c o l a nte rn k W ill o the W isp
-
’
-
of
’
is ret ained -
’
- -
.

‘
Ca ta mou nt is a corru pti on of ca t 0 m ounta in Compa re
’ ’
.

a id e d e ca m , c o rd u roy ( F r
-
p
-
cor d e d a r oi ,
‘
in g s cord . & c k ’
.

‘
N ouns w i th A dj ect ives fort night , good w ill, greensw a rd,
highla nd , highw ay, hot b ed, midday, red b rea st , st ronghold
’

N ou ns w i th V er bs cu t w a t er , d a red ev i l , m a eshi f t p ick f k ,

'

p k
oc et , singsong , sp end t hri f t ,
S p it re, st op ga p, t u rncoa t I n fi ’
.

t hese w ord s t he v er b go v em s t he noun, a nd t he m ea ni ng is som e

rson or t hing t ha t p erf orms t he a ct ion ind ica t ed T h e sa me
p e .

m ea ni ng is express ed i n a not her class of w ord s b y a dding er

‘
to t he c omp ou nd la nd owner ,
p ea c ema er,
‘
ship b u il d er, k
k k
st oc b ro er, t aleb ea rer
’
B y sufiixmg i ng t he a ct is ex
.
’

‘ ’
e ssed : shipb ui ld ing , & c A v erb p r eced ed b a noun is
p r y .

r a re as g o d send l ood shed

’
is p B
a rt ici ple j oined t o nou n

s o a re
‘
ormol u ,
’ ‘
t reasu re t rov e
‘
a ehouse
’
exem l i es
-
p
’
. Bk fi
t nother c omb ina t ion so w ashhouse, d raw b rid e, d ra w
y e a
‘
g .

w el l, grindstone, & c Cp sca p e goa t .

-

‘
N ou ns w i th A d ver bs : b y pl ay, b y w ord, foret hought, in - -

g ’
k
a t hering, i ns tep , l oc up , onset , out goi ng, out la w , ou t rid er, - -

su ndow n, u p rising These a d v erb s are t o b e disti ngu ished

-
.

from t he sa me w ords u sed as p reposit ions, a s will b e seen in t he

follow ing class .

’
N ouns w i th P rep osi ti ons forenoon, aft ernoon . I n t hese
‘
t h e noun is u nd er g ov ernment b y t he pr ep osit ion . I n a ft er- s

‘
t hought , t he m ea ning of aft er
’
is ad verb ial ,
’

t hought after

P ronoun a nd Adj ecti ve nonesuch

 CO M P O UN D N ouns A I D A D E CTI J VES . 259

‘
A d ver b a nd Ver b out la y , t horoughf a re V erb p recedi ng
b k
‘ rea d ow n cast a w a
, y,
d ra w b ac ,
p i-
na fore ,
mi n a w a y k -

Ver b a nd Ver b hear -

sa y, hob nob , ma k e b elieve
-

Ver b a nd P r ep osi ti on g b et w een

o-

24 . Comp osition of Adj e c t iv e s . The chief ele

ments A dj ecti v es a nd P a rt iciples,
are w ith N ouns a nd
occasionally) w it h A d v erb s
( .

‘
N oun a nd A dj ecti ve B
loodred , child li e, fancy free, heart
‘ — -
k -

w hole, p it ch da rk , sea gr een, snow w hite

o
The noun i n most
- -

of t hese inst a nces a dds it s m ea ning t o or d e nes t he a dj ect i ve fi

‘
a s red a s b l ood
‘
g reen l i e t he sea & c I n
‘
hea dst rong, k .

’
hea rt whol e, sinful , t he noun is t he sub ect of reference :
- j
‘ ‘
N umera l a nd the noun fold
’
w hole a s rega rds t he heart
’
.

t w ofold
‘
A dj ecti ve a nd A dj ect ive : p al e- b lu e ( b l ue of a p ale shade ) ,

red hot ( so hot a s t o b e

-

‘
N oun a nd I mp erfect P a r ti cip le a ll seein , f
g ru it heari n ,
g
- -

- k
heart b rea ing, sp iri t st irring, t r uth t elling -
The nou n is t he -

j
ob ect oft he t ra nsi t iv e p art ici ple I t is a n a d v erb ial a d u nct t o the . j
intransit iv e p art icip le night w al ing is w a l ing by ni ght
’
-
k k .

‘
N ou n a nd P a st P a r ti cip le a w e st ruc , coa l lad en, hea rt -
k -

fel t, home g row n, moss grow n, mot h ea t en,

-
sea - -

t empest tossed, -
t hund er ri v en, t error st ric en, -
v ine clad, -
k -

w ea t her b ea ten, w oe b egone

- -

I n all such cases t he noun is really a d v erb ial, b eing the sole
rep resent a t iv e of a n a d v er b ia l p hra se
‘
a w e st ruc is st in e -
k k
‘ ‘
wi t h a w e hom e grow n is g rown a t ho me ,
’ ’
-
ice b uilt -

‘
mou nt a ins a re mount ains b uilt of ice I n chap fal len t he
part iciple may agree w it h t he noun, or t he noun may be regularly
a dv erb 1al .

A dj ecti ve ( complement) I m
a nd p erfect P a r ticip le : cl ear
sound ing , simp le seeming, -
stem l oo ing -
k
A dj ec tiv e or P a r ti cip le a nd A dver b .
far
fet ched, hi h b orn, highly w rought, inb red,
- -
ov erchar
g ed, ev er
d one, w ell red, w ell mea nt -

V er b a nd N ou n . B k neck ( sp eed)
, d o nothing ( d ays)
rea - -

Cornp ou nds wi th ed si mu la ti ng p a r ti ci les

p
‘
N ou n a nd N ou n hook nosed, lion heart ed, ex eyed, - - -

ab l e b odi ed
i sg
ni w n: b a ndy l e ed, - -
,
ong e de ’ Roman-nosed, sob er-m ind
hearted , wea k -kneed
 2 60 DE RI VATI ON .
— CO M P OS I TI ON or wor ms .

25 . Comp osition of V e rb s .

‘
N ou n a nd V er b : b ac k b it e-
,
b row b eat , w ay l ay
‘
- -
’
.

A dj ect ive ( com p l em ent ) a nd Ver b : ful fi], -

r ough- hew ,

sa fe ua rd , v ou chsa fe , w hit e w ash

g
-

‘
of
f, d on, fore
'

A dver b a nd Ver b : cross q u est ion, d ofi -

(do )
t ell, ga in sa y -

26 . Comp osition of Ad v e r b s .

‘
N oun a nd N oun l engt h w a ys sidew a ys -

A dj ecti v e a nd N ou n ‘
a l w ays, l i ew ise, otherwise, some k
t imes st ra ightw ay
’
.
,
‘ ’
A dver b a nd A d ver b : as ( : al so) , wherea s, thencefor ward -
.

‘ ’
A d ver b a nd P rep osi ti on : hereup on, w hereb y, w hereof .

A dj ecti ve a nd A d ver b now here, somehow

Comp lex compounds: nev ert heless, notwithst anding, more
ov er .

2 7 P re p o s it io ns
. are co mp ounded ofone another
’
into w it hin w ithout up on ,
t hroug hout
‘
B ut ( as ad v erb p‘rep osition
, ,
or con junct i on ) is co mpounded
( he) a nd out ( lik e
‘ ’ ’ ‘
of by t he S cot ch p hrase o ut
fi
Originally it signi ed closeness w ith sepa ra t ion, and it s v arious
mea nings are in accordance wit h t his .

C o m p o und s , d isg uise d a nd a ss i m ila

3
8 .

te
Many w ord s that a re reall
y co mpound hav e lost t he app ea r
a nce of c omp ound s, a nd l oo k lik e sim l e w ord s ; a nd in ot her
cases, a simp l e w ord ha s b een corrup to int o a comp ound form ;
a nd it of ten ha p p ens t ha t one or b oth p art s of a real or
simul a ted comp ou nd ha Ve b een a ssimila t ed t o some ot her
k
( prob a b ly b ett er nown) w ords, w it h w hich, how ev er, t hey
ha v e no ra dica l connexi on .

‘ ‘
Apricot ( ol der a ri cock , F r a br i cot, L at ( i nd ium) p r ee
’ ’

l
. .

‘ ‘
early ri e ( a p e) ( O E a le, a lse, ca ll sw at ,
’
cox, p as . .
-

al so ba t ( 0 E b a t las t, b oa t l oa d
’
-
. b arley
. 8, - -

‘ ‘ ‘ ’
1, b a rn ( O E ber er n, ber e cer n ,. b ere p la ce or
.
- -

‘
(
’
b arley b ice or b ise
’
for O E asu r e bi ce, F r . .
-
.

‘ ‘
( from L a t bi s
’
bes a z u r ,
-
a n i nfer i or b iscuit Fr . .

‘ ‘ ’ ‘
coa ns, twi ce b ridal ( O E br yd ea lu , b ride a le 0 1 . .
- -

-f ast b urgla r ( F r bu rgla ir e, L a t b u rgi ld tr o, b urg 0 1

e . .
-

‘
house rob b er ) b ustard (S p a b uta r da , F r ou ( s) ta r de, L a t
’
-
. . .

cha n (chap fa r e way or course

'

a vi s ta r da ,
-
slow b ird er -

( fwre) of b argai ning (chap , 0 E oeap ) constab le ( Fr . . .

‘
.

sent ence, I tal conecta bi le, L at comes stabu li, count of t he

'

. .
 MP OU N D S m msc ursn
’

CO .

‘master
stab l e of t he horse cor morant ( Fr . I tal . cor vo
‘ ‘ ‘
ma r i ne
’
co v erlet
’

,
sea ( Fr . oeu vr e- l it, cov er- b ed
‘ ‘
d im from cov er )
’ ’
not a
’
.
( Fr couv r e feu ,
’
cov er cu rfew .
-

fire d aisy d ay s eye e v ery ( O E cefer oelc, ev er

-
. .
-

‘
ea ch )
’ ’
fut t oc s ( foot hoo s , or foot loc s ) k ’ ‘ ’ ‘
-

g os el
p k -
k
‘ ‘
g ossamer God s summer )
’ ’

(‘O E god sp el l, good new s )

’
- -
. .

g ossi
p ( O E g od s i b.
,
G o.d re l a t e d -
o r ig sp onsor -
.

‘
g o z z a rd ( z
g oose herd ) ;
‘
g rea t ling
-
shery ( grea t l ine ) fi
g rou nd sel ( O E gr u nd sw elige, g rou nd d w ell ing or cov ering - - -
. .

’
p l a nt ) g r o u n d sil
gru nsel ( O E gr u nd syl, ground sil l
’
. .
- -

‘ ‘
hal liards ( or halya rd s , t hat is haul
’
or b a se, t hr esh old )
-

‘
ha nd sel ( O E ha nd sewn or esyllun, . hand t o
.
- -

’
g iv e heifer ( O E heat for e, sta ll cow . . hu z z y ( O E - -
. .

‘ ‘ ’
hu s w zf, hou se icic le ( O E is giecl, ice congeal ed
'
- - -
. .

l u mp , cone
’
-
cp Germ hegel) ; .
‘
a niz ar
y
’
( T ur ish yeni
. j k
‘ ‘
j eopardy ( F r j eu ‘p a r ti, L at‘ j oens
’
i scher i , ne w . .

p a r tita s, a d iv id ed ga me, a n ev en cha nce ul ep or j ula p j

( Ara b j u lab , P ers onl a b,
. rose w a t er )
. erchief
- -
’
k
conv re eh( i ) e
-

f, cov er head
-
‘ ‘
la dy a nd l ord ( S ee I
-
’
L E IO , NF X N
Gend er , g 3 ) lamm as ( O E hldf mcesse, l oa f mass, or . .
- -

“
- fea st ‘
l a mprey ( r la mp r oi e, L at l a mp etr a , F .
‘
l amb o .

p e t ra l i c r oc
‘
k
li q
-
u oric e k ( G r g l yk y r r h i zd , g ly lcys .

‘ ‘ ’

( Arab a l ud , t he w ood )
’
r hiz d , l u te .
-

ma nure m anoeuv re F r from ma i nceuvr e, L at ma nus . .

op er a , hand w or -
k
ma rsha l ( O H Germ ma r a h sca lh,
’
. . .
-

‘ ‘
horse serv a nt , 0 F r m o r escha l : comp a re seneschal , sene sea lh
’ ’
- -
. .

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
ol d midrif f ( O E mi d hr if, mid b ody ) mol e
’
'
- -
. .

‘ ‘
( O E mold w eorp , mo‘uld t hro’w er ) neighb ou r ( O E nea h
’
- -
. . . .

‘
b ur , nea r nost ril ( O E na sthyr la nose thyr el o r . .
,
-

‘
thr i l , nosc d oor let ( c p Germ thii r lo, nose hol e)
’
- -
. ol ea nder .
- -

‘ ‘ ’

( corrup t ion of rhodo or char d (O E ar t ya r d or t . .

-

‘
gea r d , w y rt ( w or t yea r d , root or herb a rd en )
-
’
osp rey ( r.
-
F
orfr a i e; a corrup t ion ofossifra ge, L a t ossi f r a ga
‘
b one b rea er )
’
.
,
-
k
p a stim e p a ss t i me p orcup ine ( I ta l p or co sp inoso’,
- -
.

‘
L at p orcu s sp inosu s,
. t horny, p ric l y hog ) p p se ,
or o i k ’

p orp ess ( I t al p or co p esce, L a t p or cus p i sci s,

. h og ( li e) fish
‘
.
-
k -

‘
m m h
’

p r i n c e ( F r L a t p r i n.ce p s , f ro p r i
. u s c a p i o ) ; p r i t ee
‘ ‘
( I pmy t hee h
’ ’
- -
q u a n d ar
y ( F r o u e n di ra i j e i w a t sha l l I .
-

sa y of i t sa m hire ( corr u t i n o f F r S i n t P i e r r e t h e
p p o a . ,
‘
( O E sca ub cr k ; l cel sled /a
’
herb of S t P et er) ; sca b b a r d
f
. . . . ,

‘
b ia rga ( Germ bergen) , sc ra p er ( shar p instr u m e nt ) t o hid e
.
-

sca f fold ( 0 F r eschd fa u d , csca d nfa u t, orig a p la t for m w henc e

‘
-
. . .

to see a t ou rney, L at sca d ofa ltu m, from ex a nd ca d nfiz lt u m, .

I t a l ca ta/a lco, from Roma nc e ca ta r ,

.

"
t o v i e w , l oo a nd k
T eu t onic f alco, a p l an i ng ) sheri f k
f ( O E scir ( e) ger fa ,
’
. .
- .

‘ ‘
shi re reev e , d ist ri c t
-
or count y . st ew ard (O E . .
2 62 DERI ATI O V N .
—
c onr os1r l on or wor ms .

‘ ‘
sti ( I cel ) wea r d , sty w ard , domestic ad a'irs
’
stia
'
- -
.

‘
st irru p ( O E 3 tz( ge) r ap , mou nt ing rope ) (p
’

. .
-
su ch -
.

5 0, t a w d ry ( sa id t o b e for t A w d r ey, S t E theld r eda ) ; . .

‘ ’
t hreshold ( 0 E thr escw a ld , thr es wold, t hreshw ood )
’
. . .

‘
v a mp (‘Fr ’
a va nt p i ed )
’

v ine ar
’
.
g
-
( Fr v i n a i gr e, sou r .
-

v ip er ( L a t v ip era , for vi vi p er a , from vivu s p a ri o

.
- -

‘
b ring fort h a l ive -
w a lrus ( Ger m w a l lr oss from w a l, a s .

i n w hal e Ger m i ca lifisch, a nd b r ass, a horse

,
.
' ‘ ‘
w a rl oc k
( O E
. w ee r. l o g ,
a
‘
t r e
-
a t y b re a e r or -
l ia r )
’
wa ssa il ( O E u ces
-
k . .
'

heel, b e of ( good ) hea lt h

’

your good hea lt h w hich ( p 3 3 .

1 3)
‘
k
w his y ( elt u zsge bea tha , K w a t er of life
.
‘
‘

w ind ow -

‘
( I ce l w inda ug’ a , w i nd eye w o ma n ( 0 E w ifma n)
’
-
. . . .

B
ee f ea t er -
( corrup tion of F r b uffetier , one t ha t a t t ends at .

’
t he bufei or sid eb oa rd ) ca u se w a
y ( or c a u se y F r cha u see, .
'

‘ ‘
L a t ca lce ta ) ;d Clra rte r h ouse ( F r Cha r tr euse, Ca rt hu sian
’
~
. .

‘ ‘
mona st ery ) F r ecr evi sse, Germ
’
c ray fish cr a w iish (
'

or . .

‘
former sp elling of
’
k rcbiz , k rebs) l a nthorn ( l ant ern
‘ ’ ‘ ’ ‘
la nya rd ( or l ania rd ; F r la ni ér e, t hong ent house .
-

‘ ‘
( O E ’p en ti ce, F r app entis, slo pi ng shed a s i f ro m p enta
’
. . .
;
‘ ’ ‘
sl op e house ) icka xe ( O E p ikois ; t he end ing
’
house ,
p
-
. .

‘
a ssi mila t ed to ra l chel l
’
( O E r a kel, r a kle, rov er,
'

. .

‘ ’ ‘ ‘
ru na ga t e ( for renega t e, spa rrow

sd em ea nou rs
’
I m
’

g ra ss ( f or n S c ot c h, i
‘ ‘
som et imes b ecom e mist y ma nners , a nd coZocynt/z pills , i n
’ ’

one d ist rict a t least , a re ca l led Col li eston p ills

B
a nd og
’ ‘
ba nd d og ,
’
c ha ined dog ) ; edla m
-
’
B
B e thlehem b el fry
’
( F r b cfiroi ; 0 F r berfroi , L at .
'

. . .

berfr ed us, b elfr ed u s Germ b er vri t, ber cvri t, w a t ch t ow er , .

-

t ow er for d etence ; berg or b ur g fr ied e, from ber gcn fr ieden

’ '

‘
t o p rote ct t o w a t ch o r d efend illy Ru fii a n ( B ellerophon) B ’

b l und erb u ss ( Dut ch donder b us, Germ d onner b uchse, t hunder

’
.

‘
u n b rimst o ne O E br en ston, b urn
g
-
. .

b uc w heat k beech w hea t

’
cp Germ b uch w ei tz en-
. .
-

‘
c a rni v a l
’ ‘
( gi v en a s ca r ne m va le, fa rew ell t o esh a’nd al so fl
‘
a s ca r ni s l eva men,
‘
sola c e o f t he esh c a t a m ount 23) fl
medl ey ( for F r cha ud e melee a hot fi ght or a ttra y
’

cha nce-
’
-
.
,

c hec k ma t e
‘
m G m m P h ah
’

( F h h
’

r e c ec ct a t, er sc
. a ct a tt ers s .
,
.

‘
mat, t he k ing is d ea d A ssim ila ted t o v er b check
’
.

‘
‘
c la ym ore ( G a e l ‘
sw ord
’

g r e a t )
‘
co ck. ch a fe r clock -
’ ’

‘cob
( S co rc h ; b ee tl e
‘
coc l of t or cop
‘
k ’

t op) l oft )
’ ‘ oc
c
-
sw a i n
’
( or c o xe n , k b oa t s w a i n
’
-

‘c ‘ ’
ou nt er pa ne ( corr upt ion of cou nterp oi nt , F r con lr e p oi nte, .
-

‘
for cour te p oi nte, 0 F r cmclte p ointe, from L at cu lci ta p a ncta ,
- . .
-
.

st it ch ed c uship n -
c ow sl i
p ( for c ow slcek see 8 ,
l ,

( ))
c co xc om b c oo s c omb c u pb oa rd ( k
f
or cu p bur or
’
- -

o
b ow er curt a i l
’

( F r cou r t ta i l l er ,
c ut s h ort d
. om e s day -
 V A RI OU S LY M ODI EI E D F OR M S .

‘
b ook ( for domus Dei , hou se of God l so d eriv ed simp ly
’ ’
A .

from d om
‘
j udgment ,
‘
d ormouse
‘
( F r d or me‘u se, t he
’
.

sleep i ng a nima l ; mc1 ely, p erha p s, a ssim il a t ed t o mou se

’

‘ ‘
( for ever geh a cer , ev er i hi oa r not from ev erj
’
e v eryw here -
.
r

fiel dfa re ( O E fea la for feo l vor , from it s p a le yel low or d un

. .
,
‘ " ‘
(f ea l a ) ‘ ) col our ; fu rl ong f la n g,( O E fier h
fu rrow
. . or ur -

oose b err ( orru t ed from Ge rm k r a a s ( cl ) bcer e,

g y c p
-
.

‘
t he rough b erry
‘
ha ndy w or ( O E ha nd ge weor c : not k ’
~

. .
-

‘ ‘ ‘
from ha ndy l ra ngna il ( for a g na il : O E a ngrza g l, f r om
’ ’ ’
. .

‘ ‘
The S cot ch oft en use ra gna il , t he
’
a nge ncegel, -
sore na i l ’ .

k
b ro en bi t s of esh a pp eari ng li e fl ( O E k . .

‘
her eber ga , from her e beorg a n, a rmy t o p rot ect : on g
’ ‘
l odging -
.

or st a t ion for a n army

‘
hau b e r ( O F 1 ha u ber c, O E k ’
. . . .

h ( e) a lsbeorg from h( e) a ls beor ga n , nec to -

k
‘
haut b oy ( or ob oe F r ha u tboi s, hig h w oo d . I t a l ob oe) ; -
.

‘
lrumb l e p ie ( for u mble pie , p ie ma d e of ( h) u m bles or
’ ’
- -

nu mb les ( F r nombles)’, ent ra ils of d eer ‘; a ssimila t ed t o

.

‘
husb and ( 0 E husbo nda , house c ult iv a t or,
‘
-
. .

; cult iv a t or of soil a t ta ched t o a hou se) ;

’
r, - 1nast er
p ossc s s o
o

‘
j k
er ed b eef ( Chilian cha r gu i )
-
‘
Jew s harp ( p erh from F r
’ ’
. .

‘ ‘
j eu t oy ‘ Jerusalem art icho e ( for I t al gi r asole‘, sun
’ ‘
k
'

-
.
,

John Dory or Doree ( F r j a u n d or ee, ol d en

'

g . e

yell ow ; if not a corru pti on ofi i j a nit or e, t he g at e eeper , t he

‘
k ’

fis h b eing so ca ll ed in t he Ad ri at ic, i n reference t o S t .

‘
j
oll yb oa t
’
f
( ‘o r
‘
y au l
‘
e e l so n
’'

( D a n k o l svin, or k .
-

- vzill
a ,
syll, eel sill k ic sha w
’

( Fr q u elq ue c h osk k
e ,
.

‘ ‘ ‘
somet hing la ndg 1 a v e ( Germ la nd q raf ; graf,
’
. earl .

‘ ’ ‘ ‘
li nsey w ool sey ( linen a nd w ool) ,
’ ’
l oa d st a r or lodesta r
‘l ad t ne ’ ‘ ‘
( from lead , 0 E lce ‘a n, lad
’
l odestone
’
o s o or
P erh in t he l ast case t here is also a c onfusion w ith L ydi a n
.
. .

d .

‘ ‘ ‘
magnet ma gnesian
’ ’
lo ggerhea d
’
st one cp .

logf head ‘
maulsti c , m ahlst ic , most ick k ’

( Germ k .

ma lerstock
' ‘
p a int er s st ic
‘
n ig h
’
t in g a
-
l e k
( O E n i h te . .
:

‘ ‘
ga le, Germ na cht iga ll,
’
. night p eac or/k (O E . .

a wa , F r L onem) ( Dutch p ij e, j k ’
'

p p a o n .
, a t p a v
p ea ac et
.
-

‘ ’
coa rse t hic k cl oth p u rv i ew ( F r p ou r vu , rov 1d ed ( t ha t )
‘ ’ ‘
p .

F r esq u i na ncic, Gr kyn a ngke,

’
q u i n s y ( O E s q u.in a ncy . . .

‘ o ‘
(l g ma r i nu s, d e w of t he
‘ ‘ ‘
su mm erset or somersaul t , & c
’

( p 2 3 4, su p ra t it . .

‘ ‘
mou se ( 0 E tit ( li tt le) mae e ( lit t le) , enral l sp a rrow
. . w a lnut
(‘t) E u ea’lh hnut, foreig n n ut
.
‘
W elsh ra b b it ( rare b it ’
-
‘ -

‘
w hi t low ( p rov E ngl
’
.
q u i e.k fl a w ,
li v i n g sore )
‘ s ‘
Germ
’
w i ea cre W
(
’
w ew sa ger , . ise sa yer ) w ood b ine -
.

‘ ‘
w ormw ood
’
W o rt d 0
t herb , -

fa il m e nev er forget me
’
P hr a ses Ca t o nine ta ils ,
’
- - -
.

not ,
‘
’
ood f or not hing ,
’
-
hol e a nd corner ‘
noc me d own ,
’
k k
’ ’ ‘
ne er 0 w ell . ou t- ol t he- w ay
’
 S YN TAX .

S y nt a x e x p la ins t he mo d e of a rr a ng ing
w o rd s in s e nt e n e s . c
The S ynta x of E nglish is com pa rat i v ely si mp le, from t he
"
a b se nce ofI nflexions
r
.

ee l ead ing p rocesses o r p rincip l es t ha t

There are t
h r
r eg ula t e t he j o m mg t oge t he r of w ord s i nt o sent enc es t hese a r e
Concor d , Gover nment, and Or der The synt a x o f Our l a ng u a ge
.

d ep ends p rincip all y up on t he last ; t he t w o rs t , conc ord a nd fi

ov ernment, p resup p ose inflexions, a nd are w a nt ing in a
g ng uage acc ordi ng as t hese are w a nt ing .

S y nt ax is rendered more simp le a nd intell igib l e b y t he

anal y sis of sent e nces w hich a scerta ins w ha t is com mon t o
a ll se nt ences, and sho w s h ow t he di f ferent pa rt s a re rela ted to
each ot her .

T HE A N A L YS IS O F S E N T E N C E S .

I . E v e ry s e nt e n e c c o ns is t s of t w o p a rt s ,
the S ub e j ct a nd the P re d ic a t e g ol d is p reciou s ;
’

‘
gol d is p rec iou s
F or t he p ur pose of ex pl a ining t he P a rt s of S peech 1 t w a s
nec essa ry a t t he out set t o d esc ri b e t he tw o p ri nc ip a l d iv i sions o f
t he sent ence, a nd t he m a nner of enl a rgi ng or ex t end ing ea ch of
t hem b y t he u se of q u a li fying w ords .

2S e nt e nc e s
. a re S im p le , C o m p le x ,
a nd

C o m p o u nd .

A S imp le S entence c o nt a ins o ne S ub e j ct a nd

o ne finit e V e r b the pa t ience of Job is p r o v e rb ia l

‘

Dr .
J oh nso n, in h i s gra m m a r
-
[ d i smisse s the su b j ec t o f sy n t a x in a
re m ar k in g t h a t ou r la n g uag e has so li t t l e i n fie x i o n or v a r ie t y
fe w l i n es ,

of t er m ina ti ons , t ha t i t s const r u c ti on ne i t h er r eq u rr es nor a d mi ts m a ny

 THE su m s SE N TE N CE E NLA RGE D .
’

A Comp lex S entence w hile c o nt a ining b ut o ne

,

r inc ip a l S u bj e c t a nd o ne p r m c n l P d ic a t e,
p a r e
‘
a s t w o o r m o re finit e V e r b s : t he ev ent
hap p ened , as i t w a s for etold
A Comp ound S e nt ence c o nt a ins t w o o r m o re
‘
p r inc ip a l S e nt e nc e s t he ind iv id ua l d ies, b ut

the race end ures

T he S im p le S e nt e nc e .

3 T he S im p le S e nt e nc e c o nt a ins
. o ne .

S u bj e c t a nd o ne finit e V e rb .

These may, how ev er , assum e e nl a rged a nd comp l icat ed forms .

The most el ement a ry form is seen in su ch examp les as t he sun

‘
w arms w a t er d row ns The more exte nded forms may b e :
consid ered a s g rowing out of t his .

4 .
(l
) . T he p r im a r y e le me nt s ( S ub j ect a nd

P red ica te) may hav e one or m ore s e c o nd a ry

‘
e le me nt s or j
a d unct s t a ck ed on to t hem ; as t he
a rms t he
( p
t ro ica l
) su n
( t horoughl y
) w (
Here t he su bj ect is enlarged b y t he q ualifying w ord t rop ical
’

’
t he pr ed ica te is enla rged b y ad d i ng a n ob j ect t he gr ound ,
a nd b y t he ad verb thoroughly This exemp li es t he fi
e nl a rg ed si mpl e sent ence, conta ini ng b ot h t he p r ima ry el eme nt s

( nou n a nd v erb ) and t he second ary elem ents (ad ect iv e and j
a d v erb ).

5 . B o t h t he p r i m a r y a nd t he se c o nd a ry
e le m e nt s , as re
p r ese nt ed by the N oun, V erb , ,

A dj ec tiv e, a nd Ad v erb , m ay u nd e rg o t ra nsfo r m a .

tio ns a nd e x p a ns io ns .

6 . T he S u bj e c t , w hose t yp e is the N ou n m a y ,
’

be a ls o a P r o no u n, o r a n I nfinit iv e ( P A RTS or
‘ ‘
N ou n) : he liv es ; to wor k is t he lot of
’
S P E E CH —

men w or king is o fte n fa t iguing

’
.

fi k
The in nit e form s may t a e a n ob j ect a nd q u alifyi ng w ord s ,
w hence i t is v ery com mon t o ha v e a n e xp a nd ed i n nit iv e p hra se fi
‘
a s t he sub j ect o f a sent e nce : to hea r a good or a tor is ra r e
to w or k ha r d is t he fa t e o f m a ny
‘
to sp ea k the tr u th a t a l l
“
k
ti mes is rec oned a d ut y r ea ding mu ch is not t he only w ay
;

k
t o nowledge
2 66: S YN TAX .
-
A N A LY S I S or sa m e ness:

The infinit iv e may ha ve a subj ect , a s W ell a s a n ob j ect and

‘ ‘
q ua lifyi ng w ords ; t his is effect ed b y p refixing for f or a .

p r i nce to b e red uced b

y v illa ny t o my circ umst a nces I S ca la mit y
S t rict ly, how ev er, t his is merely a n inv ersion for
’
e nough .

t o b e r educed is ca la mi ty enough for a p r i nce

T he O bj e c t , or co mp letion of t he t ransi ti v e
P red ica te, ha v ing a lso a N oun for its t yp e , u nd e r
o es t he sa me t ra nsfo r m a t io ns as t he
‘
u bj e c t : th e ( l og follo w s him J ohn l ikes .

worki ng ( or to work) lea v e off shr ieking , a nd b egin

cons id er ing ev er y one l ikes to hea r good news

The rul e t ha t one v erb gov erns a not her i n t he i nfinit iv e is

merely a w ay of sa yi ng t ha t a n infinit iv e ca n b e t he ob j ect of a
se nt ence i n pl a ce of a noun, or t hat one v erb c a n gov er n a no t he r
‘
only w hen t ha t o ther i s in a noun p osit ion I b egin to mo ve
mea ns I b eg in the a ct of movi ng ‘
t o mov e is t he sa me as
t he a ct ofm ov ing
Av erb a l N ou n m a y t a e a n ob ect i n t he f k j
orm ofa n i n nit iv e fi .

‘
exp ressi on : his p rop osa l to r a i se the si ege w a s a pp rov ed of b y
t he g ov ernment T he noun p roposa l cont a i ns t he activ e
‘
force o f t he v er b p ropose he proposed to ra ise the si ege, a nd
’
t his w as approv ed of .

fi
To 18 not nec e ssa ry t o t he in nit iv e : it is not insert ed a ft er
t he v erb s hav e may ca n sha ll w il l do d a re
‘
‘
b id
.
‘ ’ ‘
let , ma e ,
’ ‘
k
must , ‘ ’
d u rst need not ,
’’ ‘ ’
feel ,
‘
hea r see T he list might b e ex t end ed , esp ecial ly w it h
‘ ‘
w ords of simila r mea ning w ish int end help d eign
& c , and b y refe renc e t o older w riters a nd p oet s
. There are .

a l so freq u ent e xcep t ions To is dropp ed a ft er t he p rep osit ion

.

he did not hi ng b ut read

’
b ut

7 T he . re g ular S ub e j ct or O bj e c t m a y b e
E nla rg e db y all the v a ri ous means of q uali fying or

mod ifying the N oun .

I T he Adj e c t iv e
. much anx iet y short ens life
w e me t a n old sold ier

This is t he reg ul ar and usual mode ofexp ressing t he at t rib ut e

of a nou n, w het he r t he su bj ect or t he ob j ect of a sente nce We .
.

may i ncl ud e u nd er i t t he ma’ny cas es w here ‘ a nou n i s used a s

‘
a n a d ect iv e
’

j
stu mp ora tor , i r on d u e tr a nz w ay &c k -
.
 E NLARGE M E N TS or S U B J E CT on OB E CT J . 2 67

and the fe w ca ses w here a n ad v erb is so u sed ( ellip tically)

c hurc h her e *
t he &c .

‘the
A P o s s e s s iv e C a s e ’
king s preroga
tiv e ‘his d eath

Here the possessiv e the pa rt of t he a d ecti v e b y s ecifying

a cts j ’

some i nd iv id ua l i nsta nce o f t he t hin n a med b t e ot h er

g y
nou n of a ll
p rero at i v es, t he one here s o en of is t he one
g p k
b elonging t o t he i ng k
A N o u n in a p p o s it io n Hav elock the ,

hero, is dea d a nd Da v id , the ki n ,

g a nsw ered J oab ,
’
the cap ta in of the host , & c .

fi
An in nit iv e phrase may b e in a pp osit ion as w ell as a noun .

The rul e, to love thy neighbou r as thyself, c omp rehends ou r —

dut y to man
’
.

I t i s a general p ri nciple of la nguage, t hat words p lace d

t oget her a re t o b e u nderstood as mu tually connected, ifthere b e
not hi ng indicat ed to t he cont rary .

A P hra se made up of a P re p o s it io n a nd
"
a man of letters a liter a r y man ;
a N o un : ) h
’
( t e

right ofp a stu re

’
a w ord i n sea son ; the house by
'

the wood men wi th w ives

W e may sp ecify a t hi ng b y posi tion or
a ny c rcu i m sta nce of .

rel at ion t o ot her t hings, w hich r ela t ionship is usu ally exp ressed
b y a p reposit ion : t he door on you r ri ght ha nd t he p rop ert y .

’ ‘
fo r sa le t he ch u rch on the h i l l t he roa d to r u i n t he
‘
f Hasti ngs
‘
b at tl e o the cap ta in wi th his men five o f the
A ph fi ‘
form ed b y t he i n ni t iv e in i ng ma y som et im es tak e an
ra se
’

j
a d e ct iv e ;
‘
tha t b u rni ng t h e ca p i t ol w as a w a nto n out ra g e Th e
si m i l a r c onst r uct i on , t he se nd ing t h em t h e li ght , w as ob ec te d t o b y
’
j
L o w t h w h o c onsid er ed t h a t t h ere ar e t w o eq u i v al ent const r u c t i ons a n d
,
‘
,

t h es e al one ad m iss ib l e ( b y ) sendi ng th em a nd t he se nd ing of t h e m

.

in t hi s la s t ca se , send ing b e ing a v erb a l nou n B u t t h es e a r e no t i n all

’

. .

h e e x p r ess ed t h e p l easu r e he h a d i n hea r ing t h e

‘
v l
ca s es eq u i a e t :n
‘
p hi losop her a nd in t he hea r ing of t he p hil osop her , ha v e d iffer ent
’ ’

mea ni ngs .

Wi t h a ve rb al noun w e d o not now om it th e art icl e b y ( th e) ob ser v i ng of

t h is ru le y ou w ill ga i n y our p o i nt a t a or t h e meet i ng of co u nc il by
( t h e ) c omp a ri ng of a u t h or i t i es The o m i t t ing of of aft er t h e v er b a l
‘
’ ’

noun o ft en m a k es a t ota l ch an g e of t h e m ea n ing :

. t h e mee ti ng of t h e .

‘
cou ncil , a nd t he me et ing t h e c ou nci l , a re b o th a llow a b le b u t for
’ ’
,
’
difl er ent sig nifica ti ons ‘
Wh en t h e L or d sa w it , h e a b horr ed t h em,
. ,

‘
,

b eca us e of t he p rov oki ng of his so ns a nd d a u g h t ers b eca u se of

’

‘
p ro v o k i n h
g is so ns a nd b eca u se of the p rov ok in g hi s sons t he first '

p rov oking is a v er b m
n ou n, t h e scoond a nd t he t h ird , i nfiniti v es .
 S YNTAX .
— A N ALY S I S OF SE N TE N CE S .

’ ‘the chief a mong ten thou sa nd ’

seven ; The infinitiv e b eing .

t he sa me a s a noun, w e may i ncl u de such c a ses a s a d es ire to

r is e The sa me r em a r a p plies t o t he gerund : ‘
k
a house to
l et Most of such examp les are ell ip t ica l or cont ra ct ed
‘ ‘
ex p r essions the c hurch sta nd i ng on t he hill , t he r oa d tha t
’

A ma n of the w or ld is a m an ta ken bu t
’
lea ds t o ruin , & c .

o f t he w orld a nd t here f o re ex i eri enc ed in t he a f

fairs o f t he
w orld . The fu ll form show s t a t t he real chara ct er of t he
p pre osit io na l p hra se is a d ver b ia l .

A P a rt ic ip ia l P hra s e ; P a r tic iple, that is, a

either al one, or ha v in
g a n o b j ec t ,
or
q u a lified b y a n
Ad v erb : a man ca r rying a b ur d en p assed a c ow q u ietly
gr az ing
fi
The p articip le q ual i es or rest rict s t he nou n as a n a dj ect iv e
‘
w ould d o The m i nist er , ha v ing obta i ned i nfor ma ti on of the
.

consp i r acy, ord ered a ll t hose concer ned i n i t t o b e a rrest ed

’
«

t he second p art iciple —

‘
concerned in i t , rest ric t s or d e nes
’
fi
‘
t hose a nd is t heref ore a r es tr icti ve a dj unct t he first —
b a v ing
ob t a ined , & c , d oe s not d e ne t he
’
.
‘ ’
fi
m inist er , b ut supp oses
fi
him t o b e de ne d or ascert a ined al rea dy, a nd imp a rts ad d it ional
inform a ti on respe cti ng him it is a cont ra ct ed form of a
‘
c om p ou nd sent enc e —
t he m inist er ob ta i ned i nforma t ion, a nd
ord ered I t is a co ord i na ti ng a dj unct -
.

This mode of cont ra ct ing a comp ou nd sentence exhib its one

of t he cha ra ct eri st ic funct i ons oft he p articiple The p a rti cip ia l .

f
“
p h rase d e e nd s f
p or it s sub j ect and for i ts p ow er of a f r ma t ion fi
on t he fi
ni te cla use Ha v ing ga ined our p urpose, w e d ep arted
.

is t he sa me as w e g a ined ou r p u rpose, a nd w e d ep a rt ed b ut
in t he cont ra ct ion, t he subj ect of th e rst clause is omitt ed , a nd fi
t he form of a fii rma t ion d ropp ed There is a v ery com mon

K
.

‘
en or w ith refere nce t o t his const ruct ion : t hu s ha vi ng fa i led
in t his a tt emp t , no far ther tria l w a s mad e
’
Here t he pa rticiple .

‘ ’
ha v ing is w it hou t a su b j ect , t he ni te cl au se sup p ly i ng a fi
d ifferent sub ect j
The mi st a e p rob a b ly a rises from confou nd
. k
i ng t he co ord ina t ing p a rticip ial a dj unc t w i t h t he pa rticiple in
- :

‘
t he a b solut e const ruct ion : it w ould b e correct to sa y , -
t he
a t t emp t ha v i ng f a iled , no fa rt her t ia l w as ma d e T he p art icip ial
r .

rase is t hen comp lete i n i t self

p h .

8 T he S ub j e c t o r t he O bj e c t ma y b e
‘

e nla rg e d b y a c o m b ina t io n o f t w o o r m o re
o f t he s e mo d e s ; a nd t he a dj u nc t s m a y t he m
s e lv e s b e mo d ifie d b y o t he r a dj u nc t s .
 E NLA RGE M E N TS OF
‘

S U B J E CT OR J
OB E CT .

f
I
“
nst ea d of the simp l e a d ect iv e, w e may hav e a n a d ect iv e
’

follo ed b y a p hra se of re fere nce or of re g imen

s ufie ient i n hi mself ,
‘
a nx iou s
’
for not hing , ’
as
j ‘
a ma n

d esi rous t o
j

l ea se b l a mel ess i n his l if e ca reless o fa p p ea ra nc es

p
T he mo st u s ua l ca se o f t his const ru ct i on is u hen t he m ore
‘

rem ot e a dj unct i m p lies a r e fer e n ce t o som e t hin

g or i nd ic a t es in ,

w ha t p oint or dire c t ion t he m ea ning of t he a dj ec t iv e i s t o b e

(

t a en ; t hus k c a reless
’
is q u a li ed or l imit ed b y st a t ing t he fi
‘
e xac t m a tt er t hat t he ca rel essness a p p li es t o ca r el ess in his
'

of his m oney ofhis lif

’
erson e
p
W hen a n a dj ect iv e seems t o gov er n an in nitiv e li e a v erb , fi k
this is b eca use of it s cl ose allia nce t o some v erb ; t hus, { d esirou s
‘
t o plea se sca rcely d illers from d esir ing t o pl ease w hich is
’ '

‘
fi
t he in nitiv e o r p art ici pl e ( a s t he ca se may b e) of d esi re
’
.

F or the v ery same rea son a noun may seem t o ha v e a regimen,

‘
a re e xa m pl e s of t he
’
as the d esi re t o pl ea se The .
grea t
freed om t hat ou r la ngu ag e a llow s in sub st it ut ing one p art of
S p e ch f or a not her
'
‘

I t is v ery common t o ha v e t w o or more a dj ect i v es q u al ifyi ng

‘
t he sa m e subj ec t as t he d eep S tyg ia n r ecesses t he old m a n
t he V i ctor i a Hotel
‘ ‘
a good a nd fa i th
’
eloqu ent , ful se r v a nt
C om pa ny, li mi ted A lso t he p osse ssi v e a nd a n a dj e c t iv e ma
b e freq uent ly found con oined j
W el lington s P eninsu la r army
’ y
The nou n of t he p rep ositional phra se may b e q ual i ed fi
‘
b y a n a dj ect iv e or t he eq u i v a lent of a n a dj ect i v e a ma n of

a ny sense a
pea rl of gr ea t p r ice W ith or w ithout t his
q u fi
a li ca t ion, t he re
p p os it io nal
p h r as e m a
y b e con oi ned w i t h a n j
a d e ct iv e j ‘
a g r ow n ma n o f s en se
’ ‘
a good ly
p ear l o f gr ea t
‘
i a w a r y st a t esma n i n d ifi ie a lt ti m es
'

p r ce

The p art ici pia l phrase ma y b e comb ined w it h ot her q u ali

fica t ions a p owerfu l m ind enga ged o ngrea t p r ob l ems Here
mind is rest ric t ed b oth b y t he a dj ec t iv e a nd b y t he p a rt iciple
’
.

A s ev ery noun occu rri ng in a p hrase m ay he t he subj ect of

fi
new q ua l i ca t ions, t he m a in su bj ect may b e enla rg ed w itho ut
,

a ny ot her l i mit t ha n t ha t of b ecomi ng t oo comp lica t ed t o b e

ea sily und erst ood

'

A ll t h e at t rib u t es t ha t const it u t e t h e enla r g em en t of t he su b j ect m ay

al so b e p re d i ca t ed of i t a s W i ll b e seen p r esent l y Thi ng s i n t h e a t t rib u
j
, .

t i v e r ela t i on t o a su b ec t a r e a ssu med t o b el ong t o i t i nst ea d ofi b eing

.
,
‘ ‘
p d i at ed of i t : i m m a m a n ha v ing a
'
re c a v a l a nt a n a a n of b r a r
re y .

sto u t hea r t , & c , s u p p o se or a ss um e t he c hara c t eri st i c of b r av ery a s

’
.

b e l ongi ng t o a ma n a nd d ist ing u ishi ng him fr om t he r est of m en

, If .

t his ca nn ot b e a ss u m ed a nd ne ed s t o b e a ssert e d w e m u st p r e d ica t e i t

, ,

as h e is v a li a nt i s a m an of b r a v er y i s a m a n of s t ou t h ear t &c
’

, , , .
0

9 T he P re d ic a t e m a yb e
. a s ing le V er b , in
‘
w hich case it is ca lled s im p le ; t he d og
'
’
as runs ,
‘the sk b r i htens
y g
27
I

0 S YN TAX — A N A LY S I S or m m ons
su .

The P redica te is called c o m p le x w hen it is ma d e

u p of a V e r b of inc o m p le t e P re d ic a t io n a nd
‘ he d o
it s c o m p le me nt t g i s sa ga cious ;
‘
t he sk y
’

he med honest
’

grows clea r see

T he v erb be is b y p re emi nence t he

ca ll ed t he cop u la , -

v erb of incomp l et e p red i ca t ion E xcep t in t he ca s e w here .

i t has it s p rop er mea ning of exi stence, t his v erb a l wa ys req uires
j
some sub ect or att rib ut e j oined t o it t o ma e a complet e k
‘
P itt w as a sta tes ma n ( nou n)
’
’red ica t e : t he sky is blue
l a dj ect i ve) he is he r e (a dv erb ) t ha t was of no conseq u ence
(p h ra se) .

The other v erb s of incomplete p redica t ion are t he i nt r a nsi ti ve

‘
v erb s b ecome g et gr ow fall l i ve die se em
‘ ‘ ’
& c , a nd t he tr a nsi ti ve v erb s do , shall w il l ,
’
.
—
ca n
‘
k ‘
ma e , call , d eem
’ ’
t hin c onsid er choose k
‘
c onsti t ute a p p oint &c N a p oleon beca me first consul
.

‘
he g ot better I fell asleep he g rows a ma n he gr ows
‘ ‘ ‘
he seemed clever ;
’ '
t hey w er e elected
’
ta ll ; I ca n w ri te ;
-

members
The t ra nsit iv e v erb s of incom pl ete p redicati on ha v e t w o
c onst ruct ions, act iv e a nd p assiv e I n t he pa si v e v oice t hey .
s

‘
cl osely resem b l e t he i nt ra nsit i v e ; as he w a s ma d e chosen,
‘
el ect ed , a p p oint ed, c onst it ut e d , d ecl ared , first consu l he is
thought, d e emed , consid ered, a ma n of a b i li ty
W ith int ra nsit iv e v erb s, a nd a lso w i t h t ra nsit iv e v erb s used
p a ssiv el y, t he com let ion of t he p redica te is somet hi ng a f rmed fi
‘ ‘
of t he s ubj ect of t e sent ence he seemed a god t he w ine
ta stes sour t he rop e i s ma d e fast Hence t he p red ica t e if ,

j g
a noun or a d ecti v e, a rees i n case w it h t he sub ec t ; in ot her j
w ord s, is consid ered t o b e in t he nomina t iv e .

This ho w ev er , is of v ery l it t le i m p o rt a nce in t he E ngl is h

rem ark ,
la ng ua g e , since, in t he a b se nce of nou n inflex ions, i t ca n ap p ly only t o .

‘
I a m he E ven as re g a r d s t h e p ronou ns , su ch
’
t h e p r onou ns as . .

e x p r ess ions w ith t he nom inat i v e h a v e b een c a l le d i n q u est ion b y some

,

g r a mm a ria ns , as not i n a ccord a nc e w i t h t h e g eni us of ou r la ngu ag e .

W hen t he v erb is t ra nsit iv e, a nd in t he a ct iv e v oice, t he

compl em ent of t he p redica t e is a n a t t rib ut e of t he obj ect of t he
‘
v erb as t hey elect ed him cap ta in he le ft me d esti tu te
‘ he made t he house secu re W hen t he com leme nt is a
t y p
v erb i n t he in nit iv e he ca n wr i tefi t he ob j ect is a t ta ched t o
t his in ni tiv e fi he ca n w rit e F rench
IO T he fo rm of N e g a t io n is no t t o b e look ed
.

‘
up on as e nla rg ing t he P re d ic a t e : t he sun d oes
’ ‘he la ughs not , the oeurse is now i nex
’
not shine ,
'

ed zent
p
 m a ni cu J
re : OB E CT : AD VE RB I AL A DJ UN C I
'’
271
'

E v ery decla rat ory sent ence either a ffi r ms or denies, and the
d enial is not more compl ica ted t ha n t he a f firmation I n ot her .

nega t iv e not is consid ered a p ar t o f t he p r ed ica te

he l au ghs mer r i ly
’
ra t he r t ha n a n a d v erb ia l enla rgem ent ofi t

show s a n enl a rgement of t he p redi ca t e ; not so he d oes not

laugh

II.The P re d ic a t e , if a T ra ns it iv e V e rb , is
‘
c o rnp le t e d b y me a ns of a n O bj e c t : Caesar
‘ ’ ‘
c onq u ere d
Ga u l he d efies opp osi ti on ; t hey con

stitu ted me ump ire

I t has already b een seen t ha t the ob j ect is of t he sa me nat ure

a s the sub j ect I t may b e noun, p ronoun, or infi nitiv e it may
.

b e enlarged b y a n a dj ect i v e, a p ossessi ve ca se, a noun i n a pp osi

t ion, a p hrase mad e up of p rep osition a nd noun, a p art icip ial .

p h rase .

I2 T he P re d ic a t e is e nla rg e d b y a n Ad v e rb ,
.

‘ ‘
a n Ad v e r b ia l p hra s e : she
’
or he rose ea rly ;
’ ‘
singe »

they re turned i n go od or d er
well ; These
are called Ad ver bia l A dj unc ts of the P redicat e .

An a dv erb or a dv erb ial

h ra se, as has b een seen, exp resses a ny
p

“
circum st a nce of p la ce, t ime, d egr ee, certa inty or uncerta inty,
‘
cause, i nst rument , m anner, connec t ed w i th t he a ct io n We
‘
met i n the town ; it ha p pened long a go ; it concerns us
’ ’

‘ ’
assur ed ly you w i ll find it so he died of fever
’
litt le ;
‘
‘
k
t he cit y w a s ta en by stra tagem
’
he cri ed wi th a loud voi ce ;
‘
"
t he b roo k
murmured p leasa nt ly ;
’
he was na tur a lly ( by
Na ture) ind
’
k .

I3 T he Ad v e rb ia l P hra s e
. a p p e a rs in
v a r io us fo rms :
A N o un w e w alked a mile ‘
it w eighs a

p ound t hey ra n a ra ce
‘he w
A P re p os it ion a nd N o un : ent o f
‘the w a tched b d a a nd b y night
’
necessity y y y .

The ad v erb ial adj unct of P reposition and N oun is somet imes
spok en of a s the i nd i r ect obj ect he gav e m oney to the p oor
‘ e accused him o cons i r a c
th y f p y, a nd condemned him to a fine
I n these exa mp les t he v erb has a d irect obj ect w hich it _

g ov erns, g av e m on ey a cc use d hi m con d emned hi m

a nd wha t seem s a second ob j ect re u ired t o s ecif y t he act ion

complet e ly B ut t hese indirect o j ect s are
. tt er viewed as
272 S YN TAX .
‘
-
A N ALY S I S or sa m e ness .

ad v erb ial a d unct s, j q ua l if

ying t he ac t ion of t he v erb . When
‘
c ond e mned him to a fine , w e i ndica te b y t he
’

we sa y t hey
‘
w ord s to fine somet hin a rdin t h m a nner of his con
a g reg g e

d emna tion .

I n su ch const ructions as they sal ut ed him E mp er or some

’

‘
ra mmaria ns emp eror comp l et ion of t he
’

g consid er ( t he

r ed icat e) a s a second or indi rect ob j ect

p .

(3 A N o u n q u a lified b y me a d un j ct ‘
he
‘

so
‘ ‘
l et me
’ ’
rose h is height , w e a rri ved last night ; d ie
’
the d ea th of the r ighteous .

The noun in these constr uct ions is i n the ob ect iv e case In j .

‘
some inst a nces t here 18 a n ellip sis o fa p rep ositi on w e a r riv ed
‘

Also 111 t he ca se o f t he simpl e noun

’
on or d ur i ng la st night .

’
used a d v e1 b ially, t hey ra n a r ace , t he nou n is now regard ed
a s in t he obj ec t iv e, t here b e i ng a n elli p sis of a p rep osit i on In .

t he expression l et me die the dea th of the r i ghteous the

mea ning is a ft er t he ma nner t ha t t he n ghteous d ie w hich is
’

ob v iously a n a d v erb ial sig ni ca t ion fi .

A P a rt ic ip le or P a rt ic ip ia l P hra s e
‘
a
’ ‘
he
o

th y we ent a long si nging ; stood

’
scen e b elow .

j
I n most insta nces t his a d unct may b e considered a s a sep arat e
‘
cl au se cont ra ct ed int o a p art ic ip ial p hra se : t hey w ent a long,
‘ ’
a nd sa ng ( a s t hey he st ood a nd ga z ed F or it w ill .

b e seen t hat t he p a rt ic ip le is in a pposit ion wit h t he subj ect t o

the v erb : t y h e —
sin i
g gn h e —
ga z ing .

W he n t he P a rt ic ip le a g ree s w it h a S ubj e c t
d iffe re nt fro m t he S u bj e c t of t he V e r b , t he

“
P hrase 18 said to b e l n the A b s o lut e C o ns t ruc t io n
‘the sun h a v in r isen w e commence d our j ourne
g , y
d ow n
’
he
'

this sa id sa t

Th en, g a lla nt b a rk fr om Al b ion s c oast

’
as a
The stor ms a l l wea ther at a nd t he ocea n cr oss d}
’ ’

S h oots int o p ort , & c

’
( Cow p er -

The ab sol ut e ca se, or t he c ase of a d et a ched part icip ial

hrase w it h a su bj ect of i ts ow n, dif
fers in
d ifferent 1a nguag es,
p ut g ra mmar ia ns hav e for t he most
p a rt a greed t hat m E n lish
g
it i s t he nomi nat iv e a ccordingly, the following are deemed
Correct const ructions .

Th e“
n I b e n o m or e sha ll
A nd A d am w e d d ed t o a not her E v e,
j
,

S hall li v e w i th h er en oying : I ext inct

 N
CO S TR CTI O U N or THE P A RTI CI P L E. 1 2 23

I shall not la g b ehind , nor err

The w ay , thou lea d ing ( ilt on ) . M .

On t h es e and k i nd r ed t hought s intent I lay

I n silence m u sin b y my c om ra de s si d e,
’

He a lso sil ent . or d s w ort h. )

The ob j ect i ve, corresponding t o the oldest E nglish dat iv e,
w a s t ill recent ly not u ncommon Tillot son has he mad e as .

w ise a nd t rue
p rov erb s as a n b od
y y else has done since, him
only exce ted , w ho , & c
* ’

p .

‘
N otwit hstand ing duri ng , which seem t o
’

p ending
g ov ern a noun i n t he manner of a p rep osit ion, are in reality
a b solu t e
‘
p a rt ici les notwi thsta nd i ng ou r l osses w e shall
‘
p
’ ‘
p cnd i ng t he t ri al
’ ’

p erse v ere ; d u r i ng t he day ; The .

na t ural order w ould b e our l osses not w it hsta nding t he d ay

d u ring, or continuing t he t ria l p ending a nd in t he insta nc e

of not w i t hst a nding this ord er is not u ncomm on .

Except is a remna nt of t he L at in ab la t iv e a b solut e excep t

’ ‘ ‘ ‘
this , or this excep ted S a v e a nd p a st are also t rans
formed p ast p art icip les .

T he S ub e t
in t he P a rt ic ip ia l c o ns t r u c t io n
j c
is s o me t imes o m itt e d , a nd t hen the P art icip le is
used im e rs o na ll nti n t hi t b t w h t
p y gr a g s o e ru e,
a

is to b e inferred from it i
There might seem t o b e here a n omission of I or we
t he su b j ect , b eing eit her q uite ind efi ni t e
‘
.
’
l grant ing , & c .

a nd imm at eri al , or r f t l w el l u nd erst ood, i s le f

t u n ex
p e ec y
consid er in
‘
p re ssed A s. r e ar ds t he c om m on ex p ression g
a l l these thi ngs & c , a d ifferent v iew is somet im es ta k en
. .
'

‘ ’ ‘ o ’
I n old E ngl ish t he w ord s b eing a nd c nsid ered of t en
int rod uced ab solute p hrases N a t heless , consi d er ed his d is
.

‘
t ha t is, his d ist ress ( b eing) consid ered ;
’ ’
t resse
‘
a ll t hin s c onsid e red
g I n m o d ern E n lish t he a ct iv e
g p a rt i

c ip ic ha s b een su b st it uted f or t he p a ssiv e , ei ther from ov er

looking t he t rue const ructi on, or from t he disp osit ion t o u se

t he a ct iv e p art ici pl e wit h a p assiv e m ea ni ng On t his v iew , .

Mt E rnes t A d am s m aint ains th at t he d a ti v e ou ght t o b e t h e ab s ol ut e

.

c a s e i n mod ern E ng li sh as i t w as i n t h e e arli e st E ng l ish

,
He p r op e r ly .

r e ma r k s t h a t t he mea ning c onv eye d b y t he se a b sol u t e w or d s c a nn ot b e

e x p ressed b y a t ru e nomi na t i ve I n t h e clas sica l la ng u a g es t h e a b sol u t e
case is not t h e nom i na t i v e Dr L
a t h a m i s of t h e sa m e op i ni on I n all
fi
.
. .

p i ob a b il i t y, t h e n o m in a t i v e w as x e d u p o n fr om s o m e r n d o m i n st a n ce s a ,

w i th ou t a ny d el i b e ra t e c on sid era t i on A s i t i s only i n t h e p r on ou ns t h a t

.

t h e cas e i s soon a n d a s e x a mp l e s ofb o t h c on st ru ct i ons a r e t o b e fou n d i n

.

L oa d w mt ei s , t here i s s om e g rou nd for cont e nding t hat u sa ge lea ves th e

mu l ta ‘
cp m .
”
2 74 S YN T AX — A N A L YS I S or sa m eness .

we may sup p ose t ha t the exp ression granting this t o b e true

is a n e u i v a l ent of t his
q grant ed
‘
k
The p hrase generally sp ea ing may b e b est explained b y
su pp osin
g a n omission of t he su bj ect I we or one

‘
A n Infinit iv e G e r und : he is a fool
or a
to throw a wa y s uch a cha nce ( infinitiv e w ith p rep ) .

the courtier st0 0 p s to ri se ( gerund ) .

Th infi nit iv e is s cl s ly lli d t o t h noun as to a ct th e

e o o e a e e

a rt of a noun hra se w hen p reced ed, a s it u su a lly is b y t he

p p He is a fool a nd t he m anner or circum
-
,
‘
p rep osition t o
’

,
‘
sta nce o r e xp l a nat ion of his b ein
g so is for t he t h row ing a w a y
of t he c ha nce
k
The gerund is now n from its expressing end, or p u rp ose
‘W ha w
t ent ye to see ?
’
Hence it is a n a d v erb ia l adj unct of
‘
pu rp ose or inte nt ion w hen following anot her v erb : he w ent
a b roa d to ma ke hi s fort une

C o m p le x S e ht e nce
T he .

I4 A C o m p le x S e nt e nc e w hile c o ns is t ing
.
,

o f o ne p r inc ip a l S u bj e c t a nd P r e d ic a t e c o n ,
‘
t a ins t w o o r m o re fi nit e V e rb s : I sa w t ha t
‘
som ething wa s w rong no one ca n say how t he
t hing hap p ened
The p ar t containing the p rincipal S ub j ect a nd
P red icat e is called the p r inc ip a l c la u s e ; t he other
rt, t he S ub o rd ina t e C la us e , or Cla uses :
’

p a I sa w

at som ething w as w rong sub ord ina t e)

(p rincip al
) t h ( .

W e may hav e a pl ural ity of sub ordinat e cla uses in t he sa me

rel a t ion t o t he p ri nci p al ; as w e w ere t old tha t the messenger
This ma k es a
’
ha d j ust a r r iv ed a nd had seen the g enera l
,
.

Compound sent ence, ea ch memb er of w hich is com plex At , .

ot her t imes t he su b or d ina t ion is carri ed t o t he second or e v en a

higher d egree a s I k now not b y w ha t fa te i t comes ( I ) tha t he
is a lw a ys a ga i nst me w hen I try to r ise a bove the p osi ti o n ( 3 )
tha t I now occupp y ( 4)

I5 . S u b o rd ina t e C la us e s a r e o f t hr e e kind s,
f t he
a c cording a s t hey a re r ep r esenta t ive o f the N ou n, o

A dj ect ive, or of the Ad ver b .

They are t hus d iv ided into N o u n Clauses, Adj e c

t iv e Cla uses, a nd Ad v e rb ia l Clauses .
 THE N OUN CL AU S E . Z2 75

I t has b een seen tha t among the sub stitut es for the N oun is
included 3 Clause, a nd so for t he Adj ect iv e and for the A dv erb
. .

T HE NOU N US E
CL A .

IS T he N o un C la use
. l
p a c e of o cc u p ie s t he
t he N o un .

I t may b e the s ubj e c t or o bj e c t of the P rincipal

‘
Cla use as tha t he ha d been ra sh w as app arent t o all ;
’

I saw tha t the wa ters ha d r isen

The nou n cl ause is, a s it w ere, t he exp a nsion or equiv alent of

‘
a nou n or noun p hrase his r a shness w a s apparent I saw .

the r i se of t he w a ters I w ish the hap p i ness of a ll men ( tha t

'

all men should b e ha pp y) .

The N oun Clause may b e in a p p o s it io n to some

‘
N oun ; as the id ea tha t a ny one should cha llenge his
right had nev er crossed his mind

I t may b e the c o m p le t io n of the P re d ic a t e

the conseq uence w as tha t we a chieved a vi ctor y
W hen a noun cla use is the sub j ect of a sent ence it is v ery
‘
common t o u se t he w ord it as the gra mmat ical sub j ect of the
ri nci al v erb , a nd t o l t h n u n l ause a t t he end i t is
p p p a ce e o c
cert a in tha t the ri ver ma y be cr ossed The noun cl au se is then
‘
in i t i n t i t
a e ob j ect
{p
p o s o o
v erb s, may
b e susta ined
somet imes
p r oof th a t h e

t he hop e tha t he w i ll deser ve i t B ut , as alrea dy rem ark ed

t hese nouns and adj ect iv es hav e t he ful l force and mea ning of
‘
v erb s t hey a re t he sa me as, t here is no evid ence cap a ble of
~

ro v i n t h t he did t his I be li ev e t ha t t his is so I do t hi s

p g a

b ecause I hop e that he will d eserv e it

I7 N o u n C la use s a re int ro d uc e d b y ‘
Th
’
. at ,
‘ ha ’
o r b y so m e int e r ro a t iv e w o rd : as w t ,
‘w hen ‘
w hence how
g ‘ h ’
w y , &c .
‘

That is the most usu a l connect iv e Properly sp eak ing, it is .

the d emonst rat iv e tha t follow ed b y a cl ause inst ead of a .

noun I k now tha t — v iz , a cert a in fa ct or circumstance

.

i rmed in t he noun cla use— J w e shall soon arri v e

'

afi
The conj unct ion is fr eq u ently omitted befor e a n obj ective cla use
‘ ‘
I fear we sha ll be la te
’
he said he wou ld do i t for thwith
.
.
1
2 26 S YN TAX .
— A N ALY S I S or sa m enes s .

‘‘
The verb d oub t , p receded b y not , is somet im e
’ ’
s foll ow ed
‘
b y b u t t hat
’ ‘
I d o not d oub t b ut t ha t w e sha ll now t he k
’ ‘
The b ut in t his case is, how ev er u nnecessa ry a nd
’
u hole .

inel ega nt .

The int e1 roga t ive connect iv es are seen in the following

e xa
‘
mp les : how it hap pened 1s a myst ery ; you now w ho l‘ ’
k
‘
a m , a nd w her e I c am e from w e ca nnot sa y ho w Americ a
’
;
fi
w as rst inha b it ed
‘
t ell m e w her e 1 shall find t he mast e r ;
’ ’

‘
i t is u ncert a in w hether he w ill com e scienc e t ea c he s u s w h y

t he fa ll oft he mercu1 y po rt end s ra i n

’
he a s ed me how old I
’
k
‘
whoe ver giv es inform a t ion w ill b e rew arded
’ ’
w as ; .

I n su ch ca ses t he su b m d ina t e cla use i s really a q u est ion w hic h

t he p ri nc ipal cl au se emb od ies in some form 0 1 other This .

c onst ruct ion is som et im es ca lled t he i nd i rect q uest ion .

I t is int erest ing t o not e th e contfacti on of these cla uses i nto -

i nfini ti ve p hr ases
‘
they ne w not w her e to go— w ha t to d o
.

’
k
w ho to look to— how to act w hen to begi n : how not to do i t
‘
I b eliev e t he ma n ( to be) g uilty ; he d enied ha vi ng used tha t
’

I nst ea d of t he int errogat iv e whet her

‘
w e find t he j
con unc
‘
ti on if sometimes em ployed :
’
he as ed k if t hat w as my
O i nié n
p
’
. B
eing a ga i nst a nal ogy, a nd a lso u nca ll ed for, t his
ractice shoul d not b e follow ed
p .

T HE ADJE CT I V E CL A US E .

IS . W he n a cla us e lim it s or q ua lifi es a

”
N o un P ro no u n, it is o f t he na t u re of a n
or
Adj e c t iv e : men tha t a r e selfish ( selfish men) nev er
w in our est eem
" I rememb er the p lace tha t he
occup i ed the b y hi m occup ied place ; his —
f

Hence these are called Adj e c t iv e C la us e s

'

A n A dj ectiv e Cl a use may b e foun d in a ny place of

the senten ce where a N oun may occur for an Adj ectiv e
to q ualify
1 .
W u the ra ins t a t ha ve j u st fa l len w ill do
i th the S bj ect : h
‘
amu ch h i sy a nd i ntem er a te is of short
’
g oo d '

j y
o t at s n oi p
du ra tion " he tha t sow s wil l r ea p
’

‘
2 W i th the 0bj ect
. w e m et the man tha t w e ha d seen i n the
.
'

‘
mor ni ng I lov e t hem tha t love me
’ ’

3 I n Ad ver bi a l A dj u ncts
.
‘
in he day tha t thou ea test t
ther eof, t hou shal t die .

IS .
-

T he Adj . e ct iv e Cla use, in it s fund a me n

 THE V E CL AU S E 277
' '

A DJE CTI .

'

fa t re s t r i
c t iv e c
a p p li a t io n, s ho uld b e int ro
‘
d uc ed b y t he re s t r ic t ing
r ela t iv e t ha t
‘

. or
‘
The ma n tha t is W ise ( the
’
it s e q uiv a le nt s . w ise
ma n )
’
unea sy lies the hea d tha t w ears a c ro w n
’
The hou se tha t Jaek b uilt a ny one tha t chooses t o i nq ui re ,
‘
I w ant a man tha t w ill share my b urdens ar e const ruct ions
w it h t he rest rict iv e a dj ect iv e cl au se, a nd a re b est int rod uced b
‘ ‘ ’ ‘ y
t hat The eq uiv alents of t hat ( su ch) a s’ , b ut
’
are
w ith it s comp ou nds whereof , & c ( p
'

w hen and w her e

p
. .

8 A horse su ch a s you w a nt is not ea sily t o b e found

‘
he ca me at t he t i me when I ex liec ted him t he son of m an
‘
ha d not a p la ce w her e he might la y his hea d t he p oint
w her ei n y ou a re mist a en is this k ’

;
‘
I n ow a b a nk
k wj i er eon

t he w ild t hyme g row s

W hen t he rest ric tiv e rel a tiv e is i n the obj ective ca se, i t is often
'

omi tted : k
I hav e fou nd t he b oo ( tha t) y ou w ant W e may ’
'

al so sa y ( col loq uially) t his is all I hav e The omission

in t he nomi na ti ve case l ea ds t o an ungram ma t ical const ruct ion
'

( s78)
S ome attenti on is necessa ry t o d ist ingu ish a dj ectiv e cl auses
reced ed b f w h w h t w h w h w h rein
p y o a en ere
‘
e
from noun clauses exp ressing t he i ndirect u est ion : t ell me
’
wher e he li ves ( nou n cla u se) ‘
t his i s t he p a ce w her e he li ves
( a dj ective cl ause) The a dj ect iv e cla use m ust alw ays hav e a
. .

su bj ect w hich it q ual ifies .

The adj ect iv e clause may in cert ain ca ses b e contr a cted into a n
i nfini ti ve p hr ase, t hereb y b ecoming m ore t erse the son of
man had no pla c e w her e to la y hi s hea d ( no pl a ce tha t he mi ght
‘
old my fr i end ship
'

la y his hea d i n ) .
y ou h av e n o c a u se to h
’
d ou btfu l ( gerund no cause w hy e u account o fw-
h ich —
you 1
.

shou ld hold ,

"
T he C o o rd ina t ing Adj e c t iv e C la us e , w hi h
'

- c

j oins on an a dditional statement in a conv enient w ay,

‘ ‘ ’
is b e st int ro d uc e d b y w ho a nd w hic h , o r
t he ir e q u iv a le nt s .

The prince, who is an excell ent horseman, ep t his seat k

‘
k
t he ing, w ho was mor e p ru dent t han his a d visers, a ccep t ed .

‘
t he armist ice ; l et p ride , w hich she calls p lain ness, marry
’

‘
Goet he s heart , w hich few k new, w as as grea t a s his
’ ’
her ;
int ellect , w hi ch all new k some of t he d ra oons came u p t o
g
t he hall , w here t hey t oo p ossession kt he l nt errex held of ce fi :
for fiv e days only, w hen a successor w as chosen he is in t he
278 S YN TAX — : A NALY S I S or snur nuons .

rden of N ab oth, whi ther he is gone down t o p ossess it ( S ee

a n P R ON O N , U 17 ,

W hen the subj ect is of itselfv agu e a nd undet ermined, we are

p p
re a r ed for rega rdi n g t h e ac c om a n
p y g in cl au se as r est ri c ti v e .

W hen, on the other ha nd, the su bj ect is suf cientl y d e ned, we fi fi

k
t hen l oo up on t he cl au se a ccomp animent as a dd ing new fa ct s
i n ot her w ord s, as a eo ordinat ing clause -
This considera tion .

a nd t he cont ext en era l l a re all t ha t w e ha v e t o g uid e u s in

g y ,
‘ ‘
interp ret ing t he m eaning of t he relat iv es w ho a nd which
’

in modern E ngli sh style, where t hey are used in b ot h t he senses

now ment ioned .

THE A D V E RB I AL U
CL A S E .

2 0 A n Ad v e rb ia l C la us e is t he e q uiv a le nt
.

‘
o f a n A d v e r b , a nd m o d ifie s a V e r b he w ent
a w ay a fter the su n ha d r isen
( aft er sunrise ) .

Ad v erb ial cla uses form t he grea te r numb er of sub ordinate

cla uses, a nd may b e d iv id ed int o a s many cla sses a s a d v erb s,
k
and , li e them, ma y q ualif y v erb s, ad ect iv es, or ot her a dv erb s j .

‘w ‘
P la c e : main where we
’
e re a re ; wher ever
yo u go I w ill go
S uch cla uses a re int roduced b y t he rel at iv e a dv erb s of
‘
t her w hence h w hereso
’

p l a ce w h ere , w hi w erev er

These a dv erb s b ot h connect the d ep end ent cla use to

’
ev er , & c .
-

the p r i ncip a l, a nd also qu a lify the ver b of the d ep end ent cla use .

‘ ’ ‘
Thus, i n t he exp ression it sta nds w her e I p la ced i t , where
c onnect s
‘ ’ ‘
I p la ced i t wit h it sta nd s a nd also q uali es
‘
I fi
p lac ed i t b y a n a d v erb of l a ce
p there I p la ced it ther e, and

it sta nds there still

T ime he w rote a s soon as the news a r ri ved

we l
le ft whi e he was sp ea k ing
?
y ou a
y go t h er e a s m
me
of t i int r oduced b y t he rela t iv e
'

Adv erb ial clau ses a re

a d v erb s of t ime w hen w hile w henev er a nd b

y
‘
the con unct ions of t ime —
t he
af
p p
t er
r e osit i ons or

since ere u nt l
j
1
b efore
a s soon as no sooner t han
’

j
‘ ust when t he moment that &c .

De g re e thed eep a s the mounta ins

sea is as
‘
"

the result w as great er tha n I a nt icipa ted ;

’
a re high
the more ou ha ve, the more you w a nt
y
 ms a nv sn nm . m e an . 279

There i s wsome exp ression d enot ing comp a rison in

‘
c la uses o f d egree They a re int r oduced b
. t ha n as
t he They a re a tt ached t o a dj ect iv es a nd a v erb s rat her t ha n
t o v erb s t he rea son b eing that d egree ap p lies more p rop erly t o
‘ ‘
q ual i ties t han t o act ions he is str onger tha n I a m he
b eha v es as w el l as was ant icip at ed
These ad v erb ial cla uses ofd egree und ergo t he p eculiar ellipsis
see n in su ch exa m l es as
‘h is as r ich a s Cr wsus ( is ri ch)
’

p e
he w orks hard er tha n ever ( he w orked ha r d)
’

‘
C e rt a int y or Unc e rt a int y : a s sure as I
sp ea k, you w ill repent of this Here w e hav e m erely
t he phraseology of d egree a
pp lied to assurance, d oub t,
or d enial .

W e may also include t he p resent head the rel at ion of

under
‘ ’ ‘
Condit ion, introd uced b i f , unless
’
excep t t hough
‘ ’
how ev er , ao ‘
l
we sha l reap if we fa i nt not
.

‘
’
though he
sta y me, yet w ill I t rust in him how ever you ma y tr y, you
wi ll not gain your end I n sent ences containing a cond it ion,
t he cla use exp ressing t he conseq u ence is t he p rincip al cla use,
a nd the cl ause ex ressin
p g the condit ion, su pp osition, or conces
sion, is t he sub ord inat e clause I w ill go (p r i ncip a l) ifit shoul d
k
rain Du e Georg es for nine days ( su bor di na te) .

C a use or Re a so n the garrison surrendered,

b eca use their p rovisions fa iled
These cla uses a re introd uced b y the j
con unctions b ecau se
as since &c .

Conseq uence is b y so that a st orm a rose, so

exp ressed
tha t w e could not l eav e t he harb our F or signifying end or
‘
in order t ha t are emp l oyed
p urp ose, that .

M a nne r in g e ne ra l Among the relations

.

not incl uded in the foregoing hea ds a re l ik eness,

a nlikenese, and v arious u nclassifiab le mod es of ac tion
‘
he d id a s he was told
‘
M a nne r 18 ofte n ex p ressed by an ad v erb ial j
a d unc t cont a ining an
j
a d ec t i v e cla u se
‘
t ra i n u p a chi ld i n t h e w a y t ha t i t shou ld g o
as
’ ‘
Here
t h e cla use th a t it sh ould g o q ua h fies t h e nou n W a y a nd is not a n
a d v erb ia l cla u se , t h oug h occ urrm g i n a n a d v erb ia l a d u nc t j
Th e w or d s.

mode ma nner & c , occu r i n t he sa me c onst r u ct ion I n th e se nt enc e

. .

w e sh ou ld hav e arri v ed sooner , b u t tha t w e met w i th a n a c ci d ent , th e

‘ ’

sub or di nat e cla u se is consi d er ed t o b e a nou n cla use , gov erned b y b ut

as a rep osit i on t he ent ir e exp ressi on b u t and cla use) b eing simp ly
an v erb ial p r ep osi ti ona l p hrase .
2 80 S YN TA X — "
A N A LY S I S or SE N TE N CES .

2 I T he A d v e r b ia l C la us e is c o nt ra c t e d b y
.

o m it t ing t he V e r b , o r b y c ha ng ing it int o a

P a rt ic ip le w hile ( I a m) on this p a r t of the su bj ect
I may rema rk ; ( d )
’
r id ing a s w e ro e thr ough the
'

w ood , w e me t a n old man " .

C o m p o u nd S ent e nc e
T he .

2 2 A C o m p o u nd S e nt e nc e c o nt a ins t w o
o r m o re ( S imp le
.

or C o m p le x ) S e nt e nc e s
_
‘
unl t e d t he sun r os e, a nd t he mists d isa p p ea red
’

;
‘ ‘
he ca me, b ut w e did not see him ;
’
he w as t here,
el se I sho uld not ha v e seen him

I n t hese exa m l es t he sepa ra t e cla u ses are now ays d epend ent
on each ot her ther assertion mig ht hav e b een mad e a lone
'

w e m ig ht ha v e said t he su n rose or t he mists d isa p peared

se a ra t el , wi t hou t incom l et eness of sense w h erea s w e could
p y p
k
not b rea up a comp l ex se nt ence i nt o cl a u ses w it h ind ep endent
‘
mea ning : I w ill, if I can I t is true , t hat w hen assert ions
’
.

a re c ou l ed tog et her in t he same eri od , t h ere is a n int ent ion

p p
t hat t hey shoul d b e t hought of t oget her, b ut still they a re not
such t hat t he one is d ep end ent on t he ot her f or a comp let e
‘

meaning .

- -
j
The co ord inat ing con u nct ions ( P A RT S OF S P E E CH— Con
j u n c ti on ) are so call ed b eca use t hey u ni t e co ordinate cla use s -
.

Y
CONT RA CT E D SE . FE N CES .

,
23 . t he C o - o rd ina t e C la us es of a
W he n
C o m p o u nd S e nt e nc e ha v e t he s a m e S ubj e c t ,
t he s a m e P red ic a t e , o r a ny o t he r p a rt in
c o mm o n, w e m a y a v o id re p ea t ing t he c o m
m o n p a rt a nd t he re b y s ho r t e n o r c o nt ra c t
‘
t he e x p re s s io n o f t he s e nt e nc e ; as t he sun
‘
l i h d ( )
’

g i ves g t a n the su n g i ves he a t ; either

you

m ust go) or I must go

(
One su b ectj may ha v e t w o or m ore P redica tes, a s in t he fi rst
exa mp le now One gi v e n .
p r ed ica t e ma
y h a v e a
p lurality of
S ubj ects as Ha nni ba l and Caesa r w ere g reat generals
‘
There may b e a p l urality o f Obj ect s ; as whosoev er shall
k
p

“
l eav e houses a nd la nds for my sa e
The A d v erbi al a dj unct of t he predica t e may b e the common
p art he ad vances and retires sl ow l
y
 EXA M P L E S or N A LY S I S 28 1
‘

A .

‘
Oftbn the common p art is a S ub ordina te Clau se the Ev il
t hat men d o liv es a ft er t hem ; t he good (tha t men d o) is oft
int erred w it h t heir b ones
‘
The cumulat i v e conj unct ion d oes not alw ay s
’
and
indicat e a co ound sent ence a s t here a re cases w here it
,

j oins w ords or p rases wit hout j oining a ssert ions ( P A R TS OF’

‘
S P E E CH Cmij uneti on) B ut t he al t ernat i v e conj unct ion or
.

‘
ca n couple only cl au ses W hen w e say he dro v e a ca rriag e
.

car ri age a nd p a ir m a k es b ut one ob j ect ; b ut t he

‘ ’ ’
and pa ir ,
u se of or excl ud es a comb ina t ion of t his k ind
‘ ’
b ring either . .

a carria ge 07 a sa d dle ho1 se I S a cont ra ct ed sent ence .

I n co ordinat e cont ra ct ed sent ences t he p art s j oined b y

-

t he conj unct ion must st a nd in t he same rela t i on t o

‘
t he common p art I a dd no n1o1 e and beli eve m e yours
.

t ruly is a n imegular const ru ct ion, for t he conj u nct ion coup les
’

a v erb in t he indi cat iv e a dd w it h a not her in t he imp erat iv e .

b eliev e I is not t he sub j ect ofb oth v erb s .

The foll ow ing are irregula r contract iou s

'

This d edicat ion m ay ser ve for almost a ny b ook t hat ha s, is,

or sha ll be p ub lished this m ust b e has been, is or shal l b e,
.
,
‘
e1 e a re p ri nci les in m a n w hich ev er ha ve,
’

p ub l ished Th .
p ‘ ‘
a nd ever wi l l i ncline him t o t his ofience ,
’
for ev er hav e
i ncli ned , and ev er w ill incline .

W hen cl auses are p la ced si d e b y sid e w it hout a

conj unct ion exp ressed , or ot her gra mma t ica l l ink ( as a r ela t iv e
ronoun, or a rel a t iv e a d v erb ) , t he re somet imes t erm ed
p y a
‘ ‘
c oll at eral ; as I cam e I sa w , I conq uer ed ;
’
. t his is t he
w ay t ha t roa d oes now here I n such const ruct ions a cer ta in
g .

rhetorical ef fect is prod uced b y t he ell ip sis of t he conj unct ions .

E XAMP L E S OF AN AL YS I S
'

S im p le S e nt e nc e s .

24 . F o rm of A na lys is . In analyz in
g S im l
p e
S entences the manner of p r oceeding is as follow s

I . S et d ow n t he S ub e j ct of the sentence .

II S et d ow n the e nla rg e m ent , o r a t t r ib ut l v e

.

A dj u not s of t he S u bj e c t These m ay b e a ssu med .

t o b e restr icti ve, unless mentioned as eo or d ina ting .

2 82 ,
S YN TAX .
—
A N ALY S I S or SE NTEN CES .

I I I Giv e the P re d ic a t e V e rb
. I f this b e 9 . .

W 113 o f incompl ete p red ica t ion, sta te the C o m p le

me nt ai so .

IV . W hen the p redica te is a transitiv e v erb , state

the O bj e c t .

Set d ow n the e n a rg e m e nt , o r
V
l
. a tt r ib ut iv e
A dj unc t s of t he O bj e c t .

VI . Ad v e rb ia l A dj u nc t s of t he P re d ic a t e .

W hen t he v a riou s
p m e d if
a rt s ferent fmay
or ms, the a ssu

p a rti cul ar form p resent shoul d b e mentioned .

25 . E xa mp le
N ight , g od d ess , from h er eb on thr one,
sa b l e
I n ra y l ess maj est y , now st re tc h es forth
Her lea d en sc ep t re, o er a sl u mb ering w orld
’
.
’

1 . S u bj ect , night
‘
II . A ttr i b uti ve a dj u nct of su b ect, j sab le g odd ess noun in
app osit ion ( w it h a dj . a d unct j ) .

III . P r ed ica te, st retches ( or st re t ches-fort h

31V . Obj ect , scep t re

V A ttri buti v e a d uncts

j L her ossessi ve a dj ective.

{
'

‘
p
’
2 . l eaden ; a dj ective

from her eb on throne p hrase of

’
1 .

p la ce, p r ep a nd nou n . .

‘
2 . in rayl ess maj esty p hr ase of
VI . A d ver bia l a dj uncts ma nner , p r ep a nd nou n . .

now ad v o f ti me
. .

fort h ad v o f p lace . .

‘o er a s u mb e rin w orld
’
h
l g p r .

ofp lace, p rep a nd noun . .

26The neglect t o lay d ow n in distinct ter ms t he

.

Op p osition b et w een t he tr ue a nd the false, ha s b een the

oc ca sion of t he generall unintelligib le chara cter of
y
metap hysics ’
.

‘
1 S ubj
. ect, neglect
 SI MPLE snur s ucns A N ALY S E D . 283

l . t he a dj , or a r ticle . .

2 . t o l ay d own i n d ist inct t erms t he

o p osit ion b et w een t he t r ue
p ’
a nd t he f al se ; tnfin p hra se .

ob j ect t o t he v erb al nou n

‘ ‘
I n d ist inc t t erms ,
’
ne l ect
’

11 A ttrz bu tw ea dj
é
.

u nt s
a d v r bta l a dj u nct o f ma‘nner ,
’

p r cl h r , u t he v erb t o lay
. .

d ow n t he (a ttr i bute to) 0 }

"
p osit ion obj of t o l ay .

‘
d ow n b et w een t he t rue a nd
’
t he fa lse , p r ep p hr , a dj u nct . .

to opp osit ion

‘
l . Ver b of i ncomp lete p r ed , has .

b een
2 . Comp leme nt o f p r ed , t he occa .

noun, mod ifi ed b y of
’
sion

t he generall uni nt ell ig ib l e

charac t er 0 meta p hysics
p r ep p hr , t he noun charac
. .

b eing mod ifi ed b y ( 1 )
’

t er
‘
the , a dj
’

( 2 ) u nint elligi .

b le
’

q u a li fi ed i n t ur n
b y a dv of extent genera lly
.

‘
of metap hysics p r ep l p hr . .

27 Hav ing
first p rocured guides, w e b egan
. ou r

ascent of the mountain

’
.

‘
I S u bj ect , we
.
p ron .

I I A ttmb u tivc a dj u nct hav ing fi rst ed d

l
i
’

.
p rocur gu es

or d ina ti ng p a r t ictp ia l p hr a se
'
.

‘ ’
I I I P r ed i ca te, b egan
. .

‘ ’
I V Obj ect, a scent
. .

V A ttr i bu ti ve a dj u ncts 1
. our ; p oss a dj . . .

of obj ect, 2 of t he m ou nt ai n .
p r ep p hr a se . .

The a ttr ib ut i v e a dj unct oft he sub j ect , hav ing fi rst roc ured o

uid es m ig ht b e fu rther a nalysed i nt o v erb , ob j ect , an ad v erb

g .

28 There are t w enty men here

’
, .

I S u bj ect, men
’

‘ ’
II . A dj u nct o f su bj ect,
t went y , a dj .

‘
1 I ncomp l v b , a re
’

HI ‘ P r ed z ca te,
{
. . . .

‘
2 Co p lem , here , a d v o m
’
fp lace . . .

There ori gi nally an adv ofp lace, has ent irely lost it s force
.

in this a pp licat ion, and is merely a formal means of allowing t he

inversion oft he sent ence .
 S YN X TA .
—
A N ALY S I S OF S E N TEN CE S .

. 29 . He gave me a let ter t o read.

’

‘
I S u bj ect, he ’
. .

‘
I I I P r ed i cate, gav e
’
.
.

‘
I V Obj ect of ver b , l ett er
. .

V A dj u nct of obj ect, ‘a

.

w
V I A d ver bi a l A d ruri cw L
ad
‘
j . or a r ti cle.
‘
me ( i
’
to d a ti ve p r on
{
. e .
,
‘
fp r ed ica te, t o read
’

o 2 .
, p hr .
f p fi
o p ur ose
ger u ud ) .

30 I t is v a in t o p retend ignorance
’
. of t he fact .

‘ ’
1 S u bj ect, it , a nti cip a tive p r onou n
. .

‘
I I A dj unct of su bj ect,
. t o p ret end ignorance of the fa ct ;
’

infin p hr i n app osi ti on

. . .

V er b of i ncomp lete p r edi ca ti on is

‘
Comp lement o fp r ed i ca te, vain a dj .

"
3L W ho a re you i
’
I . S u bj ect,
you , p r on.

V er b of i ncomp lete p redi ca ti on, a re

III . P r ed ica te . Comp lement of p red ica te, 1 who
p r onoun .

‘
32I n F rance t here w a s less ma terial for the
.

R eformers t o w ork u p on
’
.

I S u bj ect, ma t erial
’
. .

‘
I I A dj u nct of S ubj ect, less
’
. adj .

‘
I I I P r ed ica te, w a s
. e xist ed) .

V I A dver bia l Adj a nets of F r ed

.

‘
l in F l a nce
.
p hr of p lac
p rep a nd noun . e , . .

‘
for t he Re forme1 s ofp urp ose or benefit
’
2 .
p rep l p hr . . .

‘
3 .
’
k
t o w or u p on ; p hr of end or p urp ose, ger u nd . .

4 t her e
’
.May b e set down as formally a dv erb ial, b ut has
.

b ecome a m ere hel p t o inv ersion .

The e xp l ession for t he Refo1 111 e1 s t o 11 0 1 11: up on may also b e

' ’

r ega l d cd a s a contra ct ed e ui v a l ent t o a n a dj cl a use l im it i ng

‘
q .

‘
mat erial as if l ess ma t eria l tha t the Reformers might w or k
’

up on .

Tw o may k eep
’
33 . c ounsel, p ut t in g one a w a y.

I . S u bj ect, two ( see expla nation b elow ) .

"ma
I ncomp l v er b,
i
1 . .
y’ .

‘
3 . Comp tom ( to) . k ee
p ; i nfin .

I V Obj ect ( of Comp]

’
. . c ou ns d .

‘ ’
V I A d v l : A dj unct of F r ed
.
, p u t t ing one a w a
y
°

p h f
r o
, eon
d iti on, i mp erso na l p a rt ieip le
 S I M P LE S E N TE N CE S
‘

A N AL YS E D . 32 85 ‘

‘ ‘
S trictl y, the S ub j ect l s
’
ersons und erst ood ; a nd t w o} ,
‘
numer al a dj , is lim it ing A j unct t o t he S ubj ect
’
S o one in .

‘
st rict ness li mit s
’

p erson ,
w hi ch i s l eft u n e xp r essed , b eca u se
ea sily supp lied b y ev er
y heu1 er T he omission of t he noun
"
t h1 ow s t he forc e of it up on t wo , w hich m ay t herefor e b e all owed
t o sta nd a s sub j ect .

34 R esp ecting oursel v es, shal l be c ted by

‘

. we r es
p e
’
the w orld .

I S ubj ect, w e p r on
. .

‘ ’
I I Adj u nct of S u bj ect, respecting our selv es , co or di na ti ng
.
-

p a r ticip i a l p hr ase, w it h t he force of a n a d vl ex pression of con .

dit ion mod ifying t he princip al clause ; _ 1f or si nce w e r esp ect

'

’
ou rselves, & c .

‘
I I I P r ed ica te, shall b e resp ect ed
’

o
. .

V I A d vl A dj u nct of P r ed , b y t he world p r ep l p hr f
’

. . . . .

a gency .

1 35 . L eaning my head up on my hand, I b egan to

figure t o myself the miseries of confinement ’
.

I S u bj ect, I ", p r on
.
‘

I I A dj unct of S u bj ect, ‘l eanmg my hea d upon my hand

.

co or d i n p a r tl
‘ "
p hr he ad
’
-
. The p a rt iciple lea ning has obj
. . .,

(l imi‘ t ed b y t he p oss adj my a nd a d ol p hr o

.
f p lace or p os i . .

tion up on my hea d (p r e l
’

‘
I I I P r ed ica te, b ega n
.
p
’
.
.

‘
I V Obj ect, t o fi gu r e , infin
. .

‘
the m1ser1es of confi nem ent ;
’
1 .

V A dj uncts Qf Obj ect,

to my sel f ;
’
2 , a d vl .
p hr ase f
O e nd ,

p rep l .

36 P arta kers in every p eril, ini the gl ory Shall they

'

not p a rtak e I
’

‘ ’
I S ubj ect, t hey ; p ron
. .

I I A dj u nct of S u bj ect
’
art a ker s in ev ery ril nou n tu
p ;
'
.

ap p osition, w it h t he for ce of a n adv l ex f ssion 0 caus e or rea son,

pr .

‘
modifying t he p ri ncip al cla use seei ng t ha t t hey ha v e b ee n

p k
ar t a ers— ha v e p a rt a en— i n e v ery p eril k ’
.

‘ ‘
The noun pa rt a k el s is lim it ed b y in ev ery eril a p rep]
’
.

p h ras e t ha t is f orm a ll
y a dj ect iv e b u t r eal ly v l , t he noun .

‘
‘
k ’

p arta ers hav ing t he force oft he v erb p arta e , as is seen in

’
k
t he eq ui v al ent lengthened expression ust giv en j .
 S YN TAX .
—
A N ALY S I S OF S E NTE N CE S o

‘
I ncomp l v er b, shall not
’
L
{
.

2 Comp lem
‘
( t o) p art a e , i nfin
. . k .

‘
VI A dj unct Of P r ed , in t he gl ory p rep l p hr qf
’
. A d vl . . . .

f
r e er ence .

"
37 To imp ose fresh taxes on E ngl and in d efiance
.

of law w ould, at this conj unctu re, ha v e b een madness

’
.

I S u bj ect, t o impose
’
. i nfin .

I I A dj u nct of S u bj ect
.

‘ ‘
fresh taxes : obj to to 1 mp ose
’ ’
1 . . .

u pon England ; a d v l p r ep l p hr of end . . . .

‘
in d efi ance ofl aw ; ad vt p rep l p hr of opp o
’
8 . . . .

‘
l I ncomp t v b , w ould ha v e b een
'
. . .

‘
2 Comp lem , ma d ness ; ne u n
’
. . .

‘
a t t his conj unct ure ; p r ep l
’
V I Ad vt A dj unct of P r ed ,
. . . .

A d uncts of the S ub ect l n t his exampl e a re in t he usual j

j j
forms oft l e Ob ect a nd t he A d v erb ial Adj unct oft he P red ica te .

. The reason is that t he sub j ect 1s, not a noun, b ut t he I n nit iv e fi

'
of a transitiv e v erb Compa re t he Ad unct of t he Ob ect in
. j j
§ 35 .

C o mp lex S e nte nc es .

38 F o rm
These are to b e anaof A na lys is
'

—
'

—
.

lyz ed i n the first instance as if each sub ordinat e clause

‘

w ere a single W ord or phrase The sub ordinate clauses

‘
.

are then to b e analyz ed sep ara tely

’

E XA M P L E S CO T A IN NI N G NOUN CL A US ES .

39 That he . co mmitted the fault, coul d be j udged

from his l ook s
’
.

I . S ubj ect, t hat he com mitted the f ul t a noun cla use (a ) .

‘
Ver b of i ncomp l p r ed cou1d
HI P red i ca te, Comp lement o
‘ ’
. . .

p r ed ica te, b e j udged

’

‘
f .

V I A dver bia l a dj unct of p r ed ica te, from hi s looks , p r ep l

’ ‘

. .

‘
I . S u bj ect he
‘
III P r ed i ca te, committed
.

IV Obj ect, faul t

. .

‘
V A dj u nct qfobj ect, the
. .

into the construction

’
The conj unction t ha t d oes not enter
oft he dep endent cl a use .
 oomr nnx sa m enes s WI TH N OUN C A L US ES . 2 87

40 I tol d him that w e should b e there

'

I S u bj ect, I
.

I I I P r ed i ca te, t old
.

I V Obj ect, t ha t w e should b e t here

. noun cla use, (a ) .

V I A d ver bi a l a dj unct o
.
f P r ed ica te, him to him
p hra se of di recti on .

I . S u bj ect, we

III P r ed i ca te, fi ncomp t p r ed . .

, shoul d be
t here a d v. o
'

fp lace .

‘
I n t hese construct ions t he p rac t ice ha s b een t o t erm him
the ind irect obj ect of t he v erb , b ut w e may also rega rd i t a s a n
a d v erb ia l w ord ind ica ting a circu mst a nce connecte d w it h t he
act of t elling I t is imp orta nt to comp are t hi s example w it h
.

t he following .

4l . I strongly w arned him that disaster w ould

follow such
perv ersit
y
I S u bj ect, I
.

‘
I I I P redi ca te, wa rned
.

I V Obj ect, him

.

V I A d ver bi a l A dj u ncts o
.
f P r ed ica te I strongly a dv o
f . . .

’
degr ee 2 that disa st er w ould foll ow such p erv ersity , nou n
. .

cla use ( a ) , used as a dv t exp r essi on of r efer ence

. .

A na lysi s f(a )
o .

I S u bj ect, disa st er
.

I I I P r ed i ca te, would follow

.

I V Obj ect, p erv ersit y

.

V , A dj u nct of obj ect, such adj .

That int rod uces t he noun clause and connects it w ith t he

’ ‘

rinci pal
p .

Here him 1 8 the di r ect ob j ect of warned

’
W e might .

I told or menti one d t he fact t hat w e should b e there b ut not

I w a r ned t he fa ct that d isast er w oul d follow Hence in ‘t he
one case t he noun cla use is t he real ob j ect of t he v erb ; i n t he

ot her ca se i t is not t he ob j ect , a nd must b e consi dered a s

mod ifying t he p redicat e .

I d rea mt tha t I d w el t i n ma r ble ha l ls Drea mt m ay b e

’

regard ed as t ra nsit iv e, t hought in a d ream in w hi ch ca se

t ha t I d w el t i n marb le hall s is t he ob j ect
‘

t he noun cl au se, .

I f d rea mt b e regard ed as i nt ra nsit iv e, the noun c lause is used

as a n a d ver bi a l exp ression of re fererwe .
1 S YN TAX .
-
A N ALY S I S OF S E N TE N CE S .

42 . ( It is singular that you shoul d mak e that

mista ke
’
.

I S u bj ect, it
.

I I A dj u nct of S u bj ect,
. that you should ma k e t hat mistak e ’

,
"
nou n cla u se i n ap p ositi on, (a ) .

‘
V er b of incomp lete p red i ca ti on, is
HI P r ed i ca te, ‘
Comp lement of P r ed , si ngul ar , a dj
’ ’
. .

‘
I S u bj ect, you
.

I I I P r ed i ca te, should ma e
. k
.
‘
I V Obj ect, mist a e
’
k .

V A dj u nct of Obj ect, t hat

. d emonstr adj . .

"
fi
The rst t hat i s merely t he formal w ord int rod ucing the
{ nou n cla u se .

The app osit ion is more im ressiv ely b rought out b y the
st ronger p ronoun t his ’s now this, tha t i n thr ee V k
ca mp a igns w e ha ve d one nothi ng Comp are also t he following
exa mple
,

43 . Morality is d eeply interested m this, that

w hat is im moral hall not b e made
’
s a ttra ctiv e .

‘
I . S u bj ect, m orali ty ’
.

‘
I ncomp l ver b, is
’
. .

‘
Comp lem , int erest ed
. a dj .

VI A d v t A dj :
. .

‘ ’
1 d eep ly .

‘
2 in t his p r ep l p hr of r efere
. nce, t he r eference b eing
. .

‘ ”
at w ha t i s immoral sha ll not b e m a de a t t ract iv e ,
’
g iv en in t h
noun cla use ( a ) i n app osi ti on to t hi s

‘
I . S u bj ect, what is immoral noun cla use
1 I . ncomp l . V er b, shall not
nega ti v e
m
.

‘
Com em , b e made a ttra ct iv e ,
’
III P . r ed ica te, 2 .

it self an incompl et e in nit iv e fi

w it h a d ect ive comp l ement j .

That introd uces t he nou n cla use .

’
I . S ubj ect, what .

‘
1 I ncomp t ver b, is
{2
. .

‘
Comp lem immoral
’
. .
, ad j .

44 Tell me how you

’
. are.
'

I . S u bj ect, you ( un
derstood) .
 N O UN L US E S
C A AN A L YS E D .

II I . P redi ca te, t ell

IV . Obj ect , how a re you nou n cl a us e (a ) .

‘
me to me
’
V I A d ver b ia l A dj
. unct o f P r ed ica te , , p hr ase
of d i r ect ion or bene
fit .

A na lysis of( a ) .

I
0

. S u bj ect, y u
o
‘
1 Ver b of i ncomp lete p r ed icat ion,
’

{
a re
I n P r ed ica te,
.

‘
2 Comp lement of p r ed ica te, how ,
’
ad v.
’

’
45 . I w ish to know w here y ou li v e .

I S ubj ect, I
.

I I I P r ed i ca te, w ish
.

I V Obj ect , to k now

. i nfiniti ve .

V Adj u nct o
.
f Obj ect, where you li v e nown cla use (a ) , j
ob ect
to t o know

’
f ( a)
A na lysi s o .

I S ubj ect, y ou
. .

‘
I I I P r ed i ca te, li i a
. .

V I A dver bia l adj u nct

.
fP r ed i cat e
o ,
where a dv .
fp la ce
o .

46 . W hat see ms most e xtra ordina ryin the b at t le

o f S ed ge moor is that t he e v ent should ha v e b een for a

m ome nt d o ub tful
’
.

‘
I S u bj ect, w hat seems most e xt rao rdi nary in the b a t tle
. of
S edgemoor nou n cla use ( a
I I I P r ed i ca te:
.

‘ ’
I I ncomp t ver b , is
. . .

‘
2 Co m p le m ,
. t hat t he ev ent should have b een for
. a.

moment doub t ful nou n cla use, ( a

A na lysis f (a l )
o .

I . S u bj ect, Wh i t
‘
I ncomp t ver b, seems
’
1
HI ‘ P r ed i ca te,
. .

Comp lem , extraordi nary adj 2. . .

VI A dver b i a l A dj u nct of P redica te,

. in t he b at tle of
S ed ge mo or , p rep l p hr as e of p lace
’
. .

‘most , ad ver b of
m p lem of P red ,
’
A d d A dj u nct o f C o. . .
.

‘ ’
A na lysi s of (a
I S ubj ect e v ent
. , .

I I A dj u nct of S u bj
. ect, t he ad j .

‘
I nc omp t ver b, should ha ve b een
’
1
I I I P red i cat e,
. .

Comp l em , d oub t ful , a dj

’
2
'

. .

‘
fo r a m oment , p rep l p hr ofti me
’
V I Ad vl A dj u nct ofP r od
. . . . . .

Tha t int rod uces the noun cl a use .

19
2 90 S YN TA X .
—
A N A LY S I S or SE N TE N CES .

47
They b rought home nu merous
. ev idences that
the expe dit ion ha d b een succ essful
’
.

I S u bj ect
. they p r on, .

‘
I I I P r ed ica te, b rought
.

‘ ’
I V Obj ect, e v idences
.

V A dj uncts of Obj ect

.

1 nu merous
. a dj .

t ha t t he e xp ed ition had b e en su ccessful , nou n cla use,

’
2 .

‘ ’

( a ) , ob j ect t o e vid ences ( in conseq uence of t he v erb force

c onta ined i n it ; for ev id ences obj ects, & c , evid enci ng or .

p r ovi ng S ee
‘
V I Adv l A dj u nct o f P r edi ca te, home , to home , phr
’ ’
. . .

qfp la ce .

A na lysis o f (a) .

I S ubj ect, exp editi on

.

I I A dj u nct of S ubj ect,

. the a dj .

‘
1 I ncomp l ver b, had b een
III P r ed ica te,
. .

2 Comp lem ; successful , adj

. ’
. .

Tha t introduces t he noun cla use .

48 I felt . cert ain that the exp editi on w ould b e

’
s uccessful .

‘ ’
1 . S ubj ect, I .

I ncomp t v er b , fe] t
l
l
I I I P red i ca te,
. .

2 Comp lem , cert a i n a dj

’

. . .

‘ ’
I V Obj ect . t hat t he exp edit ion w ould b e successful , nou n
,
‘
fel t certa in b eing t he sa me in force as
’
cla use ( a ) t he red
fi rmly b eliev or som e such regul a r transit iv e v erb form .

( S ee
Or , t he nou n clau se may b e regarded as an A dv l a dj unct of .

P r ed ica te, exp la ining w hat it w as in r eference to t ha t I felt

certa in ( Comp are 41 ,
E X AM P L E S N
CO T A I N I NG J
AD EC T I V E CL A US E S .

49 . The hill that you see in the distance co mmands

"
a fine p rospe ct .

‘ ’
I . S u bj ect, hi ll .

‘t ’
1 . he , a dj , or a r ticl e .

‘ ’
II . A dj u ncts o f S ubj ect, 2 . t ha t you see in t he distance ,
a dj ecti ve cla use, ( a ) .

III . P r ed ica te, comma nds

IV . Obj ect, prospect

‘a
1 a dj or a rti cle

i
.

A dj u ncts Of Obj ect:

.

v
.

‘ ’
a fine , adj ecti ve
.

, .
 J
AD E CTI VE c m usns A N A LY S E D . 2 91

‘
A na lysis o
f ( a) .
I S u bj ect
.
you .

’
I I I P r edi ca te, s e
. .

‘
I V Obj ect, t hat , r ela ti v e p r onou n
’
. .

in t he d ista nce , p r ep l p hr ase ; really

’
V A dj unct of Obj ect
. .

‘
a d v erb ial , mod ifying a v erb impl ied, as sta nd i ng, r i si ng,
stretchi n
g a w a y i n t he d is ta nce
’

; a nd t h e a dj u nct 1 8 c o ordina -

t ing .

50 . W ho w a s it that t old you .

’

‘ ’
I S u bj ect
. it .

t hat t old you , a dj ecti ve cla use ( a )

’
I I A dj unct of su bj
. ect .

‘ ’
V er b of i ncomp t p r edi ca ti on, w as
HI P r ed i ca te,
{ e
.

"
Comp lem nt ofp r ed i ca te who
’

A na lysis o f (a ) .

I S u bj ect, that r ela ti ve p ronou n

. .

I I I P r ed ica te , t old
.

‘
V I A d r l A dj u nct of P r ed i ca te, you
’ ‘to ou ’ r e l
. .
, y , p p .

f d i r ecti on or b enefit
p hr ase o .

’
5I . The lab our w e d elight in p hysics p ain .

‘ ’
I . S u bj ect, l a b our .

‘ ’
1 . t he , ad j
j
’
A dj d elight in ad
II . u ncts o f S u bj ect ( t ha t) we , .

cla use (a ) .

III P r ed ica te, physics

.

IV Obj ect, p ain

.

A na lysi s o
f ( a) .

‘
I S u bj ect, w e p r on
. .

‘ ’
I I I P redi ca te, d el ight
. .

‘i
(
’
V I Ad vl adj u nct of P r edica te, ( that ) in
. . n
p r ep l p hr a se of r efer ence or ca use
. .

52 S uch kings a s regard

. not the sole mn p romises
they mak e are d angerous
’
.

‘
I . S u bj ect, k ings ’
.

‘ ’
such ,
ad j .

2 as r ega rd not t he sol emn p ro

II A dj f S u bj ect
.

u ncts o
mises m ak e , j
’
t hey ad
'

cla u se (a ) .

1 I nco mp t ver b,
I II P r ed i ca te
. .

Comp lem d angerou s , a dj ” ‘ ’

.

2 . .

A na lysis of ( a ) .

I S u bj ect,
. as r ela ti ve p r onou n ( adv erb ial equiv alent to
tha t or who
2 92 S YNTA X .
—
AN A LYS I S or ,
SE N TE N CES ‘

III
P red ica te, regard not , nega tive
.
‘ ’
.
‘
IVObj ect , p romises
’
.
.

V A dj u ncts of Obj ect

.

I t he . a dj .

2 sol e mn . a dj .

3 ( t ha t.
) t h e
y m a e a dj cl se (a )
a u i
k .
.

2
f(a
A na lysis o ) .

‘
I S u bj ect, they p r on
. .

I I I P r ed ica te, ma e
. k
‘
[ I V Obj ect, t hat r el p r on underst ood ]
'

. .
,

53 . We saw the p lace w here the Jacob ite standard

’
w as ra ised.

Here the ob ect ,j ‘

place is q uali fi ed b y t he a d ect iv e j cl ause
‘w here t he Jacob i ra ised , w hich is
’
te st a ndard w as
t hu s
’
I S u bj ect, st and a rd
. .

‘ ’
the j
{
l ad or a r ti cl e.
II A dj f S ubj
. .
,
uncts o cct, ‘
Ja cob ite
’

j
a d ecti ve.
.

2 .
,
‘ ’
I I I P r ed ica te,
. ra ised wa s .

‘w h re ’
V I A d ver b ia l A dj u nct of P r ed ica te,
. e r ela ti ve a d v.
‘
fp lace
o in w hic h or t ha t in

54 The j udges of t he com mon la w , w ho held t heir

.

situ a t ions d u ring the plea sure of t he Ki ng, w ere .

’
scand alously ob seq uious .

I S u bj ect,
. u dges j
‘ ’
.

I I A dj u ncts ofS u bj ect

. .

’
1 t he , a dj
.

‘
of t he common l a w ,
’
2 r ep l p hr
‘
.
p . .

3 w ho held t hei r sit u at i ons d uring the pleasure of the

.

King , a dj cla use, co or di na ting, ( a )

’
. .

This c c ordinating a dj cl has t he force ofa n a dv erb l al ad u nct . . j

of ca u se or r ea son The j udges w ere ob seq uious, for ( beca use,
.

seei ng tha t, & c they held t heir sit ua t ions d uri ng t he pl easu re of
t he ingK ’
( Cf p 3 4, b ot t om , § l 8
. . . .

1 I ncomp l ver b w ere

’

I I I P r edica te
l
. .

‘
2 Comp lem
’
ob seq uious a dj
'

. . .

‘
V I u A dv l A dj unct of( Comp l of) P r ed , sca ndalously , ad v
’
. . .

o fma nner a nd degree a nd cfiect or con sequence .

A na lysi s of ( a ) .

‘
I S u bj ect
. . who r el
, p r on .

‘
I I I P red
. .
, held
IV . Obj ect, sit ua t ions
 ADJE OTI VE AN D AD E R B I A V L '

CL A US E S AN A L YS E D
'

. 2 93

ass a dj
‘ heir ’
V A dj unct of 0bj ect, t
. , p
. .

f
V I A d v l A dj u nct o
. P r ed ira tc
. du l ing the pl easure of the ,

King , p r ep p hr of ti me a nd cond i ti on
’
. . .

E XAM P L E S C ON T A I NI NG AD V E RB I AL CL A US E S .

‘
55 . W hen
I l ook up on the tomb s of the great,
ev e ry emotion of env y dies in me
’
.

mot ion
’
I . S u bj ect , e .

I . ev ery
‘ ’
I I A dj. unc ts o fS u bj ect, 2 . of env y ,
a d v. p hr .
, prep . a nd
nou n .

I II P r ed ica te, di es

mzj
.

‘
in me , p r ep l a d v p hr p lace
’
l
V I Ad dj
when I look up on t he tbmb s of
. . .

uncts
.

f gTz
c
2
'

.
o
t he g reat a d ver bia l cla use ( a ) .

‘ ’
A na lysi s f ( a)
o .

I S ubj ect, I
. .

‘
I I I P r ed i ca te, l ook
. up on
I V Obj ect, t om b s
.

‘ ’
t he , a dj or a rt
V A dj u cts qfObj ect,
n {
.

"
adj p hr
’
2 ot t he g rea t ,
'

r ep
p
. . .

V I Ad verbi a l A dj u nct of P red i ca te when , a d v of ti me

‘
. . .

‘
The predicate might a lso b e giv en a s simply loo ( int ra ns k ’
.

‘ ‘
Up on is t hen a p rep a nd u p on t he t omb s of t he
’
v erb ) . .

gre a t 1 8 a
p re l
p p hr of la ce a nd d irect ion modif in
p .
‘
y g oo
. l k ’
.

56 . He is proud that he is nob le .

’

P rinci pa l cla use, he is p roud

S ub or d i na te a d ver bia l cl a use, ( that ) he is nob le
‘ ’
The expression t hat he is nob le signi es t he reason, t he fi
wh , ofhis b eing rou d b eca use might hav e b een used in
d f
'

‘ ’
of t ha t ) , ah 18 t heref ore a n a d v erb ial cl a u se .

57 . He ran so fast that I c ould not ov ertak e him .

’

P ri ncip a l cla use, he ran so fast

S ubor di na te a dver bia l cla use ( at t a ched t o t he a dv erb so

which it mod ifi es or d efi nes) , t ha t I coul d not overt ak e him

‘
I S u bj ect, he
.

I I I P r edi ca te, ran

.

"
f ma nner ) ,
’
V I A d ver bi a l A dj unct
. fast (a dv o .

fi‘ ’
mod i ed b y so ( a d v of . h is modi ed b y t hat I fi
coul d not ov er ta e him ,
’
k
2 94 S YNTA X . A NA LYS I S OF SE TEN CES N .

A na lysis of ( a ) .

‘
1 S ubj
. ect, I
‘
Incomp l ver b
’
coul d not nega ti ve
HI P r ed i ca te, , .

( to) ov ert ak e
‘
Comp t ofp red i nfiniti ve
’ ’
. .
,
.
,

I V Obj ect, hi m
’
. .

V I A d ver bia l A dj u nct of P r ed ica te, t hat

’
. .

‘
That here is not p rimarily a conj unct ion, b ut t he eq uiv al ent
’

‘
of a n ad v erb he ra n so fast, a nd so, or, by tha t, I could not
o v erta e him k
58 . This ex a mpl e may b e compared w ith the
follow ing He spok e lou d , that I might hea r him
’
.

P ri ncip a l cla use, he spo e l ou d k

S ubor d ina te a d v er bi a l cla use, t ha t I might hear him
‘ ’
I n t his case , t ha t is still ad v erb ial , q ua l ifying t he v erb of
‘
t he sub ordi nat e cl a use it is eq ual to so as , a nd sta tes t he
’

circumsta nce , ma nner, or m ea ns ofmy hea ri ng hi m .

‘
I f w e emp loy in ord er t ha t as t he connec tiv e, t he case is
’

‘
d ifferent ; t he clau se t hat I might hea r him is t hen a noun
’

‘ ‘
( Mason, a rt
’
cl ause q ual i fyi ng ord er B ut in ord er
. .

k
t hat may b e ta en as a p hra sal conj unction .

‘ he
59 . T sea is as d eep as the mounta ins are high .
’

the sea is asd eep

‘
S ubor di na t e a d ver bi a l cla use, as t he mount ains a re high
’
I . S ulziect ( wit h j
a d u nct ) , the sea .

V er b of i ncomp lete p r ed ica ti on,

i
18
I I I P r ed i ca te, ‘
Co m p le ment ofp red ica te d eep
.

V I A d ver bi a l adj unct of comp lement of p r ed ica te, as ( a dv

. .

o fi
ff degr ee) , m odi ed b y as the mountains a re high a d vl cla use .

o gd e ( )
r ee a .

A na l ysis of ( a ) .

I . S u bj ect, t he mounta ins

V er b ofi ncomp lete p r edicat ion are ,

Comp k ment of
VI . A dv l adj unct of oomp h , as r ela ti ve ad v of degree
. . .

6 0 I t is only thr ough thei r a d ver bia l for ce that some

.

j
con unctions ent er int o t he construct ion ofthe dep endent
cla use .

I n ad v erb ial cl auses introduced b y t he sub ordina ti ng conj unc ~

‘ ‘ ‘
though t ha t , & c , t he conj unct ion
’ ’
t ions if , .

does not enter int o t he const ruct ion of t he clau se I t is t he .

ad v erb ia l con unct i on when ,j

’
where
‘
whenev er
§
w har .
 ‘ '
e ver &c , t ha t are consid ered
as , . as q uali f i
y gn t he su b ordi nate

“
cla use intr od uced b y them .

6L ‘
W e must not think t he life of a man
w hen he feed himself ’
ca n .

P h at [p a l cla use,
-
e must not t hin
'

( A) k ’
.

S ub ord i na te nou n cl a use ( t h t ) t h lif f m n b e ins ( ‘ '

a e e o a a g a
‘
A d verb i a l cla us e subord i nate to ( a ) , when he ca n feed hi m
self
’

Here we hav e sub ordina t ion of t he second d egree, and t he

w hole may b e symb oli ca ll y e xp res sed

C o m p o und S e nt e nc e s .

62 Th e.Co —ord ina te

S ente nces are to b e anal yz ed
se p ra te l , and t he link of connexion indica t ed T h
a y ese .

se ara te sentences, w hen com lex, are t o b e ana l z ed as

p p y
su ch .

‘ ‘
The house fell, and g rea t w as t he fall thereof [ A ] The
house fell ; [ B ] grea t w as t he fall thereof A nd connec ts [ A ]
’ ’

and [ B ] .

‘
He goes [ a l, ( b ut ) it is intended tha t I should rema in
till I g row st ro nger [ B + b + b
’

C ont ra c t e d S e nt e nc es .

63 I n t hese t he omitte d parts must b e exp ressed

.

a t full lengt h, af te r w hic h the analysis p roceeds as

ab o v e .

F rogs and sea ls liv e on land a nd m w at er Here then are ’

.

four se ntences .
‘
Fr g
li v e on land ; frogs li ve in w a te r ;
o s
’ ‘ ’

‘
se al s live on la nd
’ ’
seal s liv e i n w a t er .

fi
I a m the rs t and ( I a m) t he last .
’

I n t he followi ng exa mp le t he cont rac ti on ta es p lace in t he k _

‘
sub o rd ina t e pa rt of a comp lex sent ence w hen a m an is from .

necess ity his own ta il or, tent ma er, car pente r coo , huntsm an,
-
k ,
k
a nd fishe rma n, i t is not p rob a b l e t ha t he w ill b e e xpert a t a ny of

his ca ll ings S o in t hi s : my first , for Hea v en hi des nothing

from thy vi ew , nor t he d eep tra ct of Hell
‘
Aga in : I n a ll ti mes and in all p laces, man has sought to
,

64 L et os p res ent
. . an analysis of the following
co mp ound se nte nce
2 96 N
S Y TA X .
—
A N A LY S I S or m m ons
su .

‘
The t heory of t he Ma hom et an gov ernment rests up on the
ma int enance of a cl ear se pa 1 at ion 11 0 111 t he u nb eliev ers ; a nd to
rop ose t o a Mu ssul m an ofa ny p iet y, t ha t t h e Comman d e1 oft he
p
F ait hful should ob l it e ra te t he d ist inct ion b e t ween Mahometans
a nd Chr ist ians w oul d b e p rop osing t o ob l it era t e t he d ist i nc t ion

b etw een V i 1t ue a nd v ice t he not ion w oul d seem t o b e not m er ely

w rong and W ick ed, b ut a contra d ict ion in t erms
’
.

‘
Anal ysis of sent ence A Tb e t heory u nb el iev ers
—
.

‘
1 S u bj ect ( w i th a dj uncts) , the t heory ofg o v ernm ent
.

I I I P red ica te, res ts n pon

.
( Com pa re lo o u pon k
I V Obj ect ( w it h a dj u ncts) , t he ma inte na nce u nb eliev ers
’
-
. .

B . To p rop ose — v irt ue a nd v ice

I S u bj ect, t o p rop ose
. i nfini t ive .

I I A dj u ncts of S u bj ect
.

t hat t he Comma nder

’
1 . Christ ia ns , nou n cl a use ( b) .

‘
2 t o a Mussulma n ofa ny p iet y
. a d vl p hr ase (p rep a nd . .

‘
V er b ofi ucomp l p 1 ed ,
’
. . w oul d b e .

Comp l oj p r ed , p rep osing , i nfin.

’ '

. .

‘
I V Obj ect of ver b, t o ob lite ra te i nfini ti i re
. .

‘
V A dj u nc t of Obj ect
. t he d ist inct ion b e t w ee n v irt ue a nd
v i ce obj ect ( w i tfi a dj u ncts) to i ufiu to ob li ter a te .

A na lysi s o f ( b) .

I S u bj ect ( w i th a dj u ncts) , t he Command er of the aithful

. F ’
.

I I I P r ed i ca te, sh ould ob litera te

.

I V Obj ect ( wit h a dj u ncts) , t he dist inct ion b e t wee n Ma home

.

t a ns a nd Chri st ians
The t hird d ivi sion oft he sent ence is great ly contract ed The .

‘
full ex ression is : t he not ion w ould see m t o b e not m erel y
w rong ] a n d ( [h
t he n ot i o n w o u ld see m t o b e n ot m e rel
y ) w ic ed k
[ D b ut ( t he mot ion w ould seem t o b e) ‘a cont i a dic tion 1D te 1 1ns
’

[ B S o m et im e s s u ch a n exp ress io n a s w 1 o ng a nd w ic ed ma
y k ’

b e v iew ed as a comp ound p red ica t e, the t w o w o1 ds b eing

‘
i nt end ed t o c onv ey b ut one not ion t o t he mi nd
’
A nd co n .

nect s A and B
C a nd D ,
‘
b ut connect s E w i th C a nd w ith D,
’

b eing a nticip a t e d b y not merel y t here is no connec t i ng lin k

exp ressed b et w een and C B That connect s b a nd
. B .

E llip t ic a l S e nt e nc e s .

65 E llip 8 1s i s t he omission of som e p art essent ia l to

.

a compl ete const ruc tion for the sak e o f b i e v it y a nd

W
hat is le ft is regard ed ac sufii c ient t o
'

strength .
c

conv ey the intended mea ning .

 ELLI P TI CA L SE N TE N CES

The Contracte d S ent en

’

ces ab ov e sp ok en of are one

class of Ellipt ical S ent enc es the p a r t common t o t w o

or more ( lo or d inate S ent ences b eing e x p ressed only
-

once; Another class, somew ha t more difficult, a re

'

‘
t hose inv ol ving the Comp arativ e A d verb s, as than
a nd the

66 . He is as t all as I am.
’

‘
I n full, he is as tall as I am ta l l
’
P r i ncip a l cla us e, he is.

as ta ll
’

f
a d ver bi a l a dj u nct o the comp lem en t ( f the p red i ca te,
‘
as fi
( modi ed b y the a d v erb ia l cla use) as I a m t a ll
’
.

‘
The p redicat e of t he ellip t ical or d ep endent clau se is ta ll ,
’

a nd t his i s comp a red , b y mea ns oft he r ela t iv e a d v erb w it h

'

as

t he d egree of ta ll ness exp ressed i n t he p ri ncip al cla use I t is .

a na logous t o t he sent ence a lr eady giv en, t he sea is as d eep as

t he mounta ins are high

67 . He
‘
is ta ller than I a m .
’

‘
I n full , he is t aller t han I a m ta ll
’
P r incip a l cla use, he .

‘ ‘
is t aller ; a d ver b ia l ‘cla use, I a m t all t ha n w here t han
’ ’ ’

(‘
w h i ch is or ig ina lly t h en i s a n a d v erb ofd e r ee,
g q u a l ifyi ng
t a ll
’
He is tal ler, then ( next , in an inferior degree) I a m
.

’
t all .

68 . He is more industrious t han clev er .

’

I n full he is more industrious tha n he i s cl ev er Analyz ed

t hus “ ‘ ’
I . S ubj ect , he .

‘
Ver b of i ncomp lete p r ed i ca ti on, is
I n P r ed i ea te, ‘
Comp l of p r edica te, i nd ust rious
'

V I A d v er bi a l a dj u nct of the comp lement, m ore ( a d v of d e

. .

g re e) , m od i fi ed b y t ha n h e i s c lev er
’
( a d vl c“la u se of d egr ee) ( a ) .

( a nalyz ed , he is cl e v er t han L it era lly, t his const ruct ion

mea ns, he is indust rious mor e the nhe is clev er T here w ould
seem t o b e a t a u tol ogy in t he E ng lish id iom, f or either w ord
,
more or t han would ha ve exp ressed t he comparison .

69 . He ha s not w rit te n so mu ch as I hav e .

’

so much a s I ha v e w rit t en mu ch
‘
I n full , T he a d v erb
as
‘
is a n a d ve rb ofd egree q ualifying m uch und erst ood I ha v e
m
.

w rit t en uch, he ha s not w ritt e n mu ch ( t o t he sa m e is

t he mod e of r end ering t he const ruct ion Or I ha v e w ritt en .

m uch so ( comp a red b y a cert ain q ua nt ity) , he ha s not w rit ten

much 3 0 ( comp a red b y t he sa me
2 98 S YN TAX —
A N A LY S I S or sa m e nes s .

"
70 . He has w ritten
’

more letters than you .

I n fu ll , he ha s w ritt en m or e lett ers t ha n you ha ve wr it ten

ma ny letter s ; he ha sw ri tt en many let t ers mor e ma ny more ,
’ ’

‘
or moz e ma ny ,
’
more, or ma ny er ) — then you ha v e writt en -

ma ny let t ers .

7l . He d oes not w rite so w ell a s you .

’

He does not As mod ifi es ‘

’ ’
w rit e so w el l as you wr it e w ell .

‘
w ell , i n corresp ondence 11 1t h so modifying t he
’ ’
t he second
"
fir st w ell He does not well so ( in t ha t d egree) as ( in which
’
.

’
d eg ree ) w ell you w rit e .

72
’
. I w ould as soon d ie a s suf
fer t hat .

‘ ’
I wou ld a s soon die as I wou ld soon su fier t ha t , I n other .

‘
w ord s, I w ould d ie as soon a s soon I w oul d su f fer t ha t The .

‘ "
‘ —
as he re 1 3 p recisel y simila r t o t he
’
as in t he p reced in
.1s so
g
exa mp le

73 As a fte r such and sa me e mp loyed as

e q ui va lent t o t he restric t iv e rela t i v e, is a case ofell i sis

p .

’
The house is not such as I w a nt The house is not su ch .

’
a ho u se a s I w a nt a house A house I w a nt is so, t he hous
.

e
’ ‘
is no t s uch ( 0 1 so li ke, or li e t o -
k
T he ful l corresp on
‘
d e nc e w as w ell gi v en b y t he a nc i ent suc h— such .

74 m
’
. I a not such a fool as t o b ehev e that .

I n full I a m not such a fool a s I should b e a fool t o b eliev e

I should b e a fool t o b el iev e t hat ( if I w ere t o b el iev e
'

t hat
‘
I a m not a fool such ( or so, or l i e t ha t or t o t hat
’
k
d e gree as ( in w hich deg ree) a f ool I shoul d b e t o b eliev e t hat .

t han L u cullu s w ore

’
Our hab its a re c ostlier .

‘
Tha n L u cull us w ore costly ha b its or t ha n the ha bi ts w ere
Cos tly tha t L uc ull us w ore Our hab it s a re costly nw r e— then '

’
c s stl v hab it s L uc ull us w ore
- .

76 . M od era t ion in t he u se of food is a b etter

re medy t ha n m ed icine for an op p ressed sta te of t he
’
c i rcu la t ion .

Than med icine is a good remed y .

’

77 To . r esolv e mpound sentence into the

a co

si mp le or co m p lex sentences comp osing it, often enab les

us to d etec t a fa ult in its constr uction .
 CO N CORD . 2 99

Because he had commit t ed a cri

’
me he ,
w as shut np m p ri son
-

and let out aga in only yest e rd ay As it st a nds, t he sent ence is

.

resol v ab le int o t hese tw o b e ca u se he had committ ed a c ri me,

he w as shut up in p ri son a nd b eca use he ha d committ ed a
crim e, he w as let out only yest erd a y I t shou ld b e, b eca use
he ha d commit t ed a crime , he w as shu t u p in p rison ; a nd he
was l et out aga in onl y yest erday a nd i t w as only yest erd y1
or,
a
t ha t he w as let out ag a in

78 A R elati v e P ronoun, as sub j ect, is freq uently

.

omit t ed in p oetry, not oft e n in

'

rose
p .

I n t he sent ence, t here w as a ma n show ed me t he w ay t he

a nal ysis w ill d et erm ine ex a ct l w h a t i s w rong T here is b ut
y .

one sub ect j fi

ma n t o t w o nit e v er b s, m a ing up t w o d ist inct
, k
assert ions . N ow t his is ad missib le onl y i n a comp ou nd
cont rac ted sent ence b u t t he for m of such a sent ence w ould b e
a m an w as t here a nd show ed me t he w a E v ery assert ion,
y
a nd conse u entl
q y ev er y n it e v fi
er b , m u st h av e a sub ect , a nd j
ev ery sub j ect mu st hav e a p red ica t e or nit e v erb The fi .

insert ion of t he relat iv e w ould su p ply a subj ect t o t he second

v erb in t he ab ov e sent e nce F
urt her i nst a nces
.
‘
t here is a
g arde n goes a lo‘n’g w it h t he hou se w ho w as it t oo t he news k
t o Hal l
‘
F
arm l haply I see a m a n w ill sav e my li fe ; now
’ ‘

who b e ye w ould cross L ochgyle l

’ '

C O N C O RD .

l T he g e ne ra l p r inc ip le s or p rocesses r egul ating

.

t he gra mma t ic a l union of w ord s in se nte nc es a re t hree

in numb er — C o nc o r d , G o v e r nm e nt , a nd O rd e r
or arran ement of w ords
g .

W he n t w o c o nne c t e d w o rd s a re oft he s a me
G e nd e r N u m b e r
, , T P e rs o n,
e nse ,
t he
y a re or
sa id t o a g r ee w i t h one a nother, o r t o b e in C o nc o r d .

S peaking of a man w e ha v e to sa y he, of a w oman size,

o f a pl uralit o f ersons, they t he se a re agree ments or
y p
concords .

I n p oint of fa ct , t hese concord s are a l rea d

y t aught und e r
E t ymology . W e hav e seen t ha t
‘
he mea ns a m a n, she
’
a
w oma n, & c ; t hat w hen
. a nou n is in t he p lura l, t here is a
 sr nra xl N
CO CORD .

‘
l
p ecu iar inflexi on oft he v erb t o corresp ond wi th it ( they ca ll
not ca l ls ) , a nd a lso a certa in in flexion of t he d emonst ra t i v e
‘
a dj ec t iv es ( thes e, not this , Hence the exp ressions,
the t re es g row s t hose sort oft hings are errors of Et ymol ogy
a s w ell a s ofS y nt a x W ha t is left t o S ynt a x is m erely t o exp l a in
.

so me d ifi icu lt a n d d oub tfu l ca ses, w here w e are not q u it e sure w hat

ti re person, numb er, g end er or t ense of a w ord rea lly is
, .

C o nc o rd of S u bj e c t a nd V e rb .

2 . A V e r b m us t w it h it s S u bj e c t in
a g re e
N u m b e r a nd in P e rs o n ; a nd t he S u b e c t of
'

t he V e r b is a lw a ys in t he N o m ina t iv e a se .

T he v erb a nd the subj ect , b eing b ot h s ro k en of t he sa me

t hing must a g ree w it h each ot her
, ift hey id not , t he re w o uld
‘
b e a co nt ra d ict ion i n t erms I f John is t he na me for o ne
’
.

‘
i nd iv id ua l, a nd w ri te is t he form t hat p red ica tes t he ac ti on,
’

w rit ing for a plural it y of indivi duals, t hen John w rit e is a

d iscord, o r w ron com b ina ti on .

T his rule is se d om t ra nsgressed in short sent ences except b y

‘ ’
e rso ns a lt o et her u nt a u ht S u h ex ressions as s a ys I ;
p g g c .
p
he d o w e sees
‘
t he shop s is not ope n a re mista es oft he k
g ros se st k
ind B ut in long er sente nces, w here se v eral na m es
.

o cc u r, the ver b is someti mes i n a d ver tentl y r efer r ed to w ha t i s not

the rea l su bj ect The follow ing are exa mp les of t he ind o f
. k
s t ruct ure re tered to t he or igi n of t he city a nd sta te of Rome
'

i s i nv olv ed in great uncerta int y t he m om enta ry j u ncti on o f

eral t rib e s p r od uces a n army These are correct b u t ma ny
'

i nst ances of errors a ri sing in sim ila r const ru ct ions could b e

‘
ro duced F or e xa m le h i r ep uta t i on w as grea t , and some
p . s
w ha t m ore dura b le t a n tha t of simil ar octs ha v e ge neral ly
b e en Ra il roa ds seem now , how ev er, t o e l i ely t o su p erse de k
mo st other m et hods of conv eyance, in so fa r, a t lea st , a s t he
The p a t ronage
’
tr a nsit o f goo d s a nd p a ssengers a re concerned .

w hich t he B
ri ti sh Col onies ofior ds t o t he hom e go v ernment is

i mmense . The lighting a nd clea ni ng oft he st reet s is not nearly

" ‘ ’
so oo d as in t he l a rg e t ow ns of E ngla nd l h e op i nion of
g .

s e v era l e mi nent l a w yers w er e i n his f

’
a v our .

3 C o lle c t iv e N o u ns , though S ingula r in form

, ,

t a ke a P lu ra l V e r b if t he P re d ic a t e a p p lie s t o
t he o bj e c t s t a k e n ind iv id ua l ly a s t he p easa ntry -

b a re footed, a nd t he middle sort ma ke use of w ood e n

shoes one half o f me n do not kn ow ho w the ot her

half l i ve
 V E RB WI TH OR DI NAR Y AN D CO LLE CTI V E S U B JE CTS . 3 01

W hen W hat is afli rrned of t he noun i s a n a ct ion t hat ca n b e

t rue of t he w hole ma ss in it s col lect iv e u nit y, the v erb is t hen
e fl eet i s und er or d ers t o set sa il W
’
s in ula r ; as
g t h . h en w e

Sa y t he B ri tish na t ion ha s not sp r ung u p i n a g enera t ion We

s p ea k of t he na t ion as a c ollect i v e orga niz ed w hol e
‘
. S O t he
"
House ( ofL o rds, or of Commons) r esolve t he Assemb ly ha s
d ecreed ‘
t he S enat e is of op inion s’‘
t he ar my w as d is
‘ ‘
t he mob w as dispersed ,
’
t he inv a ding force
’
orga niz ed ;
‘
( a rmy a nd fl eet ) was in p ro
’
r ess t ow ards At tica on e f o ur t h
g
of t he men a t the d iggi ngs is com p osed of c onv ic ts .

Cont rast t hese w it h t he cases whe re t he p redica te a pp l ies t o

‘
t he indiv idual s of the coll ect ion ac t ing sepa rat ely . The p eop le
of t he r ude t rib es o f America a r e rema rk a b l e for t heir a rt i fi ce

and d uplicit y .
’
Here w hat is affi rm ed a p plies t o t he indiv id ua l
America ns act ing si ngly a nd ap a rt . The general it y of his
’
hearers w er e fa v oura b l e t o his d oct rines t he p ub l ic a r e o ft e n
d eceiv ed b y false a pp eara nces and ext ra v aga nt p ret ensions
’

meaning the m emb ers of t he commu nit y t ak en indi vidually

‘
umb
74
’
ons id b l n w i nd u d t ui t t h b d T h —
a c era e er er e ce o
q e o y e
.

following sentence sound s aw kw a rd , b ut i t is st rict ly correct

The Mega rean se ct w as founded b y E uclid, not t he m at hema
t ician, a nd w er e t he hap py inv ent ors ofl ogi cal syllogism , or t he
a rt of q uib b ling ( Tytle r)
. I n t he fi rst p a rt , the sect is spok en
ofi n i t s coll ecti v e ca p a cit y a nd , i n t he second , as indiv id uals .

There is a cert a in cl ass of men w ho nev er look , & c , may b e

f ’
.

j ustifi ed on the sa me ground S o t he p eop le is one, a nd they

.

ha ve all one la ng uag e

’
. The p ronoun b e fore the second v erb is
‘
a g rea t imp rov ement . Their ca tt l e w a s t heir c hief p ro erty
and these w ere nightly exp osed t o t he sou thern B or erers

( S c ott ).

There are a few cases w here usage is not inv ari ab l e In .

sp ea k ing of small b od ies, such a s t hos e ind ica t ed b y a B

oard , a

Commission, a Council , a Court , t he p lural v erb is freq uent ly

"
u sed . B
t he oard a r e of op inion t he Commi ttee consid er ;
’

‘
t he Cou rt a r e disp osed . This ma y b e exp l ai ned on t he
gr ound t hat t he memb ers in a b ody of, sa y tw o, t hree, or six,
st a nd f orw a rd m ore p rominent ly i n t heir i nd ivid ual es ca eci t ,
y
w hereas in an a semb ly of t hree hu nd red , t he indiv i ual i s
s
ent i rel y m erg ed i n t he coll ect i v e v ote .

The follow ing e xamp l es a re i ncorr ect The m eet ing w er e

”

( w’oul d mean t hat it w a s comp osed‘ of l arge men) ,

’
l arge
S t ephen 3 p art wer e ent irel y b rok en 11p ma nk ind w as not
’

u nit ed b y t he b ond s of ci v il society

’ ‘
th e Chu r ch ha ve no
w er t o i nfl ict c or p oral pu nish ment s ‘
in t his b usiness t he
pp ouse of Commons ha v e no w eig ht
’

; a d eta chment of t w o
‘
h undred men w er e i mmediat ely sent one man of genius
“
3 02 e ra x —
CO N CORD .

acc omplishes what a crow d of red ecessors has essayed 1n v ai n

'

‘
not one fourt h of p rov incia t ra des men or far mers ev er ta ke
stoc k ; nor, in fa ct , does one ha lf of t hem ev er kee p acc o u nt
k
b oo s deser vi n of t he na me
’
The follow ing is at lea st
i nconsistent g
‘
when a nat ion for ms a gov ernment , it is not
.

w isd om , b ut p ow er, which they p lac e ( it p lac es) in t he ha nds of

t he Gov ernment , & c
’
A ud o e charg ing a ury, v ac illa ted in j
d
'
.

t he const r uct ion oft he w or

‘
Court , t hus : I t wa s sat isfact ory
.
’

to t he Cou rt t o find t ha t it w ould b e incu mb ent on them, 8150 .

The Court , t herefore, in t he discha rge Of thei r duty .

The Cou rt believe The Court is not ent ir ely

.

fi
sa t is ed w i th t he fi
nding of t he ury j
T he Court , i n .

t he sent ence w hich i t is a b out to p ronounce b y my mout h &c .

W hen the for m of a nou n is p lu r a l, b ut the mea ni ng si ngu la r ,

a sing ul ar v erb rs genera lly p referred
’
t his new s is not t r ue .

‘
o
ps i ns is ta en
’
k ‘
t he w ages of sin is d ea th
’
The .

P lea s ures of Memor y was p u b lished i n 1 7 92 , and b eca me at

once p op ul a r . The p ro noun i n t he followi ng should b e
singu lar . His ( Thomson s) S ea sons will b e p ub lished in ab out
’

a w ee k ’
s t ime, a nd a most nob le w or
. they w ill b e Johnson k
‘
my L iv es a r e repri nt ing , w hich it might b e harsh t o
’
says
a l t e r, ow in
g to t he grea t p rominence of t he not i on of plura lity .

I n t he next exam le the singula r id ea o fdista nce rs p rominent

’

B y my v alour, t en, S ir L u cius, for ty ya rds is a good distance .

Odd s lev els a nd aims l I sa y i t is a good dista nce (Ri va ls)

’
. .

N inc tent hs of t he miseries a nd vi ces of ma n ind p roceed from

-
k
( Ca rlyle) , th‘e v erb is p l ural , b eca use p redicating
’
idleness
ab ou t a nu mber B ut nine t ent hs of t he misery a nd v ice of
.

k
man ind p r oceeds from idleness ; the v erb b eing si ngul ar,
’

b eca use the subj ect exp resses, not pl ural ity of numb er, b ut an

B ut t hose nouns t hat hav e p lural forms on account of a

oft he sub j ec t , su ch as
’ '

b l uflers
’
l u lit el ow s , sc issors s n
y
p ra
‘
l ungs "ashes , & c , a re more u sually found w ith p lural v erb s
. .

’
Although w e should sa y, t here a r e t w o, t here a r e t hree ,
y e t u sa e
g p e rm it s i n fa milia r l a ngua e t he sin ula r cont racted
g g
m ( Craik , E nglish of S ha kesp ea r e)
’
fo r , t here s t w o o r t h ree —
.

4 . If t he s ubj e c t c o ns is t s of t w o o r mo re
no u ns ( or
)
eq uiv a lent s of nouns u nit e d b y t he
‘ t he V e r b m us t b e p ut in
c o nj unc t io n a nd ,
‘J ohn and J ames
t he p lura l
’
. a r e in t he field ;

Mars a nd J up iter a re v isib le

’
.

Dr Angus w oul d p refer th e p lu ral , as l east lik ely

.

th e m ere gram ma r of th e se nt e nce t he means used wer e not . mmend

co
’
ab le 3 g rea t p a i ns were t ak en
’
.
 VE R B WI TH M OR E THA N ON E S U B J ECT .

E xcep tions a nd P eculi ar ities .

If the nouns a re na mes for the sa me sub ect, j the

l u ra lit is a rent onl , a nd not real The v erb
p y pp a
y .

is then singular .

A lag g a r d i n l ov e and a d a sta r d i n w ar

L
Wa s t o w ed t he fa ir E l len of b ra v e och inv ar .
’

Thi s m urd erou s c hief, th is r u thl ess man ,

Ti ns h ea d of a reb e l h o us cla n,
Ha th l ed t hee safe ’
.

‘The a nd
hist orian of his expl oits has
sp ecta t or

W hen t he Duk e died , his son a nd nam esa k e and successor w a s

an inf ant
’
W ith in v ersion
. so sa ys t he w isest p oe t , a nd

rha p s t he w isest sta tesman and polit ician of a nt iq uity

gé hat ham) .

In cases where the two na mes a re a l most synga y

mous, d enote obj ects closely connected together , or
or

exp r ess d iffer ent v iews o

f the sa me f ac t,
or are nee d
chiefly for t he sak e of emp has is, t here i s st ill a k ind

of unity in t he s ub j ect, and t he v erb is often ma d e

singular .

‘
‘
W herein t he d read and fea r of ings ; the hea d
d oth sit k ’

a nd f ront of my o f fending ha th t his ext ent t he hard ship a nd

exposure of a sa va ge life sp eed ily d es tr oys t hose w ho are not
of a r ob ust const it u t ion ;
’ ‘
w hy is d ust a nd a shes p roud ?
“
‘
W hat is t he use and ob j ect of b uilding p innacles ? ( Help s)
’
.

The p eace and good ord er of society w as not promot ed b y t he

feudal syst em ( Halla m)
‘
The v ery scheme a nd pl a n of his
.

( E cce Homo)
‘
life differed from tha t of ot her m en
’
. The .

condit ion a nd grow t h of Att ic comed y b efore t his p eri od

k
t o hav e b een u n now n ev en t o A ristot le
’

( Grote)
‘
The .

eneral d ef ence of t he c ount ry a nd t he ma i nt enance of ord er

g
a mong t he i nha b ita nts w as ent rust ed t o S aga nos, w ho w a s
inv est ed w ith t he rev enu e necessa ry for the p u rp ose ( inlay) F .

The language a nd hist ory of t he L i t hua nians i s cl osely

c onnect ed w it h tha t of t he Gree s
’
k
( reeman) F To r ecov e r .

S il esia, t o humb le t he dyna sty of Hohenz ollern t o t he d u st ,

j
w as t he great ob ect of Ma ria Theresa s l ife
’

( Macaulay) The .

‘
fi j
rst ob ect inv ol v ed t he second ; henc e w as , not ‘
w ere
’ ’

‘
W it h t his compa re the fol low ing : t o exa lt t he L a ncastri a n
p art y, t o d epress t he a dherent s o f t he hou se o f Yor , w er e st i ll k
j
t he ob ect s of his u rsuit ( Hume) k
L oo ed a t b roadly, t he
.

t w o ob j ect s w ere su st a nt iall y t he sa me . a nd w a s might hav e

“
b een used at the same time were directs a t tention f orcibl
y j
,
 3 04 S YN TA X .
—
é onconn .

to each ofthe tw o sides oft he same fact I n the next exampl e,

.

t he subj ect is gi v en t wice fi

r st , more g enera lly, a nd t hen w it h
some d et a il a nd ex la na t ion h h fa ir
p t a t t e p rosp ects w hich
k
had b egun to op en b efore t he ing w ere sud denly ov erca st , t hat
k
his life w as da r ened b y ad v ersit y, a nd a t l engt h shortened b y
v i ol ence, i s t o b e a t t ri b ut ed to hi s ow n f a it hl essness a nd con

t emp t ofl aw ( Maca u la y) .

I n many su ch cases it is not easy t o draw t he line and d ecid e

w hen t he sub j ect is singular and w hen p l u ral B ut it is al w ays
.

u nd esira b l e t o v a cill a t e b e t w een t he t w o Thus neither on

.

t he one sid e nor on t he other w as t here t he st rengt h a nd unity of

action w hich r esu lt f r om single a nd und iv id ed a ims ( Trench)
w it h a d eep insight int o l ife, a nd a k
een a nd com rehensiv e
p
symp a t hy w it h it s sorrow s a nd en oyments, there i s comb ined j
a t im et u
[ in t he l yri cs] t h p os it y off e el in g, t h at
p’omp of t hought
a nd im agery w hich belong cul iarly t o S chill er ( Carlyle) .

‘
Fa ir and sof t ly goes far poor a nd cont ent is ri ch enough

A singul ar v erb may so metimes b e j ustified on

the ground of a n ellip sis .

‘
The _w hol e b oo k
and ev ery component
,
p art of it , is on a

large sca le ( Ma ca ul ay)

’
W it h t he most common cases of
.

elli psis, t here i s al so i nv ersion ofsu bj ect a nd v erb There w as .

a hen a nd ( ther e w er e) chi c ens in t he cou rt k ’

t here was
racing a nd ( ther e w as) c hasing on Ca nnob ie L ea u p on t his
t here w as a fea 1ful cry from hea v en, a nd grea t cl a p s of t hunder
?

‘
( W .I rv in g ) su ch w as t he i ntell igence t he grav it y, a nd t he ,
‘
sel f command of Crom wel l s w a rriors ( Maca ulay)
’
- w her e is
L ysander and sw eet Hermie
1
W hen the sa me nou n is coup led w ith two a dj ectives, so as to
Mea n d iffer ent thi ngs, there is a p lurali ty of sense, a nd t he
‘
l ural is req uired in the latt er al so religious a nd gra mm at ica l
le a rning go ha nd in
‘
t he l ogica l a nd t he hist orical
a nal ysis of a l a nguage generally in som e d eg ree coi nci de
W hen a v er b sep a r a tes i ts su bj ects it agrees wi t h t he rst , fi
a nd i s u nd erst ood of t he rest t he eart h i s t he L or d s, a nd t he
'
'

‘
S ee also t he cases of as w ell as , and
’ ’
ful lness t her eof .

ev ery a t end of 4 .

The last exa mp les und er ( 2 ) are v ery ellipt ical .

S ometimes a comp ound subj ect is named b y a

union of the na mes of i ts chief p a r ts a nd then the
'
v erb is singul ar .

Another excep tion to t he general rule is exempli ed in t he

’
fi
following const ruc ti ons t he wheel a nd axle was out of repai r ;
 V
S E E RA L S U B J E CTS WI TH SI N GULAR V E RB . 3 05
~

‘b
b lock a nd tack le w as made u se of
’
rea d a nd b u tter is

my usua l b rea k fast I n t hese insta nces t he t w o t hings named ,

ma k e b ut one sub j ect b y t heir c omb inat ion, ca lled a comp ound
s ub j ect . W e may say, a needle a nd a t hread wer e gi v en t o her,
b ut she could not t hr ead t he needle a nd a needle a nd t hread .

w a s gi v en t o her, b ut she could not se w t he b ut ton on the

reason of t he dif ference b eing a p phrent ‘
Hanging a nd .

b eheading is t he punishment of t reason means t hat t he

‘
criminal is b ot h hanged a nd b ehea ded hanging a nd
b ehead ing a r e w ould mean that t here are t wo sep arate
u ni shment s, a nd t hat someti mes one is ma de u se of a nd
p ‘
somet imes t he ot her S a nd and sal t and a m ass of iron is
.

ea sier t o b ear t han a man w it hou t underst a nding i s al low ab le

on t he sup p osit ion t ha t w e m ea n a comb inat i on of those sev eral
ur nit ure, t he stock of shops, t he
‘
ingred ient s . So all t he f

machinery which could b e fou nd in t he real m w as of less v alue ,

t ha n t he p rop ert y w hich s ome single p arishes now cont a in

( Mac a ulay) .
‘
To inj ure, t o i nsul t , and t o sav e himsel f from
t he conseq u ences ofinj ury and insult b y l yin a nd eq ui voca ti ng,
w as t he ha b it of his l ife ( Macaul a y)
g
was p red ica tes rega rd
ing a c ourse of act ion indica t ed b y the enu mera t ion o f t hr ee
.

se vera l step s Often in similar case s, t here is introd u ced a

.

p ronoun, or some ot her subj ect , g at hering u p a numb er of points

int o one w hol e, w hi ch is t hen p red ica t ed of b y a sing ular v erb
t o b e t he l ead er of t he hu man race in t he c a reer of im p rov e
ment , t o found on t he rui ns o f a ncient int ellect ual dynast ies a
more p rosp erou s and a more e ndu ri ng e m i re, t o b e re v ered b y
t he l at est genera t ions as the m ost il ust rious a mong t he
b e nefa c t ors of ma nk ind , a ll this was w it hin
’
a con s rea ch
’
B
( Ma ca ulay) .

The a nd is sometimes omitt ed, b ut the rule rema ins t he

’

same if t here b e a p lu ra lit y of i d ea in the sub ect :

‘
honour , j
just ice, religion i tsel f were i nv ol v ed

‘ ‘
W ith for
’

’ ’
I nstea d of and , the p rep osi
a nd —

t ion w ith is sometimes used t o connect the p art s ofan

aggrega te sub j ect .

I t is then a dispu ted point whether t he v erb should b e

‘
sing ul ar or p lu ral Thus : t he c ap t a in wi th his men w er e
'

W e h ear so m etim es t w o a r e fou r ; t h ree t i m es fou r a r e

two a nd
'

t w el v e b u t t h e a r e is sca rcely d efensib l e i n e i t he r ca se I t w o ul d b e .

c orr e c t t o sa y t w o p o u n d s a nd fiv e p o u n d s a r e ( o r ma k e) se v e n p ou nd s
b u t w 1t h nu m b e rs in t he ab s t r a c t , w ha t w e m ea n is t ha t t h e n u me r i ca l
c o m b i na t ion of t w o a nd t w o i s t he sam e as fou r 8 0 t w ic e one a r e
’
.

t w o m u st b e w rong , b eca u se t her e is no p l u ra li ty i n t he st rict se ns e

t hr ee ti m es fo u r sh ou l d b e r ega rde d a s a comb i na ti on or uni t
‘ ’
a nd
y
ma d e up in a par ticq
‘
w ay .

20
 S YN TA X .
— CON CORD .

ta k en prisoners The sense req uires the plural b ut grammati ,

j
c a lly t he su b ect is sin ul ar
g The k ing w i th t he l ord s and
.
,

c o mm ons
gov ernment t he
‘
consti tute ( or Consti tu tes) our
,

p u rse, wi th i ts conte nts, w as found on t he p erson of t he t hief

’
.

‘
fi
The t rue sol ut ion o ft he dif cult y i s t o em l oy and i f t he
‘
se nse is l ura l The p ra se w it h his men is a n a dj unct of
c ap t ain
p .

b eing as mu c as t o say accomp anied w it h his men ,

’

a nd should b e u sed onl

y w hen the a t t ention is concent ra t ed up on
him in w hich case t he v er b is re ula rl y singula r g
I f the men .

edica t ed a b out , w e shoul d say

‘
a re a lso t o b e f orma lly r t he
p
k
,

p t a i n a n d hi s m en w er e So t he ing, the l ords, and t he

commons constitu te our
gov ern ment

As well a s for a nd — N ouns coupl ed b y as

w ell as t ak e t he singul ar or the p lural a ccording t o the

Conte xt .

I ft he predica te is meant t o b e afir med of both t he plural is ,

‘
em pl oyed t he p hra se b e ing t hen a synonyms for
,
a nd
fP ompey asCaesar were g reat men
w ell as
B ut if t he a s w ell as merely q uotes a n i llustra ti ve comp a rison,
t he p red ica t ion must t hen b e u nd erst oo d as con ned t o t he rst fi fi
nou n Afri ca as w el l as Ga ul w as ra d ua lly f ashi oned b
y
i mit a tion of t he ca p ital ; t hat is, b y e i psis, a s w ell as Ga ul
'

ha d been fas hione d by i mi ta t ion ofthe cap ita l a fter t he ma nner

o f Ga ul
’
. His curiosit y, a s w ell as his a nxiety, w as hig hly
-

e xc it ed k
w e a re sup p osed t o now t ha t his anxiet y w a s m ore
or l ess excit ed , a nd now , w hen his c uriosit y al one is sp o en of
’

, k
his anxiet y is referred t o for ill ust ra tion The op ul ence of t he .

mon s, a s w el l as t he num b er of t hem, i n t he t ime of Henry

k
I I , wa s enorm ou s
’
. .

T he last case is t he original and strictly p roper applicat ion

of as w ell as

‘ Th
j
sub ects i d i
’
E very w ith connected . e st —
rong n

y id ualiz ing force of ev ery af fec ts the numb er of t he

redica te v erb
p .

I t has b een d oub ted whet her w e coul d say ev er y of cer a nd fi ’

sold ier cla i m a su periori t y in rega rd t o o ther i nd iv id ual s or

e v en
‘
ever y of cer fi
a nd ever y sol d ier cla i m
’
P l ura lit y is .

cer t ainl y im plied , b ut t here is a disagre ea bl e e f fect p rod uced b y

j oi n i ng e v ery w it h a p l ur al v erb , a nd w e m ight t a e shel te r k
u nd er t he elli pti ca l u sa g e a nd sa y
‘
ever y of c e r ( cla nns) a nd
,
fi
cv cry sol d ier cla ims T he sing ula r v erb is p ow erfully fav oured
‘
On t he sa me
’
b y the decisiv ely singular mea ning p f ev ery
.
.

round , we must uphold t he exp ressmn, ever y clergyman a nd

g
 F L N
V E RB A TER A TER ATE D S B E CTS U J .

p
hysic ian is a gentl eman S o we may defend t he
’
Every .

‘
foll ow ing it has b een ob serv ed b y w rit ers on p hysiognomy ,
t hat ever y emot ion a nd ever y op era t ion of t he mind has a corr es
‘
every limb a nd
’
ond ing exp ression of t he c ou nt ena nce

es t ur e app ea r s w it h i ts a pp rop ri at e gra ce

5 . Tw o ormo re S ing ula r N o u ns, c o nne c t e d

‘
im p ly ing t ha t t he y a re
’
by or or no r
s e p a ra t e ly t a k e n, m u s t ha v e a S ing u la r V e r b :
John, J ames, or Andre w intend s t o a ccompany you
’

neither this nor that i s the t hing w a nt ed

S uch sent ences are always contract ed ao ord inate sent ences,
-

a nd t heir construct ion is si ngu l a r . S o in t he examp le; my

rty, and not my will , consents t here is a c ont ra cti on :
'

p‘ o v e
my p o v ert y consents, b ut my w ill does not consent
’
The.

omission oft he connecti v e mak es no d if ference ifthe mea ning is

t he sa me a w ord , a n ep it het , p a i nts a whol e scen e

S ometimes or is used when t he rea l mea ning would req uire

‘
Here t here

“
’
and l o win er t o l ose (a t ca rd s) is unplea sant
' '

is a part ial a lt erna t ion of meaning from t he circu mst ance t hat
w e ca nnot b ot h wi n a nd lose at t he sa me t ime st ill t he sense is
t hat b oth t he one and t he other are u np leasant I f w e w ere
.

sp eak ing ofone game, where w e mu st either w in or lose, t he

’
or
i s su it a b le ; b u t sp eak ing genera l ly it w ould b e b et ter t o say
_

winni ng a nd losing a re b ot h unp l ea sa nt So l ife or d ea t h,

felicit y or l ast ing sorrow, a r e in t he p ower of ma rri age ( Jer
’
.

Ta ylor) d isob e dience, d esert ion, mut iny, or t heft w er e v isited

wit h d ea t h d ea t h, emigra t ion, or p ersonal slav ery, w er e t he
onl y al t er na t iv es ( F reema n). I n a n inst a nce a b ov e q u ot ed
( hanging a nd b eheadi ng, & c ) we might ha v e a t hird form :
ha nging or b ehead ing is t he unishment of t reason t
p o
show st ill more d ecisiv ely t ha t t he j udge must sent ence a ma n t o
one, a nd not t o b ot h .

“
N or heav en nor ea rt h ha ve b een at p eace to night ( S hak )
-
.

Dr Cra ik rema rk s on thi s p assage, t hat w here, a s here, t hetw o

.

singular sub sta nt iv es a re l ook ed a t t oget her b y t he mind , i t is

more nat ural t o regard t hem a s a p lura lity, and t o use t he pl ural
Compa re :
'

v erb , n otwi ths ta ndi ng t he d is u nct iv e conj unction .

neit her t he k ing nor eit her 0 his t w o old est sons a r e permitt ed
to l ea v e t he isla nd ( S wift ) neit her pea ce nor w ar, nor su mmer
nor wi nt er, w ere a season of rep ose ( Gib b on) ; neither K ent
’ ‘
nor S ussex w ere a mong t he grea t est of t he k ingdoms w hich our
forefa t hers founded i n B ri ta in ( F reeman) ; neit her Mr .

Add erl ey nor Mr . Roeb uck a r e b y na t ure i naccessib le to ,

consid era tions of t hi s sort ( M Arnold) N otwithstanding such

. .
 S YN TAX .
-
CON CORD .

exa mples, the sing ular has most rea son on its side ; the
v erb

o c ca sional u se of t he pl ura l see ms t o t est if

y to a c onsid e ra b le
te ndency t o u se t his for m a ft er t wo or more sub j ects ev en t hough ,

t he j
con unc t ion connec t i ng t hese may indica te t ha t t hey a re t o
b e p red ica t ed ab out in separa t ion .

‘
W hen one of tw o sub j ects separat ed b y or or nor 18 i n the
lu a l , t he v erb shou ld b e lu ra l : he o r his serv a nt s wer e t o
p r p
b l a me I t is p rop er in such cases t o p lace t he pl ura l nomina t iv e
next t he v erb .

6 . t he S ubj e c t is a R e la t iv e P ro
W he n
no u n, t he A nt e c e d e nt d e t e r m ine s t he num b e r
o f t he v e r b : all
ye t ha t p a ss b y

The follow ing is a common error That is one of the most

v al ua b le ks
t hat has a p cared in any la ng uag e
b oo The
’
.

‘ ’ ‘ ’ ‘ ‘
t hat is b S o : t his is t he
’
ant eced ent t o s , not one .

epoch of one oft he most sing ul a r d iscov eries t ha t has b een m ad e

‘
a mon
g m en
’

( H u me ) I r ese mb le o ne of t hose a nima l s t ha t

ha s b een forced from its forest to grat ify huma n curi osi t y
’

0 Th ou m y v oice i ns p ir e
Wh o touched I saia h s ha ll o we d l ip s w i th fire
’
.
’

B ut for t he exi encies of t he v erse , P op e would hav e w ritt en

‘ ’
t oucheds t he d ropping of t he i nconv enient i nfiex ional
.

end ing is not uncommon in p oe try P ope has sev eral more .

examp les .

‘
The p hrase as foll ows , app lied t o a plural antecedent; is
’

now a settl ed usa ge I f as w ere a true rela t iv e p ronoun, t here

.

w ould b e a b rea ch of concord ; b u t w e must consid er t he

ex ression as now sub sta nt ia lly a d v erb i al , lik e
‘ ’
as reg ard s , or
‘
p ’
so f ar as concerns P erha s th e const ruct ion suitab le to the
.

most common case, t he thi person singu lar, ha s b een ext ended
‘ ’ ‘
t o a ll cases Or as may b e rega rd ed as eq uiv alent t o in t he
.

manner tha t I t is not uncommt n for spea k ers a nd writers t o

seek t he a pp earance of gram mati cal correc t ness b y u si ng
‘
as
follow

7 W he n t w o
. or mo re P ro no uns of d if
fe rent p e rs o ns, a re c o nne c t e d b y A lt e rna t iv e
C o nj u nc t io ns , there is much d ifficulty in decid ing
t he form of the p redicate v erb .

Dr L atham l ays d own t hat ,

.

( 1 ) w here t he P ronouns are singul ar and

‘ ’
p reced‘ed b y
are

eit her or neither , the v erb is i n t he t hird

p erson : ei ther
he or
-

I is in t he wrong neit her h e nor I is in t he w rong

 N
CO COR D or P R O O N UN A N D or J
A D E CTI VE . 309

‘
And ( 2 ) when the P ronou ns a re not p reced ed b y eit her or
’

‘neit her ’ t he v erb a rees w i th t he fi rst : ‘I or he a m i n t he

, g
‘ ‘
he or I is in t he w rong ;
’
he or you is i n t he
’
w rong ;
’
w rong .

I t is t o gra v e doub t whet her t he v erb d ep ends so ent irely

op en
‘
Among ot her suggest ions,
’ ’
up on t he eit her a nd t he neit her .

t he most i m port ant is t hat t he v erb should agree w it h t he

nea rest of t he sub j ect s fi
All d if cu lt y is ob v iat ed w hen t he
.

‘
red ica t e v erb is uni nflect ed : ca n w ill sent , gre w, l a nt ed ,
p , , p
must , 85 0
’
.

F urt her exam ple s neit her you nor any one el se ca n sa v e
her eit her t he P ri or or t hou ha s ma d e som e si ng ul ar a l t era
‘
t ions ( S cott) t hose a re fa r more a b le t o gi v e you r son hel p
‘
t ha n eit her you or I a re ( S cot t ) ’ not hing w hic‘ h Mr .

P a t t ison or I ha ve said disp rov e, & c ( M A rnold) ; I hope . .

neit her my fellow nor I a m thi ev es ( Ma ssinger) .

8 . W hen t he co mplet ion of the P red icate is a .

N oun, it may not be al wa

y ap parent w hat is the
s real

j
sub ect, se eing t ha t the ord er is not d ecisiv e .

Hence t he k k
'

h
ex iression
s av il ion w er e d ar w a t ers a nd t hic
p p
cl ou d s of t he sk y , may b e j ust i ed on t he g rou nd t ha t t he
’
fi
‘
p a v ilion b eing t he comp letion of t he
’
sent ence is inv er t ed,
red i ca t e , a nd not t he su bj ect
p .

C o nc o rd of A dj e c t iv e a nd of P ro no un
w it h N o u n .

9 P ronominal Adj ectiv es in E nglish b eing

. al one

i nfle cte d ,
q uestions of concord are confined t o them
~

The rules for the Concord of t he De m o nst ra t iv es

‘ ‘
this and tha t are the same as for t he Concord oi
'
‘

‘
j

the S ub j ect and the V erb : these means a re— this

means s not enough
’
i —
.

W hen w e d ecide t hat a noun should hav e a p l ural v erb , w e

mu st a pply t he sa me rul e t o t he d em onst ra tiv e a dj ectiv es ( a nd
‘
ronou ns) a g reeing w ith it Th m u rnishes t he
’
e w ord f
'

eans
p .

chiefd oub t f ul inst a nc e and w e ma it h d t t he su gest io n

y e er a o
p g
k
o f ma i ng i t u ni formly pl u ra l, on accou nt of t h e for m , or l oo k
t o t he sense, a nd consider it plural w hen w e hav e a p lura lity of
age nc ies inv ol v ed .

‘h
S uch expressions as t is forty years t his many summers
are d ef end ed on t he gr ound t ha t a p eriod oft ime ma y b e t rea t ed

as a u nit y Or t his may b e really plural, a surv iving inst ance

of one of t he ol d forms of t hese
3 10 .
S YN TAX .
—
CO N CORD .

ID T he Dist rib ut iv e ‘each

. Adj e c t iv es,
‘e ’
v ery , &c .
, ar e j oined to a S in u la r N o un, and
g
conseq ue ntl he V e r b is
‘
t S ing u la r : ev ery tree is
'

y
k now n b y i ts fruits
The foll ow ing a re examples of a not u ncommon error
‘
nei ther of t he S i st er s w er e v er mu ch d eceiv ed ( Tha ck era y s
’ ’

‘
y
V i ty F a i r )
an N ei ther of my b rothers d o
. a nyt hing to ma ke
t his pla ce amusing ( V i rg inia ns) .

They also t a ke a S ing u la r P ro no un w hen ap plied

t o one Gender : E ngland e x p ec ts every m an t o d o his
‘
d uty it seems na tural t hat ever y mother shoul d
suckle her ow n child

B ut when b oth Gend ers a re imp li ed, it is all ow ab le

‘
t o use t he P lu ra l l et ea ch esteem other b etter t han
themselves
Gra mmari a ns freq uentl y call t his construct ion an error : not
fl
re ect i ng t ha t it is his to feminine
eq ua lly a n error to a pp l y
j
sub ects T he b es t w rit ers furnish examp les of the use of t he
.

‘
p l u ra l as a mode of
g et t i ng o u t of t h e d iffic u l ty M ery .

p er son s happ iness d ep end s i n p a rt up on t he respect they meet in

’

t he world ( P a ley) ‘
E v er y one mu st . udge of thei r own j
feelings
’

( y ro n )
‘
I f t hBe p a r t d eserv
. e a ny c o mment, every
c onsid erin
g Christia n w ill ma e it t o themselves as they go k ’

‘ ‘
( Defoe) E ver ybod y b ega n t o hav e thei r v exat ion
’
. E ver y .

b od y around her w as gay, w as b u sy, p rosp e rous, a nd import a nt

ea ch ha d thei r ob j ect s of int erest , thei r p a r t thei r dress, thei r ,

fav ouri t e scene, thei r friends a nd confedera tes

’
Ha d t he .

d oct or b een 00 i t ent ed t o ta e my d ining ta b les, as a nybody in k

thei r senses would ha v e done ( Miss Austen) .

‘
S omet imes st ri ct grammar is p reserv ed t hus : E ver ybod y
c al led for hi s or her fav ourit e remedy, w hich nob ody b rought
B ut t his const r uct ion is felt t o b e t oo cu mb rous to b e ep t up , k
‘
as w e see i n t he following e x ampl e The instit ution of
rop erty r ed uced t o i t s essent ia l el e ments, consist s in t he t e
p ,

c ogni t ion, i n ea ch p er son, o f a rig ht t o t he e xclusiv e d isp osa l of

w ha t he or she ha s p rod uced b y thei r ow n ex ert ions &c (J 8 .
. .

Mil l) The heart i s a secret, ev en t o hi m ( or her ) w ho has i t in

.

his ow n b reast ( Tha c eray) k

A v ery ingenious d ev ice is seen in
.

t he following examp le either a horse or a mare has l ost i ts

shoe
N o doub t there are more inst ances ofthe empl oyment of hi s
b ut it must b y no means b e mai ntained t ha t t his form is
exclusiv ely right .
 HA R M ONY OF TE NSE .

The followi ng exam les further illu stra t e t he p reference oft he

p l u ra l w hen b ot h
g en ers a re i nv ol v ed i f a n ox
g ore a ma n or
‘
a w oma n so t hat they d ie N ot on out w a rd charms should
’
.

ma n or w oma n b uild their pretensions t o pl ease ( Opie) I fI .

v a l ue m d f
’

y frie n s u nf e or s on , on acc ou n t o th e i r co nn e x i on

w it h him ( Angus) W hen ei ther p a r ty fix their at ta chment

.

u pon t he sub sta nt ia l comfort s of a renta l, or a oint ure, they j

My lord
’
c a nno t b e disa p po int ed i n t he a cq uisit ion ( S cot t ) .

says t hat nob od

y w ea r s thei r own ha ir ( Thac eray) I f thek .

fool, o r the p ig, a r e of a d iff er en t op in ion ,

i t is b ec a u se they o n l y
k now the ir ow n side of the q uest ion ( J S . .

C o nc o rd ofT e ns e s .

I I There is also
. a cert ain congruity of Tenses to b e
ob served.

C o nt e mp o ra ne o us a c t io ns shoul d be exp ressed

in t he sa me t e ns e .

I n t he narra ti on of p ast ev ents, the w ri ter for the most p art

u ses t he pa st tense ; b ut, in ord er t o recount v i v id ly a ra p id
se ri es of exci t ing incidents, he may f or t h e oc casion p ass t o t he
esent t ense, — ca lled , i n t his a p li ca t i on , t he hi stor i c nt
pp p p rese .

e is not
p e rm i t t e d ,
how ev er ,
t o fl it b et w ee n t he t w o The .

fol low ing is a harsh incong ruity F

ierce as he moved , his silv er
sha f ts resou nd

T he S u b o rd ina t e
T e nse s a nd t he P rinc ip a l
T e nse m ust no t c o nfl ic t .

He afirmed ( for w ould ) go to morrow

t hat he w i l l
’
he -

hid himself lest he sha ll ( for should b e impress ed I t w er e

w ell for the insurgents , a nd fort una t e for t he ing, i f t he b lood k
t hat w as now shed ha d been t hou ght a suf cient expiati on for fi
’ ‘ ’
t he otienc e it ha d been w ell is t he t ense suit ing
'

t hought I f you p lease to emp loy our t houghts on t ha t

j
su b ect , you w ou ld conceiv e t he miserab e cond it ion ma ny of us
‘
t his should b e ei ther ify ou p lea se, you will
’
a re in or, if
you p leased ( it p leased you ) , you w ou ld
T he use oft he ) resent inde finitiv e t ense t o exp ress a rop osi
t ion t rue for a l l
t ime, is an a pa rent except ion
h
e sa y .

‘ ‘
Galileo ma i nta i ned t ha t t he ea rt moves ( not mov ed
’
t he
fa ct of t he motion of t he ear t h b eing t ru e a t a l l times a nd not
‘
b e ing restricted t o t he t ime implied in maintained
’ ‘
He deni ed .
'

‘
t he most p rec iou s m et al
’
t hat gold wa s ( for is .

A ll nigh t l on g t h e nort h ern str ea m ers

S hot a cross t he t rem b lin g sk y
F ea rfu l l i g h ts tha t ne ver beacon,
,

Sa y s w hen king s or heroes

 G OV E R N M E N T .

I . G ov e r nme nt means t he p o w e r t ha t a w o rd
ha s t o re g ula t e t he C a s e o f a N o u n o r a
P ro no u n ; as w hen P ronoun c oming a fter a P re
a
‘
p osition tak es t he ob j ectiv e form : aft er me
(
’
not
af ter to hi m ( not t o he
There b eing only one ca se i nfiexion in E nglish nouns, and '

”
t hat occurring only in a l imit ed numb er, t he rul es of ov ern
g
ment apply p ri ncip ally t o p ronouns .

2 T he P o s s ess iv e c f N o uns ( a n
. d of P ro .

no u ns ) S | g mfie s l m
‘

p e rs o na p o ss e s s n or
a ge n cy .

P r eced i ng a N oun, 3 p ossessiv e noun ( or p r onoun,

or p ronominal a dj ect iv e ex p resses that the ob j ec t b e
)
l ongs t o or is somehow c onnected w ith t he p erson
whose name or d esignation is giv en in the p ossessiv e
w ord .

‘ ’ ’ ‘
J ohn s hou se is t he house p ossessed by J ohn ; owned,
’
oc cu p ied, b uilt , & c , b John s g osp el is t he gosp el
’
John .

a i med or w r i tten
y John, or na med a ft er him
’

p roc l I oor s
’

‘ ’
ra t es a re pp or t of the p oor
r at es l evi ed for the s u The .

meaning of p ossession or b elonging is oft en st ret ched t o include

v ery rem ote connexi ons .

P recedi ng anI nfinitive P hr a se, 3 p ossessiv e w ord

m dicates the sub j ect of t he a cti on of t he v erb .

I a m surp ri sed a t
’
J ohn s ( or hi s, yo ur , & c ) r efusi ng t o go
. .
’

V ery freq uentl y t he a r t iciple is fou nd in pl ace of t he i nfini

p
t i v e, in w hich case t h e o j ect iv e is u sed in p la ce oft he p ossessiv e
‘ a m sur ri sed a t m
’
I p J ohn ( o r hi , y ou ,
& c ) r f
e u s
.i ng t o g o .

The l a t t er const ructi on is not so common w it h p ronouns as w it h

nouns, especial ly w it h such nouns a s d o not rea d ily ta e t he k
ossessiv e form They p rev ent ed hi m going forw a rd b et t er
pthey p rev ented his going forw ard ’, or t hey p re v ent ed him
.

f r om goi n
g for w a rd H e w as dismi ssed wi t hout a ny r ea son

bei ng a ssigned fl
t his show s t he in uence of L a t in const ru ct i on .

The b oy d ied t’hrough hi s clothes bei ng b urned W e hea r

lit tl e of any cénnexi on bei ng kep t up b etw een t he t w o
‘
The men row ed v ig orously for fear of the ti d e
’
nat ions .
’

turning against us b efore we

V‘ -
r each~
ed -
our destina ti on :
 P OS S ES S I VE A N D OB J E C TI V E CA S E S .

‘
for fear the tid e s tur ni ng
of
’
w oul d b e felt aw w ard a nd
’
k
u nusual sa y for fe ar the ti de sho uld t ur n lest the ti de shou ld
tu rn &c Taci tu s a sser ti ng the fa ct a nd r ema ining a hea then
.

is not so st rong an a rgument a s Ta citus a sser ti ng the fa ct a nd

( Dr Chalm ers)
’
becomi ng a Christia n in conseq uenc e of it .

sub st i t ut e nou n cl au ses t hu s Tha t Ta ci tus shou ld asser t the

'

d r ema i n a hea then, is not so st rong a n a rg ume nt a s tha t

fa ct an
Ta ci tus shou ld a sser t the fa ct a nd become a Chr i sti a n in con
‘
seq uence of it . or say —
If Ta ci tus asser ted the fa ct a nd
r ema i ne d a hea then, this is not so st rong a n a rgum ent

Taci tus ha d a sser ted the fa ct a nd become a Chr isti a n, & c The .

ossess i v e seem s t o b e ent irel y ex cl ud ed w he n t here i s i nver si on :

p
‘
S upp ose t he v ery com mon ca se of ther e b ei ng no w i l l ( I S
’
. . .

Mill ) a p art from t he q u est ion of constr uct ion t his is p erha p s
more elega nt t han a ny regul ar sub st itut e t hat coul d b e prop osed :
t he v ery common case w her e ther e i s no wi ll
’
su ose a v er
y
pp
‘
comm on ca se ; su pp ose t here is no w ill t he v e ry comm on
’

;
f a w i ll ; & c B ut m ost examp les of t he
’
case of the a bsence o .

c onst r uct ion w it hout t he p ossessi v e form a re ob v iously d ue t o

mere slo v e nliness W it h a v ery l ittl e t roub le, t here c o uld nea rly
.
'

a lw ays b e f ound some sa t isf a ct ory v a riet y of corre ct exp ressio n .

3 T ra ns it iv e V e r b s ( w ith t heir P art icip les

. a nd

Gerunds) a nd P re p os it io ns g o v e r n t he O bj ec
t iv e C a s e .

This rule is not often v iolated when t he ob j ect iv e i mm edia t ely

foll ow s t he v erb or p reposit ion I t i s w hen t he ob j ect is at a
.

d ista nce from t he gov er ni ng w ord t ha t a nom i na t i v e is l ia b le t o

b e used He that p romises t oo mu ch, do not t rust for hi m
.

t hat &c ma ny c a ses of t his na t ure seem t o resul t from a n

.

u ne xpect ed cha nge i n t he const r uct i on b e f ore t he v erb is

‘
r eache d There is a m ixt ure of t wo forms
. he t hat p romises
‘
t oo m uch is not to be tr usted , a nd d o not tr ust hi m t ha t
’

p romises t oo m uch M y fa t her all ow ed m

y b rot her a nd I t o

a ccom
‘ ‘
p y him ; b etween you and I ;
’ ’
an let you a nd I
’
a d v ance .

On t he supposition that t he int erroga t iv e w ho has w hom

for it s ob j ect iv e, t he fol low ing a re er rors w ho d o y ou t a e k
me t o b e who shoul d I m eet t h e ot her d ay w ho i s it b y
who d id yo u g iv e it t o i f w ho t o 2 ‘ ’
w ho for l B ut
consid eri ng t hat t hese ex ressions occu r w ith the b est w ri ter s
p
a nd sp ea ker s, t ha t t he
y a r e mor e ener geti c t han t he ot her form,
a nd t ha t t he
y ead to no a mbi g ui ty, i t ma y b e d oub t ed w het her
l
gra mma ri a ns ha v e not exceed ed t heir p ro v ince i n condemni ng
t hem The foll ow ing a re a few exa mp les t o show t he usa ge of
.

so
m e of our grea t est w riters Who ser vest t hou u nder ? "
3 14 e r Ax .
—
eov nnxns nr .

k ‘ I
( S h a ) W. ho shou ld m ee t t he o ther d a y b u t my o l d fri end ?
’

My son is going t o b e marri ed t o I d on t know who

’ ’

( S t eele) .

( Goldsmith) W ho hav e w e here l ( Goldsmith, & c

.
‘ ’
.

‘
E v en t he r ela tive w hom is sometimes short ened t o who
’ "
‘
The shep herd w ho you saw sit ting b y me on t he
t ur f ( S ha k The remaml ng pla ce w a s enga b y a gent le
’
.

man w ho they were t o t a k e up on t he roa ( Thack eray ) .

Ma ca ul ay ( Essa y on Crok er s osw ell s L ife of J ohnson)

’
B ’

d enounces t he follow ing as a solecism : Ma rkla nd , w ho, w it h

‘

J ort m a nd' Thirlb y, Johnson call s three contemporaries of great

eminence

4 . T he V e rb be ha s t he sa me c a se a ft e r
‘ ‘
it b e fo re it
’
i t is I ;
’
as ye a re they .

This follows from t he principle adopt ed from the classical

l anguages t hat w hen t he complem ent of t he p red icate 18 a noun,
it i s oft he sa me ca se as t he sub j ect .

Most g ra mmaria ns ha v e l a id d own t his rul e .

‘
j ust c ited, s 3 ) censures t he followi ng as a solecism : I t was

“
him t ha t Hora ce W alpole called a man w ho nev er made a b ad
figul e b ut as an aut hor Thack eray ( P hi lip , I 1 6 ) similarly
. .

a d v erts t o t he sa me d ev ia t ion from t he ru le I s t ha t hi m

sa id t he la dy i n q uesti ona b le gr a mma r
'
B ut not w it hsta nding .

t his, w e cert a inly hear in t he a ctu al spe ech of a ll classes o f

‘ ‘
it w as me it w as hi m
’
soc iet y such e xp ressions as it w a s
her , more freq uently t han t he p rescri bed form
’ ‘
This shy .

‘
crea t ure, my b rother sa ys is me ; w ere it me, I d show him
’ ’

t he d if ference ( Cla r issa Ha r low e)

’ ‘ ”
I t is not me you are in .

‘
lov e w it h ( Ad dison) I f t here i s one cha ract er more b a se
.

‘
t han a nother, it is hi m who & c ( S yd ney S mi th) I f I w ere . .

‘
hi m ifit had b een her &c Th e a ut horit y ofgood w rite rs .

is s trong on t he side of the ob j ectiv e forms There is also t he .

of t he F rench l a ngu age ; f

‘ ‘
a nal og or w hile I a m here is j e
y’ ‘ ‘
is moi ( me)
’
suis i ci , t he a nsw er t o w ho i s t here ?
’
a nd
‘ ‘
c e st moi it 18 me) , is t he l egit ima t e p hrase, nev er 0 est 1 6
’ ’
(
( t 15 I ) l
i ‘‘
.

I t ma y b e c onfid en tl af
fi r med t hat wi th good sp ea k ers, in th e case
‘
yf neg a t i on, not me is t
’
e u s u al p rac ti ce .

‘ ‘
t It mar k e d b y Dea n Alford t h a t it is I is suita b l e t o an oc casi on
i s re
f
o d ig ni t y : as
‘
He sa i d u nt o th em I t 13 I ; b e not a fraid
‘
Who d oes ’

j
, .

not feel t ha t her e t he re i s a ma est y a nd p r omi ne nce g i v en b y t h e

nomi nat i ve p e rson w hi ch ma k e s t h e ass u ra n ce w ha t i t w as to t h e
d isci p les ? B u t from t his v e ry p romi nence it is t ha t w e shrink 1 11 or d i n t r y .

t al k W e shel t er ou rsel ves i n t h e a cc us a t i v e case me w hic h t hou h , ,

ungr amma ti ra l y et is acq ui es ce d i n as b et t e r su it ing t he feel i ng o f t e

, ,

mi nd W e a ll r e me m b er t h e st ory of Geo r g e I I I rea d ing P a l ey s fa b le

.
’

j
.

ab out a p ig e o n, and excla iming Why, tha t a me

’
The ki ng w as us t .
 OR DE R .

5 In c e rt a in o t he r c a s e s t he O bj e c t iv e
.

o ft e n o cc u rs w he re t he N o m ina t iv e is e x

p e c t e d .

S imil ar t o t he foregoing is the case wit h regard t o t he u se of

‘ ‘
me, hi m, & c , a fter t he conj unct ions t ha n , as , & c , i n
’ ’
. .

w hose fa v ou r t here i s t he a u t horit y of a n extensi v e if not p re

d ominat ing u sage He is t aller t han me
. N o might ier .

t ha n thysel f or m , S he was neit her b et t er b red

’
e

nor wiser t han you or me ( Thac eray)

'
k .

S a t a n t ha n whom
N
,

high er
’
one sa t .

w hom t han w ho seldom or

t he u ni form
’
P erhaps 1s u sa ge
nev er occu rring Of course, in all t hese ca ses, w hen t he ellipsis
.

fi
is lled in, t he nomina t iv e necessarily repla ces the ob ect iv e j
form no m ight ier t ha n t hysel f or I a m mighty
‘
The c onst ru ct ion nob ody sa id so bu t hi m is d efended b y
som e gra mma ri a ns on t he g rou nd t hat b ut is a p reposit ion as
w ell as a conj u nct ion S t ill b ut he is of freq uent occur rence
.

‘
no m a n ha t h ascended up t o hea v en b ut he t hat ca me d ow n
from hea v en t here is none ust i e d b ut he t hat is in measure j fi
sa nct i ed fi Ev e one c a n mast er a
g r ief b u t he t ha t ha t h it
( S hak ) w it hi n t at circle none d urst wal k b ut he ( Dryd en) .

Comp are
I d o entrea t y ou , not a man d e p ar t ,
S a ve I a lone, t i ll A nt ony ha th sp ok e ( S ha h , Jul Gaza )
. .

O R DER O F W O R DS .

I T he mo st g e ne ra l p r inc ip les of the arrange

’

ment of w ord s a re, t hat w ha t is t o b e t ho ug ht of

firs t s ho u ld b e m e t io ne d firs t , a nd t hat t hing s
t o b e t ho ug ht of t o g e t he r s ho uld b e p la c e d
in c lo s e c o nne x io n .

as r i gh t i n t h e ex p ressi on of t h e i nt erp r et ati on, as h e w as i n t h e i nter

r e ta t ion it self He could not ha v e sa id , Why, tha t s I — Good Wor d s,
.
'

ar ch , 1 8 63 .

On t his Dr Cr ai k remar k s
. Of course , in st rict gra m
b e tha n I B u t t he p e rs ona l p r onou ns m u s t b e h eld t o b e , in some
.

m easu re, ema ncip a ted from t h e d ominion or t yra nny of syntax Who .

w oul d r ectify e v en S h ell ey s b old

’

l est t h ere b e
N o sola ce left for thou and me 7
”
Th e g ra mm at ical l a w ha s so 8 h t a h ol d t ha t a m ere p oint of en
fi
.

i s d eem ed su f c ient t o j ust ify t e neg l ec t of i t E ng lish of S ha kesp ea r e .

The e ffect of eu p h ony a p p ea rs t o b e w ell ill u st ra ted also in S hah , M acb , .

"
I I I iv
. .I ts b et ter thee w i thou t t han he w i thin
3 16 S YN TA X . OR DER .

fl
I n in ect ed l ang ua ges, t he connexion of one w ord w ith
a not her is i ndica ted b
y m e a ns of i nflexions The English, on .

fl
t his p oint , t ru st s chie y t o p osi t ion ; a nd he nce t he ord er of
w ord s in a sent ence is more x ed in E n lish t han in t he
g fi
cla ssica l l a ngu age
s .

S ub e j ct a nd V e rb .

2 T he S ‘th
. ub e j ct p r e ced es t he V e rb : e
ea rth mov es t he sta rs t w ink le

E xcep ti ons .

1 . Wh en q u estion is as ed , w ithout an’ interrogat iv e

a k
ronoun i n t he nomina t iw ca se e ye al o ne ? w h n di d he
p a r e
‘ ‘
com e ? ma y w e go in l
’ ’ ’
wha t w i ll he d o ? B ut w ho sa i d
’ ‘
w ha t is t o b e d one ?
’
so ?
‘
2 W it h t he i mp e ra tiv e mood : eome ye
’
. la ud ye t he
g od s look thou t o t ha t
3 I n t he condit iona l m ood , w hen t he conj unct ion is
.

‘
sup p ressed ha d I now n t hat k
w er e I i n his p la ce
’

4 W hen a w ish or excla mat ion i s exp ressed

. ma y she b e
ha pp y how w o uld we w ish t hat Heav en ha d left us st ill
ah ma yest thou ev er b e w hat now t hou a rt I
5 W hen neit her or nor , sig nifying a nd not , p reced es
‘ ’ ‘ ’ ’
.

‘
t he v erb : t his w a s his fea r, nor w a s the app rehensi on g round
‘
Dr L anca st er w a s d esirous t o serv e a b oy of such
’
l ess . .

p romise nor w as ’a n opp or t uni ty long w a nt i ng

’
He will not .

o ; nei ther w il l I
g .

‘ ’ ‘
6 I n i ntrod ucing t he p a rt s ofa d ialogu e
. sa i d he t hought
I rep l ied Ja mes

. k
7 F or t he sa e of emp hasis ; as w hen a sente nce i s intro .

‘
d uced b y t here he re or ot he r a dv erb ia l exp ressions up
‘
now a b id et h fa i t h, hop e, cha ri ty On t he
’
sta r ted he

d istant ma inla nd i s seen t he t ow n or v illage of S t romness

’
’

( S co t t ) . A b o v e b el ow a
. nd b ehin d t he c it y s far as the eye
,
a

ca n rea ch extends t he u nb ro en for est

, ( A R W a l la ce) k ‘
Ov er
’
. . .

t he cr ushing v ines, ov er t he d esola t e st reet s ov er t he amp hi ,

t heat re it sel f, fa r a nd w id e w it h m a ny a m ighty sp la sh in t he

.

ag it a t ed sea , fell t hat aw f ul show er ( L yt ton) .

The Comp lement ofthe p red icate follows the p red ica te
ver b .

‘
The d a y is clea r i ngs a r e b ut men k t his q u est ion is Qf
the u tmost i mp or ta nce
W hen t he c omplement is a nou n, w e dist inguish it from the
sub j e ct b y its os ition angels a xe sp ir i ts
p
 S U B J ECT V—
ER B —
OB JE CT .

I nversi on for e mp hasis

The u sual ord er 18 not unfreq uently
-

k
inv el t ed, esp ec ial ly 1 11 p oet ry , fo1 t he sa e of effect i v e st a t em ent .

‘ ‘
F a i r la uoghs t he mom a l l b lood less la y t h u nt 1 0 dd en snow
’ ’

‘ ‘
s Dia na er b ut u na va i li ng w ere my reg1 ets
’

g r ea t i bi tt
Chil de Ha rold w as he hight
’
.

V e rb a nd O bj e c t .

3 . T he T ra ns it iv e V e r b p re c e d e s it s Obj e c t
ot see me
’
w e gained a v ictory y ou did n .

E xcep tions .

1 . W hen t he ob j ective ISint errogativ e pronoun,

a r ela t iv e or
‘
or a noun limit ed b y a rel a t i v e 0 1 i nt e ri olg b
a ti v e adj ec t i v e t hi s .

i s t he let t er tha t he w r ote " t he d ea d w hi ch he slew a t his

d ea t h w ere mor e t han t hey w
hi ch he slew in his l ife ; w ha t
’ ‘

d oes t he ma n w a nt ? w hi ch hou se d o you refer

‘
2 F or emph a sis : tr ea son a nd mu r der
.

‘
e ha d b een t a ught p
earl y 1 11 life to exp ect from ev er b od ta l ent I w ill ma rr y, for
’

’ ‘
y y ;
ta l ent I a d o1 e w ha t I d id I did 1 n honour .

3 F or t he sa k e of cl oser connexion w it h a p rev iou s sent ence

. .

This inv er sion al w ays p ut emp ha sis on t he ob j ect

‘
His .

a ssions a nd rej udices ha d l ed him int o a rea t error T hat

p p g .

er r or he det e rm ined t o reca nt

’
He insist ed up on my as k in
g
.

p ardon for a ffi ont ing his k’ing a nd him Thi s p r op osa l I woul '

b y no means omply w ith

c .

This 1nv ersi on ca nnot oft en b e p ra ct ised i n E nglish, on a ccount

of ca u sing am b iguit y A pa rt from t he cont ext , our only mea ns
.

of k nowi ng w hich i s sub j ect a nd w hich is ob j e ct is t he ord er ,

hence t he foll ow ing exp ressions a re of t hemsel v es uncert ai n :
‘ "
w hen t hu s t he son t he ferv ent si r e ai dd 1 essed w hen Thebes
‘
E p a mi nond as rears aga in a nd all t he a i r a sol emn sti l lness
’

I nv ersion 1 s a d missib l e w hen eit her t he sub j ect or t he

’
hol ds .

‘
ob j ect is a n i nfl ect ed pronou n t w o m en I k now , me t heir
’ ‘
.

sw 0 1 d s encomp a ssed A l so w hen su bj ect a nd obj ec t d iffer i n

’
.

nu mb er, a nd t he V e1 b show s it s ag i ee ment wit h t he sub j ect

’

‘
d ea th la ys all men low may ha v e its p a rt s
’
t he sent ence
a rrang ed in a ny ord er w it hout l oss of cl ea m ess
‘
W a rs i nto .

comb ines b ot h cond it ions

’
eace he t urns
p ‘
.

I n t he const ru ct ion ofv e1 b s of g iv ing

’
sendin t ell in
‘ ’
g ,
‘ g ,

w ith t he p ronoun it , t he p ersonal a dj unct I S pla ced l as t : gi v e

‘
it me t ell it him ; The form giv e me it
' ’
he sent it u s
’ ’

is a S cot t icism .

N o u n a nd A dj e c t iv e .

4 . T he Adj e c t iv e i m me d ia t e ly p re c e d es t he
N o un b r ight p rospects
’
.
3 18 S YN TAL r
—
OR DER.

1 . When the adj ect iv e is

mp anied b y anot her a dj ectiv e
a c co

as a m an j ust a nd wise ; a cross t he m ea d ow s ba re a nd br own

’

‘
ds p a r tia l cha ngefu l, p assi ona te u n ust
’

g o , j , .

2 . W hen t he a dj ectiv e is b y q ualifying

enl a r
ged
a q u est ion too i mp or ta nt to be neg lected a pa t riot di si nter ested
‘
in a hi h degr ee in ot her w ord s, the country w as t o b e
a b sol ute y gov erned b
y a h er ed it a ry ari st ocra cy ,
th e most need y,
the most ha u ghty, the most gua r relsorne i n E u r op e Hence t he
a d ect ives a d v erse ormab le
'

afra id conf w hich req uire an

'

p k
e u a rgem ent t o ma e com let e sense, al w a s foll ow th e noun
y
they q ualify .

‘
j
I n p oetry t he ad ecti v e is oft en pla ced last : as t he ga rd
m own mot her dea r m
fa i r y t h e p ri rose p a le

A few exp ress ions, includ ing certa in ti t les of rench origin, F
al mostly uni f ormly show t he inv ert ed a rra nge ment P rince
Regent ,
’
Heir Ap p arent P oet L aurea t e ,
’
Gov ernor
General , S t a tes General
’
court arti al m
t ime immemorial ,
’

k
night erra nt

The most general direction is to keep the noun a nd

its qua lifyi ng a dj uncts as close together as p ossi ble .

Accordingly such sent ence s as t he followi ng are ill a rra nged

t he death 18 a nnounced of Mr Henry A rcher , inv entor
. &c ; .

‘
the cou ntry b eyond whi ch t he a r ts ca nnot b e t ra ced of ci vi l
society or dom estic l ife the ignora nce of t he a ge in mechanical
t he p r ogr ess v ery slow of this new i nvent io n t he
legi ti ma cy is conceded of rep r essi ng v iolence or t reachery I
ca nnot b lame t hee, w ho am myself a t t a ck ed w ith w ea riness
‘
t his w ay w ill direct you t o a gentl ema n s house tha t
’

hat h skill t o ta k e of f these b urd ens ( unyan) B .

W hen the ments are ofgreat length w e are to

enl arge

a void enta ngli ng them wi th other p a rts of the se ntence .

I n t he following p assage some oft he ad uncts p recede, a nd the j

others follow , t he noun B or n to i nher it the most i llustr i ous
mona r chy i n the w or ld , a nd ea r ly u ni ted to the obj ect of her
N
choi ce, the amia b le P R I C ES S , happ y i n her self, a nd j oyf u l i n her

fu tu re p r osp ects, litt l e a nt icipa ted the fat e tha t w as so soon t o

ov ert a e her k
S ometimes the enla rgement is r esu med after the v erb .

‘ h F B
i rit of rancis a con was ab roa d a sp i r i t a d mirab ly
T e s
‘
comp oun ed of a ud a cit y a n Ye shall d ie, a l l of
’
-
d sob riety .

‘ m r, nominall l
d i h h f ies t of
’

you Th. e e p ero

y in v est e w t t e o t
 THE N OUN AN D I TS A DJ UN CTS .

titles, was
in fa ct , no more t han the head of a
, of
secula r a nd eccl esiast ica l p rinces the hea d of ose

memb ers w ere seldom in harmony ’

The only cou rse le ft w as
.

t o imita te t he fa tal p ol icy b y w hich the emp ire ha d inv i t ed it s

ow n d oom whil e st ri v ing t o a v ert it ; the p olicy of ma tching
b a rb a ria n against b a rb aria n
’
.

We al w ays
disp osed t o t ak e the w ord precedi ng
a re

a sub stantiv e as a w ord mod ifying it ; a nd hence our

fa cility in using nouns and p hrases a dj ect iv ely .

‘ ‘ ‘
a ca rr i a ge gent lema n
’
A gold rin t he house to house
’

g
- o

v isita ti on t ri ct ly rega rd ed , t hese a re highly cond ensed or

‘
ellip t i ca l exp ressions, i nt e rp ret ed b y t heir j uxta p osit i on : a
‘
ring ma de 0 gent leman tha t r ides i n a ca rr ia ge
’

g d
o l a

v isita t ion rom house t o house

The thr ee fir st, or the fir st thr ee 9 Grea t d oub t ex ist s as t o w hi ch of t hes e

.

e xp res si ons i s correc t D1fii cu lti es seem to a t ta ch t o b ot h When w e

fi
. .

sa y t h e thr ee fir st , i t is ask ed , how ca n three b e rs t ? a nd w hen w e sa y

t he fir st thr ee, w e seem t o i mp ly th a t t his shou ld b e foll ow e d b y a seco nd
three , a t hir d t hree , a nd so on The for m m ost com monl y u se d i s t h e
.

t firs t thr ee th e fir st six b ook s of E u clid t h e first t en m en you m e et

t he fir st for ty y ears of t h e ce nt u r B u t th ere a re occasi ons w h en g ood
w rit e rs t hink t h e ot he r fo rm p re crab l e th u s , t h e thr ee fir st g os pe ls
’

th e t w el est
o d of th e fa m yil th e six ne rest y o
a u r h a d
n
‘
t h e fa t h ers
of t h e fivefir st cent u ri es I
ha v e not nu mb ere d t h e li nes ex cep t of t he
four fir st b ook s ( Cow p er) W e ma y concei v e t he grou nd for t h e d ist i no
.

ti on on som e su ch p rin cip l e as t his S u p p ose a nu m b er of p ersons

.

w a i t i ng for ad missi on t o a p ub l i c sp ectacl e Th e manag er w i sh es t o g i v e

.

d ire cti ons as t o t he or d er of a d m1 ss ion N ow if w e su pp ose it se t t l ed

.

b efor eha nd t h at three shall b e a d mit t e d a t a ti m e, th e onl y q u es ti on

r em ai ning i s which thr ee , t o w h i ch t h e a nsw er is th e th ree fir st B u t if .

i t b e und erst ood t hat t h ey are t o b e ad m i t t ed in t h e or d er th a t t hey sta nd

in, t he q u est i on is h ow m a ny at a t i m e, a nd t he ans w er is t h e rst thr ee fi
fi
.

Th e p la ce of sp e cia l em p ha s is is t he secon d w or d , t h e rst thr ee t h e t hree

’

fi
,

fir st This i s i nd ica te d in t he p hrase , t he rst six b ook s of E ucli d for

fi
.

i t is t a k en for g ranted t ha t i n g eom etr y t h e or d er of p roceedi ng is xe d ;

a nd t h e onl y inq u i ry tha t r em ai ns i s , how ma ny b ook s are rescr ib e d t he
first t wo , th e rst fou , fi r t h e first six I n sp ea k ing of
. 0
‘
th ree rs t fi
g osp els , i t is su p p o se d t h a t a d iv i sion i s m a d e of th e g osp el s i nt o t w o
’

g r ou p s ( t h ere m 1g ht b e m ore if t h e nu mb er w er e g rea t er ) and t h at t he

fi rst g rp u p cont a i ns t h r ee , a n d t h e sec ond g rou p one
'
Th e q u es t ion t h en
.

is su p posed t o b e p ut w h er e a re t he t hree si t u a ted , and w here t he on e

and t he r ep ly is , t h e th r ee fir st t h e one las t
-
, or i t m ig h t ha v e b e e n t h e
t w o fir st , t h e t w o l ast I f, as i n E u clid , i t h a d b ee n nec es sa ry to s t u d y
fi
.

t he g osp els in a x ed conse cu t i v e or d er , t he u es t i on w oul d t h en ha v e

ar is en , h ow m a n y g o t o m a k e t h e fi
rs t d i vi si on a nd w e mi gh t hav e sa i d
fi
th e first t wo, t h e rst thr ee, as ma ny act u ally d o sa y .

5 . T he p la c ing o f t he A rt ic le .

The rul e of most p ract ica l import ance as t o t he art icles is to

t his ef
fect : W hen t w o or more sub sta nti v es follow ing ea ch ot her
sam e ob j ect , t he arti cle is pla ced only wi t h t he fi rst
3 20 sr s mx.
—
oa na a .

as a ( or the) secretary a nd
t reasurer t he t w o of ces b eing held fi
b y t he sa me p erson On t he ot her ha nd , w hen t he sub st a nt iv es
'

j
d enot e di fferent ob ect s, t he a rt icle is r ep ea t ed b efore each : a s
‘
the secret ary a nd the t rea surer
’
V iola t ions of t his r ule a re .

freq uent w old a nd new met hod is w rong ; b ut w e ma y

.
’

‘ ‘
sa y cor rect l the old a nd new m et hods the Old a nd N ew
Test aments
y
The follow ing are exampl es of the rul e H e shall come
aga in w it h g lory t o udge b ot h the
’

q j
uic k a nd the d ea d ; b y
’

t heir t umul t uou s el ect ion, a S yri a n, a Got h, or a n Ara b w as

e xa l t ed t o t he t hrone of Rome , a nd w as inv este d w it h d esp ot ic
ow er o v er the conq uest s, a nd ov er the cou nt ry of t he S c i ios
p p
'

he ha d comp a ssion on the p oor a nd need y a c ool hea d , a n

u nf eeli ng hea rt , a nd a cow ardly d is osit ion p romp t ed him, at

p .

the age of ninet een, t o assume t he mas of hypocrisy, w hich he k

nev er a ft er l aid a sid e
‘
The incorrect const ruct ion is seen in t hese ek a mples z — W hen
t herefore the chief p ri ests a nd ( the ) of cers sa w hi m
‘
some of fi
t he most sa cred fest iv al s in the Roma n rit ual w ere dest ined t o
ind ulge t he p ious rememb ra nce of the d ea d a nd ( the) liv ing
He ma de a b et t er soldier t ha n a p oet means a b etter soldier
.

tha n a poet w ould ma e k .

The sa me principl e a ppl ies t o t he w ords, as repet it ion of ot her

p rep osi t ions, con unct ions, & c jet erni ty i nv ests ev ery st a t e,
.

w het her of b l iss, or of su fferi ng, w it h a n im orta nce ent irely its
ow n sp ea I k
as a fat her a nd as a f ri end
p

P ro no un a nd A nt e c e d e nt .

6 . E v e ry P ro no u n s ho u ld ha v e a d ist inc t
A nt e c e d e nt .

W hen there Clause, ea ch cap ab le

a re t w o w ord s in a

of b e ing an a nt eced ent , t he d etermining cir c umstances

a re P r o x im it a nd I m o rt a nc e
y p .

1 As regard s p rox imi ty

. S olomon, t he son of Dav id, w ho
sl ew Goliat h
’
Here t he relativ e W ho refers t o t he w ord
.
‘ ’

immed ia t ely p receding, Dav id John ga v e Ja mes t he b oo k

he w as v ery much in want ofit t e , James, t he last ment ioned . . .

‘
2 As rega rds i mp or ta nce
. S olomon, t he son of Dav id , w ho
b u ilt t he t emple might b e j ust i ed on t he grou nd t ha t fi
S olom on is t he p ri nci p a l s ubj ect, a nd t he son o f Da v id is
merely a n a posit ion or expla nat ory cla use, w hich should not
h
int erfere w it t he reference of t he rela tiv e to S olomon I n fa ct .

-
S olomon t hez son of Da v id is, as it were, a ma ny-worded na mes
- - -
 P RO O N UN A
N
D A NTECE DE N T .

‘He h ath inad e him t o b e sin for us w ho new no sin

’

is t o b e k
g ,

interp ret ed on t he rule of p rominence otherw ise w ho might

‘ ’ ‘
ap p ly t o he or t o us

mity should
t

The r ul e o f p r ox i be ob ser ved as the

p f
re era ble p la n .

The ti me drew near at w hi ch t he Hou ses mu st re assemble s

Re arra nge t hus : N ow d re w near t he ti me at w hi ch ( or u hen)

t he Houses must re a sembl e One oft he exa mpl es g iv en in
’
s .

4 w oul d b e b ett er a rra nged t hus this w a y w ill direct you t o

.

the house o k
fa gentlema n tha t hat h s ill t o ta e offthese burdens
’
k .

I t 1s always desira b le t ha t t he rela t ive should sta nd as close t o

the antecedent as possi b le .

The foll owing are ex am p l es

- :
of a C o nfus io n of
P ro no u ns
They were s ummoned oc casionally b y thei r ings, whe “ns k
comp elled b y thei r w a nt s a nd b y thei r f ea rs to ha v e rec ourse t o ,

t heir a id
’
Red uce t he reference t o t he sub ect a lone t hus
.

’
by j
w ant and b y fear .

k
Men loo w ith an evil eye up on the good that is in o thers
a nd t hin k
t hat thei r rep u ta t ion ob scures them, a nd t ha t thei r
comme nd ab l e q ua lities d o sta nd in thei r lig ht ; a nd , t here f ore, they

d o w hat they ca n to cast a cl oud ov er them, t ha t t he b ri ght

shining of thei r v i rt ues m ay not ob scu re
Here t here are tw o su bj ect s, a nd w e cannot te ll from the con
st ru c t ion which of t he t w o t he p ronoun s sev era lly ref er t o .

Again : All w hich, w ith t he ing s a nd q ueen 3 so ample k ’ ’

ro m i ses t o hi m ( t he t rea su rer ) so few hours b e f ore t he conf errin

g
p
k
t he p la ce on a not her , a nd t he Du e of Yor s ma nner ofreceivi ng k ’

hi m ( t he t reasurer) a ft er he ( t he chancellor) ha d b een shu t up

“
with hi m ( t he d u e) , as he ( t he t rea su rer ) w a s inf
k orm ed , might

v ery w ell e xc use hi m ( t he t reasurer ) from t hin ing he ( t he k

chancellor) ha d som e share 1n t he a f front he ( the t reasurer) ha d
( Clarendon)
’
undergone .

‘
k
Tha c eray is resp onsib le for this S he ha d met the most
.

d istingu ished gov ernors, generals, a nd thei r la d i es, se v eral of

whom w ere nob leman .

‘ ’
The neut e1 p ronoun it gives ri se t o t he grea test amb iguity,
s has p rev iously b e en show n
'
( S ee p 2 9
. . .

P la c ing o f t he Ad v e rb .

7The Ad v erb is placed b efo re

. an Adj e c t iv e,
o r a not he r A d v e r b
. .
322 S YN TAX — OR DE R.

‘A ‘He b ehaves
g ood man mely hard w ork
’
ver y extr e .

he w orks mely hard

’
ver y well ext re

The Ad v erb is placed a ft e r a n l nt ra ns it iv e V e rb .

S he dances w ell ’
they w or k ha rd
W hen is transitiv e, the Adv erb us ua lly
the v erb

fo llo w s t he O bj e c t .

‘
He t reated t hem ha ndsomely I met him very unex
’

ec ted ly b ring t he l et t er i nsta ntly

(p

When the is ei ther e mp ha ti c

j
ob ect or long ( b y means
o i a dj uncts) , t hen a shor t a d ver b ia l exp r essi on is b est
'

p la ce d b e t w e e n t he T ra ns it iv e V erb a nd t he .

Obj e c t .

He impart s without r eserve secrets of the highest moment .

’

He explains w ith p erfect simp lici ty v a st d esigns affect ing all

t he gov ernments of E uro e The Ca tain w hisp ered some
’
.

t hing i n S i r Roger s ea r , t at lasted t ill t e op ening of the ft h

’
fi .

act here t he ob j ec t som ethin p reced es t he a d v erb ial

phrase, b ut is sep ara t ed b y it from t e l imiting adj ecti v e clause
t hat ends t he se nt ence The a rra ngement s ugg est ed rend ers
.

‘
t he sent ence comp act
’
t he Ca p t ain w hispered i n S i r Roger s .

ea r somet hing t ha t l asted t ill t he o ening of t he

p fth a ct In fi
k
cases li e t he foll owing t he a dv erb 1a l exp ression is liab le t o b e
a tta ched w rongly t o t he sub ordina te p red ica t e He might b e
seiz ed b y a ny one t hat met him as a r obber ( Halla m) Re
’
.

he might b e seiz ed as a r obb er b y a ny one that met

i n
a ra
ge
:

lnm

The Ad v erb is placed b e t w e e n A ux ilia ry a nd

'

P a rt ic ip le .

I hav e gently hinted my intentions I shall never forget

you r k ind ness he h f
as ca r e u lly st udied t he case

T he m o st g e ne ra l is t o p lace Ad v erb s, and

r u le
A d v erb ial A dj uncts, or q ua lifying circumstances, so as
t o affect w ha t they are int ended t o a ffect .

8 . The w ord req ui ri ng most attention iso nly .

A ccording to the p ositi on of only t he v ery s ame w ord s may

b e m ade t o exp ress v e ry different meanin
He only li v ed for t heir sa es ’
ere
‘
only
"
k
must b e . g?
hel d as quali fying li ve d for their sa es the empha sis b eing onk
 L
P A CIN G ; or , anvnsB s ON L Y

‘liv ed ’ the word immediat el adj oi nin Th e meani n

, y g .

‘ b ut did not ivor le, did not d ie, did not

is he li ved 0 any
other t hing for t heir sa k es .

‘ nl
‘
He liv edfor t heir sa es
only now qu ali es k .
’
O y fi
k
for t hei r sa es and t he sentence means he li v ed for this one
rea son, namely, for t heir sa es, and not f k
or any other rea son .

‘ k
He liv ed for their sa es only ’
The force of the word .

when pla ced at t he end is pec uli ar Then it oft en has a diminu .

tiv e or disparaging signi cat ion

‘
He liv ed for t heir sa es
fi . k
a nd not f or a ny more w ort hy rea son He gav e Sixp ence only .

is an insinua tion t hat more was expected .

B y the use of a lone inst ea d of only other meanings

‘
He a lone liv ed for t heir sa es t hat is, he, k
‘
a nd did so He li v ed for their sak es a lone , or
.
’

‘ k k
for t he sa e of t hem a l one tha t is, not for t he sa e of auy l
ot her p ersons I t w a s a lone b y the hel of t he Confederates}
p
.

t hat any such desig n coul d b e carri ed out ett er only . B

I t has a lrea dy b een seen ( p age 106) t hat onl y p rece din g a
sentence or cl ause has t he force of a n a d v ersa t iv e conj unct i on
'

I should b e asha med t o offer at saying any of those ci v il t hings

in ret ur n t o your ob liging com pl iments in rega rd t o my t ra ns- J

l at ion of Homer, o nly ( b ut yet , st ill ) I hav e t oo g r ea t a v alue ,

for you not t o b e p l ea sed wit h t hem ( P op e) .

F u rther ex a mp les of t h e const ru ct ion of onl y Wh en men g row

'

v irt u ou s i n t h ei r ol d r g e t h e only ma k e a sacri ce t o Go d of t he De vi l s

, fi '

lea v ings ( P op e ) Her e on y is rig ht ly p lac e d

. Thi nk only of t he .

r em emb ra n ce
‘
pa st as its g i v es y ou p l easu r e sh oul d b e t hink of t h e
p ast only as it s r em emb ra nce & c
.
A s he did not l ea v e hi s na m e , i t w as
.

‘
only k now n t h a t a g e n l
t e m a n h a d call e d on b u siness
'
i t w as k now n
I ca n only refu t e th e ac cu sa t i on b y la ying b e fore on t he w hole
'
onl y
th is w ould mea n t he only t hing I
am ab l e t o d o i s t o u te I ma y not
r et a lia t e , or l e t i t d r op I mu st r efu te it
, Th e neg r oes are t o a p p ea r at
ch u rch only i n b o ot s t h a t is, w he n t he negr oe s g o t o chu r ch th ey a re t o:
‘
ha v e no cl ot hi ng b u t b oot s Th e negr oe s a r e t o a p p ea r onl y a t chu rch
.
,

in b oot s m ig ht m ea n t h at t hey ar e not t o ap p e ar any w h er e b ut at

ch u r ch , w h et h er in b oot s or ou t of t h em Th e p r op e r arra ng em ent w ould
j
.

d b i l d b
’
b t o con
e
nec t t h e a v er a a u nc t i n o ot s w i t h i ts v erb
’
a p p ear ,
and t o m ak e only q u al ify at c hu r ch a nd no mor e t h e negr o es are
t o a p p ea r i n b oots only a t ch u r ch Ot h e rs k il led p a rtr i d g es— h e only
ki ll ed t im e t h is mi ht i mp l y t ha t h e d i d not hi ng else b u t k il l t i m e
'

Thi s is a p rop er c ase or t he d i m i n u ti ve p o s it ion of t h e w or d Ot her s .

k i ll ed p a rt ri d es , h e kil led t ime only ti e ( sarcasti ca lly) nothmg of more .

or nseq u ence an time .

9 . N ot —
b ut o nly .

‘
E rr ors frequ ently a rise in t he u se of not — b u t onl y , t o under
’

st a nd w hich w e must a t t end t o t he force of t he w hol e exp ression

’

He d id not p ret end t o ext irp at e rench music, b ut onl y to F

cult iv a t e and ci v il iz e it
’
Here t he not is ob v iou sly mis
‘ ’
.

pl aced H e p retend e
. d ,
or p rofessed, not t o ext ir p a te
’
.
32 4 rm b a ehn 1
I

s — .

IO No t o nly d
‘ ’

b ut a ls
'

. .

There is still grea t er comp licat ion with these W e may .

illust rate t he const ru ct ion as follow s S u pp ose it i: sa id ( 1 ) ,

He gav e t hem food a nd cl othing This m ea ns simp ly t hat

he gav e t hose t wo t hings
’
( 2) H e ga v e t he m both f
. ood a nd
’

cl ot hi n t h t i it w u l d h b n l ib l t i it h r,
g a s,
o a v e ee er a o g ve e e

b u t he av e b ot h ( 3 ) He gav e not only food , bu t a lso

. .

cl ot hi ng food he might hav e b r en exp ected t o giv e b ut ,

b esides t ha t he gav e, w ha t w a s ha rdly t o b e exp ect ed, clot hi ng

, .

Th e b ut has i ts u sual pow er of cau sing a surp rise t he not

k
‘

only g i ves t h e or d in a ry cou r se o f t hi n gs ; t he b u t m ar s a n

a dd it ion, or somet hin
g not i nclu ded i n our na t ura l expect a t ions “ .

‘
I n t he follow ing sent ence not onl y— b ut d oe s not gi v e t he ;
’

‘
a u thor s mea ning W e a re monished here of cha rity , andl
’
-

t au ht tha t God is not only a p riv a t e a t her, bu t a common F

F a t er to t he w hole w orld Here t he meaning is that God is
F
’

not a p ri v a t e a t he r ; t he exp ression su pp oses that he i s a

riv a te a t herF The only should b e om it t ed
. I n t he p a ssag e . .

rom Add ison- J B y g rea t ness I d o not only mea n t he b ul of k

j
any single ob ec t , b u t t he la r eness of a w hol e v iew consid ered
g
as one ent ire p iece —
the sa me error is c om mit t ed, a nd t here is
‘
a l so a mispla cement of t he B y grea t ness l mea n not
’
not .

k
t he b ul of any single ob j ect , bu t t he largeness of a w hole v iew
’
.

‘
S hor ter : B y grea t ness I mean largeness, not in any single
j
ob ect , bu t in a w hol e v iew
‘
Anot her p oint is ra ised b y the followi ng not only L ydia,
bu t a ll were concerned i c , it w a s u nderst ood t hat L yd ia wa s
. .

conc erned , b ut not t hat all (i nclud ing L dia) w ere c oncerned ; ,

I t w ould b e necessa ry t o say not only L y ia, b ut a ll the r est of

the fa mi ly w ere concerned or, not L ydia a lone, bu t a ll w ere '

concerned N ot only E ngl and , bu t a lso ra nce and Austria F .

‘
p rot est ed is c o rrec t ; n ot on ly E ngla nd , bu t a l l E urop e w as

a l arm ed w ould inv ol v e t he same err or as ab ov e not E ngl and ;

‘
a lone, bu t a ll E u rop e or not only Engl and, bu t a lso the r est f
of E u ro e
p
I t is not only hard t o disti guish b et ween t oo litt le and t oo }
p
Th e t ra nsl a t i on of P a ul s a p p eal t o A gri is not in st ri ct a cc or d a nce
’
.

w it h t h e E ng lish i d iom I w ou l d t o Go t ha t not only t he n b u t a lso

. ,

a l l th a t hea r m e t hi s da y w ere b oth al m ost a nd al t og e t h e r s u ch as I a m ,

,

e xc ep t t h ese b ond s He her e w i sh es b ot h A g r ip p a a nd all t h a t hear d

h im t o b e as him self B u t A gr i p p a w as one t h a t h ear d him a nd sh ou ld
. ,
‘
Th en a g ain , th e y c oul d not b e b ot h al m ost and a lt o
’

b e ex cl u d ed .

I
'

Th f ll i d i w l d oi d t h e se ob ect i ons :
'

g e t h e r . e o ow ng r e n e r ng o u a v

w ou l d t o God t ha t not t h o u a lone b u t a ll t h at h ea r m e t h i s a y , w er e not

‘

al mos t merely , b u t a l tog et h er su ch as I a m , e x ce p t t h es e b on d s

v en t im es b u t u n t il s e v en t y t i mes se v en
‘ l
_
I sa y not U n t o t h ee u n t i s e, ,

Here t h e not is ma ni fes tly ou t of i ts p lace

_ ‘

I say unt o th ee, not until

‘
.

sev en t im es only, b ut unt il se v ent y t i mes se v en

r
a
 P L ACI NG or ADVE R B 8
'

.
-
S P ECI A L ca ses. 3 2 5;

miich ’

orm;
r ef b ut b et ween t he good and e vil i nt entions of -

‘
different reformers W e here e xp ect not only hard, bu t
’
~
. ,

i mpossib le I t is hard to d ist inguish not only b et w een t oo

’
.

l it t le a nd t oo much re form , but b etween the good a nd ( t he)

ferent r eformers
’
ev il int entions ofdi f .

‘
w rong placing of not
’
I I The often i rise to
.
g v es

a n i mp erfect for m of nega ti on .

John and James w ere not t here means that John and
Jam es w e re not t here in comp a ny I t d oes not exclu de t he
‘

esence of one of them The neg at iv e shoul d rece d e in t his

p r .
p
cas e neither John nor Ja mes w as t he re Our c omp any wa s
not p resent ( as a company, b ut so me of us might ha ve b een)
no memb er of our comp any was p resent

l2 . At le a st .

‘
The Romans u nderst ood lib erty a t least as w ell as we
’
.

‘
This must b e i nt erpret ed t o m ea n t he Romans understood
lib ert y as w el l as w e understa nd lib erty The intended mea n
‘
ing is t hat what ev er t hings t he Ro mans fa iled to underst and
To exp ress t his mea ning w e might
’
t hey und erst ood liber ty .

e Rom ans under st ood a t least lib e rty, a s w ell

p u t it t hu s t h .

as w e d o lib ert y, a t lea st, t he Roma ns u nd erst ood a s w ell as

w e do A t ea r, a t lea st, is d ue t o t he unha ppy a t least a
’ ‘
t ea r is a due t o t he u nhappy ; a t ear is d ue a t l ea st t o t he
’
u nhap py a t ear i s d ue t o t he u nhapp y a t lea st all ex ress
p ’
d ifferent meanings Thi s cannot , often a t least, b e d one ;
.

’
‘ I t often ha p pens
t his cannot b e d on e ft , t l
o e n a e ast (1 . .

t ha t t his cannot b e 2 I t d oes not oft en ha p pe n t hat

.

t his can b e S o, ma n is a l wa ys cap ab le of la ughi ng

m an is cap ab le ofla ughing a l wa ys

I3 . M isp la ced cir cu msta nces, or a d ver b ia l a d uncts,1j

ene a l ly
g r .

To b ring ev ery cl au se int o j u xta osit ion w ith the p art that it
i s meant t o q u al ify is a s req uisi e a s t o p la ce singl e W o rds
E xa m pl es ha v e b een gi v en i ncid ent ally The .

a re a f ew m ore i nsta nces of m is la ced c la uses a nd

.

p
a dj uncts
A ll t hese circu mst ances b rought cl ose t o u s a st at e of th ings
w hich w e nev er t hou ght t o hav e w it nessed ( to w i tness) i n
p ea ceful E n l a nd
g I n the si ster i sla nd , i nd eed , w e ha d r ea d of
.

su ch hor r or s, b ut now t hey w ere b rou ght hom e t o our v e ry

‘
’

household heart hs ( S w ift )

'
’
W e ha d read, ind eed, of such
.

ho rrors occurring in t he sist er isl a nd &c .

 “
32 6 S YNTAL — OR DE R .

The sairage p eo la in man pl aces of America ; excep t

’

ov e rnm sm a y
fa milies, a v e no ov ernment at a ll a nd
g I
,

i ve a t t his d a y in t hat sav a ge ma nner a s sa id b efore ( Hob b es) .

P er a ps t he second a nd t hird cla uses had b etter to b e t ra ns

h
p os‘ed
S ome d oz en years a ft erwards, I had an ed it or ial su ccessor ( in
the h a mmer ) , Mr F onb la nqi i e, w ho had all t he w it for w hich
.

I t oiled , withou t mak ing a ny p retens ions to i t ( L eigh Hunt ) .

Here the concl ud ing cl ause , i f w e w ere t o j udge b y it s p osition,

‘
w oul d q ual ify I ; b ut it is mea nt t o q ua lify Mr
'
w ho ( .

w it hout his ma k ing a ny

‘
More exp licit thus
.

F onb lau q ue) .

p re‘t ensions t o it
I shal l ha ve a comedy for you, in a season or t w o at
'

fa rt hest , tha t I b elie v e w ill b e w ort h your accep t ance

’

( Gol dsmith) P lace th e second cla use first , in order t o connect

.

t he rela tive with its a nt ecedent co med y

P lac ing of P re pos it io ns .

I4 P re p o s it io ns s ho u ld b e p la c e d a s nea r
.

as p o ss ib le t o t he w o r d s t he yg o v e r n .

The follow ing sent ence is faul ty in this resp ect

L a usa nne— w ith a t it s foot the li ttle vi l la ge of Ouchy
k
B ut it is t o he re ma r ed tha t t here is a certa in i nversi on ,

al low ab l e in E ngl ish, w hereb y a prep osi t ion is fa r remov ed from

its regimen The p rinci p al case is w he n i t governs a rela ti ve or
.

i nterr oga t ive w ord Th e gip sies a re a people w hom w e now

. k
next t o not hi ng a bout Wha t w e are g oing to, is ab unda nt ly
.

ob scu re ; b ut wha t al l m en a re g oi ng fr om, i s v ery p la in ( John

S t erl ing) Wh t t a re you loo ing for l
.
’
‘
k
There a re al so not unfreq u ent ca ses of emp ha sis, w here t he
w ord gov erned b y t he p repositi on is req ui red to go p rominently
N ow S ir F r a nci s, t hough he w as for a l ong t ime our
'
forw ard
hero, w e nev er ex changed a w ord wi th .

F a r ther exa mp les Me, w hom t heir fou ndat ion b inds them
t o p ray for , t hey su ffer t o di e li e a h ous eless dog ( S cott )k .

The odd ity of chara ct er w hi ch grea t men a re somet imes

k
rema r ab l e for , Ma p ert uis w as not ent irely free fr om ( Gold
smit h) . Tha t which ordina ry men a re fit for , I am q ual ified
i n ( S hak ) .

P la c ing of C o nj unc t io ns .

I 5 The memb ers of d oub le memb ered

.
- -
j
con unctions

sh ou ld b e p l ac ed i n right c orresp ond ence .

The singl e- w ord con unc t ions

j ca use v ery lit t-
le troub le.
 LE ONA S M
‘
‘

E L L I P srs A N D P-
.

P e rhaps t he ch1ef b lem1sh to st le

y ari sing
‘
fro mmi m nag m nt
’
s a e e

o ft hese 13 see n w hen how ev er or t herefore is po stp oned too

fa r.

N ot — b ut a nd not only— b ut hav e alrea dy receiv ed

( al so) "
a tt ent ion 9, I t rema ins t o exem p li f
y n e it her n or —
.

He w ould nei ther giv e w ine, nor oil, nor money ( Tha ck era y)
t he c on u nct ions
j b e p la ced e ach b e lore one of t he
should
excl uded ob j ect s ; neit her gi re impl ies neit her ( som e o t her
ver b)
’
a mea ni ng not int end ed Re a 1 1 ange t hu s, t a ing all
. k
t he common p a 1 ts of t he cont ra ct ed sent e nces t o g e t her He
S o : slie ca n
‘
w oul d gi xe nei ther w ine nor oil, nor money
’

nei ther hel p he1 b ea ut y, nor her cou rage , nor her cruelt y
’

k
( Tha c era y) He ha d nei ther t ime to int excep t nor t o st op
.

‘ o
her ( S cot t) S me nei ther ca n for w its nor crit ics pa ss ,
’ ’
.

( P ope )

l6 . E llip s is : the leav ing out of so me p art of the

full exp ression.

In add it ionto t he t hree grea t processes, na med Conco1 d,

Gov ernment , a nd Order of w ords, gramman a ns consider t ha t
cert a m ca ses of t he synta x of se nt ences a re exp la i ne d b y
E L L I P S I S , whi ch w ould t he1 efore b e ra n ed a s a fourt h b ind ing k
p i ocess of com p osit ion M a ny e xa m l es o f e lli sis ha v e a h ead
.
p p y
‘
occ 11rred
k
.

‘ w
The follo in are furt her exa mples : I sent t o t he
b oo seller 8 (shop ) ; w ose ( is) t his 1mage a nd su p ersc ri p t ion l
’ ’ ‘’

t hat ( p oint) is t he p oint , t he g 1 ea t est ma n ( of the

‘ ‘
( the) eart h ; t hey l ove each ( one loves the) ot he r ; come
’ ’

( you ) ’ how shal l I curse ( hi m) w hom God hat h not c ursed

who s t hat (tha t) noc s ? k k
A n h ones t m an , cl ose b u t toned t o t he chi n,
B r oa d cloth w i tho ut , a nd a wa rm hea r t w it hin .

Here there i s a n ellip sis of

t he p a rt iciple Ca n you sing 2.
’

‘I w ill t r t o ‘
k
( h g (is) so good,
’

y I ) t a n y o u ; no t hin
b u t it ma y b e a b used t hey ap pl ied to t he Du e of al l men k
The v i r t uous al one a re ha p y
p e t t er be B
‘
w ith t he d ea d ( P lease, don t W hen did
’

y o u ( re a ch ( ho m e ? ) A n h o u r l a t er t ha n w e
e xp ect ed
‘
His fut t1re ( is as da1 k ( as ev er
d efeat ed , he st ill pushes
’
Thoug h onw ards
i
.

an d I , if not he w ll cert ainly

’

go soon .

I7 P le o na s m : the exp ression or ind ication ofsome

.

art of t he mea nin m t h n n x f w d

p g ore a o c e e c ess o or s .

This is t he op posit e of E llip sis I t i s a d ev ice somet imes .

resort ed t o for rhe t oric al force The follow ing are fi n ther
.
'

3 28 r oa m .

mp l es in t o t hose t hat have al rea dy o c cu rred

‘

e xa addit ion
for the deck, it w as t heir el d of fame
’ ‘
fi
my b a n s, they are k
‘
t he night i t w as gl oomy, t he w ind i t
’
furnished w it h b ees
W e all of its c omp l ain of t he short ness of t ime
’
w as high . .

The friends of my out h w here a m they 7 The i nt erest s of

y . .

his fa mily, t he sec uri ty of his d ynast y, these w ere his end a nd
a im
’
. k
Truth, li e a t orch, t he m ore it s shoo , i t shines
.
’ ’
k .

He that w itholdeth corn , t he p eop le shall curse him Ma e . k

S pe d fr om hence
’ ‘
eca use I b eliev ed , B
for e ha v e 1
ther e
in
.

sI 10 e .

Double N egat ion Here may b e ment ioned the u se o fmore

—

t ha n a singl e nega t iv e t o e xp ress d enial This w as usual i n Old .

English I n t he El iz a b et ha n ag e t he doub l e nega t i ve a p pe a rs

.
,
‘
ft en t o stre ngt hen t he d enia l I nev er w as n or met er w ill b e
‘
o .

1 w oul d not ha v e b el iev ed 770 t o ng ue b ut Hub ert s

" ’
fa lse
N ow , how ev er, it is t he rule in E nglish t ha t t w o nega t iv es
k
m a e a posit i v e t he one neu traliz es t he ot her as l entert a in
a no u nf
t d a v oura b l e op inion o f hi m H ence w hen denial is
’
. .

i nt ende , it is a n inconsist ency t o use mi ne t ha n one nega t iv e

’
They ca nnot u tter t he one, nor will t hey n ot ut ter t he ot he1 .

‘ ’
this is not al w ays the ca se nei ther They w ill not b e d is .

a p point ed at t he resul t no more than you a re yoursel f

’
.

1 8 I f w e w ere t o d w ell on incid ent al and excep t ional

.

c onst ruc tions, w e might note t he fol low ing as a ca se of

P arent hesis, or t he i nserti on of a n unconnect e d exp ression in
‘
t he mid d le of a sente nce our id eas a re m ov e me nts of t he
.

nerv es of sense, a s of t he op t ic ne1 1 e , in rcc ollec ti ng v is ible

’
ideas , sup p ose ol a t 1 1a n0 nl 1r p iece ‘
of 1 1 0 1 y
' '

OF P UR I TY .

B esides ob se1 v ing the rules of gram mar, w e must

e m p lo y o nly s uz h w o rd s a s re a lly b e lo ng t o
,

t he la ng u a g e , a nd w e m ust us e t he m in t he ir
c o rr e c t s e ns e ; To a t tend t o t hese cond itions is
t o ha v e re ga rd t o P u r it y .

The eri ors aoga inst p urity are cla s sed u nd er t hree
head s : B cn ba ri sm, S u leew m'

. a nd I mp r op r zcty .

B a rb a r is m .

This consis ts in u s ing w o rd s t ha t a re no t

E ng lis h . S uc h a re — l Ohsolete wor d s .
,
-
.
 m nnm m . sonscrsn . 3 2 9,

w ords that have

there occur many
to be current ; some of t hem b e ing no lo nger
S uch a re
‘ ’
hig ht , "
cl ep t
"erst ,
‘
umw b ile b ehest
‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
ad d ulce unm t b whil om
’ ’ ’ ’
, surccase , , , &c .

2 N ew words not fully ad op ted into the la nguag e

. .

cw w ords are in
pa rt b orrow ed from foreign la ng uages .

e are int rod uced for good rmsons as new sci entifi c te rms , ,
‘
a nd the na mes of new ma ter ia ls ( g ut ta e rcha fif or exampl e)
p p .

B ut ma ny are used wit hout much necessi ty S uch are most of .

t he followi ng w ord s fro m t he F rench

‘ ‘
dernier
’
sortie ,
‘
(
’ ’
b ea ux ar ts , b les l et trcs l re»
’
d
resort , p oli te i tera t u :

‘
li
p tes
o
’
se ,
‘
‘
d licate sse , é’ ‘
connoisseur , recon
’

‘
noit re ,
’
é
m ent s ,
’
ignore ,
’ ‘
fraicheur , esp ri t
’

gr
a
‘
dc corps , curt ége ,
’ ‘
soub riq u et ,
‘
ha b it u b oudoir ,
’
é ’

‘
espionage ,
‘ ’
sou v enir ,
‘
parole ,
’ ‘
en
’
ra p p o t
’ ‘
ar ri ere r
‘
S ome indica t esha des
I ’
’

pensee en passa nt , en re v a nche .

of m uing t ha t w e ca nnot ex press b y English w ords, a nd hence

m
‘
the pretext for usi ng t hem ; for exa p le :
’
ennui ,
‘ ‘
dolce fa r nient e soli
’ ’ ’
ve rb iag e , ty .

I t i s a sp ecial obj ecti on to t he empl oyment of t hos e w ords,

t ha t t he p ronuncia t io n of t hem is tota lly di fierent from t he
'

re nuncia ti on of our lan ua e I n b oo s t hey a re generall y k

gA
g g .

nnted m I ta lics, to mar t ha t t hey are not English k .

numb er of L a t in w ords a nd phra ses ha v e ob tai ned c rrenc

‘ ‘ u y
in their or ig inal form ; as omu p r ob a ndi , ob iter did u m
,

'

‘ ‘
m b j udi c c , r a gestm , ‘ ‘
“
’ ' '
a p od er ior i a .
‘ ‘
farm seq uit ur , a d hominem , ver ba ti m d literat i m ,
’ ’ ’
in
"

‘
in m
‘
t he i nte r i m, a si ne ga u a c u ,
’
I t is well to
’

, &c .

em ploy suc h p hrasa as li tt le as possi b le

N ewlyc oined words are b a rb a rous u ntil t heir ad opt i on has
b ecome general There is a consta nt t endenc y to coin ne w
.

w ords , a g rea t numb er of w hich nev er ob ta in cu rrency Thus, .

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘
ma r tynz ad , for mart vred Z m mb em ent for encu m
’ ’

‘ ‘
b ra um , a cquesta Q are
’ ’

p r ocl i city , w ords

sugge s t e d, b ut not ad o t ed
p .

ha v e b een more or less

‘ ‘
immigra nts ,
’ ’ ’
cid ences , p rogr css (as a v erb ) , &c . The
ground oft heir ad op ti on

S o le c is m .

The w o rd s emp loyed may b e E nglis h, b ut they

may b e co m b ined in a fo rm t ha t is not E ng lis h,
$30 P U RI TY .

'

B a d S y nta x is included in the

may b e S olecisms that d o not v iola te gra mm ar ; they
are the n said to b e v iola tions of id iom .

I f w e sa y I ha v e hu nger ‘
,
we d o not commit b a d gra mmar
st ill t he c omb i na t ion is not E ngl ish : it is rench I feel a F .

smel l is gr amma t ical , b u t not a c cording t o id iom

’
I w ill .

s pea k my mind ‘ ‘
get t hee gone ( w e ca nnot ‘sa y ma e t hee’
’
k
‘ ‘
ma ny a m a n , d d o honour t o
’ ’

g one y ou ha b est ,

k ‘
( S ha espea re sa ys d o gr ace t o Caesa r s
‘
once and
’

ag ai n a re E n lish id ioms, w hic h ha v e com e i nt o use from v er

g y
d iti erent ca uses a nd must now b e ob serv ed .

Im p ro p r iet y .

This mea ns e m p lo ying w o rd s in a w ro ng

s e ns e .

1 . I mprop riety in s ingle wor d s .

‘
S cot t and Thac eray use t he exp k ion, There w as a qu a nti ty
re ss

of peopl e p re sent for t here w ere a nu mber

I t o ft e n ha pens t ha t t w o w ord s ha v e similar, b ut not
‘

p
ident ic al m ea ni ngs, so t ha t t he one cannot b e used for the other
on e v ery oc cas ion S u ch t erms a re called synonym ous, or
.

‘
synmz ymes The follow ing a re exa mpl es z
.
—
a ll , ev er , ea ch
y
fallow , permit assist , help ast onish, su rp rise b elief,
rep e nt a nc e rem orse
fa it h p lea su re, d e lig ht j oy .
,

p r i ncip l e, t m t h o b ser ve, re ma r

‘
k
on t he cont ra ry, on

t he ot her ha nd
Anot her class of improp rieties originat e in not ad v ert ing t o
t he composi tion ofa w or d , or t o t he p rec ise force of t he p re x or
’

fi
fi
t he su f x comb ined w ith t he root Thu s . Ra m us p u b lished a
’

Gree k g ra mm ar, w i t h m an
y i m p o r t a nt va r i a nces from his
’
rec u rso rs for v a ria t ions t he obser va ti on o ft he S a b b ath
p
t he obser va nc e k
t he Gree is a la ng uage su p eri or i n r iche s
ri chness )
’
he felt himself c ompe lled t o a c nowl edge t he k
j ust ic e (j ustncss) of m y remar k
t he neg l igence ( neglect) of
t his lea v es u s exp osed
S omet imes w e a re misled by si mi la rity of sou nd , a s in u sing
t he w ord d emea n ( sig ni fyi ng t o b eha v e
’
t o condu ct o ne s
‘
d emeanour in t he sense of lowering
'
’
sel f , as i n d eb asing
k
ma ing mea n k
Tha c era y, i ndeed , seems t o u se d em ea n
as e q u iv al ent t o d eg ra d e d eb a se t hree t imes out of fou r
"
a lt e rna t i ng w it h this t he sense of b eha v e ( S ee P hi l ip ) .

‘
They form a proc ession t o p r oceed ( pre cede) t he p ala nq ui n o f
a mb a ss ad or he r ose ( ra ised) t he pric e of b rea d la st w ee k
‘
‘
it la ys (lies) on t he tab le
’

t hey w recked ( w rea ed ) t heir k

v engea nce
 IMP ROP RI ETY .

2 . I mp ropr iety i n p hra .

~
es
.

T his re fers t o exp ressio ns t ha t c onta in, w hen a nalyz e d, so me

inconsist ency or a b su rd it y commo n i nst ni c e of t he cla s
. A i s s
'

‘
seen in t he f ollow in e xa m l e i t c ele b ra t es t he Chu rc h o f
g p
—

E ng la nd a s t he most p erfect of a l l others meaning t he most

l f
ect o a ll S N or t hu mb e rl a nd w a s t he most ex t e nsiv e
p er o
o f a ny A ngl o S a x on st a t e ( B a-
l l a n i ) f o r e it he r t he m os t
exte nsiv e of a ll the A nglo S ax on sla tes or mor e ext ensi v e th n
- a

a ny other An lo S a xon st a t e He has ma de the highe t

-

S ha k espea re
‘
numb er of ma r 3 ev e r ma d e in a ny fo rm er yea r .

w a s t he ma n w ho of al l mod ern, a nd per ha s a ncient p oets, ha d

t he la rgest a nd most comp rehensiv e soul ry den) t her e is a t
lea st some a m b iguity here .

Th e c omel iest man of m en si nce bor n

His sons Th e fai r est of her d a ug hter s E v e
.

This mak es Ada m one of his S ( ns a nd E v e one of her d aught ers " ,
‘
I had lik e t o ha v e got t en one or t w o b roke n hea ds tor my
,
.

‘
I w as once or tw ice lik ely to get my head
”
im ert inencc
b ro on for my impert inence
L ik k i ngs w e los e t h e c onq i ies t s ga i ne d b efor e,
e
B y v ai n a m b it i on st ill t o ma ke them mor e
'
.

Conq uest s gained b e fore cannot b e ma de m ore

P leona st ic expressions a r e somet im es t o b e ra nk ed as im
r o ri et ies
p p F or exa mp le, t he case of d oub le negat iv es ( pa ge
.

So These t wo men a re both eq ua l in st rengt h is a n

inco nsistent exp ress ion, if it he mea nt t ha t one is eq ual t o t he
ot ll er .

Many im rop riet ie s a re

p ro v i nciali s s,
m
or d ist rict p e c u

l iari t ies T us, w e hav e

. S cot t icisms, l rishi sms, A merica nism s,
C ock neyisms .

The S c ot t icism consist s, not in t he emp l oyment of p ur ely

S cot ch w or ds, b u t in t he em p loyment of E nglish w ord s in a
S c otch meani A
n
or const ruct ion list of S c ot t icisms is here
g
.

appended, in dit ion t o those a lready not iced .

S COTTI CI S MS .

He w as a missing — Missin His w a t ch i s before ast F

Ih
. . .

not hing You r wa t ch i s behmd — S l ow

'

av e a d o, or no ng 1
L
. .

a doTO d o
.
—
. fea r I S h all b e b ehi nd a te . .

He has b een a il ing for som e w eek s Wh ell I shall b e besid e y ou — Wi th

'

U P
. . .

— n w ell . B y g one, by p a st —
- -
a st S hak es
. . .

I w ou ld ra t h er o as st ay — Tha n p ea r e h as gone b y
g A
. .

He i s a wa y e is a b se nt , not
. e uga r - b o wl —B a s in
. .

p resent” He w a lk ed at the b ur ia l F\ mer al

.

D
. .

How are on 150 6 3 x7 very bad Th ey ne v er cast ou t — isagree , or

i
-

m
.

I ll .B l ly —
3 32 . scorr rcrsns.

Ca t tle in S cot ch inclu d es cow s,

ox e n & c b u t not so p a rti cul ar ly Gob l et S a u ce p a n
-

G
. .
, .

r eed y a nd gr eed iness are

I w as his ca u t i on — S ecu ri t y . E ng lish b u t g r eed i s S cot ch ,
'

Close t h e d oor — S hu t . . Th e b oy w as ill g u id ed — I ll u se d , - -

F or common — Comm only . 111 t r ea t ed

-
.

Comp l i ment — A p r ese nt He fel l in t h e g a t ter — I n t h e d irt

H
. . . .

Com the ho rses F ee d — . Wh a t s o c loc k ?’

Ha lf si x al f
A co up le of he ns — T w o h ens a n hou r p a st f i ve or h a l f p a s t
A
.
,

cour se d a y coa r se w ea th er . fiv e Fi v e m i nu te s fr o m t w el v e
.

Bad . B u t w e m a y sa y , a fine —
F 1 v e m i nu t e s t o t w e l v e or b e fore ,

d a y , a nd fine w ea t h er . t w el v e or i t w a nts fiv e min u t es ,

A r e y ou r c h i ld re n a t t he cou nt ing P of t w e l v e ( B y five mi n u tes from

. .

— S t u d yi ng a ri t h m et i c t wel v e a n E ng l i sh ma n w o u l d
A
.

c l oth b r ush — A cl ot he s b r us h
-
u n l ers ta nd five min u tes p a st
-
. .

To cr a ve a m a n for a d eb t , — T o d u n t w el v e )
D
.

h i m o r d e ma n d p a ym ent of h i m Ha r d fis h ri ed fish or sa l t fish

I L
. . . .

To cr a ve a d eb t, o r to cr a ve p a y w as i n o n d o n las t ha r vest

m ent , m ig h t b e p rope r A u t u mn
U
. . .

W ere y ou cry i ng on m e ? Callin -

He 1 d of a s t r ee t p p e r en d . .

To d z sa b use is so m e t i m es use d or S ow hea d — l l ea d ac he

A h i r er i n S c otla nd is one w ho
.

t o a b u se
He is d u l L — ea f The da y is D . l ends a horse for h i re I n E ng .

( ta il s — O v ercast la n d it i s o ne w ho b orr ow s a
P D
.

A n oa k e n d ea l 1ank ea l s , or .
-
. thi ng , a nd p a y s m oney for t he
d ea l b oa rd s are ma d e of fir or
-
. u s e of i t : or w ho em p l oy s

p i ne . a no th er a nd p a y s him w ag es .

He is mu ch distress ed wi th an I nkhol d er — I nk h or n . .

i nw a rd tr oubl e W i th a n int er . To ken — To k no w I n mo d ern .

na l d isease p oe tica l E ng lish t o ken is to

G G
.

i v e m e a d r i nk — i v e m e d rink , d escry t o see a t a d ista nce

, .

sem e d r ink , or som et hi ng t o K i ndl e a fir e — ( N o t i m p rop er , b ut

d r in k t h e m ore u s ua l E ng lish w or d is
A L
.

— A f a i nti ng fit a swoon
’

f a i nt -
. . ig h t
I feel a fra i d — I a m afra i d . . To l a bo u r th e ground — To till the
I feel a sw ee t s m e ll — I s méll a. g r ou nd
I
.

F P
.

s w ee t sm ell s m el l somet h ing , od d er is la rge — l entiful , in

ag reea b le To feel a m el t is as
.
p l ent y .

rep u g na nt to t h e E ng lish i d i om E v ery la wfu l d ay E v er y w eek .

-

as to see a sou nd d
l
.

He fever ed ; h e took a fatten — He I n o d E ngli sh a nd i n S cot ch to ,

ha d fe v e r ; or he w as tak en, or l ea r n m ea n s b ot h t o g i v e a nd t o
’

se iz e d , w it h fev er rece i v e i nst r uc t ion ; b u t 1 n E ng

fi
.

I fl ri d no pa i n — F eel
‘

. l ish i t is no w con n ed t o the

F lesher — B u t c her r la t t er m a ni ng
e
A A
. . .

fl o w er ( b u n ch of fl ow ers l — A
He i s st i ll i n l ife — li v e
I
. .

n os ega lifted a p in fr om t h e
R ay i s a otc h na m e for m oss P
i c k ed u p
M
. . .

F or ord ina ry — Or d inar i ly , u sua ll y , L i me for mor ta r i s S cotc h or t a r .

c om monly . is t h e c ement w h en p r e p are d

a nd l i m e, sa n d , a nd w a t e r a re
t h e m a t eri a l s
D
.

F r esh w ea ther .
—
S oft , op en , not He w as lost i n t h e ri v en — ro w n
ed I ft h e b od y he ca rr i e d a w a y,
.

or no t fou nd , t h e p er son m a y b e
b l oo d ) sa i d to b e l os t
Af
. .

F r i ghted — rai d , fright ened . I n old E ng li sh a nd i n S cotch ,

mea t m ea ns food in gene ra l I n .

m od ern Eng lish it d en ot es fiesli »

I w as u na b l e to g et -
Get a w a y. m ea t .
I do not mind that I ev er sa w y ou Consi d erab le arrea rs b eing n ow
b e for e — Re m e m b e r To mi nd . r es t i ng t o t he sol d i ers —
R em ai n
i s i n E ng l ish t o a tte nd t o , as mg .

m ind y ou r b u siness Th e b ab e r oa r s — Cri es

j
.

Th e p r o ect m a g m a — F a il ed , or R oa sted ch eese — To as t e d ch eese .

m is car ri ed My mind mis ga v e . R oof ofa r oom Ce il ing . .

m e i s correct . e r ov es i n a fev er —
Ra v es To . .

Th e b oy misg u z d es his cl ot h es r ov e is t o roa m or w a n d er

A
. .

b u ses or su lh es To mi sg u ide I a m sca r ce of fod d e r — S h ort of

’

. .

is t o mislea d fod d er h a v e not a su f fici en cy

M A
. .
,

On th e mor n orr ow , . S cots i d i om A S co t ch id iom .

-
.

N a p k in e P oc k e t ha nd k erchi ef -
He scou r ed t h e k ni v es — C lea ned
B
. . . .

The o mi ssion of a p oint som et im es Th a t d ress sets h er w e ll eco m es . .

m ak es g rea t od d s in t he s ense F or m y sha r e I ca n only sa y , & c

A
. .

g rea t d ifference F or my pa rt
A
. .

I f I ha d i t i n m y offer , I w ou l d S kew ers R ea p ers -

sh earer i n . .

not a cc e p t of it — I n my ch oi c e E ngl a nd , is one t ha t cu ts w i th

A
. .

The offe r is h er e s upp os ed t o b e sh ea r s sh ee p b e for e her

.

not mi ne, b u t m a d e b y a not h er shea r er s i s d u m b

’
. .

Thi s b r ea d i s ol d — S t a le .
~
. Th e sh ip i s a t t he shor e — Q ua y ,
Cu t o u t y ou r ha i r Off . . w ha rf Th e sh ore i s th e coas t
.

Ta k e ou t y our g lass — Ta k e y o ur of t h e sea

H
.

g lass . a v e y ou a ny si lver Ch a ng e .

I n a n ov er ly manner — Cu rsory , or I w i ll a ns w e r t h e l et te r so so on as
fi
.

su p e r c ia l I r ece i v e i t — As I t i s c or r ec t
A
. . .

‘
p a ir of d u‘ck s ; a p a i r of p a r t o sa y , I d id t r ec e i v e t h e
.

t ri d g es I w o d u c k s a b ra ce of l et t er so soon as ex p ect ed i t
'
— -

A
.

p art ri d g es . soft d a y We t . .

Th e p a r k i s w ell p lou g hed Th e ca nd les t i ck is si tt ing in t h e

P
. .

P l a instones — a v e m ent p r e s s —
S ta nd s i n t h e c u p b oar d
A
. . . .

He w as p ointed i n hi s a nsw ers S o me b et t er l i t t le , som e t hi ng

P
. .

E xa ct a nd c oncis e oi nt e d , i n You w ill some d a y k no w i t

fi
.

‘
t he g u ra t i v e s e nse , a p p l ie d One .

l a ng u a g e , c onv eys t he i d ea of Do y ou snufi ? Tak e snuff -

.

w it or c onc ei t Th e ser v a n t w a s sort i ng t h e r oom

A P
.

l m l i i l easu re a t t h e t im e g i n or d er
’

g e n t e a n s p o c ea — — P u tt in . .

g rou nd s . I s y ou r w a t ch ou t of sor ts Ou t
P o uch is u sed i n S c ot la nd , an d w as of or d er
L
.

u se d in E ng la nd , for p ocket . S pea k t o m e ist en to m e .

-
.

B u t a p ock e t i s i nser te d in t h e I n S cot la nd sp ice is u sed for p ep p er ,

cl o t hes, a p o u ch is not a nd cor n for oa ts B u t p ep p e r ,
He liv es p resent ly in ond on — At L
.

clov es , ci nna m on,

“
m ac e , a re
.

p r e sent . d ifier e nt sor t s ofsp i ce a nd oa t s .

To p u ll u p b y t he root s To p l u ck .
-
b a rl ey , ry e , w h ea t , a re d iffer ent
up b y t h e roo t s To p u l l a k ind s o f com
A
.
.

fl o w e r — To p l u ck a fl ow er
.
~
One . w i nd i ng sta i r g oes fr om t op t o
mig h t p u ll a fl ow er w it h out b ot t om — Wi nd i ng st a irs . .

p u cl i ng it S ep a r t i on s ee ms
. a Th e h or se sta mmer s — S t u mb l es . .

t o b e i m p l ie d in t h e l a t t e r w or d . He stop p ed t hree m ont h s w it h

Q u eer , in E ng l ish , is od d , st ra ng e . t ii em R ema ined , res id e d , s t a y
;
-

p r t i c u la r
a I n S c ot la n d i t i s
. e cl
u se d i n t he sense of com i ca l , I n S c ot la nd t h e w or d stor mis u se d
h u m orous . t o s ig ni fy a st or m of sno w , or
He W i ll not r ea d i ly d o t ha t — He is sn ow y w ea t h er E v en t he e x .

not l i k el y t o d o t ha t One p r essi on ly i ng stor mis m a d e u s e

N
.

w ou l d r ea d ily i ma g i n e atu - ~
of
A
. .

R ea d ily , i n E ng lis h , d e m a n s subj ects — E ffects

’
ral ly . .

not es w it h lit t l e d ela y or hi nd S e nd m e a swa t ch of t h e clo th .

S a m p le
F
.

S we t b u tt er — r esh b ut t er
e
. .
 3 34

Sw eet milks— N ew milk . is a great ma nufact ure in Ab er

Tell t he m a n t o com e here — B i d d ee nsh i r e K nit t i n
?
-
.

t he ma n come h ere or h i t h er . I r os e w henever I hea rt y ou ca ll .

Or t e ll t he ma n t ha t I wis h t o W he n ,
a s soon as. Whenever is
s p ea k t o h im . w ha t ev er t i me
at .

Th e t w o b oys st r ove —Q ua rrelled Whi ts und a y Whi tsu ntid e

P
. . . .

op e tend er man - Wea kl y

w as a . . S om e t h a t ou r w hol e a cti ons
sa y
Th i s d ona t ion w as t he more s e a re se lfis h — A ll ou r a c t i o ns .

cep ta b l e , t ha t i t w as gi v en w i t h His w hole frie nd s forsook him

B
.

o ut so li ci t a t i on — eca u se . Al l hi s fri e nd s .

He is t w e nt y ye ars old , or t here b y . A n o l d w ife — A n ol d w oma n A .

or t h er ea b ou t s . w ife is a w oma n w ho has a

Th e ch urc h w as v ery t hrong h u sb an d
F
. .

ul l , cro w de d Wha t s your w iu? — What d o you

’

A
.

ti mber ca nd l es t i ck — W ood en . w a nt ?
Tr a d esma n i n S c ot l a nd , i s one t ha t I ne v e r w imem d a ny thing so
‘
.

w o r ks w i t h his h a nd s a t a t ra d e r i d ic u lou s — B e h ol d , or sa w
L
. .

I n E ng la nd i t is a sh o k ee p e r , as t nig h t I w i t nessed a v ery

w ho e i t h er d oes o r oes not a gr eea b l e con ver sa t ion Was .

w or k w i t h h is h a nd s p r ese nt a t
P
. .

S or e tr oub le — ai nfu l d i sea se Mr — is co m e ; I h ea r his word

V H
. . .

J a m es is t u r ned a g rea t st u d ent — oi c e a v e y o u a ny wor d to

-

H
. .

Has b ecom e .
y o u r b ro t h e r — av e y ou any
.

Wa inscot for is a S c ot
oa k m es sa g e
j
,

t i cis m — W a insco t . i n t he E ng lis h

. Ca r p e nt ers , oiners , cabi n et
s e nse , is t he i nn er li ni ng of a ma k ers , & c , a re , in S c ot la nd , .

w a l l W i t h a ny so rt o f w ood ca l led wr i g hts, a n d some ti mes

L
.

e nd me y o ur kni fe I ca nnot . sq ua r e w r ig ht s
-
W ri gh t is w or k
w a nt i t — Do w i t h ou t it
. . ma n or a rt ific er b ut in E ngla nd
The wa ter of Do n — Th e R iv er Don . . is u se d i n co mp osit ion only as
I wea r y w h en I sit al o ne B e come -
s h i p w r ig h t
-
w heel w r ig ht -

A
.

w ea ry Wea ry , in E ng land , is a.
. w ri ter A n a t to r ney
. In .

t r ansi t iv e v erb as w al ki ng l a nd a w ri te r is a n a u th or
A
.

wea ri es m e ya r d A g ar d en
L
.

Yester night — a s t nig ht

. .

B u tter and brea d r ea d a nd -

B To p la y ca r da — To p la y at car d s .

I n all s im ilar p hrase s To

’

b ut ter . cast up a fa u lt to one — To

u p b ra i d one w it h a fa u lt
Al
.

‘
b r ea d a nd e tt er concei v ed in t he foll owing

m
c heese , the . w or d s C o nt a ini ng
I behov ed to gPo
. .

m— I t b ehov ed e t o To hi nd er t o d o — To hind er from .

go I w as ob lig ed t o g o
. . d o i ng .

I w oul d d ie before I woul d b rea k W ha t l i ke is it Wha t is i t lik e 7 -

m y w or d Ra t h er t ha n b rea k W e ll , t her e is no m a t te r — N o
A A
. . .

b l t br ea d , a b l t p a p er
— b it of -
ma t te r , or i t i s no m a t t er
b r ea d , a bit o f p a p e
. .

Th e c h ild t ook the p ox W as .

To ca u se hi m to d o it is b e tter t ha n , se i z e d w i t h, or t a k en ill of,

to ca use h i m d o i t B u t to ma ke s m al l p ox -

G
. .

hi m do it is b e t te r t ha n to ma ke i v e m e a clea n p lat a Chang e -

hi m to d o it w hi ch las t p hras e , my p la t e
A A
.

h o w ev er , thou g h u ncommon , i s p iece b r ew i p iece of b rea d

A
. .

no t w i th ou t a u t h orit y ga i n , . To t hi nk sha me b e a sha m e d .

I ma d e hi m d o i t is r ig h t b u t he
. He thi n/cs long for su mm er He .

w a s ma d e d o i t is w ro ng It . longs for s umm er Thi nk l ong .

m u s t b e, he wa s ma de to do i t . occ u rs in Roist er B a is ter , t h e

I w ou l d ha v e y ou to [m e ta — I ea r l ies t E ng l i sh C om e d y ,
'

w o uld ha ve y ou kno w . E v ery thi ng suc ceed s to a w ish — o

 PUN CTUATI ON}
As one w ould wish , according to I t is t en yea r s a go si nce he di ed .

I t i s t en y ears since h e d ied .

He wa s in use t o w al k ev er y d ay I si ng none — I ca nnot si ng a t

if
?
.

He u sed. to w alk , or w as w on t t o ]
w alk . W hen d oes the chur ch go i n f— When
He ha s a g ood ha nd of w ri te — He d oe s ser v ice b egi n
w ri t es w ell . Ta k e it ( to) y ours el f .

I a m go ing to p la y myselfi— To la y . A r e y ou for a ny p u d ding — Will

W ho d o you si t u nd er h ose y ou t ak e
Ch urch d o y ou g o t o G et t i ng his br ea kfa st — Ta kin .

You ma ’ {a y ou r a ccou nt wi t h b rea k fast I tak e a n egg to

g
.

i on o n m a y e xp ec t , or
.

m y b ox
'
I
’
r ec k on u p on , op p os i t i on . ca n t g et into .
—
I ca n t
The cloc k is sta nd i ng — Has st 0 p 1 Op e n
I W ll l t y
. .

i e ou see it S h ow i t y ou
—

I m g i ng
. .

He wa nts ou t — He w ish es t o go a o to ( my) b ed —L fmy)

ou t . di nner .

I sl ip p ed
f a fell d ow n
oot an d A lmost newt — S e ld om or nev er .

My foot sl p ed an d I fell How far d oes h e go w it h you ?

J ip
.

a m es a nd oh n a r e p erp e tu all y N 0 mor e t han t o Ed inb urg h .

u a rr el l i ng w it h one a nother

q
.

p erp e t ually uarrelli ng .

P U N CTU ATI ON .

P unct ua t io n div id es paragrap hs and sentences b y

in t s st op s, w i th a View to a ssist a s i n d iscoveri ng
p o or

rea d ily the con nect ions of the wor ds, a nd to ind i ca te the

p a u se s regn ir ed i n r ea d i ng .

I t ha s b een seen t hat t he reference of qualifying a dj uncts is

t o b e d et ermined p rincipa lly b y t heir p rox imity to the w ords
they qualify unct ua ti on is
. P
additi ona l hel
p .

T he c hief s t o p s are these the c o m ma the

se m ico lo n a nd the full st o , or
p p e r io d
The c o lo n z ) is something intermediate b et w een the,

semicolon and full st op , b u t is not often r eq uired .

The other stop s a re — the i nterr oga ti on p ut a t the end of

qu est ion t he p a r entheses a nd t he br a ckets t o indicate a
remar k
t hrow n in w ithou t c onnexion w it h t he rest of t he sen
tence the d ash and the ex cla a ti on
( )
i 1 m .

T he C o m ma .

SI M PLE SE N TE N CES .

I A yery lo ng ”S ub e ct is S ep a ra t e d fro m
.
j .

t he P re d i c a t e b y a co mma .
 The comma i s used b efore the v erb ifthe sub ect j is render ed
b ei ng i mmed i a te a nd d ecisi ve measu r es, w as
u np r ep a r ed to a d ap t
rep resented t o t he Gov ernment
B ut in ordinary cases a sto p should not b e p laced b et ween t he
‘
t he v erb : To b e t ot ally indi f ferent t o p rai se or
censur e is a real d efect of charact er

2 . Cc -
o rd ina t ing a d unct s
j of t he j
s ub e c t
«
a re is o la t e d b y co mm a s .

The comma is used b e fore and a fter a p articiple or p art icipial

1p hrase w hen cc ordinat rng, a nd not rest rict iv e :
‘
The j ury,
'

ha vi ng r eti r ed for ha lf a n hou r , b rou g ht in a v erd ict for t he

’ ‘
d efend ant encou r a ged by hi s fir st successes, he red ou b led his
’
B ut w he n t he p ar ticipia l p hrase is rest rict iv e, t he
'

e fiort s .

c om ma i s not used , it b ei ng i mp rop er t o sep a rat e a limit in

g
a dj u nct f rom t he w ord l imit ed b y i t k ing ‘dep end i ng on the A
s up p or t of his s ubj ects ca nnot ra shl y go to w ar
The sa me rul e extends t o adj ect iv es a nd nouns in a posit ion,
w hen they are q ual ified b y ot her word s, a nd are in t eir effect
i co ord ina t ing r a t her t han restri ct iv e T h e st ra nger, u nwilli n
z g
to obtr ude hi mself on ou r notice, l eft in t he morning Rein e,
’

the city of the E mp er ms, b eca me t he cit y of t he P op es

’
'

E v en .

w ithout a dj u nc ts, a w ord in a p p osit ion, esp ecially w hen a dding

new inform at ion, is oft en enclosed in comma s
‘
a ul , the P
Ap ostle & c B u t it is a d v isa bl e so to p unct uate as t o m a in ;
.

t a in t he dist incti on b et ween restric tiv e and co ordi nating -

adj uncts .

3 ,
An A d v e rb ia l P hra s e p re c e d ing t he
v e rb , o r it s s u bj e c t is us ua lly fo llo w e d b y a
’

c o mm a .

I n tr uth I could not tell to su m up , t he matter is t his ;

’

ev er ythi ng bei ng r ea d y, t hey dep art ed ;

’
by looki ng a l i ttle
d eep er , t he re ason wi ll b e found
W hen complex a dv erb ial p hras es come b etw een t he sub ect j
and t he v er b , t hey ar e p l a ced b et w een commas .

4 T he na me o f
. a p e rs o n a d d re s s e d is
i sola te d b y c o mm a s .

John, co me here t ell me, boy, What is your name i

P hra se o r q uo t a t io n t ha t is e it her t he
subj e c t o r t he o bj e c t o f t he v e rb , is us ua lly
fo llo w ed o r p re ce de d b y a co mma
,

. .
 m c ou rt s .

5
The most fr e uent d o not occur in si mp le
erhap s
q
cases

Sentences, a nd o t en,
‘

es ecia y if the p hrase or

p uota t ion b e
‘

q
long, a colon is used .
‘
He said, L et us go hence
CO M PLE X SE N TE NCES .

I A N o un
. t ha t is t he s u bj e c t of a
C la us e
v e r b , if lo ng , s ho u ld b e fo llo w e d b y a c o m m a .

Tha t the w or k of for mi ng a nd

’
d ifiicu lt, is generally allow ed .

I f t he clause fol low s t he v erb , a comm a does not usually

p reced e I t i s n k
own that a fu l l exa mi na tion took p la ce

j
S o an ob ect noun clau se is not usually p receded b y a comma ,
it is of v ery grea t length .

2 . A re s t r ic t iv e A dj e ct iv e C la us e is not
s e p a ra t e d by a co m m a fro m t he no u n .

This is on t he p rinciple al ready laid d own concerning restric

'

t iv e ad uncts .

On t e ot her hand, a co ordinat ing cl ause, int rod uced b y t he

-

rela t iv e, is p reced ed and , if need b e, foll ow ed b y a comma : I

’
w ent t o v iew t he riv er, w hich I fou nd gr ea tly sw ol len .

j
An ad ect iv e cl au se has a comma l a ced a fter it when it ha s
t he effect of v ery much l eng thening t e sub ect ( if t he p rincip a l j
v erb Any one tha t r efu ses to ea r n a n hones t li v elihood , is not
j
a su b ec t f or cha rity Thi s is on t he sa me p rincip le as Rul e 1 .

for the simple sentence .

” A comma is al so nec essary a t t he end of such clauses if fol

j
low ed b y a n a dv erb ial ad unct of t he p rincip al v erb , which
ot herw ise might b e ref er red to t he sub ordinat e cl a u se ; I refused
t o emp loy t he m an t hat he recommended, beca use of his unfit
ness for the p ost

3 A d v e rb ia l c la us e s a re s e p a ra t e d
by
'

c o mm a s u nle ss t he y a re s ho rt a nd c lo se ly
c o nne c t e d w it h t he m a in se nt e nc e .

If the p r emises wer e a d mi tted I should d eny t he conclusion

,
‘
w here you r tr eas ur e is, there w ill your hea rt b e also
:

send
me w ord b efor e you co me

CO MP OUND SE N TE N CE S .

C c o rd ina t e se nt e nc e s , e x p re s se d a t full
-

l g
e n t h, a r e g e ne ra lly s e p a ra t e d b y c o m m as .

B ut hi s p rid e is greater than his ignorance, - -

and what he
k
w ants in nowledge he supplies b y sufficiency
’
.

22
3 38 PUN CTUATI ON .

s light amount does not di spense with t he

of contrac t ion
r ul e A
man of pol it e imagina t ion ca n conv erse w ith a pi cture,
a nd find a n eea b l e c om a nion in a sta t ue
p
B ut w hen t e sentences are v er closely related to ea ch other,
y ‘ ‘ ‘ ’
a nd connect ed b y t he con unc t l ons h
j
’ ’
a n d ,
or ,
n or , t e
c omm a i s om it t ed I mad e has te a nd ov ertook him neit her
m oney nor men were w a nt ing A
cl a use i ntr od uced b y a n
’
.

a n est i v e conj unc t ion, b ut & c , must b e se pa ra t ed b y a

‘
.

c o mma f r om w ha t p reced es ow in ,t o t he b rea k in t he sense

He w ent to m ark et , b ut d id not nd w ha t he wa nt ed
W hen t he conj u nction i s omit ted b et w ee n t w o cc ordinate -

sente nces, t hey must b e sep ara ted b y a co mm a if short a nd b y ,

a semicol on if l ong a nd comp lica t ed He ca me he sa w , he

.
,

conq uered
’
W hen such sent ences ( som et imes ca ll ed collateral )
.

a re contract ed , t he remaining ort i n s a r e st ill d iv id ed b y

p o
commas : E arl y t o b ed a nd early t o rise, m ak es a ma n hea l t hy,
w ea lt hy, and w ise or hea lt hy, w eal t hy, wise eter , P
Ja mes, Thomas, a nd Ma ry formed t he party
’
.

These rul es are all perv aded b y one eneral p rinciple, namely,
t ha t w hen word s are closely connec te in grammar or in sense d
t hey must not b e separ at ed in t he point ing b ut if an int er .

k
rup ti on t a es pla ce , or a t ransi ti on is ma d e, a point is n

An exp ression enclosed b et w een commas is in some sort p aren

k
t het ica l ; t here would b e no b rea in t he grammat ica l connexion,
’

er in t he sense, if it were pa ssed ov er .

T he S e m ic o lo n a nd t he C o lo n .

T he S e m ico lo n is int ro d uce d w he n a g rea t e r

a use is re q u ire d tha n w ha t is usu ally ind icated
py th e co mma .

I n t he constructi on of sentences, or p eriod s, w e may hav e

,

som e c la uses more cl osely connec ted t han others , a nd t he d egr ee

of conne ct ion m ay b e sugg est ed b y t he a b sence of a st op , b y a

comma, or b y t he semi colon : Child ren w it hout a ny d esign

im ita te t he la nguag e , t he t one, t he p r onuncia t ion, t he l ook s,
the gest ures, t he ga it of t hose w it h w hom t hey l iv e a nd i ft he
imita t ion b e cont inu ed su f ficiently lon no effort s in a ft er life
can ov ercome t he ef fects of it , t he flem ility or d ocilit y , so t o
spe a k , of t h e t issu es or orga ns concerned seeming t o d i minish
ra p idly w i th t he a p roa ch t o ma t urit y, or t he cessa t ion of
p
H ere it 18 felt that t he b rea k or pa u se is much
gre a t er a ft er t hey l iv e t ha n a t t he end of t he v a riou s w ord s

T h e only exce p ti on t o t h is is R ule 1 ( simp le se nt en ce ) b u t

‘

fi “
j ust i ed on t he gr ound tha t the inordinate length of t he sub ec t rend ers
,
j
a p a u se d esira b le .
 SE M I COLON '

AN D FU LL S TO P .

where commas are used There is also a consid erab le b rea in

. k
t he sense a fter ca n ov erco me t he effects ofit where also t here
w ould hav e b e en no imp rop riet y in p lac ing another semicol on .

When ap ause is not sufficient ly mark ed b y t he semicol on,

t he col on may b e use d at t he writ er s discr et ion B ut no xed
’
. fi
rul es ca n b e l a id do wn res ect in
p g t he use of t his st op One .

a
p p lica t io n of it is t o intro d uce a q uotati on, a narrat iv e, an
m H k
‘
rr u ent or an enumera ti on of e ti ul m f l
i
g e s o e
p r e s
p as o
ow s

T he P e rio d or F u ll S to p .

This stop is used at t he c los e of a c o mp lete

s e nt e nc e .

The rul es for t he use of it are the rules for the com osit ion ofl
p
p eri od s a nd p ar a r
g p
a h s The m ost usual er ror. is t o i nc lu d e in i

one eriod t he matt er t hat should b e d iv id ed int o t w o

p ,
or
erha s more
p p .

The full stop is u sed after a b br m a tiom : MS LL D

’

. . .

L
ond Mr E sq . .

The note of int errogat ion must not b e used after i nd i rect
quest ions as he as ed m e who ca lled k
The p arent heses encl ose so me rema r t hat does not ent er k
int o t he const ruct ion of t he sentence
Th e b liss of ma n ( c ou l d p ri d e t ha t b l essi ng find )
‘
I s not t o ac t or t hi nk b ey ond ma nk in d .

The d a sh mark s a n unexpect ed or emphatic p au se, or a .

su d d en b rea k or t ra nsit ion : W hy, p erhap s it is— b ut w hat

‘
wa s his intent ion l
S ometi mes it is u sed t o mark w ords in apposition, or in
ex la na t ion
p
They p l uck ed t he sea t ed hill s, w it h all t heir lo ad
R oc k s w at ers w ood s an d b y th e sha ggy t op s
-

U
, .

p lifti ng , b or e t he m in th eir ha nd s
’
.

Tw o dashes may b e u sed t o enclose an exp lanat ory p aren

‘
t het ic cl ause ; I n t ruth, the charact er of t he great chief w as
d epict ed t w o t housa nd fiv e hundred yea rs b e for e his b irt h, a nd
d ep ict ed such i s t he power of genius— in colours which will
-

b e fresh as many years aft er his d ea t h

I nv ert ed co mmas a re u sed t o mark quotat ions .

The not e of excl amat ion or admirat i on is

used a ft er ,

j
int er ect ions and p assionat e excla mat i ons, or aft er an p assa ges
t ha t ar e int ended t o b e esp ecially emp hatic A dre eternity "
how surely mine
 P AR S I N G .

The v ar ious p art s of e v er

y sentence m ay b e examined
in fi v e d iffe re nt m o d es .

I n g iv ing a complete account of a might p arse it sentence, we

five t imes for as many d ifferent p urposes
, W e might sta te .

first the p a r t of sp eech of ea ch w ord secondly the i nflexi mt of ,

e v ery inflect ed w ord ; t hir dly, the der iva ti on of ea ch w ord ;

fourt hly, the a na lysis of the sentence ; a nd fifthly, the a pp l ica
ti on of the syn ta ctica l r u les o f concord , gov ernment , a nd ord er
t o t he sent ence B ut t here b ei ng v ery lit tl e t o d o und er t he
.

second hea d— infiex ion, w e may c onv enient ly oin t ha t w ith t he j

fi rst Al so, t he a nalysis a nd t he other a rt s of syntax a re so
l
.

cl osely a ll ied , t hat w e may t a e t he w ho e u nd er one p a rsingk

'

( The a nalysis might a lso b e ea sily included i n t he rst mod e fi

o f a rsing ) There w ill t hus b e t hree di st inct p ar sings ap pli
p
.

ca b e to a ny one pa ssa ge .

l P a rs ing fo r
. P a rt s of S p ee c h ( inc lud ing
lnfl e x io n ) .

Under t his w e state the P art of S p eech of ea ch

w ord ( w het her N nun P ronoun how it

, ,
show i ng

c omes u nd er t he D efinition ; a lso t he c lass or sub

d iv ision t hat the w ord b elongs to 3 and the infiexional

cha nges it exhib its .

I t is necessa ry ev en for this l imited p urpose t o u ndersta nd

t he synt a x of t he sent ence, for w e mu st oft en t rea t a p hra se of
t w o or more w ord s a s gra mmat ically one Moreov er, w e must .

d etermine t he p art of speech a ccord ing t o t he act u al fun ct ion of

t he w ord in ea ch c ase seeing t ha t t he sam e w ord fa lls under .

different p a rt s of sp eech a t d ifferent t imes W e shall ta e as an . k

example t he f oll ow ing p a ssa ge from Mil ton

F ar l ess a b horred t h a n t hese

V ex d S cy lla b a t h ing i n t h e sea t ha t p a rts
’

Cala b ria from t h e hoa rse Tri nacria n s hore

’
.

F ar an a dv . ofd eg re e, m od ifying l ess ’

.

L ess a d v of d e. ee, comp a ra t i v e, m odif

ab horred ying
N ot in u su al comp ar orm, t he r ending b ei ng a ssimilat ed t o
.
-

fi
t he na l consona nt of t he p osit iv e ( lees) .

A b horr ed a dj of q ua lit y ( d eriv ed f rom p a st p articip l e of

’
.

‘
a b hor limits hell b ounds unde rst ood
'

v erb -
.

Tha n ad v of d egree
. c om a rat iv e,
p m o di f
y in g a v erb

uhd erst oo d w ere ab horre d th e comp letion of t he cl a use

‘ ‘
c omm ( h l J tha n t hese
’
h h l h
'
en cing w i t t ese e w o e c a use -
r .
 ‘
PA RS I N G F OR PA RTS OF S PE E CH .
.0

( h e l l h
-
o u n d s ) w er e a b h or r ed — q
is e uiv al ent t o an a dv ofdegree, .

‘
mod ifying less
T hese a dj , p ro n o m i nal , d em o n st ra t i v e ; p l u ra l lim its
‘
Or, p ronoun d emonst r
’
hell hounds , u nder st ood
-
.
p lur ;
,
. .

hav i ng for it s ant eced ent ( or p oint ing t o) hell hou nds -

v erb t ra nsi t iv e ; a ct i v e v oice , indi cat iv e m oo d , p ast

’ ’
V ex d
‘
fi
inde nit e t ense, t hird p erson, p l ura l n umb er ; sub ect , hell j
hound s und erst ood a ft er ab horr ed
S cylla : noun, pr op er, sing ula r, m ea ningless ; or simply
’

p ‘p
ro er )
*
feminine t h e o b e c t of t h e vj er b v e x ed

B a t hi ng v erb , intr a nsit iv e ( p

im er f ec t or in co m l
p et e)
a rti ci le
p ‘ p sub ect, j S cyll a c o ordi nat ing use -
.

In p rep osition, pl a ce, rest in ; p lac ed b efore sea t o

k ‘
mar the rela t ion b etween sea and S cylla b athing (or ‘ ’ ’

j oined w i th
‘
sea
’
k
t o ma e up a n ad v l phrase modify .
,

b at hin
The
g a dj , p ronoml , dem onst r , (u su ally call ed t he d e nite
. . . fi
‘
limit s sea m m i b
’
art icl e) ( T he. c o p l et e li i t a t i on i s g v en y
‘
t he exp ression — tha t part s shore a dj cla use re -
.

stri ct i v e )
.

"
S ea
’
noun, general and signi ca nt ( or simp ly general , or fi
connect ed w ith b a t hing b y in ( or t a en with
’ ’
k
‘
k
in t o ma e up a p hr — as ab ov e ) . .

aflteced ent
’
That p ron rel at iv e,
. r est ri ct iv e sea ;
j
sub ect t o t he v erb p ar t s

P art s v erb , t ra nsiti v e, p redicate t o that act v oice; .

indie mood , pres indef t ense, si ng numb er , 3 rd person

. . . . .

Calab ria noun, p rop er ob ect t o

p j
art s
‘
F rom rep osit ions) , p l ace,
’
rep ositi on ( one of t he case
‘
p
motion w ith irection ; p la ced b e fore shore t o mar t he r e ’
k
‘ ‘
lati on b etw een shore a nd par ts ( or oined w it h shore to
’ ’ ‘
j ’

t make up a n adv l p hr of p lace, motion with directi on, modi

o ‘ ’
. .

fyin art S )

g P
he ( as ab ov e) ; l i mi t s shore
’

‘
.

of uality q uali es shore q fiCo ordinat ing -

.

a dj d eri v ed from a p roper na me

. limit s

I t w oul d b e t oo m uch t roub l e t o k eep up th e full d ist i nct i ons on all

occasi ons a n d I sh oul d t h er efore p r op ose t ha t w h en a n ou n i s a p rop er
j
,

( or mea ning l ess) na me and als o t h e na m e of one ob ect, i t sh oul d si mp ly

,

b e ca ll ed p ro p er as the na m es t ha t a r e p r op er and not sin r a re t h e

e xce p t ion, a nd ma y b e note d w hen t h ey oc c ur Th e si g ni cant nou ns .
-

a re nea rl y all g enera l a nd mig h t b e p a rsed as g eneral ( or if p referr e d

c ommon a nd t h e r efor e g en era l or c omm on mig ht b e held to m ea n
’

g enera l a nd sig ni cant fiu nl ess th e cont ra r y b e st a t ed Th e p a rsi ng of . ,

nou ns w ou ld t hu s cont i nu e as a t p rese nt , ex c ep t tha t w h en su ch a w or d

as t eh rBow ‘
ns or th e Ja meses occ urre d , i t w oul d b e st a t ed as p rop er
and comm on and w hen
‘
r ov i d ence or
‘
P
the emp er or occurred , it
w ould b e st at ed as singular and n gnifica nt .
’
.
 3 42 PARS I NG .

‘ hore
mm k en from "
S noun,
‘
ge neral
' ‘
or co on ( ) ta with .

( The com b ina t ion t he l ri na cr ia n shore const it utes a sin ular

g
name, p art ly sig nifica nt a nd
pa rt ly p rope r ) .

I I P arsing for Deriv a t i on This consi sts of tw o p arts ;

. .

first , assign ing t he so ur ce of ea ch w ord, as a tiv e

‘
F rench , N ’

&c . a nd secondl y,
giv ing account of its compos it ion w hen it is
a compound w ord .

The rules and lists g iv en under DE R I TI O VA N

W or ds, together w it h t he lists v en in t he Appendix, a re
'

int e nd ed t o a f ford t he mea ns of etermi ning t he etymol o ‘ cal

'

ori i n of a ll our w ords

g Th e r ul.e s
‘
t o b e a b sol u t el y relie on d
a re t hose in sec t ions 2 8, 2 9, 3 2 , 3 3 I t is t o b e see n rst . fi
w het her a w ord b e longs to t he p art s o f speech, & c , t hat are of .

home origin ( 2 8, I f t his is not d ecisiv e, t he rules r ela ti ng

t o t he nu mb er o f sy lla bles ( 3 2 , 3 3 ) a re t o be referred to, toget her
wit h t he lis ts ofexcep t ions .

The p u pil shou ld g ra d ually master all the smaller lists of the
languages gi v en in t he t ext I tal ian, S p a nish, —
ort ugu ese, P
Ara b ic, &c . He should also master the na tiv e w ords of more
t ha n one syll a b le, of w hic h a t olera b ly co m l et e enumera ti on is
iv en in t he account of t he t hings na med rom nat iv e sources
g
i n w hich a ccount t he examp l es are p ur ea sly d ra w n from d is
sylla b le w ord s . W hen a w ord ofmore n one sylla bl e occurs;
k
j it should b e st rip p ed of a ny now n re x or endin , and reduced
p g
fi
‘ ‘ ‘
ft o its simpl est form as foot ste mis b ehav e
-
under g o - -

ou t st ri p
-
wi th draw -
fa it h ul I t is t he uncompounded
.

:f orm t ha t w e are t o d ea l with a cc ordin

g to t he rules ( 3 2 ,
q
2T he u esti on w ill then b e d ecided b a ref erenc e t o t he lists i n
‘

t he A p pendix . fi
The rst of t hese ists — the Cel ti c, mi g ht b e
rea dily mastered t he S ca ndi na via n list is somewhat longer,
b u t i f t he u p il w ere fa m ili a r w it h it l i ew ise , t he act ua l ref er k
ence w oul fi
b e con ned to t wo lists t he other Teutoni c w ords —

and t he li st of classical monosyllabl es A key is t here y

p
.

‘
furnished to t he sources of t he la nguage, u Ian p referal le
gilt l
a
t o t he use of t he di ct ionary, as i t d eals c ssses and not
w i th indi vidua ls, and rend ers it p ossib le ultimat ely to ast er m
t he ent ire language .

The r ules dr avvn from the end ings a nd pre xes ( 3 0, 3 1 ) a re

'

fi
v ery useful f or gi v i ng t he p rob a b l e orig in of w ord s a t t he rst fi
gl ance ; b ut in conseq u ence of t he g rea t numb er of hyb ri d s, of
which no compl et e list has b een made, t hey a re not t he rules
that are d epend ed on I n disti nguishing b et ween a La t iniz ed
.

and a n English style generally, t hey a re a t ol era b ly

I f p up ils hav e b een d isciplined in L at in Gree , , k
or if t hey ha v e made some regress in L at in a nd Gree , k
-
or in French, they will, have an na l means of
 F OR D E RI VA TI ON A N D F OR SY T X N A .

. t ing the sources of our v oc ab ul ary ; and t he tea cher w ill t heir
a p ea l t o t his pa rt o f t hei r
p now led ge in pa r sin gkf or d e ri v a t ion .

The ot her exercise u nd er De ri v a t ion consist s in redu c ing

w ord s t hat are not sim ple to t heir si mp le elem ent s Thus .

g rea t ness i s mad e up of t he a d ect iv e g re a t a nd t he su f fix j

ness em b it t er j
is t he a d e ct iv e b it te r comb i ned w it h t he
p re fix em w hi c h i s em p loy ed t o c onv ert a d ect iv es into v er b s, j
w it h t he mea ning of to m a e
‘
po w d er horn is k
a com ou nd
p
-

w ord ma d e u p of t w o nouns .

P arsing for S
lII . t a x The a nalysis of se ntences has .

b e en suffic ient ly exemp 1 hed There rema ins o nly t he illu stra .

t ion of t he ru le s o f Concord Go v ernme nt , a nd Ord er a s giv en , ,

u nd er t hose sev eral hea d s N umerou s exa mples of d eta iled

'

a rsin for S ynta x a re g iv en i n t he K ey to F i rst E nglish Gr a m

p g
ma r , pp 1 5 7 -1 8 6 . .

EX AMPL E S OF E R R ORS ,

m OF I NF R R AM U U
E IO ,
UL A FB IG O S , OR P EC I R ms
or .

( The a rr a ng e ment is desi gned ly mad e p r omisc uous ) .

Th e sepa rati on di d not ta ke p lace t ill aft er the lang ua g e ha d a tta ined
th e ri p e ness of ma t u ri ty .

The Chu r ch ha s t h r ou gh its Comm ittee on Ed uca tion , in th eir la st

,

re p or t recomm end ed a m or e l ib e ra l e nd ow m ent , so t ha t w e ha v e now

,

re a s o n t o cou nt u p o n t h eir c or d ia l c o op e ra t i on -

fi
.

W hat is t he reas o n tha t ou r la ngua g e is less re ned tha n those of I tal y ,

S pa in, or F ran ce
H omp ted b y t he most ex treme vanity he p ers isted in t he w riti ng b ad ,

v erses .

If Iw a nt sk il l or
for ce to res t rai n t he b eas t tha t r id e u p on , th ou g h I I
b ou g h t it and ca ll i t my o w n : yet , in t he tr uth of the ma t t er , a m a t
'

I
t ha t t im e ra t her his ma n tha n he m y ho rse
I
.

l his r ea t p hi loso p he r , w i th w h om a m a l w ay s u nw illi ng t o d ifier ,

'‘

re fers , d c g
I t is not so u nw i eld y as to ma k e it necessary to ha v e recou rse to t he
co mp le x mecha nis m of d ou b l e el ec t i ons
H
.

A h is tor y now b y a Mr u me , or a .m b y a Mr P Op e, w oul d b e .

e xa m i ne d w i t h d ifi er ent ey es t ha n ha d t ey b orn e a ny o t her na m e

q
.

One spec i es o f b rea d , of c oarse ua li t y , w a s only a llow e d t o b e b a k e d .

The pa r t y w h om he i n v i te d w as v ery nu mero u s

D M M
.

Th e uk e of a nc hes te r died a t R ome on th e 18 th of a r ch , 1 843

D G
.

His gr ace in 1 793 ma rried the da ug hte r of the la t e uk e of or d on, a nd

w as 71 y ears of ag e
Th ere is not a g ir l i n tow n b u t le y he r ha v e her w ill , in g oing t o a
.

mas k a nd she sha ll d r ess lik e a sh ep her d e ss

. .

I t i s now a b ou t fou r hu nd red y ea rs si nce the ar t of m u l t ip lyi ng b ooks

has b e en d isco v ere d .

A n ofi i ce r on Eu rop ea n and on I nd ian serv ice a re in v ery d ifferent

,

sit ua ti ons,
F or I re m emb er t hat a mo ng y o ur a nc ient a ut hors, not only all ki ng s,
J
_

b ut e v en up ite r hims elf is so te rmed .

 3 14 EX AMPLE S or E RR ORS , o
n

My old fri end a ft er havi ng sea te d himself and t rimmed th e b oa t wi t h

, ,
his coach m a n w h o b ei ng a v ery sob e r m an , a l w a y s ser v es for b alla st ou
, ,
’

t h e se oc casions w e m a d e t h e b es t of ou r w a y t o F ox ha ll
,
-
.

Ma n n e v er is b u t a lw a y s t o b e b les t
j G
, .

I nd ee d w er e w e t o u d g e of er m a n re ad i ng ha b i t s fr om t h ese v olu mes

P
,

of ou r s , w e sh ou ld d ra w q ui t e d iffer ent conc l u s ion to a ul s

’
a
j
.

1 k n o w no d u t y i n r ehg i on mor e g ener ally a gr eed on, nor mor e u s t ly

re q i u re d b y God .

Th e d oc to r i n his le ct u re, sa i dt ha t fe v er al w a y s p r od u ced th irs t

Al
.

a rmed b y so u nus ual a n occ ur r ence, i t w as resol v ed t o

p ost p one t heir
d e pa r t u r e .

T h e A nna l s o F lor ence ar e a m ost i m p osi ng w ork

f .

W i t h ou t ha v rn a t t end ed t o t hi s, w e w ill b e at 108 8 in und erstanding

sev era l p assag es 11 t he cla ssi cs .

Th ey ha v e no o t he r s tanda r d on w hi ch t o form th emsel v es , ex cep t w ha t

ch a n ces t o b e fa shi onab l e
H
.

Th e E a rl of u nt ly , conform ab l e t o t h e craft y p oli c

y w hi ch d is
ti ng uis hes his ch a ra ct er , a m u sed t h e l ea d ers of t h e c ong rega t i on
L
.

u xu ri ance of orna m e nt a nd th e fondn ess for

p oint are certa i n i ndi ca
ti ons of t he d ecl ine of g ood ta s t e .

S u ch e x p ress io ns sou nd harsh ly .

T o enga g e a p ri v a t e t u tor for a sing l e p u p il , is p erha p s of all oth ers, ,

th e least e ligi b l e m od e of g i v i ng lit era ry i nst ru ct i on .

I n ev ery w a r d one of t h e k i ng s c ou nc il t oo k e v ery m an s b ook , a nd

’ ’

h em , a nd b rought t h e m
u il d hall t o confront t h em w i th t h eG
g
sea l e d to

“
orig i na ‘
T his d i ffused a secret j oy t hrou gh th e w h ol e ass emb ly, w hi ch sh ow ed
i tse lf in e v e ry l ook a nd fea t u re .

They i ntr od u ced t h e tast e of science a nd relig ion w hich d isti ng uished
‘

M ed ina as t h e ci t of t h e b ook .

ha t can b e e ca use of t h e p ar liam ent negl ec ti ng so i m ortan t a

p
b us; ness ?
H ob b es is p rob a b l
y t he first of w h om w e can sa y h e is a. g ood E ng lis h

Th e a t r oci ou s crime of b e ing a young ma n, I sha ll nei th er at temp t to

'

p all i a te nor d e ny
F P
.

Th e Roy al amil y tak es ra nk b efore t h e ee rs of t he real m

P
.

o l iti cs a re t oo st ron
g for t h e sch ools a nd g iv e t h em t h eir b ias
'

I
.

Eit h er y ou or ar e i n th e w rong .

You s eem neith er to care for y ourself nor for any one else after w ha t

On ei the r si d e of th e r iv er w as th ere t h e t ree of life .

I f a st r a ng er sh ou ld h ear t h ese fu riou s ou t cri es of ingrat i tu d e ag ainst

ou r g en era l , h e w ou ld b e a p t t o i nq u ir e
I I I
.

h av e los t th e g a m e t h ou gh t h ou g h t
,
sh ou l d ha v e w on i t .

L e t t he eld ers t ha t r u le w ell b e co unt ed w ort hy of d oub le h onour,

rl iall y t h ey w h o la b ou r i n t h e w or d and d oct r ine
f I
.

i e w ou ld n ot b e p ersu a d ed b u t w ha t w as g r ea t l y in fa u l t
I
.

d o not t h i nk t ha t l ei su r e of l ife a nd t ra n u il li t y of mind , w h ich

fort u ne a nd y ou r ow n w isd om h as gi v en y ou , c on ( 1 b e b et te r emp l oyed
I
.

I t is a l ong t im e si nce ha ve b e en d ev ot ed t o y ou r interest

Gi
.

ve m e it .

Thi s ha u g h t y an d i mp eriou s st y le s ou nd ed harshl y t o S cott ish n ob l es ,

im p a t ient o f t h e slig h t e st a p p p ea ra nce o f i n u ry j
I
.

The fa mi l y w i th w h om ha v e long li v ed in i nti macy is g one t o the

cou n try .

Tha t i s seld om or ev er th e case

j
.

T he fa ct o f me b ei ng a st ra ng er t o hi m d oes not ust ify his cond uct

I t i s one of t he m ost sa t isfac tor y and v al ua b le = emendat ions w hich
 AN D OF I NF E RI OR OR PECUL IA R F OR M S .

A dingl y n th i
ccor o t h ey w ere refus ed a d mi tta nce within,
e r ap p roa chi ng
a nd w i l nt l y nd
er e v o e a u ncer em oni ou sl y d ri v en fr om t h e g a t es
M h d p n d n t hi
.

uc e e s o s r u le b e i ng ob se r v ed .

Th e sal t m er cha nt s t h e g roc er s, t h e co nfectioners consp ir ed t og et her t o

-
.

a d u l t e ra te t h e a rt icl es i n w hich t h ey d eal t in a t h ou sa nd w a y s

I
.

L e t y ou a nd g o t og et h er .

Th e s ee ming im p ort a n ce g i v en t o ev ery p a r t of fema le d r ess, ea ch

w h i ch i s c om m it te d t o t h e ca r e of a d if fer ent syl p h & c , .

I t i s m ore g ood to fal l a m ong crow s tha n fia t terers , for t h ese onl y
d ev ou r t he d e a d t h ose t h e li v i ng
M
.
,

L et me a w a k e t h e ki ng of or v en , h e tha t sm i l es in d ang er , h e th a t is
li k e t he su n of ea v en rising i n a stor m H
I
.

B ut w ill d ou b tl ess find som e E ng lis h p erson a t w hom t o mak e

in ni n es .

e R om ans had no ot h er su b sis t ence b u t th e scant y p illag e of a few

farm s .

There are few w ord s i n th e E ng lish l ang uag e w hi ch a re emp l oy ed in a

more l oose and u nci rcu m scri b e d sense t ha n t h ose of t h e fa nc y a nd t he
i ma gi na t ion .

The l igh t mu st not b e su f fered t o conce al from us th e r eal sta nda rd , b y

w h ich only hi s g r ea t ness ca n b e d e t er m i ne d
'

W e w ere no S ooner come t o t he Temp l e stairs b u t w e w er e su rr ou nd ed

w it h a crow d of w a t erm en .

Th e i nat t ent ion t o a l t ered cir cu mstances is a fault of most u niv ersa l
a p p l i ca t i on i n a ll p oli t i ca l u est i ons q .

This i s a q u est i on w h ich w e ou g h t t o ha v e ex p ect e d t o h a v e fou nd

ans w er ed i n t h e S e ve nt h R ep or t of t h e Comm issioners of Her a est y s Mj ’

I nl a nd R ev e nu e
N o t o nly E ng land , b u t all E u r op e w as in a b la z e .

A t p r esent t h e t ra d e i s t h ou gh t t o b e i n a d ep r ess ed stat e if less than a

mi ll ion of t ons are p r od u ced i n a c ar
{
.

'
W e a r e now p oor , a nd w is d om i d s u s to conform t o our h um b le si tu a
t i on
n
.

r esolv ed for na tu re p l ea ds th a t he sh oul d o ly r ul e w ho m ost

’
Ti s ;
rese mb l es m e
I
.

h ea rt il y w ish t her e w a s t h e sam e ap p l i cation a nd end ea v ou rs

c ou l d
t o c ult i v a t e a nd i mp rov e chu rch m u si c, as h a v e b een la tel y b est ow e d on
“
tha t of t h e st a g e .

Men w er e no sooner settl ed i n t h eir rights t o th eir p ossessi ons, b ut

’

ther e w as a t hir d or d er p r ocl a im ed .

I f w e l ook w i t hi n t h e rou g h and a w k w ar d ou t si d e, w e w ill b e ri ch ly

.

r ew ar d ed b y i t s p e r u sa l .

I n const r u c ti ng a n d d ep i ct ing of charact ers, W erner ind eed is lit tl e

b et t er t han a manneri st .

He h as ea t en no b r ead nor d ru nk no w at er t hes e t w o d ays .

B ut t h ey k ep t off o th er ev ils w h ich w oul d ha v e b e en w orse .

J ust t o th y w ord in ev ery t h ou gh t s i nce r e ,

W ho k new no w ish b ut w ha t t h e w orl d m i g h t h ear .

h e last ye r or t w o ha v e b e en a t ime of g reat p oli t ical p r essure i n

'

Pr ii
‘
seat .
a
fi
O p i ni ons ar e ap t t o b e i d ent i ed w i th set forms of langu ag e , w hich t o
d i s t u r b seems t o d est r oy t h e Op i ni ons .

He fra nkl y cp nfess ed t hat t h e sta te of t he r eserv es w ere not sa tisfa c

t or y
H
.

B efore ell s g a tes t h er e sa t on eit h er si d e formid ab l e shap e

'
.

Th ey w h o op u l ence h as ma d e p r ou d a n w h o l u x u ry has corrup t ed ,

m
,

ca nnot r el ish t h e sim e p l ea su res of n a t u r e .

E i t h er t h e you ng m an or his g vi and ia ns ha s act e d imp r op erly

3

I
. .

N OIl e , a m sure, can b e of more honour t o God , nor of more ease to

’

c urselv eil .
3 46 AMP LES EERoRS ,
'

EX or

L
I n t he a ti n la ngu ag e t here are no t w o w ord s we w oul d more rea dily
.

t a k e t o b e sy no ny mou s t h an mums a nd d i ig ere .

I ha v e freq ue nt l y b ee n ass u re d b y g rea t minist ers that p oli ti cs w ere

no th ing b u t c om m on s e ns e
I
.

ha d se v er al me n d i ed i n m y ship of y ell ow fe v er .

0
He is a n a u t h or of m or e cr ed i t t ha n or a ny o ther , that w rit e li v es
s o ha s t i ly .

He or y ou ar e in the w r ong
D
.

uri ng t h e la st cent u r
y no p rime m inist er , how ev er p ow erful , has
b ec o m e ri ch i n o f ce fi .

The follo w i ng t rea t is e t oge th er w i th t h os e t ha t a ccompany it , w ere

,

w r it t e n ma ny y ear s a g o for m y o w n p ri v a te sa tisfa cti on

. .

Th e p erson w ho im m ed ia t e ly w l k ed b e fore h i m , w as r e m ar k ab l e for an

a

emb r o i d ere d g arm en t , w h o not b e i ng w e ll ac u ai nt e d w i t h t h e la ce , w as

o nd uct ing h i m t o a n a a rt m ent a p p oi nt ed or t he re cep t ion o fa b ul ous
p
g er oe s .

He a d dr essed se v eral e xhort a ti ons to th em s uita b ly t o t heir ci r cum

sta noes
A
.

Whe n t he E mp eror l e x and er el ev a t e d t h e sta nd a r d of t he cross , he

i n v o k ed t h e only p o w er t ha t e v er has , or e ver w ill, arres t t he m ar ch of
t e mpo ra l re v ol u t io n
q
.

I d o not u es t ion b ut t hey ha v e d one w ha t is u sually called th e k ing s

'

Ca n p a r lia m e nt b e so d ea d t o i t s d ig ni ty a nd d u t y as t o giv e th eir

su p rt t o m eas u res th u s i nt r ud e d a nd forc e d u p o n t he m ?
T e d uk e ha d not b eh a v ed wi t h t ha t l oy a lt y , as h e ou g ht t o ha v e d one .

He t ha t ca n d ou b t w het h er he b e a nyt hing or n o I sp ea k not t o

'

A
, .

t of t h is ki nd w oul d , p er ha p s, p rov e t h e lik eli es t of a ny other t o

s u cc $
3
The end s of a d i vi ne a nd h uma n leg is la tor are vastly d ifierent .

B e not t oo t a m e ne it he r .

The a nces t ors of t he h u m an ra ce kne w p ov ert y in a p artial d eg ree;

0

He w as sca r ce g on e , w h en yo u a rri v ed
q
.

I w ou ld fee l my s el f b li g ht e d i n t he e y e s of all m y ac ua in tances, I

w ou ld b e ov e rp o w ere d b t h e feel i ng s of m y ow n d isgr ace .

They entr ea t e d t o rea t o m e , and b ad e me not to cry , for I w as now

t oo old t o w ee p .

He need not d i n su ch h ast e .

On you r c a n net a t t hi s moment d e pend s th e colou r and comp l exi on

of t he ir d es tiny .

One d a y, b eing b r ou gh t b efore the k in g, and b eing asked w hom he w as,

D i og e n e s re lie d , A
s py on y ou r c u p i d it y
I t ha t d i nev er w ee p , no w m elt in w oe
N
, .

I m u s t c onfes s aft e r ha v m g s ur v ey e d t h e a nti u it ies ab o u t

,
a p les a nd

Hom e I c a nn ot b u t t hi nk t ha t ou r a dmi ra t ion o t hem d oes not so m uch

,

ar i se o u t o fth e ir gr ea t ness a s u ncomm onness .

R ec onc ilia t i on w a s offer e d on cond it i ons as m od erate as w as consi st e nt

w it h a p e r man e nt u n io n
Mj j
.

I ha v e ne v er s ee n a or Cart w r ig h t , much l ess en oy t he honour of his

a c u a i nta nce .

ili ng u p t h e ri v er , t he w hol e t ow n may b e see n .

Th e m a st er ly b ol d n ess a nd p r eci s i on of hi s ou t line , _w h ich as tonish

t h ose w h o h a v e t rod d e n p arts of t he same eld , is ap t to escap e a n un fi
i nform ed rea d er .

1
I t mak es u s t o w alk w aril y
N
.

e i t he r t h e h ou ses no r t h e g ar d en w er e sol d .

I sh ou ld b e o b l ig e d t o h im i f h e w ill gr a t i fy m e ,

Th e ne xt N e w Yea r s d a y , I sha ll b e a t sc hool t h ree y e ar s

’
.

B u t th er e i s a g eneral correc t ness of d eli nea t io n w hi c h mu st st rik e the

eye a t once of a ny p erso n slig ht ly exp erienced i n geogra phy .
 AN D of m i s s i on on P E CUL AR I r oa ms .

B oth of the schola rs, or one of th em at l eas t , w er e p r esent at the

t r a nsa c t io n .

Tha t is e ith er a ma n or a w om a n s v oice

’
.

S c a r c e ha d t h e S p ir i t of L a ws m a d e i t s a p p ea ra nce t ha n it w as attack ed .

He c omes nor w a n t nor c ol d h is course d el a y .

He li v ed t o see al m ost a ll t he g r ea t p rinc ip les w hi ch h e had a d v oca ted

not m e rel y r ecog nise d , b u t a com me nc em ent ma d e in ca rryi ng t hem int o
p ra ct ice .

Th e rog u e a nd fool b y fit s is fa ir a nd w ise .

I n t hese r igi d Op i nions t he w h ol e sec ta ri es, a m idst all t heir ot h er

d iffe renc es , u na ni m ou sly c onc u rr ed .

The re a re cer tai n t hing s t ha t not onl y ca n not b e d one b y force , b u t

t h e e m p loy ment of for c e i s t h e su r es t w a y t o p r e v e nt t h em .

E ve ry one t h ou g ht t o ha v e his s p ec ia l v iew s a t t end ed t o .

I t hink t h e l onge st t i m es of o u r w ors t p r i nc es sca rce sa w m any m or e

ex e cu t i ons t h an t h e sh ort one of ou r b e st re for me r .

I t w as g rea t i n h im p r omot i ng one t o w h om h e h a d d one som e w rong .

I f y o u w er e h ere , y ou w ou ld find t hr ee o r fou r i n t he p a rl ou r , a fte r

d i nner , w h om y ou w ould sa y p a s se d t h ei r a ft ern oo ns v ery a gr ee ab ly
j
.
,

Wh a te v er w ould p r ov e p r e u d icia l t o ou r fut u r e p r osp eri ty , h ow e v er

ent ic ing i t m a y seem a t p re sent , w e mu s t r esol u t ely r e ec t it j
G
.

rea t n u mb ers w e r e k i lled on e i t h er sid e .

Th ey h e re b e gan t o b rea t he a d eli ci o us k ind of e t her , a nd sa w all t he

fiel d s a b o u t t h e m cov ered w it h a k i nd of p u rp l e l ig h t, t h at ma d e t h em -

refl ec t w i t h sa t isfac t i on on th ei r p a st t oi l s
H
.

ence h e consi d er ed ma rri ag e w it h a mod ern p oliti ca l economi s t , as

v er y d ang erou s .

Olymp u s w it h its m ul t i t u d e of st a tel y , cel es t ia l nat ures , d w ind l e

b efore t h e s olit a ry i m m u ta b l e t hrone of Jeh ov ah
B
. .

Mr roa d hu rs t is a v ery g ood s ort of m a n , w h o has not w rit ten a v er y

j
.

b a d b ook on a v er y i mp ort a nt sub ect .

Tha t op in i on is t oo u ni v ersa l t o b e easil y c orr ec te d

q
.

Th e t e mp er , as w ell as k no w l e d g e, of a m od ern histor ia n, re u ir e a

more sob er and accu ra t e la ng ua e
g
W her ev er t h e gia nt ca me al l enb efore hi m b u t the d warf ha d li ke to
.

hav e b e en k ill e d m or e t h a n once .

Ma n t h oug h h e has g rea t v a ri et y of t hou g hts, yet t hey are all w i t hi n

,

his ow n b reas t .

N ot only h e fo und h er b u sy , b u t p leased a n d ha p p y ev en .

This i s w ond erfu l ri d icu l ou s from so soli d a n ora t or .

I n rea lit y m or e t ha n one p ri nc ip l e has b e en co nte nd e d for a t one t im e

fi
.

Th e r st t hi u g i mp res sed on u s from ou r ea rliest i nfa ncy is t ha t e v ents

d o not su ccee d one a not h er at rand om , b ut w it h a cer t ai n d eg r ee of ord er
re i la ri t y a n d c onn e xion
. .

e t hi nk s t ha t He w ill soon re t urn

N
.

The eb b a nd fl ow of t h e t id es w ere ex p la ined b y ew t on .

T his d oes not s o m u ch s ee m t o b e ow i ng t o the w ant of p hysical p ow ers,

b ut ra t her to t h e a b s ence of v eh em ence
A
.

nim a l sp i ri t s s u ch as b e l ong t o som e m en are a fort u ne i n t h em s el v es

A
.

Th e w ea l th of t h e g r ea t u d l ey m ay b e cons id er ed as t he clou d y
m ed iu m t hrou g h w h ich a b r i g ht g eni u s sh one , a nd w hich , had i t b een
t hrow n i nt o a nob l er sp here of ac t ion, t h e g rea t ness w oul d hav e b een less
a mb ig u ou s .

W e ca nnot all b e m ast ers , nor all masters ca nnot b e t ru ly foll ow ed .

Th e a cc ura cy and cl ear nes s o f t h e s ent en ce d ep e nd v ery mu ch u p o n the

p rop er a nd d et e rm i nat e u se of t h e r ela ti v e , so tha t it m ay rea d il y p resent
i t s a nt e ce d ent t o t h e mi nd w i t hou t a ny ob scu rit y or a mb igu i t
H
,

op i ng t ha t I w i ll s oo n h ear from y ou , b el iev e m e

y ours t ru y .

You ma y infuse t he sent iment b y a ray of lig ht , no thick er, nor one
thousa nd t h p art so t hi ck , as t he finest needle .
3 48 EX A MP L E S -
TO BE A M E N DE D .

S om e p e rsons ca n onl y d isti ngu i sh b l ack w hi t e a nd g rey , .

D o m est i c soc i e ty is t he s e m i n a r y o f so ma l a ffec t i on s W h er e t he first ,

el em e nt s a r e a cq u i re d of t h a t t e n d e rn ess a nd h um a n i t y w h ic h ce m e n t
ma nk i nd t og et h e r ; a nd w hic h , w ere t hey ent ir ely e x t ing uish ed , t he
w h ol e fa b ri c of socia l i nst i t u t i ons w ou l d b e d i ss ol v e d .

W e w ou ld b e gr ea t ly mis ta k e n if w e s u p p os e w eal th a nd ra nk ex emp t

fr o m ca re a nd t o i l
I
.

If a m not m i st a k en a g ov ern m ent ca n onl y b e ca ll ed d em ocra t ic

j
,

w h er e a ma or it y o f a d u lt s a re s o v e r e ig n .

S o me p e rso ns g o t h e l engt h of sa y i ng t ha t nob od y ou ght t o b e m ad e t o

d o w h a t h e d is li k e s
I
.

Ho w far sh all b e fou n d to p ossess t h e m os t esse nt ial a t t rib u t e of

P oe t r y , I
k no w n o t .

He a l w a y s p referr ed h av i ng hi s ow n v i ew s su sta i ned b y the fail ure of

hi s op p o nent s a rg umen ts t h an b y t he succ ess of his ow n
’
.

Th e a rt ic l es m a y b e i n p rose or v erse .

Ther e i s no ot h er met h o d of t ea ch ing t ha t of w hi ch any one is ig norant ,

b u t b y m ea ns o f som e t h ing a l r ea d y k no w n .

P er sons ha ve b e en k now n t o ta k e a fev er aft er feeling the sm ell of an

op e n d ra i n .

S u p p ose t ha t as a p u ni sh m ent a m a n is cond emned t o put his finger

, ,

a ft er t w o d a y s i nto t h e fla m e o f a ca nd l e .

T w o s u b sta nt i v es w h e n t he y c o m e t og et h er , and d o not signify the

,

sa me thing , the former must b e in t h e g eni ti v e case .

 AP P E N DI X .

L— CE L T I C w onns .

( W W el sh
.
, G Ga eli c
.
, I . I rish .
)
[ The ast er isk sig ni fies that t he w or d is not c on fin d t e o the dial ect

sp eci fied j
Al p in e G
’

. .

B a ch el or W . .

Cl og G . .

Cloy G . .

B al d er d ash . W . Cl u b W . .

Cock le G . .

0 0 11 G
J lt W
. .

Cok e G o
K k
. . . .

Comb e W

“
Keck sy
‘
. . ec s .
-
.

Coot W . . W .

Kid W ( a br ush
. _ .

B a y t r ee
-
. W . Cr oc k er y . W .
fa gg ot) .

B east G Cr one G (a n Ki l n; W
Li
. . . . .

wom a n .
) ck . W . to bea t .
)
Crow d er W . .

Cr ow n W . .

Cu d d l e W . .

Cu r d W . .

Cu t W . .

Da d W . .

Da int y W . .

Dal e —
Del l W *
. .

Da nd ruff W . .

Dar noc k — Dan

nook G . .

Deca nt G ~

F
. .

la nnel W
F
. .

l u mm ery W
F
. .

ri t h G ( mu ir . .

l a nd ) .

Geek G ( to toss . .

up the hea d ) .

Gow n W . . P la it — P l ea t . W .

Grid iron W -
. .

Gru el . W .

Gy v es W . .
350 AP P ENDI X .

11 —. sca nn ma v xa n W ORDS .

( I I cela nd ic D Da nish, N N or wegi a n, S

.
, . . .

A rch I sly . Cnck in S tool I -

Giz e n N K i nd l e I to set
N
. . . . . . . .

A w k — A wk Cu l m Gla re fire to
’

. . . .

w a rd I . Da i ry Doy 8 Gla m our I K1 t t en -

Kit ling
K i tt l N
. . . . . . .

B a c k g a m mon D . . Dal e Dell I

.
-
. . Gled e I ( a . . l i ve —
e. .

B a llast D . . Da ng le S * . . L am I . .
(v ) . to
B ark I . Dew la p D Glid d er D ( sl ip bea t
L wn N
. . . . . .

B ar k I ( ofa t ree Dil in n — Dill I p eri l )

ég
a
L n I ( pi m)
. . . . . . .

B ask I . l Gl op Gl opp en
. . ea r . . ca .

B ec k I a br ook Dog g rel I I

L i n N ( light
. . . . . .

D ( a p it . Dor I ( v
.
( to . . Gl out — Gl oa t S . . ev . .

) befoo l ing )
n
L ing 1
.

B
ow d y I . . ki nd
. . a
rag g le S T he Gra ins D ( a 0 ea } h th
Link I ( l )
. . . . .

B las t B loa t ed — . Dra k e s ka ap oon ) . a . . .

Dr z eL — Drossel

“
B l oa t er 8 Groin D 2) a
g
-
. . sa u sa ge ; . . .

B lond I * l Gro w D ( to be j oi nt of a c a in -

L
. . . .

B lu nd erb uss S D xed ge —Driz z le tr ou b l ed ) in s toc k S

b L
. . . . . .

B c undc — B o w n Gro vel I oo v er I (a

i
. . . . .

Dr i v el D and I Gu ll D a d a chi mney m

L
. . . . . .

Dr u b I . Gu st I . ou t I . . .

Dug 8 Ha b e rd as her I L o w I Na me )
L L
. . . . . . .

Du nch D ( to H a gg l e I u rc h —
urk N
M
. . . . . .

t hu mp ) Ha lse I to sa l u te a ne I
M
. . . . . .

Du sk y S R a mb l e — Ham a re I ( aa ni ght
I
. . . .

F er l I ( wond er ) m el I o la me) ma r e )
F g M
. . . .

et t e I Harm w arram I
M L
. .

Ha z e " Haz le - N a rr ow . . .

Hi t I M a ul I . . . .

Fli z z 8 Hog g ins I er m ai d (

F M
. . . . .

Cad e I ( as a. ca dc lou nc e 8 ( b ) B oxt y toi ty S id d en I -

F M
. . . . . . . . .

l a mb ) l ou nd er 8 House l I i re I
F N M
. . . . . . .

Cak e 8 l um e H g g er mugg er i t t en N
g
-

M
. . . . .

F
. .

05 11 I . . l u st er L . or k i n I car . .

Cas t I ( u ) F og D ma t Hull N ( u ) t o n on.

F M
. . . . . . .

Ch a mm . on d I . coa x. . ort I a grea t . .

C hamp I I nkl ing I . qua n t i ty .

Cha mp i on I
. . .

. . J eer I Mosk er e d I de . . .

Chu c k le I J 0 11y b oat D co g /ed -

F N
. .
. . .

r e ckl e I Ke d g e I ( l ) a n uck ( d ung )

F
. . . .

o
. .

C l u mp I . . N th — irth I a nch r ; ( 2) u l l ed a l e I . . . .

Cl u m sy I N a gg i ng — N ag
K N
.
. .

Cod I ( a husk ) ed g e b ell l sy

fi;
-

K N
. . .

Cock D ( a boa t )
. . .
p let tm e elson . el a r w hal I . . .

Collo w Golly I
Ni I
. . .

soot e ve
N i gg d N
. .
.

Qa(
’

Cop e I u ar
N ig ht ing l
. .
. .

Cow D o a e I
N it hing I
. . .
. . .

Cr ank 8 on )
N
.
. .

( na u ticaL ) .
fel lo w ) .

D Ki d I Oaf I si mp le
Cri n k le . . . a young . . a

Cr ip p l e . I . g oa
Cr oss I . .
’ Ga u ntl et S . . Ki d L ac in loid
.

C r ou c h I Oa t toothed S
-

m mm )
. .
. .

Cu b L . c .8 (0 .
 TE TO U NI C WOR DS .

S cr eak S . . S lot . I .
( the track
S cr i S . ofa d eer ) .

P et S . . a flt ofd ia S cu I .
( a sma ll Sl ug D . .

p leas ur e . b oa t ) S m a t t er Do
. .

S ca t I ( a shor t S mi c k er S .
. . .

ta il ) S mil e S ,
. .

S m ug D ( ma t ) . .

S hri e k S S na r e D . . . .

S h rill S S nea p — S nu
. . .

P uls e . D . a sa w S ilt S mu i al i me S mu d g e D
. . . . .

sa ge . S k e w D. S nu g D
. . .

B ake D . . a vicious S k ip I . S pi rt S . . .

ma n . S ki t I . S p oon I . . .

R ansack S . . S k irt D . S p ra i n S o . .

Ra te 8 to chide . . . S k u ll I . S p ra w l D . . .

R oot S . . S ky S . S p ud D . . .

R ov e D . . Sl ag D . S q u all S . . .

S la k e I . . S q u ea k S . .

S la nt S . S q u ea l S . .

Sl as h I . .

S l ea ve I S t aff I a sta nz a
. . . . .

S t umb l e I . .

III .
— 0 THE B T E U T ON I C w orms .

Av erage G. . B ull G a nima l

. . . Cla m b er G . . Crick et D . . an in
B ully — B u ll y . Cla mp Cl ump . .

roo k D . . D . Crone . D . a n ol d
B ul w a rk D . .

D .

B ump D . . Cla t ter D . . Cu d g el D . .

B e g one Woe-b e B um ba il ifl D Cu r D
'
-
. . . . .

B u mp kin G ’t . . D . Cur l D . .

B uoy D . . Cle nch — Chnch . Cu mb er D . .

B u s ki n D ’ . . D . Da m G ( n 6: . . v .
)
B u sh B ushel. -
Cli nk D . . Da n d e G .
, .

B l ea r G . . D . Cl ash e D . . Dank G . .

B lig ht G . B u ss D a vessel . . . Cl ou d D . .

B l oc k D . . B u t te r B u t ter . Cob -alt G . .

B l ufi D . . fly G . .

B lu nd er D . B u t t ock D
. . . C ook er D . . Da u nt .

B oa s t G . . Caro use G . . De c oy D . .

B oom D ( n 8: v ) . . Ca t k i n D . . . Deu ce Di ck ens .

B oor D . . Ca t er p illa r D . . G .

B o tch D ( n 8: r ) . . Ch afi D . . . .

B oul t B ol t G Ch a fier G v )
'

. . . . .

( u ) Ch al d ern Cha .
-
w a t er b i r d .

B ou nce . D .d r on G . . Dock G: ( 1 . a
B oy G . . Cha p Chi p . . b u nd le ; ( 2) a
D C h op D

“
B ra b b l e . . . . slu ice .

B u i ck — B rackish Charc oal D . . Dolley D . .

G . Chim b D r im . . Doi t D . .

B ra nd y G . . a v a se . Cra u nch ,O . . Dol e G a slip

. .
f
o
B ra t t ic e — B ar . Chink Cou g h -
. Cra w G the p eck
. .
, p a st ur e .

ti sa n G . . Ch i n cou gh D -
. . &c . Do l l G . .

B u c k w h ea t G . . Ch i t te r D . . Cra wl D . . - . Dolla r D . .

B u ll G 4 q
. .
f
o Ch it te rl ing D . . Dot D. .

b low n, & c . Chub G . .

 AP P E N DI X .

Dot terel D . . Gl ance I) . . B u ck l e- b one .

Dow n G . . . as Gla v er D . . Huck st er . G .

thistle-d own . Glib D . . Hu rst D . .

Dra b b l e D . . Glmi m er G . . Hu sk D . .

Dra g oon D . . Goit Got e

. . Hu st l e D . .

Dra k e Dra w k Gow t D a Hu t D

L
. . . . . .

D sl u i ce & c l ng o t G oop -
hole D
L
. . . .
, . .

Dra p e sheep D -
Goose ber ry G I nt erlop e r D oo v er D
L
. . . . . . . .

Dra w l D Gra v es GraV i ng -

l si ngla ss G ou r G
L
. . . . . . .

Dr ea m G or D d ock G J er k i n D ou t D
L
. . . . . . . . .

Dr e d g e D a n a n Groa t G Ji b D ( u ) uk e w a r m G
K L
. . . . . . . .

Groom D . . Ka w — eck G . . u sk . G . a sl ug,

Dre t ch G Gr out D Keb b e rs D &c
K K M
. . . . . .

Drill G a ki nd of Gru b D eel — a y le G a ng le G (n

’

. . . . . . . . . ( It
cl oth. Gu ess D . . R e mlin — Kem .

Dr ow sy D Gu ile D nel D
K M
. . . . . .

D u ck D 6m ) Ha b e r d ine D e rb G a sk D
K
. . . . . . . . .

Du mp s D Ha ck b u t D ild er k in D Ma u l st i ck fG
'
‘

K M th D
. . . . . . .

Ha l e Ha ul ‘

.
~ -
. G. i nk D a t w ist . . . au er . .

Hal ib ut D Kit D ( l ) a p a il M G
a s er
M
. . . . . .

Hal loo G ( 2) a b rood d G

az z a r
Kn p G M l D
. . . . .

Hahn Ha m — a or D ea s es
Kn p k M ll w G
. . . . .

G . a sa c . G . e o . .

Halse fi D
,

m Menil d Mea nel

‘

to D
L k D w
. . .

b r a ce ac a nt. led
G sp eckled
Ln D
. . . . . .

Halse .
— Ha w se . a e . . M ew G . .

G . the neck . Mifi G i l l hum

.
.
-

Ha m p er D ou r
L p D Mi
. . .

Han k G a rr u z z l e. D to r a in
L h D t b ind
. . . . .

Ha nt le G as o
L G
. . . . .

Ha p Ha py
Hap p e n p
a ss
L th G D
. . . .

*
a or
L y D
. . . .

Ha rsh G ar w a rp G
Fl w G l ) L g M
. . . . . .

e ten Ha tc h G ( sa id ea D ly u er a D
oo r
M
. . . . . . . .

d ; ( 2)
cr lo w b i rd s) i ng 6 10 G
ore root o fa
Fl w n t D L g
. .
, . . .

e -
e Ha tc h D tofas ea G u er a t &
r ee, c
M lt D
. . . . . . .

F l ow s G t en m lls k a cas ou
L k D
. . . . .

F lo ck G ea M d G
u
F L t ( f mill ) M ff D
. . . . . .

lu nk ey G D ea o a u a foot
F
. . . . . . . .

l u sh G i mmed i Ha u nch G G Mu g G a n ea rth

L dg D
. . . . . .
.

a te Hey d a y G e er en p ot
Fl L t D M
. . . . . .

u t t er G Hig l er Higg le ee p a ea u l ber ry G

M
. . . . . . . .

D nt t n nt
sa e a u l l oc k D r ub
L ft D
. . . .

Hin d ben‘y G -
. . e . .

Hob D M u m G beer
F M u mp s G
. . . . .

ord G Hob b e d eh oy D
M
. . . . . .

Hoc u s p oc us -
L essel. G a p or u st y G
N i k G Old N i k
. . . .

Hoa x D t i co c c
L Ni k G
. . . . .
.

Hod d ip ea k D ig h t s G c in as
L im G
. . . . . .

e a lime ni k n m
c -
a e
Ni k l G
. . .

t r ee c e
Li n n G N l G
. . .

Hog Hogg el -
e oz z e
Lin G (
. . . . .

Ga r d e n G . Hogg rel D . . e . . u )
Hogshea d D . . D . a cod
Gash G to cu t
. . . Hoy d en D . .

Geek D to sp or t, Hoop D D a tor ch

Li t m
. . . . . .

d emde, & c . Hop G . . us . D .

G her k in G How let D

L bby
. . . .

Ho D . o . G . P ay D to da ub
. .

kle backed
.

B uc -
. D L og D . . . w ith pitch .
 TE U TONI C W OR DS . 353

P ea j a cket D
-
. . Roe G. . 1 S l e ek . G .

P ee l G . . R ou se G . . a b um S le i g h t G . .

P et D
. S l end e r D . .

P ew D . . R ou t G . . S li ce G . . S t u ff G . .

P i ck l e D . . R ub G . . S l i g ht G . . S t ur d y G . .

P id dle G . . Ru d d er G . . G . S t u t t er G . .

P ig D ( 1) a nima l
. . Ru ffl e D . . S loop D . . S ut l er D . .

( 2 ) i r on . Ru mb l e G . . S l ot t e ry G . S w ash D . .

P infol d — P in d ar . . B u m m er D . . a sq ua lid . S w ay D . .

D . S l o v en D l a r ge g l a ss . . . S w er v e D . .

S l ub b er G Ru m p G . . . . S w in d l e D . .

P is mir e D the . S l u i ce D . R u nt D . . . . Ta ffere l D . .

a nt . S lur D R ut t e r D a . . . . Ta lc Ta lk G
. . . a
P l a t for m D t r oop er S lu t D
. . . . . m i ner a l .

P lush G .S a b le G S ma lt D
. . . . . Tal l o w G . .

P lig ht O S a ss e D a slu ice S m elt D ( u )

. . . . . . . Ta t t le D . .

P loug h G S ca ll op D . S m ug gle G. . . . . T eal D . .

P lu g D S c al p D S na c k D l hra c k G to loa d
' '
. . . . . . . . .

P ly G
. S ca m b l e D
. S na fli e D . . . . Tick D ( n . v ) . . .

P 0 11 — P ol lar d D S ca mp er D
. S na p D . . . . . Tig ht G . .

P ort hole G S c ho oner D S na rl G

. . . . . . Tip D . .

P ra nk P ra nce S c ol d D
. S na st G . . . . . To u s e G to p u l l . . .

G. S c o nc e G S na tc h D . . . . T oy D . .

P rim e D S coo p D S ni fl D Tra i l D:

’
. . . . . . .

P ri m D . S co w l G . S ni p D . . . Tr ifl e D . .

P r op D S cr a b b l e D . S n ip e D . . . . Tr ip D . .

P udg y G S cr a m b l e D
. S no rt D
. . . . . Tr oll G t o r ol l
. . .

P uke G . S c ra t ch G . S n ou t G . . . . Tr oll op G . .

P unt D . S cr ew D S nub D
. . . . . Tru ll G . .

P u rb li nd D S c r ub G S n uff D
. . . . . . T ub D . .

P u rl D S cu lk I) S od D T w i ng e D
Q
. . . . . . . .

u ack G Sc um G S op D T w ir l D
Q
.
. . . . . . .

ua r t z G S e em G S o u se G T w ist D
Q
. . . . . . . .

u ee r G S ha lm S ha w m S p a ng G Tw 1 t t er D
Q
. . . . . . . .

u oi t D . G a mu sic a l S p i t e D
. . . .

p ip e S p lic e D . . .

Ra ce D . S h a t t er D . S p lin ter D . . .

Ra fi G . S h i ngl e G . S ] ht . .

Ra il G a n i r on S h i v e D a slice
. . S p ort G 0) . . .

ba r . S h ore D S p ot D . . . .

R a il D to mock
. S hri m p G . S p ou t D . . . .

Ra m b l e D S hu d d er G . S p rat D . . . . .

R a nt D . S hy G . S q u a nd er G . . . .

R a sh D . S i m nel G a ca l e S q u int D
. . . . . .

R a t t le D S k a t e D ice shoe S t a dh ol d er D
. . . . . . .

Ra v e D . S k ell um G . . .

R a v el D S k i ff G
. . . .

R e ef D ( na u tica l S lu m G
. . . .

t er m) S k ip p er D . . .

Reef G a cha in S la b b er G
. . . .

of Jo cks S la p G . . .

R e v el D S la t te r G
. . . .

R i ff r aft G
-
S la v e G . . . .

R ifl e G . S la v er G . . .

ROb G . S led — S ledg e D . . .

 AP P E N DI X .

IV .
—
M ON OS YL L A B L E S or C LAS S I CAL OR I GI N .

( F F rench G Gr eek .
, .
, I . I ta li a n, L . L a ti n, S . S p a nish) .

B ra ch F Ced e L Coil F L
L L L F
. . . . . . .

A ct B r a ct Ce ll Co i n
Add L F F F L G
. . . . . . . .

B ra n ch C en t C n o e
L F L C k L
. . . . . . . . . .

Ag e B ra v e C c re oo
A im F F L C p L
. . . . . . . .

B ea m C es s( p oo l) oo
L F F FG
. . . . . . . .

Ai r B r ee z e , ha fe C p o se
F L
. . . . . . . .

Ai l s e B reve I C h a in C d G or
A lb L F F L
. . . . . . . .

B rib e Ch a i r C ore

L G F F
. . . . . . . .

Ap se B ri ck Cha is e C k S or
Apt L F F F
. . . . . . . . .

B r ie f C ha n c e C p
or s
L F F F L
. . . . . . . .

A rc B ri sk Ch an
g e C p
or se
A h L F Ch n t F C t F L
. . . . . . . . .

rc B roac h a os
F h F
. . . . . . . .

A h ( hi f) G
rc c e B ro il Ch p a S e C ou c
L F ( b n) F nt F
. . . . . . .

B ro nz e I Ch ar ur C ou
A p L F F L
, . . . . . .
.

s B r ooc h Ch g ar e C ou rs e
A nt L F Ch m F C y F L
. .
. . . . .
.

u B ro w s e ar o
B il F F Ch t L
. . . . . . . . .

a B ru i t ar C b ( w i ndl
ra
) a ss S
b nd l ) F F F k F
. . . . . . . .

B r u sh 1
B l g F
B la e u e Ch as e C rac
F F
. . . .
. . . . .

a e B r usq u e Ch m Gas C p
ra s
F L L
, . . . . . .

B ll (
a nd b d y r ou o ; B ru t e Ch t as e C r a ss
d n ) F F Ch t F t h L
. . . . . .

a ce B udg e ea ra c
B lm F L Ch k F I L
. . . . . . . .

a B ul b ec C t
ra e
F L F F
. . . . . . . .

B ull ( P ap e s
’
B ar Ch ee r C ra z e
b F Ch i f F m F
. . . . . . . .

B ar ed ic t ) e C r ea
F F F d L
. . . . . . .

B g
ar e B un C h in e C r ee
F F F t L
. . .
. . . . .

B q
ar ue B ur Ch i o r C r es
F F L
. .
, . . . . .

B as e B u rr Ch or d G C im
r e
B nd F F C i p L
. .
. . . . . .

a B ust Ch r ism G r s
F k L
. . . . . . . .

B as s I B u tt I Ch ri s t G C r oa

I F L
. . . . . . . . .

B uz z I C h r om e G 0 10 8 5
L F C wn F L
. . .
. . . . .

Ca d e a ca sk Ch u m ( )
i’
ro
F L
. . . . . . . .

Ca g e Ch y l e G C d
ru e
L L
. . . . . .

Ca lk Chy m e G C i
r u se
F L L F
. . . . . .

B e ll e Ca ll Cis t C r i se
F F F
. . . . . . . .

Cal m Ci v es
L F
. . . . .

Cam p Cla ck
L L
. . . .

Ca n ( n ) Cla im
L
. . . . .

Ca ne Cl a n g G
F L
. . . .

' a nt
( ta lk ofiec Cl ass
L F L
. . .

t ed ly ) Cl a u se
F F
. . . . .

Ca nt ( ti l t) Cl e f
L L G
. . . .

Ca p e I Cl m i e
L F
. . . . . .

Ca r Cl i q ue
F Cl k F
. . . .

C ar d oa
F F L
. . . .

Ca rp Cl os e
S F L
. . . . .

Cl o ve
L
. . . .

Cl w o n
F h F
. .

Ca sh C oa c

F F L
. . . .

B oss Cask S C oa rse

F F t L
. . . . . .

B o u nd ( to Ca t c h I C oas
L C t F
. . . . . . .

sp r ing ) Ca u l , cow l I oa

F F C d( fi h ) L
. . . . . .

B ow l Ca u s e o s

F F L
. . . . . .

B ox a shr u b ) Ca v e C d o e
L C if F
. . . . . . .

B race . Ceas e . . o . .
 L
C A S S I CA L MON OS YL L AB L E S . 35 5

Damn F L F enceF F ing F

r e Gra t e I L ( no un)
F d L Fi F F
. . . . . . . . . .

D n a ce F eu r zz G1 a t e ( v er b )
D t F F d ( li f) L F k F F
. . . . . . . .

ar eu e r oc Gr a v e
F L F b I L F
. . . . . . .

D t nd L Gr ea se
'

a e i a ro
D nt F L F f F F nt L F
. . . . .
, . . . .

au 1e ro Grea v es
D n F L F F F n F F
. . . . . . . .

ea . e r ce ro u c e. Gr c he
D bt L Ff F
. . . . . . . .

e i e F wn F
ro Gr1 ef F
D gn F L Fig L F it F
. . . . . . . .

ei ru Gr i ll
L Fl L
. . . . . . .

D e n se . i e F ry F ( cooking ) Gr i m e I
F n F h wy L
. . . . . . . .

D m G
er i e s o Gros s
F Fin L p n lty F
. . . . . . .

D e u ce e a e a F ug u e F Gr o t
Di ( n n) F L F L F
. . . . . . . . .

e ou ume Gr ou p I
Dn F F L F nd L F
. . . . . . . .

i e i sc u Gr ud g e
L F F
. . . . . . .

I i
r re Fl t ( a tta ck o f F ur Gr um e
Di g L F l F F
. . . . . .

r e p a in I ) ur Gu a r d
di h L G F F L F
. . . . . . .

D i s c, s F it u se Gu i d e
I L F L F t F F
. . . . . . . . .

D g o e i t ch us Gu i se
D t F L L F F
. . . . . . . . .

ei Fix G g a e Gu l e s
L F F L G n F
. . . . . . . . .

D l o e la il al Gu l f G
D m L G F L G l l F g ll n t ) F L
. . . . . , . . .

o e. la m e a a u Gu m ; G
D n S L F F G ll F t f t L
. . . . . . . . . .

o la nk a o re Gu rg e
F G F F G l F L
. . . . . . . . . .

D os e la sk ao Gu st I t a ste
D bt F L F F G G b F
. . . . . . . . . . .

ou l ea m ar Gyr e G
F L F G d L F
. . . . . . . . . .

D hou c e P l ot ch au Ha ck ha ckney
D b ( l t/ ) F F L F F
. . . . . . . . . .

ra c o i l oc k l k a oc G g au e Ha sh
F F
. . . . . . .

Dr a c h m G fw l o oo G au z e Ha t ch
Fl g L G y F F
. . . . . . .

D ra m I G o a Ha u ght
F Fl I L G m F L F
. . . . . . . . .

Dra p e os s e Ha u nch
F Fl n F L G m L H nt F
. . . . . . . . . .

Dr ed g e ou ce er au
F L Fl F G t L F
. . . . . . . .

Dr ess ou r es Hw a se
F Fl F L Gig F F
. . . . . . . . .

D roll ue H earse .
F Fl t F I L Gill L Hi F
. . . . . . . .

Drug u e m u a eas r e e r
Fl L
.

L G mp F H b L
. . . . . .
. . . .

Dr u p e G ux 1 er
L F 1 F Gi t F H t L l nd l d
. . . . . . . . .

Du ct 01 s os a or
F F il F l f Gl d L H t L
. . . . . . . . .

Du e o ea an os
(R m o
F L Fit F L
. . . . . . . . . .

D uk e ; o s Gl a ve Oa th
F F nt L Gl n F
. . . . . . .

Du p e o ea Host ( a rmy )
L F l F L
. . . . . . .

Du re oo Gl b e e Hou r G
F F p I L L F
. . . . . . . .

E ase o Gl b o e Hu e ( Hue a nd
F
.

L L G m
. .
. . . . .

E rr L
o rc e Gl os s co Cr y )
FL F g F
. . . . . . . .

Ey re or e m t en Hu lk G
F F L F m F L L
. . . . . . . .

a ce or Gl ue Hy m n G
F t L F t F L L
. . . . . . . . . .

ac or Gl m u e I d es
F il F L F L L
. . . . . . . .

a o sse Gl u t I ; I re
Fi t F F nd L i n F
. . . . . . . .

a n ou Gl m p h G I sl e
F i ( m k t) J F
. . . . . . . .

a r ar e b i td i gu n Gn om e G ack

F L F nd L t t F J
. . . . .

ou o cas Go al ad e S
F th F L F nt L F J F
. . . . . . . .

ai ou Gob a il
Fl L F L J F
. . . . . . . . .

a se Gor g e I am b
Fm L F il F F F
. . . . . . . .

a e ra Gou g e Ja w
Fn L F k F F F
. . . . . . . .

a e ran Go ur d Ja y
F d L F J L
. . . . . . . .

ra u Gou t e st
F y F F
. . . . . .

ra Gra ce L. J et G
F L F
. . . . . .

I
r ea k Gr a d e Jet
B t F i t l F
. . . . . .

e n er a c J ig
J m L
. . . .

i g b n & a r s, c o

F t F wi J L
. . .

re . . re on o k e . .

m i l in t u s ca s r. J o t G
Fi F J t F
. .

r ez e . . ou s . .

Joy F . .
35 6 AP P E N DI X .

M F
as k. N n L ou Pile L n a a rrow
M L h p N d L
. . . . .

as s a ea u e h d ea
M L l ig N ll L P i ll L ( n )
. . . . .

ass re i ous u
P n h F
. . . . . . .

m ny
cer e o i c
M t h F N F L t
. . .

a c u r se P in e a ree.
M t F N ym p h G
. . . . . .

a e P int S
L F M nd F P ip L ‘
. . .
, . .

ac h e au Od G e
L
.

M y L th m nth O b L F
.
. . . . . .

a mp G a e o r P q
i ue
L M l F L L
. . . . . . . .

a nc e . L ea O re Pi x
L
.

M n L mid dl O n L F
. . . . . .

L a p se ea e u ce Pl ac e
L I L O t F
. .

M
. . . . . .

L ar er e. us Pl g a G ue
L L L F P l in L
. . . . . . . .

a rc h P ac e a
L L
.

L P t L
. .
. . . .

a rd ac
L g L F L
.

M
. . . .

ar e ess P g a e
L d L M w F F
. . . . . .

au e
L L Mi n F
.
, . . .

a ve e
L w n ( l th) 8 P int F
.

M im G
. . .

a c o e. a
L M in F L
. . . . .

L ax . . e P i . . a r . .

L y G th l ity
a e a Mi L x P l L (n ) *
a e P las m G
y F M t F L ‘( )
. . . . . . . .

Lg
a oa P l a e a P la t. G
M b L P ll L
. . . . . . . .

ea ue o l th a a c o P la t e 8 G
L F M k F G P lm L F
. . . . .
. . .

ea se oc a P l ea
L h F M d F F F L
. . . . . . . . .

ea s o P n
e a e P lea d
F M il F P nt F F
. . . . . . . . .

Leea o a P l eas e
Ln L M it F F
. . . . . . .

e s o s P p L * t t a a ea P l ed g e
Li g F M l L m nd P p L ft f d
. . . . . . . . .

e * aa oo P lint h G
e o e a ou a
Li F M m F L q l ty F
. . . . . . . .

eu . e P e ar e ua i P l u mb
L im F M d L g m P d L L
. . . . . . . .

e oo 1 12 ra ar P lu me
F F
. . . . . . . .

m a r.P ar e P l u ng e

“
Lin L ( n un ) M L n Af i P L F
. . . .

e o oor o r a rse P oa ch
L ink G P t L L
. . . . . . . .

can ar P oi n t
Lint L M p L F
. . . . . . .

o P h G asc P oise
Li t F I M q F

“
. . . . . . . .

s os P ue L3 ass ? P ol e G
M nt F L
. . . . . . . .

ou P t as e P omp G
M L n h L L
. . . . . .

ov e P au c P oo p
M lt L F
. . . . . .

L o ni
L ( 4 u c P G a use P oo r
L M l L L L
. . . . . . . .

ou e u e P ave P op e
L ng F M l l L win F
. . . . . . .

ou e. u P wn ( h ) 8 e a c ess P o rch
L L M mm G P y F
. . . . . . .

u ce u a P u re G
L fi F M nh F L L
. . . . . . .

u u P
c ea ce P or k
L h I M L t w ll P h F L
. . . . . . . .

urc ur e o a ea c P ort mien

L F M L l F
. . . . . . . . . .

u re use P ee P ort L a g a te
L t F M k L P p L L
. . . . . . . . .

u e us ee . P or t a ha r bour
L ym p h L M t L F L
. . . . . . .

us P eer P ost
Lyn L M t F F
. . . . . . . .

x us P g G e P ot
Ly L M t L P lt L F
. . . . . . . .

re u e e P o t ch
L M t F P lt L F
. . . . . . . .

M a ce a clu b u e e P ou l e
Ma L N L P n L L
. . . . . . . . .

ce a ki nd av e e P ou lt.
N d G h F F
. . . . . . .

ar P m erc a ea P ou nc e
N t F
.

M
. . . . .

ea p owd er
M il F b N p L p l nt P h L fi h
. . .

a a a g. e a a erc a s P o u nc e S t a lon
M le F N L F
. . . . . . . . .

a er v e P hl g m G e P ou t
M ll L N t F F
. . . . . . . .

a e Ph G rase P rais e
Ni h F F F
.

M ng F
. . . . . . .

a e c P
e ie P ra y
M p L Ni F
. . .
. . . . .

a ece
M h L Nd L F L
. . . .

a rc the o e Pi erce P res s

Ni F
. . . . . . . .

m nth o o se
M h F Nm G P il L h i
. . .

arc o e e a r
M q F N F L h p
. . . . . . .

ar ue o ose P l i e a ea .

L L
. . . . . .

Mars . . N t
o e . .
 L
C AS S I CA L MON OS YL L AB L E S .

R eins L k id neys S ea l LF a st a
’

mp S ta g e
L F
. . . . . . . .

Re st as S ta nch
L
. . . .

S ta t e
’
r est Of,
L S t L St y F
. .

P r om p t R h eu m , G ec a
L L ( n n) St w F
. . . . . . .

P rone Rh om b G See ou e
L S l F L d i til
. . . . . . . .

P r ose R ic e G ee S t ill s
H ow F L F
. . . . . . .
,

( na u ti Rill S i
e ze l ti n a o

F S ll L L
. . . . . . .
' ’

l )
ca R isk e St l o e
F mF F L S t in L
. . . . . . .

ro v a lia nt Ri t e S n
e se ra
F F f F S t it L
. . . . . . .

Pru d e R oa n Ser ra
L F F F
. . . . . . . .

P n
r u e R o as t S g
er e S t ng ra e

F F St i t L
.
. . . . . . .

P lm G
sa R ob e Ser v e r c
F F F L
. . . . . . . .

P l
u e R oc k Sex S t yl e
P lp L F S h t F ( n ti S F
. . . . . . .

u R o i st ee au ue
L F S it F
. . . . . . . .

P l
u se R oll ca l ) u
P mp F F Sh k F S m L
. . . . . . .

u R ook oc u
F Sh t F
. . . . . . . .

P n h I
u c R ose o S d IL ur
L F L ( t di ) S F
. . . . . . .

P ure Rou g e Si ce a ce ur e
F F L
. . . . . . . . .

Pu R ou n d Si g
e e S g ur e
F S ig n F
. . . . . .

Pu R o ut S y lp h G
F F L Sy t L
. . . . . .

P urse R ou t e Si ne r
L F F T k F
. . . . . . . .

P us Ru d e Si r ac
F F F T t L
. . . . . . . .

P ush R ule Si re ac
F L T i nt L
. . . . . . . .

P y re G R u se S it e a
F F S k in F T n F
. . . . . . . .

"
Q afl
n Rut the S k ina —
e a
Q F bi d
. . . . . . . . .

ua i l a r of a w heel Sk t h I
e c T ng G a
Q L F F F
. . . . . . . .

u a int S ack sweet Sl t

a e T n a k
L T p F
. . . . . . . .

w ine S n e er a
Q y F F F F
. . . . .

ua S a fe S oa r T ar e
Q t F F T t F
. . . . . . . .

u es S ag e 8 k (
00 1. ar
Q ill F F S il L T k F
. . .
. . .
,

u S age a p la nt o th ea r as
Q i lt L F F
. . .
. . . . . . .

u S a i nt T t as e
Q F L nt F
. . . . . .

u in ce S al t a l ea p T au
Q i nt F F L F
. . . . , . . .

u Sa ne S l
o ve T ax
Q F F T ll L
. . . . . . . .

u rei G Sa ns S or e e
Q F h t p F ( S t L T n t L
. . . . . . . .

u rei s ee s o f Sa ver b. ) or er
h F nd L L
. . . . . . . .

S as S ou T n e c
L L T nd L
. . . . .

Sa e t S ou r ce e
F L L in g m
. . . . . .

S a ve S ou se T n e se ra
L
. . . . . .

Sp a ce
L L tight
. .

Sp a rs e T n e s e.
T nt L
. . . .

S ph G er e e
L
. . . .

S p h in G T x er se.
F L T t L
. . .

Sp i ce es
F L t L
. . . . .

Ra m p S p ik Te ex
F L
. . . . . .

Ra ng e S p in Th m
e G e e
L
. . . . . .

Ra p S pi Gre Th n G re e
L L
. . . . . .

Rap e Spi ss Th b G ro
L L
. . . . . .

R ap e a p la nt Spl n G ee Th n ro e
S p il L t L
. . . . . . .

o Th ru s
L
. . . .

S p ng
o Thy m G e e
L Ti k F
. . . .

Sp ou s e c
L F
. . . .

Sp m u Ti e er c e.
L
. . .

Sp ur
g e
L
. .

' ‘
Spy F l i ng e
d F t L
. . . .

Sq ua T oas
L T il L
. . . .

Sq u a re o
S q il l L
. . . .

u T mb G o
F ( mil i T m G
. . . .

S t ff
a o e
L
. . . .

T n o e . .
358 APP E N DI X .

V ail F Verse.L
V t L
. . .

er
V t F
. .

es

Vth L
. .

e c
L
. .

Vex
Vi L
. .

ce
V t L Vi F
. .

as ce a p ress
V lt L Vi w F
. . . .

au e
V lt L Vl L
. . . .

au i e
V t F t Vi L
. . . .

au n o ne
Vg F
. . . .

b t o as o ue
V t F th fi t Vm F
. . .

au n e rs os
V id L
. . . .

d t ar o
V l F Vt F
. . .

ea o e
V F V h L
. . . .

eer ou c
V il L V w F
. . . .

e o
Vi L W g L
. . . .

e n a e
V d L W it L
. . . .

en a
V g L W ll L
. . . .

en e a
V t L C? ) L
. . . .

en W i n ce
V b: L
. . .

er Z ea l G
V g L (n ) ‘
. . .

l
er e. . . Zo e G
n . .