INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

AT

ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP

NORTHEAST FRONTIER RAILWAY, KATIHAR

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD

OF THE DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
(Electrical Engineering)

SUBMITTED BY
 
Rupam Kumari
Electrical Engineering
Roll No. 1616075
Univ. Roll No. 1606891

Department of Electrical Engineering

Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College
Ludhiana, 141006
 INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT
AT

ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP

NORTHEAST FRONTIER RAILWAY, KATIHAR

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD

OF THE DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
(Electrical Engineering)

SUBMITTED BY
 
Rupam Kumari
Electrical Engineering
Roll No. 1616075
Univ. Roll No. 1606891

Department of Electrical Engineering

Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College
Ludhiana, 141006

GURU NANAK DEV ENGINEERING COLLEGE, LUDHIANA

TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN

I hereby certify that “Rupam Kumari” Roll No. 1616075, Univ. Roll No. 1606891 of

Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College Ludhaina, has undergone six weak industrial training

from 18 June 2018 to 28 July 2018 at our organization to fulfill the requirements for the

award of degree of B.Tech. (Branch). He works on web designing and development on php

project during the training under the supervision of Shri C.P.GUPTA, Divisional Railway

Manager (DRM). During his tenure with us we found him sincere and hard working. Wishing

him a great success in the future.

Signature of the Student

Signature of the SUPERVISOR

i

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to take this opportunity to express my profound sense of gratitude and sincere

thanks to Shri C.P.GUPTA, Divisional Railway Manager (DRM) for being helpful and a

great source of inspiration. His keen interest and constant encouragement gave me the

confidence to complete my Industrial Training successfully. I wish to extend our sincere thanks

for their excellent guidance and suggestions for the successful completion of my training.

Rupam Kumari

ii

 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. No. Figure Description Page No.

Fig.2.1 Optical Fibre 8

Fig.2.2 Multi Mode Fibre 9

Fig.2.3 Single Mode Fibre 9

FIg.2.4 The three principal types of fibres 10

Fig.2.5 Core, Cladding, and Coating 11

Fig.2.6 Single-Mode and Multimode Fibers 12

Fig.2.7 Optical Fiber Sizes 13

Fig.2.8 Fiber Geometry Parameters 13

Fig.2.9 Attenuation 16

Fig.2.10 Basic analog optical fiber communication system. 18

Fig.2.11 Optical fiber communication systems 19

Fig.2.12 D/A output circuit 22

Fig.2.12 D/A output circuit 23

Fig.2.13 Time-Division Multiplexing 24

Fig.2.14 Wavelength-division multiplexing 24

Fig.2.15 Fiber Optic Sources 26

Fig.2.16 Laser diodes 27

Fig.2.17 Fiber Optic Detectors 29

Fig.2.18 Optical Network Configuration 30

iii
Fig.2.19 Network architecture 31

Fig.2.20 Lateral Misalignment 32

Fig.2.21 Angular Misalignment 32

Fig.2.22 Axial Misalignment 32

Fig.2.23 Poor End Finnish 32

Fig.2.24 Fusion Splicing 33

Fig.2.25 Fusion Splicer 33

Fig.2.26 Mechanical Splice 34

Fig.4.1 Railway signalling 45

Fig.4.2 Control Panel appear on the left to the direction of travel. 46

Fig.5.1 SDH Rates 54

Fig.5.2 Block diagram of generic DSL 55

Fig.6.1 Passenger Reservation System 57

iv

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents Page No.

Supervisor’s Certificate i

Acknowledgement ii

List of Figures iii

Table of Contents v

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 ABOUT INDIAN RAILWAYS 1


1.2 GENESIS OF INDIAN RAILWAYS 5


1.3 OTHER MILESTONES 5 


1.4 THE NEED FOR A RAILWAY NETWORK 6

1.5 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 6

CHAPTER 2: OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

SYSTEM 8

2.1 OPTICAL FIBER 8

2.2 FIBER GEOMETRY PARAMETERS 13

2.3 OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION 17

2.4 PULSE CODE MODULATION 21

2.5 MULTIPLEXING 23

2.6 FIBER OPTIC SOURCES 25

2.7 FIBER OPTIC DETECTORS 29

2.8 OPTICAL NETWORK CONFIGURATION 30

2.9 NETWORK ARCHITECTURE 31

CHAPTER 3: NETWORKING 36

3.1 LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN) 36

3.2 WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN) 36

3.3 HISTORY OF LAN 37


3.4 OSI REFERENCE MODEL 37

3.5 DYNAMIC IP ADDRESS 40

3.6 STATIC IP ADDRESS 40

3.7 DOMAIN NAMES 40

3.8 LAN DEVICES 41

CHAPTER 4: SOLID STATE INTERLOCKING 44

4.1 RAILWAY SIGNALING 44


4.2 OPERATION OF SOLID STATE INTERLOCKING 45

CHAPTER 5: AUTO EXCHANGE COMMUNICATION 48

5.1 ELECTRONIC EXCHANGE 48


5.2 ISDN 48


5.3 ISDN IN INDIA 49

5.4 TYPES OF COMM. THROUGH ISDN 50


5.5 TELEPHONE EXCHANGE RING TONES 50


5.6 THE HISTORY OF DIGITAL TRANSMISSION 52

5.7 PDH: PLESIOCHRONOUS DIGITA HIERARCHY 52

5.8 SDH : SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERACHY 53

5.9 DSL TECHNOLOGY 55

CHAPTER 6: PUBLIC AMENITIES 57

6.1 PASSENGER RESERVATION SYSTEM (PRS) 57

6.2 NATIONAL TRAIN ENQUIRY SERVICE (NTES) 58

6.3 BOOKING OF TICKETS ON INTERNET 59


6.4 UNRESERVED TICKETING SYSTEM (UTS) 59


6.5 INTERACTIVE VOICE RESPONSE SYSTEM 59

Conclusion 61

References 62
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Katihar railway division is one of the five railway divisions under Northeast Frontier Railway

zone of Indian Railways. This railway division was formed on 15 January 1958 and its

headquarter is located at Katihar in the state of Bihar of India.

1.1 About Indian Railways

Indian Railways, a historical legacy, are a vital force in our economy. The first railway on

Indian sub-continent ran from Bombay to Thane on 16th April 1853. Fourteen railway carriages

carried about 400 guests from Bombay to Thane covering a distance of 21 miles (34

Kilometers). Since then there has been no looking back. Today, it covers 6,909 stations over a

total route length of more than 63,028 kilometers. The track kilometers in broad gauge (1676

mm) are 86, 526 kms, meter gauge (1000 mm) are 18, 529 kms and narrow gauge (762/610

mm) are 3,651 kms. Of the total route of 63,028 kms, 16,001 kms are electrified. The railways

have 8000 locomotives, 50,000 coaching vehicles, 222,147 freight wagons, 6853 stations, 300

yards, 2300 goodsheds, 700 repair shops, and 1.54 million work force. Indian Railways runs

around 11,000 trains every day, of which 7,000 are passenger trains. Presently, 9 pairs of

Rajdhani and 13 pairs of Shatabdi Express Trains run on the rail tracks of India.

It is interesting to note that though the railways were introduced to facilitate the commercial

interest of the British, it played an important role in unifying the country. Railways are ideally

suited for long distance travel and movement of bulk commodities. Regarded better than road

transport in terms of energy efficiency, land use, environment impact and safety it is always in

forefront during national emergency.

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1.1.1 Organization Overview

The Ministry of Railways under Government of India controls Indian Railways. The Ministry is

headed by Union Minister who is generally supported by a Minster of State. The Railway

Board consisting of six members and a chairman reports to this top hierarchy. The railway

zones are headed by their respective General Managers who in turn report to the Railway

Board. For administrative convenience Indian Railways is primarily divided into 16 zones:

!
1.1.2 The Ministry of Railways has following nine undertakings:

1. Rail India Technical & Economic Services Limited (RITES)

2. Indian Railway Construction (IRCON) International Limited

3. Indian Railway Finance Corporation Limited (IRFC)

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4. Container Corporation of India Limited (CONCOR)

5. Konkan Railway Corporation Limited (KRCL)

6. Indian Railway Catering & Tourism Corporation Ltd (IRCTC)

7. Railtel Corporation of India Ltd. (Rail Tel)

8. Mumbai Rail Vikas Nigam Ltd. (MRVNL)

9. Rail Vikas Nigam Ltd. (RVNL)

Indian Railways have their research and development wing in the form of Research, Designs

and Standard Organization (RDSO). RDSO functions as the technical advisor and consultant to

the Ministry, Zonal Railways and Production Units.

1.1.3 Railway Budget

Since 1924-25, railway finances have been separated from General Revenue. Indian railways

have their own funds in the form of Railway Budget presented to the Parliament annually. This

budget is presented to the Parliament by the Union Railway Minster two days prior to the

General Budget, usually around 26th February. It has to be passed by a simple majority in the

Lok Sabha before it gets final acceptance. Indian Railways are subject to the same audit control

as other government revenues and expenditure.

1.1.4 Passenger Traffic

The passenger traffic has risen from leaps and bounds from 1284 million in 1950-51 to 5112

million in 2002-2003.

1.1.5 Freight Traffic

The revenue fright traffic has also grown immensely from 73.2 million tons in 1950-51 to

557.39 million tones. Indian railways carry huge variety of goods such as mineral ores,

fertilizers, petrochemicals, agricultural produce and others. It has been made possible with

measures such as line capacity augmentation on certain critical sectors and modernization of
Page 3
signaling system and increase in roller bearing equipped wagons. Indian Railways make huge

revenue and most of its profits are from the freight sector and uses these profits to augment the

loss-making passenger sector.

Here, it is important to note that computerization of freight operations Freight Operations

Information System (FOIS) has been achieved with the implementation of Rake Management

System.

1.1.6 Facilities for Passengers

Computer based unreserved ticketing takes care of the large chunk of unreserved segment of

passengers. This facility allows issuance of unreserved tickets from locations other than

boarding station.

1.1.7 Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation (IRCTC)

IRCTC has launched on line ticketing facility with the aid of Center for Railway Information

System, which can be booked on www.irctc.co.in. For the convenience of customers queries

related to accommodation availability, passenger status, train schedule etc are can all be

addressed online. Computerized reservation facilities have made the life easy of commuters

across India.

National Train Enquiry system is another initiative of Indian Railways which offers train

running position on a current basis through various output devices such as terminals in the

station enquiries and Interactive Voice Response Systems (IVRS) at important railway stations.

Indian Railways are committed to provide improved telecommunication system to its

passengers. For this Optical Fibre Communication (OFC) system has been embraced, which

involves laying optical fibre cable along the railway tracks. In recent years Indian Railways

have witnessed the marked rise of collaboration between private and public sectors. Few of the

notable examples here are the broad gauge connectivity to Pipya Port where a joint venture
Page 4
company is formed with Pipava Port authority. Similarly Memorandums of Understanding has

been signed between Railways and State governments of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,

Maharashtra, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Jharkhand,

1.1.8 Rolling Stock

Today, Indian Railways have become self-reliant in production of rolling stock. It supplies

rolling stock to other countries and non-railway customers. The production units are at Diesel

Locomotive Works, Varanasi, Chittaranjan Locomotive Works, Chittaranjan, Diesel-Loco

Modernisation Works, Patiala, Integral Coach Factory, Chennai, Rail Coach Factory,

Kapurthala, Wheel & Axle Plant, Bangalore and Rail Spring Karkhana, Gwalior.

1.2 GENESIS OF INDIAN RAILWAYS

The story of the Indian Railways (IR) is not just a saga of mundane statistics and miles of

rolling stock. It is the glorious tale of a pioneering institution that has blazed a trail for nearly a

century and a half, making inroads into far-flung territory and providing a means of

communication.

Indian Railway is one of India's most effective networks that keep together the social,

economic, political and cultural fabric of the country intact. Be it cold, mountainous terrain or

the long stretches through the Rajasthan desert, Indian Railways cover the vast expanse of the

country from north to south, east to west and all in between.

1.3 OTHER MILESTONES

Under the British East India Company's auspices, the Great Indian Peninsula Railway

Company (GIPRC) was formed on July 15, 1844. Events moved at a fast pace. On October 31,

1850, the ceremony of turning the first sod for the GIPRC from Bombay to Kalyan was

performed. The opening ceremony of the extension to Kalyan took place on May 1, 1854. The

railway line from Kalyan to Khopoli was opened on May 12, 1856. It was further extended to
Page 5
Poona on June 14, 1858 when the traffic was opened for public use. In the eastern part of India,

the first passenger train steamed out of Howrah station for Hooghly, a distance of 24 miles, on

August 15, 1854. This marked the formation of the East Indian Railway.

1.4 THE NEED FOR A RAILWAY NETWORK

The British rule in India was governed by three principal considerations to expand the IR

system. These were the commercial advantages, the political aspect and even more importantly,

the inexorable imperial defense of India against the possible military attacks from certain

powerful countries showing signs of extending their orbit of influence into Central Asia.

1.5 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

Now, to further improve upon its services, the Indian Railways have embarked upon various

schemes, which are immensely ambitious. The railway has changed from meter gauge to broad

gauge and the people have given it a warm welcome. Now, there are the impressive- looking

locomotives that haul the 21st-century harbingers-the Rajdhanis and Shatabdis-at speeds of 145

kmph with all amenities and comfort. With these, the inconvenience of changing to a different

gauge en route to a destination will no longer be felt. The Research, Designing, and

Standardizing Organization at Lucknow-the largest railway research organization in the world-

was constituted in 1957. It is constantly devising improvements in the signaling systems, track

design and layout, coach interiors for better riding comfort and capacity, etc., along with

improvements in locomotives. Improvements are being planned by engineers. The workshops

of the railways too have been given new equipment to create sophisticated coaches at Perambur

and Kapurthala and diesel engine parts at Patiala. Locomotives are being made at Chittaranjan

and Varanasi. This is in sharp contrast to the earlier British conviction that only minor repairs

would be possible in India, so all spare parts including nuts and bolts for locomotives would

have to be imported from England. More trains and routes are constantly being added to the
Page 6
railway network and services. The British legacy lives on in our railway system, transformed

but never forgotten. Long live the Romance of the Rails! The network of lines has grown to

about 62,000 kilometers. But, the variety of Indian Railways is infinite. It still has the romantic

toy trains on narrow gauge hill sections, meter gauge beauties on other and broad gauge

bonanzas as one visits places of tourist interest courtesy Indian Railways! They are an

acknowledgement of the Railways that tourism as an industry has to be promoted and that India

is full of unsurpassed beauty. The Calcutta Metro is a fine example of highly complex

engineering techniques being adopted to lay an underground railway in the densely built-up

areas of Calcutta city. It is a treat to be seen. The Calcuttans keep it so clean and tidy that not a

paper is thrown around! It only proves the belief that a man grows worthy of his superior

possessions. Calcutta is also the only city where the Metro Railway started operating from

September 27, 1995 over a length of 16.45 km. There is also a Circular Railway from Dum

Dum to Princep Ghats covering 13.50 km to provide commuter trains.

Page 7
 CHAPTER 2

OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

2.1 OPTICAL FIBRE

An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide made of low-loss materials such as silica

glass. It has a central core in which the light is guided, embedded in an outer cladding of

slightly lower refractive index. Light rays incident on the core-cladding boundary at angles

greater than the critical angle undergo total internal reflection and are guided through the core

without refraction. Rays of greater inclination to the fiber axis lose part of their power into the

cladding at each reflection and are not guided.

Fig.2.1 OPTICAL FIBRE

As a result of recent technological advances in fabrication, light can be guided through 1 km of

glass fiber with a loss as low as = 0.16 dB (= 3.6 %). Optical fibers are replacing copper

coaxial cables as the preferred transmission medium for electromagnetic waves, thereby

revolutionizing terrestrial communications. Applications range from long- distance telephone

and data communications to computer communications in a local area network.

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2.1.1 Single-mode and multimode optical fibres

• Multimode is 50/125 or 62.5/125

• 50 micron is the CORE

• 125 micron is the Cladding

• Single mode is 8-10/125

• 8-10 micron is the CORE

• 125 micron is the Cladding

Fig.2.2 MULTI MODE FIBRE Fig.2.3 SINGLE MODE FIBRE

2.1.2 Operational Parameters

• 1st Window – 850 nm allows cheap LED‘s to operate over reasonable distances (km)

• 2nd Window – 1300nm more expensive LED‘s and Lasers operate over longer distances

(10‘s of Km). Fiber attenuation at this level is less than at 850nm

• 3 rd Window – 1550nm employs expensive sophisticated laser /detected systems. Long

distance without repeaters (100‘s of Km)

Multimode optical fibers are dielectric waveguides which can have many propagation modes.

Light in these modes follows paths that can be represented by rays as shown in Figure 1-1a and

1-1b, where regions 1, 2 and 3 are the core, cladding and coating, respectively. The cladding

Page 9
glass has a refractive index, a parameter related to the dielectric constant, which is slightly

lower tha n the refractive index of the core glass.

FIg.2.4 The three principal types of fibres

The fiber in Figure 1-1a is called ―step indexǁ because the refractive index changes abruptly

from cladding to core. As a result, all rays within a certain angle will be totally reflected at the

core-cladding boundary. Rays striking the boundary at angles greater than this critical angle

will be partially reflected and partially transmitted out through the boundary towards the

cladding and coating. After many such reflections, the energy in these rays will eventually be

lost from the fibre. Region 3, the coating, is a plastic which protects the glass from abrasion.

The paths along which the rays (modes) of this step-index fibre travel differ depending on their

angle relative to the axis. As a result, the different modes in a pulse arrive at the far end of the

Page 10
fibre at different times, resulting in pulse spreading, which limits the bit rate of a digital signal

that can be transmitted.

The cladding diameter is 125 µm for all the telecommunication types of fibres. The core

diameter of the multimode fibres is 50 µm, whereas that of the single-mode fibres is 8 to 10

µm.

2.1.3 The Design of Fiber Core and Cladding

An optical fiber consists of two different types of highly pure, solid glass, composed to form

the core and cladding. A protective acrylate coating (see Figure 1) then surrounds the cladding.

In most cases, the protective coating is a dual layer composition.

Fig.2.5 Core, Cladding, and Coating

A protective coating is applied to the glass fiber as the final step in the manufacturing process.

This coating protects the glass from dust and scratches that can affect fiber strength. This

protective coating can be comprised of two layers: a soft inner layer that cushions the fiber and

allows the coating to be stripped from the glass mechanically and a harder outer layer that

protects the fiber during handling, particularly the cabling, installation, and termination

processes.
Page 11
2.1.4 Single-Mode and Multimode Fibers

Fig.2.6 Single-Mode and Multimode Fibers

Multimode fiber was the first type of fiber to be commercialized. It has a much larger core than

single-mode fiber, allowing hundreds of modes of light to propagate through the fiber

simultaneously. Additionally, the larger core diameter of multimode fiber facilitates the use of

lower-cost optical transmitters (such as light emitting diodes [LEDs] or vertical cavity surface

emitting lasers [VCSELs]) and connectors.

Single-mode fiber, on the other hand, has a much smaller core that allows only one mode of

light at a time to propagate through the core. While it might appear that multimode fibers have

higher capacity, in fact the opposite is true. Singlemode fibers are designed to maintain spatial

and spectral integrity of each optical signal over longer distances, allowing more information to

be transmitted. Its tremendous information-carrying capacity and low intrinsic loss have made

single-mode fiber the ideal transmission medium for a multitude of applications. Single-mode

fiber is typically used for longer-distance and higher-bandwidth applications (see Figure 3).

Multimode fiber is used primarily in systems with short transmission distances (under 2 km),

such as premises communications, private data networks, and parallel optic applications.

2.1.5 Optical Fiber Sizes

The international standard for outer cladding diameter of most single- mode optical fibers is

125 microns (µm) for the glass and 245 µm for the coating. This standard is important because

it ensures compatibility among connectors, splices, and tools used throughout the industry.
Page 12
Standard single-mode fibers are manufactured with a small core size, approximately 8 to 10 µm

in diameter. Multimode fibers have core sizes of 50 to 62.5 µm in diameter.

Fig.2.7 Optical Fiber Sizes

2.2 Fiber Geometry Parameters

The three fiber geometry parameters that have the greatest impact on splicing performance

include the following:

Fig.2.8 Fiber Geometry Parameters

Page 13
Core/clad concentricity (or core-to-cladding offset): how well the core is centered in the

cladding glass region.

Fiber curl: the amount of curvature over a fixed length of fiber These parameters are

determined and controlled during the fiber-manufacturing process. As fiber is cut and spliced

according to system needs, it is important to be able to count on consistent geometry along the

entire length of the fiber and between fibers and not to rely solely on measurements made.

2.2.1 Cladding Diameter

The cladding diameter tolerance controls the outer diameter of the fiber, with tighter tolerances

ensuring that fibers are almost exactly the same size. During splicing, inconsistent cladding

diameters can cause cores to misalign where the fibers join, leading to higher splice losses. The

drawing process controls cladding diameter tolerance, and depending on the manufacturer‘s

skill level, can be very tightly controlled.

2.2.2 Core/Clad Concentricity

Tighter core/clad concentricity tolerances help ensure that the fiber core is centered in relation

to the cladding. This reduces the chance of ending up with cores that do not match up precisely

when two fibers are spliced together. A core that is precisely centered in the fiber yields lower-

loss splices more often.

Core/clad concentricity is determined during the first stages of the manufacturing process,

when the fiber design and resulting characteristics are created. During these laydown and

consolidation processes, the dopant chemicals that make up the fiber must be deposited with

precise control and symmetry to maintain consistent core/clad concentricity performance

throughout the entire length of fiber.

Page 14
2.2.3 Fiber Curl

Fiber curl is the inherent curvature along a specific length of optical fiber that is exhibited to

some degree by all fibers. It is a result of thermal stresses that occur during the manufacturing

process. Therefore, these factors must be rigorously monitored and controlled during fiber

manufacture. Tighter fiber-curl tolerances reduce the possibility that fiber cores will be

misaligned during splicing, thereby impacting splice loss. Some mass fusion splicers use fixed

v- grooves for fiber alignment, where the effect of fiber curl is most noticeable.

2.2.4 Single-Mode Fiber Performance Characteristics

The key optical performance parameters for single-mode fibers are attenuation, dispersion, and

mode-field diameter. Optical fiber performance parameters can vary significantly among fibers

from different manufacturers in ways that can affect your system‘s performance. It is important

to understand how to specify the fiber that best meets system requirements.

2.2.5 Attenuation

Attenuation is the reduction of signal strength or light power over the length of the light-

carrying medium. Fiber attenuation is measured in decibels per kilometer (dB/km). Optical

fiber offers superior performance over other transmission media because it combines high

bandwidth with low attenuation. This allows signals to be transmitted over longer distances

while using fewer regenerators or amplifiers, thus reducing cost and improving signal

reliability.

Attenuation of an optical signal varies as a function of wavelength (see Figure 9). Attenuation

is very low, as compared to other transmission media (i.e., copper, coaxial cable, etc.), with a

typical value of 0.35 dB/km at 1300 nm for standard single-mode fiber. Attenuation at 1550 nm

is even lower, with a typical value of 0.25 dB/km. This gives an optical signal, transmitted

through fiber, the ability to travel more than 100 km without regeneration or amplification.
Page 15
Attenuation is caused by several different factors, but primarily scattering and absorption. The

scattering of light from molecular level irregularities in the glass structure leads to the general

shape of the attenuation curve (see Figure 9). Further attenuation is caused by light absorbed by

residual materials, such as metals or water ions, within the fiber core and inner cladding. It is

these water ions that cause the ―water peakǁ region on the attenuation curve, typically around

1383 nm. The removal of water ions is of particular interest to fiber manufacturers as this water

peakǁ region has a broadening effect and contributes to attenuation loss for nearby wavelengths.

Some manufacturers now offer low water peak single-mode fibers, which offer additional

bandwidth and flexibility compared with standard single-mode fibers. Light leakage due to

bending, splices, connectors, or other outside forces are other factors resulting in attenuation.

Fig.2.9 Attenuation

2.2.6 Dispersion

Dispersion is the time distortion of an optical signal that results from the time o flight

differences of different components of that signal, typically resulting in pulse broadening (see

Figure 10). In digital transmission, dispersion limits the maximum data rate, the maximum

distance, or the information-carrying capacity of a single-mode fiber link. In analog

Page 16
transmission, dispersion can cause a waveform to become significantly distorted and can result

in unacceptable levels of composite second-order distortion (CSO).

2.3 OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

2.3.1 Historical perspective of optical communication

The use of light for transmitting information from one place to another place is a very old

technique. In 800 BC., the Greeks used fire and smoke signals for sending information like

victory in a war, alertting against enemy, call for help, etc. Mostly only one type of signal was

conveyed. During the second century B.C. optical signals were encoded using signaling lamps

so that any message could be sent. There was no development in optical communication till the

end of the 18th century. The speed of the optical communication link was limited due to the

requirement of line of sight transmission paths, the human eye as the receiver and unreliable

nature of transmission paths affected by atmospheric effects such as fog and rain. In 1791,

Chappe from France developed the semaphore for telecommunication on land. But that was

also with limited information transfer.

2.3.2 The birth of fiber optic systems

To guide light in a waveguide, initially metallic and non-metallic wave guides were fabricated.

But they have enormous losses. So they were not suitable for telecommunication. Tyndall

discovered that through optical fibers, light could be transmitted by the phenomenon of total

internal reflection. During 1950s, the optical fibers with large diameters of about 1 or 2

millimeter were used in endoscopes to see the inner parts of the human body.

Optical fibers can provide a much more reliable and versatile optical channel than the

atmosphere, Kao and Hockham published a paper about the optical fiber communication

system in 1966. But the fibers produced an enormous loss of 1000 dB/km. But in the

atmosphere, there is a loss of few dB/km. Immediately Kao and his fellow workers realized that
Page 17
these high losses were a result of impurities in the fiber material. Using a pure silica fiber these

losses were reduced to 20 dB/km in 1970 by Kapron, Keck and Maurer. At this attenuation loss,

repeater spacing for optical fiber links become comparable to those of copper cable systems.

Thus the optical fiber communication system became an engineering reality.

2.3.3 Basic optical fiber communication system

Figure 2 shows the basic components in the optical fiber communication system. The input

electrical signal modulates the intensity of light fromthe optical source. The optical carrier can

be modulated internally or externally using an electro-optic modulator (or) acousto-optic

modulator. Nowadays electro-optic modulators (KDP, LiNbO3 or beta barium borate) are

widely used as external modulators which modulate the light by changing its refractive index

through the given input electrical signal. In the digital optical fiber communication system, the

input electrical signal is in the form of coded digital pulses from the encoder and these electric

pulses modulate the intensity of the light from the laser diode or LED and convert them into

optical pulses. In the receiver stage, the photo detector like avalanche photodiode (APD) or

positive-intrinsic negative (PIN) diode converts the optical pulses into electrical pulses. A

decoder converts the electrical pulses into the original electric signal.

Fig.2.10 Basic analog optical fiber communication system.

Page 18
Table Different generations of optical fiber communication systems

Fig.2.11 optical fiber communication systems

Table 2 shows the different generations of optical fiber communication. In generation I, mostly

GaAs based LEDs and laser diodes having emission wavelength 0.8 micrometer were used

from 1974 to 1978, graded index multimode fibers were used. From 1978 onwards, only single

mode fibers are used for long distance communication. During the second generation the

operating wavelength is shifted to 1.3 micrometer to overcome loss and dispersion. Further

InGaAsP hetero-junction laser diodes are used as optical sources. In the third generation the

operating wavelength is further shifted to 1.55 micrometer m and the dispersion-shifted fibers

are used. Further single mode direct detection is adopted. In the fourth generation erbium doped

optical (fiber) amplifiers are fabricated and the whole transmission and reception are performed

only in the optical domain. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is introduced to increase

the bit rate. In the proposed next generation (V generation), soliton based lossless and

dispersion less optical fiber communication will become a reality. At that time, the data rate

may increase beyond 1000 Tb/s.

Page 19
2.3.4 Advantages of optical fiber communication

1. Wider bandwidth: The information carrying capacity of a transmission system is directly

proportional to the carrier frequency of the transmitted signals. The optical carrier frequency is

in the range 1013 to 1015 Hz while the radio wave frequency is about 106 Hz and the

microwave frequency is about 1010 Hz. Thus the optical fiber yields greater transmission

bandwidth than the conventional communication systems and the data rate or number of bits

per second is increased to a greater extent in the optical fiber communication system. Further

the wavelength division multiplexing operation by the data rate or information carrying

capacity of optical fibers is enhanced to many orders of magnitude.

2. Low transmission loss: Due to the usage of the ultra-low loss fibers and the erbium doped

silica fibers as optical amplifiers, one can achieve almost lossless transmission. In the modern

optical fiber telecommunication systems, the fibers having a transmission loss of 0.002 dB/km

are used. Further, using erbium doped silica fibers over a short length in the transmission path

at selective points, appropriate optical amplification can be achieved. Thus the repeater spacing

is more than 100 km. Since the amplification is done in the optical domain itself, the distortion

produced during the strengthening of the signal is almost negligible.

3. Dielectric waveguide: Optical fibers are made from silica which is an electrical insulator.

Therefore they do not pickup any electromagnetic wave or any high current lightning. It is also

suitable in explosive environments. Further the optical fibers are not affected by any

interference originating from power cables, railway power lines and radio waves. There is no

cross talk between the fibers even though there are so many fibers in a cable because of the

absence of optical interference between the fibers.

Page 20
4. Signal security: The transmitted signal through the fibers does not radiate. Further the signal

cannot be tapped from a fiber in an easy manner. Therefore optical fiber communication

provides hundred per cent signal security.

5. Small size and weight: Fiber optic cables are developed with small radii, and they are

flexible, compact and lightweight. The fiber cables can be bent or twisted without damage.

Further, the optical fiber cables are superior to the copper cables in terms of storage, handling,

installation and transportation, maintaining comparable strength and durability.

2.4 PULSE CODE MODULATION

Pulse code modulation (PCM) is the process of converting an analog signal into a 2n- digit

binary code. Consider the block diagram shown in Figure 8-9. An analog signal is placed on the

input of a sample and hold. The sample and hold circuit is used to captureǁ the analog voltage

long enough for the conversion to take place. The output of the sample and hold circuit is fed

into the analog-to-digital converter (A/D). An A/D converter operates by taking periodic

discrete samples of an analog signal at a specific point in time and converting it to a 2n-bit

binary number. For example, an 8-bit A/D converts an analog voltage into a binary number

with 28 discrete levels (between 0 and 255). For an analog voltage to be successfully

converted, it must be sampled at a rate at least twice its maximum frequency. This is known as

the Nyquist sampling rate. An example of this is the process that takes place in the telephone

system. Standard telephone has a bandwidth of 4 kHz. When you speak into the telephone, your

4-kHz bandwidth voice signal is sampled at twice the 4-kHz frequency or 8 kHz. Each sample

is then converted to an 8-bit binary number. This occurs 8000 times per second. Thus, if we

multiply

8 k samples/s × 8 bits/sample = 64 kbits/s

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Temporarily store the digital codes during the conversion process. The DAC accepts an n-bit

digital number and outputs a continuous series of discrete voltage ―steps.ǁ All that is needed to

smooth the stair-step voltage out is a simple low-pass filter with its cutoff frequency set at the

maximum signal frequency.

Fig.2.11 PCM (a) Block diagram (b) Digital waveforms

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 Fig.2.12 D/A output circuit

2.5 MULTIPLEXING

The purpose of multiplexing is to share the bandwidth of a single transmission channel among

several users. Two multiplexing methods are commonly used in fiber optics:


1. Time-division multiplexing (TDM)


2. Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)

2.5.1 Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)

In time-division multiplexing, time on the information channel, or fiber, is shared among the

many data sources. The multiplexer MUX can be described as a type of ―rotary switch,ǁ which

rotates at a very high speed, individually connecting each input to the communication channel

for a fixed period of time. The process is reversed on the output with a device known as a

demultiplexer, or DEMUX. After each channel has been sequentially connected, the process

repeats itself. One complete cycle is known as a frame. To ensure that each channel on the input

is connected to its corresponding channel on the output, start and stop frames are added to

synchronize the input with the output. TDM systems may send information using any of the

digital modulation schemes described.

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 Fig.2.13 Time-Division Multiplexing
2.5.2 Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)

"

Fig.2.14 Wavelength-division multiplexing

In wavelength-division multiplexing, each data channel is transmitted using a slightly different

wavelength (different color). With use of a different wavelength for each channel, many

channels can be transmitted through the same fiber without interference. This method is used to

increase the capacity of existing fiber optic systems many times. Each WDM data channel may

consist of a single data source or may be a combination of a single data source and a TDM

(time- division multiplexing) and/or FDM (frequency-division multiplexing) signal. Dense

wavelength- division multiplexing (DWDM) refers to the transmission of multiple closely

spaced wavelengths through the same fiber. For any given wavelength λ and corresponding

frequency f, the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) defines standard frequency

Page 24
spacing Δf as 100 GHz, which translates into a Δλ of 0.8-nm wavelength spacing. This follows

from the relationship Δλ =λ Δf / f .

DWDM systems operate in the 1550-nm window because of the low attenuation characteristics

of glass at 1550 nm and the fact that erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFA) operate in the

1530- nm–1570-nm range. Commercially available systems today can multiplex up to 128

individual wavelengths at 2.5 Gb/s or 32 individual wavelengths at 10 Gb/s (see Figure 8-17).

Although the ITU grid specifies that each transmitted wavelength in a DWDM system is

separated by 100 GHz, systems currently under development have been demonstrated that

reduce the channel spacing to 50 GHz and below (< 0.4 nm). As the channel spacing decreases,

the number of channels that can be transmitted increases, thus further increasing the

transmission capacity of the system.

2.6 FIBER OPTIC SOURCES

Two basic light sources are used for fiber optics: laser diodes (LD) and light-emitting diodes

(LED). Each device has its own advantages and disadvantages as listed in Table.

Fiber optic sources must operate in the low-loss transmission windows of glass fiber. LEDs are

typically used at the 850-nm and 1310-nm transmission wavelengths, whereas lasers are

primarily used at 1310 nm and 1550 nm.


LEDs are typically used in lower-data-rate, shorter-distance multimode systems because of

Page 25
their inherent bandwidth limitations and lower output power. They are used in applications in

which data rates are in the hundreds of megahertz as opposed to GHz data rates associated with

lasers. Two basic structures for LEDs are used in fiber optic systems: surface-emitting and edge

emitting.

Fig.2.15 FIBER OPTIC SOURCES

In surface-emitting LEDs the radiation emanates from the surface. An example of this is the

Burris diode as shown in Figure 8-21. LEDs typically have large numerical apertures, which

makes light coupling into single-mode fiber difficult due to the fiber‘s small N.A. and core

diameter. For this reason LEDs are most often used with multimode fiber. LEDs are used in

lower-data-rate, shorter-distance multimode systems because of their inherent bandwidth

limitations and lower output power. The output spectrum of a typical LED is about 40 nm,

which limits its performance because of severe chromatic dispersion. LEDs operate in a more

linear fashion than do laser diodes. This makes them more suitable for analog modulation.

Figure 8-22 shows a graph of typical output power versus drive current for LEDs and laser

diodes. Notice that the LED has a more linear output power, which makes it more suitable for

analog modulation. Often these devices are pigtailed, having a fiber attached during the

manufacturing process. Some LEDs are available with connector-ready housings that allow a

Page 26
connectorized fiber to be directly attached. They are also relatively inexpensive. Typical

applications are local area networks, closed-circuit TV, and transmitting information in areas

where EMI may be a problem.

Laser diodes (LD) are used in applications in which longer distances and higher data rates are

required. Because an LD has a much higher output power than an LED, it is capable of

transmitting information over longer distances. Consequently, and given the fact that the LD

has a much narrower spectral width, it can provide high-bandwidth communication over long

distances.

Fig.2.16 Laser diodes

The LD‘s smaller N.A. also allows it to be more effectively coupled with single-mode fiber.

The difficulty with LDs is that they are inherently nonlinear, which makes analog transmission

more difficult. They are also very sensitive to fluctuations in temperature and drive current,

which causes their output wavelength to drift. In applications such as wavelength division

multiplexing in which several wavelengths are being transmitted down the same fiber, the

stability of the source becomes critical. This usually requires complex circuitry and feedback

Page 27
mechanisms to detect and correct for drifts in wavelength. The benefits, however, of high-speed

transmission using LDs typically outweigh the drawbacks and added expense.

Laser diodes can be divided into two generic types depending on the method of confinement of

the lasing mode in the lateral direction.

• Gain-guided laser diodes work by controlling the width of the drive-current distribution; this

limits the area in which lasing action can occur. Because of different confinement

mechanisms in the lateral and vertical directions, the emitted wavefront from these devices

has a different curvature in the two perpendicular directions. This astigmatism in the output

beam is one of the unique properties of laser-diode sources. Gain-guided injection laser

diodes usually emit multiple longitudinal modes and sometimes multiple transverse modes.

The optical spectrum of these devices ranges up to about 2 nm in width, thereby limiting

their coherence length.

• Index-guided laser diodes use refractive index steps to confine the lasing mode in both the

transverse and vertical directions. Index guiding also generally leads to both single

transverse mode and single longitudinal-mode behavior. Typical linewidths are on the order

of 0.01 nm. Index-guided lasers tend to have less difference between the two perpendicular

divergence angles than do gain-guided lasers.

Single-frequency laser diodes are another interesting member of the laser diode family. These

devices are now available to meet the requirements for high-bandwidth communication. Other

advantages of these structures are lower threshold currents and lower power requirements. One

variety of this type of structure is the distributed-feedback (DFB) laser diode (Figure). With

introduction of a corrugated structure into the cavity of the laser, only light of a very specific

wavelength is diffracted and allowed to oscillate. This yields output wavelengths that are

extremely narrow—a characteristic required for DWDM systems in which many closely spaced

Page 28
wavelengths are transmitted through the same fiber. Distributed-feedback lasers have been

developed to emit light at fiber optic communication wavelengths between 1300 nm and 1550

nm.

2.7 FIBER OPTIC DETECTORS

The purpose of a fiber optic detector is to convert light emanating from the optical fiber back

into an electrical signal. The choice of a fiber optic detector depends on several factors

including wavelength, responsively, and speed or rise time. Figure 8-30 depicts the various

types of detectors and their spectral responses.

The process by which light is converted into an electrical signal is the opposite of the process

that produces the light. Light striking the detector generates a small electrical current that is

amplified by an external circuit. Absorbed photons excite electrons from the valence band to

the conduction band, resulting in the creation of an electron-hole pair. Under the influence of a

bias voltage these carriers move through the material and induce a current in the external

circuit. For each electron-hole pair created, the result is an electron flowing in the circuit.

Typical current levels are small and require some amplification as shown in Figure 8-31.

Fig.2.17 FIBER OPTIC DETECTORS

Page 29
The most commonly used photo detectors are the PIN and avalanche photodiodes (APD). The

material composition of the device determines the wavelength sensitivity. In general, silicon

devices are used for detection in the visible portion of the spectrum; InGaAs crystal are used in

the near-infrared portion of the spectrum between 1000 nm and 1700 nm, and germanium PIN

and APDs are used between 800 nm and 1500 nm.

2.8 OPTICAL NETWORK CONFIGURATION

Fig.2.18 OPTICAL NETWORK CONFIGURATION

• More complex network than long-haul point- to-point.

• Reconfigurable add/drop multiplexers (ROADM) are the current technology that enable the

network bandwidth to be dynamically switched based on need.

• Up to 80 wavelengths separated by 100 GHz = 0.8 nm at 1550 nm, each carrying 10 Gb/s for

a total of 800 Gb/sec.

• This system has been replaced with models offering well in excess of 1 Tb/s.

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2.9 Network architecture

Fig.2.19 Network architecture

• Many-layered network from internet browser on your laptop wirelessly connected to a

coffee-shop (application layer = top) to bursts of light on fiber (physical layer = bottom).

• At the lowest, physical layer, the network is mainly static, point-to-point links.

• Circuit switching of the physical optical network is starting.

• Packet switching at the physical optical layer is a research topic .

2.10 Fiber optic splicing

Optical fibres have to be joined together to make longer lengths of fibre or existing fibre

lengths which have been broken have to be repaired. Also the ends of the fibre have to be fitted

with convenient connectors (terminations) to allow them to be easily plugged into equipment

such as power meters, data transmitters, etc. Unlike electrical cables where all that is needed is

Page 31
to solder lengths of cable together, the process of joining two fibres (splicing) or terminating

the end of a fibre is more complex and requires special equipment.

Splicing is the process of joining the two bare ends of two fibres together. The ends of the fibre

must be precisely lined up with each other, otherwise the light will not be able to pass from one

fibre across the gap to the other fibre. There are four main alignment errors and any splicing

technique is designed to deal with ends of these errors.

2.10.1 Possible alignment errors during splicing

There four alignment errors in splicing optical fibres. These are:-

1. Lateral,

2. Axial,

3. Angular,

4. Poor End Finish.

These are illustrated in the diagrams below.

Fig.2.20 Lateral Misalignment Fig.2.21 Angular Misalignment

Fig.2.22 Axial Misalignment Fig.2.23 Poor End Finnish

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There are two main types of splicing:

• Fusion Splicing

Mechanical Splicing 2.10.2 Fusion Splicing

2.10.2 Fusion Splicing

Fig.2.24 Fusion Splicing

Fig.2.25 Fusion Splicer

In fusion splicing the ends of the fibres are aligned either manually using micro- manipulators

and a microscope system for viewing the splice, or automatically either using cameras or by
Page 33
measuring the light transmitted through the splice and adjusting the positions of the fibres to

optimise the transmission The ends of the fibres are then melted together using a gas flame or

more commonly an electric arc. Near perfect splices can be obtained with losses as low as 0.02

dB (best mechanical splice 0.2 dB)

2.10.3 Mechanical Splicing

In mechanical splicing the two fibre ends are held together in a splice. This consists of some

device usually made of glass which by its internal design automatically brings the two fibres

into alignment. The openings at each end of the device are usually fluted to allow the fibres to

be guided into the capillary where the alignment takes place. The splice is fist filled with

optical cement whose refractive index is the same as that of the core of the fibre. After the

fibres have been entered into the splice they are adjusted to give the optimum transmission of

light. At this point they are clamped in position and the whole assembly is exposed to ultra-

violet light which cures the cement.

Fig.2.26 Mechanical Splice

Mechanical splices are best used for multimode fibre. Some splices now exist which are

suitable SM fibre, but have a loss of 0.1dB. This is five times the loss of the best fusion splice.

2.10.4 Benefits of Fusion Splicing

• Low Back Reflectance

• Low Insertion Loss

Page 34
• High Reliability

• Repeatable

• Permanent

• Flexible

• Simple

• COST

There are Six Steps of preparation for fiber:

• Prepare the work area

• Clean Fibre

• Strip Fibre

• Clean Fibre

• Cleave Fibre

• Fuse Fiber

When preparing the work area make sure you have the following items:

• Fusion Splicer

• Precision Cleaver

• Cinbin

• Lint free tissues

• Isopropyl alcohol - IPA

• Miller Strippers

• Splice Protectors 


Page 35
 CHAPTER 3

NETWORKING

Computer networking is an integral part of business today. A network is a group of computers,

printers, and other devices that are connected together with cables. Information travels over the

cables, allowing network users to exchange documents & data with each other, print to the

same printers, and generally share any hardware or software that is connected to the network.

Each computer, printer, or other peripheral device that is connected to the network is called a

node. Networks can have tens, thousands, or even millions of nodes.

3.1 Local Area Network (LAN):

A network is any collection of independent computers that exchange information with each

other over a shared communication medium. Local Area Networks or LANs are usually

confined to a limited geographic area, such as a single building or a college campus. LANs can

be small, linking as few as three computers, but can often link hundreds of computers used by

thousands of people. The development of standard networking protocols and media has resulted

in worldwide proliferation of LANs throughout business and educational organizations.

3.2 Wide Area Network (WAN):

Often elements of a network are widely separated physically. Wide area networking combines

multiple LANs that are geographically separate. This is accomplished by connecting the several

LANs with dedicated leased lines such as a T1 or a T3, by dial-up phone lines (both

synchronous and asynchronous), by satellite links and by data packet carrier services. WANs

can be as simple as a modem and a remote access server for employees to dial into, or it can be

as complex as hundreds of branch offices globally linked. Special routing protocols and filters

minimize the expense of sending data over vast distances.

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3.3 HISTORY OF LAN

In the days before personal computers, a sight might have just one central computer, with users

accessing this via computer terminals over simple low-speed cabling. The first LANs were

created in the late 1970s and used to create high speed links between several large central

computers at one site. Of many competing systems created at this time, Ethernet and ARCNET

were the most popular.

The growth of CP/M and then DOS based personal computer meant that a single site began to

have dozens or even hundreds of computers. The initial attraction of networking these was

generally to share disk space and laser printers, which were both very expensive at the time.

There was much enthusiasm for the concept and for several years from about 1983 onward

computer industry pandits would regularly declare the coming year to be ―the year of the

LANǁ

3.4 OSI REFERENCE MODEL

The OSI reference model consists of seven layers, each of which can (and typically does) have

several sub layers. The upper layers of the OSI reference model (application, presentation,

session, and transport—Layers 7, 6, 5, and 4) define functions focused on the application. The

lower three layers (network, data link, and physical—Layers 3, 2, and 1) define functions

focused on end to end delivery of the data.

• The model was developed by the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) in

1984. It is now considered the primary Architectural model for inter-computer

communications.

• The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model is a descriptive network scheme. It

ensures greater compatibility and interoperability between various types of network

technologies.
Page 37
• The OSI model describes how information or data makes its way from application

programmes (such as spreadsheets) through a network medium (such as wire) to another

application programme located on another network.

• The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information between computers

over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and more manageable problems.

LAYER 7: APPLICATION

• The application layer is the OSI layer that is closest to the user.

• It provides network services to the user‘s applications.

• It differs from the other layers in that it does not provide services to any other OSI layer, 


but rather, only to applications outside the OSI model.

• Examples of such applications are spreadsheet programs, word processing programs, and 


bank terminal programs.

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LAYER 6: PRESENTATION

• The presentation layer ensures that the information that the application layer of one system

sends out is readable by the application layer of another system.

• If necessary, the presentation layer translates between multiple data formats by using a

common format.

• Examples: - JPEG, MPEG, ASCII, EBCDIC, HTML.

LAYER 5: SESSION

• The boundary between the transport layer and the session layer can be thought of as the

boundary between application protocols and data-flow protocols. Whereas the application,

presentation, and session layers are concerned with application issues, the lower four layers

are concerned with data transport issues.

• Layer 4 protocols include TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User

Datagram Protocol).

LAYER 3: NETWORK

• Defines end-to-end delivery of packets.

• Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be identified.

• Defines how routing works and how routes are learned so that the packets can be 


delivered.

• Routers operate at Layer 3.

• Examples: - IP, IPX, AppleTalk.

LAYER 2: DATA LINK

• The data link layer provides access to the networking media and physical transmission across

the media and this enables the data to locate its intended destination on a network.

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• The data link layer uses the MAC address to define a hardware or data link address in order

for multiple stations to share the same medium and still uniquely identify each other.

• Examples: - Ethernet, Frame Relay, FDDI.

LAYER 1: PHYSICAL

The physical layer deals with the physical characteristics of the transmission medium.

It defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional specifications for 


activating, maintaining, and deactivating the physical link between end systems.

Examples: - EIA/TIA-232, RJ45, NRZ.

3.5 Dynamic IP address:

Dynamic IP addresses are issued to identify non-permanent devices such as personal computers

or clients. Internet Service Providers (ISPs) use dynamic allocation to assign addresses from a

small pool to a larger number of customers. This is used for dial-up access, WiFi and other

temporary connections, allowing a portable computer user to automatically connect to a variety

of services without needing to know the addressing details of each network.

3.6 Static IP address:

Static IP addresses are used to identify semi-permanent devices with constant IP addresses.

Servers typically use static IP addresses. The static address can be configured directly on the

device or as part of a central DHCP configuration which associates the device's MAC address

with a static address.

3.7 DOMAIN NAMES:

A network lookup service, the Domain Name System (DNS), provides the ability to map

hostnames to an IP address. This allows humans to easily remember a name and not a series of

numbers. DNS allows multiple addresses and names to point to one Internet resource. Another

Page 40
reason for DNS is to allow, for example, a web site to be hosted on multiple servers (each with

its own IP address) provides for rudimentary load balancing.

3.8 LAN DEVICES 3.8.1 MODEM:

Modem is the short form for modulator-demodulator. A modem is a device or program that

enables a computer to transmit data over, for example, telephone or cable lines. Computer

information is stored digitally, whereas information transmitted over telephone lines is

transmitted in the form of analog waves. A modem converts between these two forms.

3.8.2 SERVER:

A computer or device is a network that manages network resources. For example, a file server

is a computer and storage device dedicated to storing files. Any user on the network can store

files on the server. A print server is a computer that manages one or more printers, and a

network server is a computer that manages network traffic. A database server is a computer

system that processes database queries. Servers are often dedicated, meaning that they perform

no other tasks besides their server tasks. On multiprocessing operating systems, however, a

single computer can execute several programs at once. A server in this case could refer to the

program that is managing resources rather than the entire computer.

3.8.3 UTP:

Short for unshielded twisted pair, a popular type of cable that consists of two unshielded wires

twisted around each other. Due to its low cost, UTP cabling is used extensively for local- area

networks (LANs) and telephone connections. UTP cabling does not offer as high bandwidth or

as good protection from interference as coaxial or fiber optic cables, but it is less expensive and

easier to work with.

Page 41
!

3.8.4 REPEATERS:

A repeater is a physical layer device used to interconnect the media segments of an extended

network. A repeater essentially enables a series of cable segments to be treated as a single

cable. Repeaters receive signals from one network segment and amplify, retime, and retransmit

those signals to another network segment. These actions prevent signal deterioration caused by

long cable lengths and large numbers of connected devices. Repeaters are incapable of

performing complex filtering and other traffic processing. In addition, all electrical signals,

including electrical disturbances and other errors, are repeated and amplified.

3.8.5 BRIDGES:

Bridges connect two LAN segments of similar or dissimilar types, such as Ethernet and Token

Ring. This allows two Ethernet segments to behave like a single Ethernet allowing any pair of

computers on the extended Ethernet to communicate. Bridges are transparent therefore

computers don‘t know whether a bridge separates them.

Page 42
3.8.6 ROUTER:

A router is a device that forwards data packets along networks, and determines which way to

send each data packet based on its current understanding of the state of its connected networks.

Routers are typically connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a

LAN and its Internet Service Providers (ISPs) network. Routers are located at gateways, the

places where two or more networks connect.

Routers filter out network traffic by specific protocol rather than by packet address. Routers

also divide networks logically instead of physically. An IP router can divide a network into

various subnets so that only traffic destined for particular IP addresses can pass between

segments. Network speed often decreases due to this type of intelligent forwarding. Such

filtering takes more time than that exercised in a switch or bridge, which only looks at the

Ethernet address. However, in more complex networks, overall efficiency is improved by using

routers.

3.8.7 LAN EXTENDER:

A LAN extender is a remote-access multilayer switch that connects to a host router. LAN

extenders forward traffic from all the standard network layer protocols (such as IP, IPX, and

AppleTalk) and filter traffic based on the MAC address or network layer protocol type. LAN

extenders scale well because the host router filters out unwanted broadcasts and multicasts.

However, LAN extenders are not capable of segmenting traffic or creating security firewalls.

Page 43
 CHAPTER 4

SOLID STATE INTERLOCKING

Solid State Interlocking is a data-driven signal control system designed for use throughout the

British railway system. SSI is a replacement for electromechanical interlocking which are

based on highly reliable relay technology---and has been designed with a view to modularity,

improved flexibility in serving the needs of a diversity of rail traffic, and greater economy. The

hugely complex relay circuitry found in many modern signalling installations is expensive to

install, difficult to modify, and requires extensive housing---but the same functionality can be

achieved with a relatively small number of interconnected solid state elements as long as they

are individually sufficiently reliable. SSI has been designed to be compatible with current

signaling practice and principles of interlocking design, and to maintain the operator's

perception of the behavior and appearance of the control system.

4.1 RAILWAY SIGNALING

Railway signaling engineers face a difficult distributed control problem. Train drivers can know

little of the overall topology of the network through which they pass, or of the whereabouts of

other trains in the network and their requirements. Safety is therefore invested in the control

system, or interlocking, and drivers are required only to obey signals and speed limits. The task

of the train dispatcher (signalman, or signal operator) is to adjust the setting of switches and

signals to permit or inhibit traffic flow, but the interlocking has to be designed to protect the

operator from inadvertently sending trains along conflicting routes.

The network can be operated with more security and efficiency if the operators have a broad

overview of the railway and the distribution of trains. Since the introduction of mechanical

interlocking in the late 1800's, and as the technology has gradually improved, the tendency has

Page 44
therefore been for control to become progressively centralized with fewer signal control canters

individually responsible for larger portions of the network. In the last decade Solid State

Interlocking has introduced computer controlled signaling, but the task of designing a safe

interlocking remains essentially unchanged.

Fig.4.1 RAILWAY SIGNALING

At the signal control centre a control panel displays the current distribution of trains in the

network, the current status of {signals}, and sometimes that of point switches (points) and other

signaling equipment. The railway layout is depicted schematically on the panel.

4.2 OPERATION OF SOLID STATE INTERLOCKING

There are seven (three aspect) main signals shown here, and three sets of points. It is British

Rail's practice to associate routes only with main signals. The operator can select a route by

pressing the button at the entrance signal (say, S7), then pressing the button at the exit signal

the consecutive main signal, being the entrance signal for the next route (S5). This sequence of

events is interpreted as a panel route request, and is forwarded to the controlling computer for

evaluation. Other panel requests arise from the points keys which are used to manually call

Page 45
(and hold) the points to the specified position or from button pull events (to cancel a route by

pulling the entrance signal button).

Fig.4.2 Signals (Si) on the control panel appear on the left to the direction of travel.

When the controlling computer receives a panel route request it evaluates the availability

conditions specified for the route. These conditions are given in a database by Geographic Data

which the control program evaluates in its on-going dialogue with the network. If the

availability conditions are met the system responds by highlighting the track sections along the

selected route on the display (otherwise the request is simply discarded). At this point the route

is said to be locked: no conflicting route should be locked concurrently, and a property of the

interlocking we should certainly verify is that no conflicting route can be locked concurrently.

Once a route is locked the interlocking will automatically set the route. Firstly, this involves

calling the points along the route into correct alignment. Secondly, the route must be proved

this includes checking that points are correctly aligned, that the filaments in the signal lamps

are drawing current, and that signals controlling conflicting routes are on (i.e., red). Finally, the

entrance signal can be switched off when the route is clear of other traffic---a driver

approaching the signal will see it change from red to some less restrictive aspect (green, yellow,

etc.), and an indicator on the control panel will be illuminated to notify the operators.
Page 46
Other than conveying status information about points and signals, track-side functional

modules report the current positions of trains. These are inferred from track circuit inputs to the

modules. Track circuits are identified with track sections which are electrically insulated from

one another. If the low voltage applied across the rails can be detected, this indicates there is no

train in the section; a train entering the section will short the circuit causing the voltage to drop

and the track section will be recorded as occupied at the control centre. Track circuits are

simple, fail-safe devices, and one of the primary safety features of the railway.

All actions performed by Solid State Interlocking whether in response to periodic inputs from

the track-side equipment, a periodic panel requests, or in preparing outgoing command

telegrams are governed by rules given in the Geographic Data that configure each Interlocking

differently.

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 CHAPTER 5

AUTO EXCHANGE COMMUNICATION

5.1 Electronic exchange

• Railway has its own communication system including microwave stations and automatic

electronic exchanges.

• Power Plant (Required for exchange)

• C-DOT Exchange

• Digital Electronic Exchange

• Jaipur Division exchange consists of three main exchanges:

• First is having a capacity of 128 lines. It is based on C-DOT technology which is an Indian

Technology and it is a product of RTPL (Raj. Telematics Pvt. Ltd.).

5.1.1 C-dot electronic exchange

Features:

• 128 terminations can be accommodated in single frame.

• The maximum subscribers accommodation is 96 with 8 Junction lines and can be extended

up-to 24 with reduction of subscriber lines.

• Fully digital exchange.

• Stored program controlled. 


Non-blocking exchange and need Less installation time.

5.2 ISDN

Integrated Services for Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of communication standards for

simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video, data, and other network services over the

traditional circuits of the public switched telephone network. It was first defined in 1988 in the
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CCITT red book.[1] Prior to ISDN, the telephone system was viewed as a way to transport

voice, with some special services available for data. The key feature of ISDN is that it

integrates speech and data on the same lines, adding features that were not available in the

classic telephone system. There are several kinds of access interfaces to ISDN defined as Basic

Rate Interface (BRI), Primary Rate Interface (PRI), Narrowband ISDN (N-ISDN), and

Broadband ISDN (B- ISDN).

Integrated services refers to ISDN's ability to deliver at minimum two simultaneous

connections, in any combination of data, voice, video, and fax, over a single line. Multiple

devices can be attached to the line, and used as needed. That means an ISDN line can take care

of most people's complete communications needs (apart from broadband Internet access and

entertainment television) at a much higher transmission rate, without forcing the purchase of

multiple analog phone lines. It also refers to integrated switching and transmission[3] in that

telephone switching and carrier wave transmission are integrated rather than separate as in

earlier technology.

5.2.1 ISDN elements

• Basic Rate Interface

• Primary Rate Interface

• Bearer channels

• Signaling channel

• X.25

• Frame Relay

5.3 ISDN IN INDIA

Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited, Reliance Communications and Bharti Airtel are the largest

communication service providers, and offer both ISDN BRI and PRI services across the
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country. Reliance Communications and Bharti Airtel uses the DLC technology for providing

these services. With the introduction of broadband technology, the load on bandwidth is being

absorbed by ADSL. ISDN continues to be an important backup network for point-to-point

leased line customers such as banks, Eseva Centers, Life Insurance Corporation of India, and

SBI ATMs.

5.4 Types of communications through ISDN:

Where an analog connection requires a modem, an ISDN connection requires a terminal

adapter (TA). The function of an ISDN terminal adapter is often delivered in the form of a PC

card with an S/T interface, and single-chip solutions seem to exist, considering the plethora of

combined ISDN- and ADSL-routers.

ISDN is commonly used in radio broadcasting. Since ISDN provides a high quality connection

this assists in delivering good quality audio for transmission in radio. Most radio studios are

equipped with ISDN lines as their main form of communication with other studios or standard

phone lines. Equipment made by companies such as Telos/Omnia (the popular Zephyr codec),

Comrex, Tieline and others are used regularly by radio broadcasters. Almost all live sports

broadcasts on radio are backhauled to their main studios via ISDN connections.

5.5 TELEPHONE EXCHANGE RING TONES:

The status of a local telephone line (idle or busy) is indicated by on-hook or off-hook signals as

follows:

• On-Hook Minimum dc resistance between tip and ring conductors of 30,000 Ohms.

• Off-Hook Maximum dc resistance between tip and ring conductors of 200 Ohms.

Telephone sets give an off-hook condition at all times from the answer or origination of a call

to its completion. The only exception to this is during dial pulsing of rotary or pulse dialing

phones.

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Dial pulses consist of momentary opens in the loop; dial pulses should meet the following

standards:


Pulse rate: 10 pulses/second +/- 10%


Pulse shape: 58% to 64% break (open)


Inter-digital time: 600 milliseconds minimum

NOTE: Two pulses indicate the digit "2", three pulses indicate the digit "3", and so on up to ten

pulses indicating the digit "0".


Audible tones are used in the telephone system to indicate the progress or disposition of a call.

Precise dial tone consists of Current day "precise" tones consist of a summation of two low

distortion sine waves. Earlier tones included below consisted of a higher frequency amplitude

modulated by a lower frequency.

1. Dial tone (Real Audio) / Dial tone (WAV): Precise dial tone consists of 350 and 440 Hz

@ -13 dBm0 per tone, at telephone exchange (continuous). Earlier modulated dial tone

consisted of 600 Hz amplitude modulated by 120 Hz. For Touch-Tone compatibility

reasons this was replaced with precise dial tone on many electro-mechanical exchanges

when they were converted for Touch-Tone calling.

2. Busy tone: "Precise" busy signal (Real Audio) / "Precise" busy signal (WAV): 480 and

620 Hz @ -24 dBm0 per tone, at telephone exchange, interrupted at 60 interruptions per

minute (0.5 sec. on, 0.5 sec. off).

3. Reorder (Real Audio) / Reorder (WAV): (today's standard for "all trunks busy") 480 and

620 Hz interrupted at 120 interruptions per minute.

4. Ringback: "Precise" Ring-Back Tone (Real Audio) / "Precise" Ring-Back Tone (WAV):

440 and 480 Hz @ -19 dBm0 per tone, at telephone exchange (2 seconds on, 4 seconds

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 off). Compare this with 420/40 Hz Modulated Ring-Back Tone (Real Audio) / Modulated

Ring-Back

5. Call waiting (Real Audio) / Call waiting (WAV): 440 Hz @ -13 dBm0, at telephone

exchange (0.3 sec. on every 10 seconds)

5.6 The History of Digital Transmission

• introduction of PCM into Telecom networks

• 32 PCM streams are Synchronously Multiplexed to 2.048

• Mbit/s (E1)

• Multiplexing to higher rates via PDH

• 1985 Bellcore proposes SONET

• 1988 SDH standard introduced.

5.7 PDH: Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy

Multiplex levels:

• 2.048 Mbit/s

• 8.448 Mbit/s

• 34.368 Mbit/s

• 139.264 Mbit/s

• Uses Positive justification to adapt frequency differences

• Overheads: CRC

• Defects: LOS, LOF, AIS

5.7.1 Plesiochronous Multiplexing

• Before SDH transmission networks were based on the PDH hierarchy.

• Plesiochronous means nearly synchronous.

• Also a total of 106 cables required.

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PDH vs. SDH Hierarchy


PDH transmission rates:


SDH is designed to unify all transmission rates into a single Mapping hierarchy.

5.8 SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy):

The basis of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) is synchronous multiplexing - data from

multiple tributary sources is byte interleaved.

• In SDH the multiplexed channels are in fixed locations relative to the framing byte.

• Demultiplexing is achieved by gating out the required bytes from the digital stream.

• This allows a single channel to be ̳ dropped‘ from the datastream without demultiplexing 


intermediate rates as is required in PDH.

5.8.1 SDH Rates

SDH is a transport hierarchy based on multiples of 155.52 Mbit/s

The basic unit of SDH is STM-1:

STM-1 = 155.52 Mbit/s

STM-4 = 622.08 Mbit/s

STM-16 = 2588.32 Mbit/s

STM-64 = 9953.28 Mbit/s

Each rate is an exact multiple of the lower rate therefore the hierarchy is synchronous

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!

Fig.5.1 SDH Rates

• Example: four independent and mutually unsynchronized 2.048 Mbit/s signals (tributaries)

are multiplexed into a single 8.448 Mbit/s signal using positive/zero/negative justification (bit

stuffing) according to ITU-T Rec. G.745.

Further multiplexing is accomplished in a similar way:

• Four 8.448 Mbit/s signals into a 34.368 Mbit/s signal lxii

• Four 34.368 Mbit/s signals into a 139.264 Mbit/s signal.

• Consequently, a 140 Mbit/s signal can consist of a total of 64 independent 2 Mbit/s 


signals.

• When 64 independent and unsynchronized 2.048 Mbit/s tributaries are multiplexed into 


one 139.264 Mbit/s signal, a total of 4 + 16 + 64 = 84 ―multiplex circuitsǁ are needed.

• When a 139.264 Mbit/s signal is demultiplexed into 2.048 Mbit/s signals, a total of 84 


clock synchronization circuits and ―demultiplex circuitsǁ are needed. 


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• When a single 2.048 Mbit/s signal is demultiplexed from a 139.264 Mbit/s signal, three 


clock synchronization and demultiplex circuits are needed.

5.9 DSL Technology

The range of DSL technologies is quite broad, and this breadth can be somewhat confusing to

the uninitiated. This section briefly describes the different types of DSL technology that have

been developed or are currently under development. Much of this development has taken place

in various regional and global standards committees, for example, ANSI committee T1E1.4

(Digital Subscriber Loop Access), ETSI Working Group TM6 (Transmission and

Multiplexing), and ITU-T Study Group 15/Question 4, as well as in-industry forums such as the

DSL Forum.

In simple terms, DSL technologies can be subdivided into two broad classes:

• Asymmetric: In this case, there is asymmetry between the data rates in the downstream and

upstream directions, with the downstream data rate typically higher than the upstream

(usually appropriate for applications such as Web browsing). This division is quite crude

however, and, to confuse matters, some of the various technologies are capable of both

asymmetric and symmetric operation. To further complicate things, many DSL systems are

capable of multi-rate operation, which adds a further dimension of variability.

Fig.5.2 Block diagram of genericǁ DSL reference model. It should be noted that DSL is an

overlayǁ on the existing switched telephone network.

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An additional point to note is that symmetric DSLs generally use baseband modulation such as

pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), where the bandwidth of the transmitted signal extends all

the way down to 0 Hz (notwithstanding the effect of any coupling transformers or other

filtering), whereas the asymmetric technologies generally use passband modulation, which

avoids the lowest frequencies that would be used by voiceband services such as analog

telephony. This is generally because the residential users who would typically make use of

asymmetric DSLs still need to be able to make use of ―lifelineǁ POTS, even when the DSL

service is unavailable (for example, due to a power failure in the customer premises). Provision

of lifeline POTS service is generally less of an issue for business users, who might typically

carry all of their business voice traffic on the DSL link anyway.

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 CHAPTER 6

PUBLIC AMENITIES

6.1 PASSENGER RESERVATION SYSTEM (PRS)

PRS started in 1985 as a pilot project in New Delhi. The objective was to provide ticketing

system for reserved accommodation on any train from any counter, preparation of train

charting and keeping a proper record of the money received. This was implemented all over

Indian Railway later on. With this implementation any passenger can get a reserved ticket

from one destination to another station of India Railway from any Passenger Reservation

Systems counter of Indian Railways.

Internet booking of tickets was started In August 2002.

Internet booking timings extended to 4:00 a.m. – 11:30 p.m. from March 2005.

Fig.6.1 PASSENGER RESERVATION SYSTEM

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This project involves the integration of five major regional reservation centers. It therefore

enables better coordination to improve the reservation process. The major regional centers with

all the information for their regions coordinate for better planning and control. This is a

complex but comprehensive system which provides for better functioning of the reservation

process. IT enables this scale of coordination and such systems rely heavily on a strong IT

backbone. Leased lines are predominantly used to connect this system.

6.2 National Train Enquiry Service (NTES)

National Train Enquiry System (NTES) is a centralized information system that provides up-

to-date and accurate information to passengers regarding arrival/ departure of passenger trains

including expected time of arrival (ETA) of trains.

6.2.1 Why NTES?

1. Arrival and departure of passenger trains


2. Platform berthing of passenger trains


3. Facilities available at various stations ( e.g. retiring rooms) 4. Railway Rules


5. To make above information available on internet

The above information is made available to the public through:

• Display Boards

• Interactive Voice Response System ( telephone enquiry)

• Automatic Announcement System

• Face to Face Enquiry counters

• TV display

• Web Sites

6.2.3 The above information is available at:

• Arrival Departure Information - Control Offices

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• Platform Berthing - Stations

• Other Data - Designated Database Operator

6.3 BOOKING OF TICKETS ON INTERNET

E-ticketing initiative is critical in the current scenario of rapid growth of internet usage and

technologies. This offers customers the convenience of reserving tickets from the comfort of

their homes. This is in keeping with the times. The Indian railways are making an effort to

use IT for not only higher profitability but also for better customer facilities which will also

indirectly lead to higher profits. This is all made possible by IT.

6.4 Unreserved Ticketing System (UTS)

More than 1.2 crore Rail passengers travel in unreserved coaches and trains every day and

thus form the bulk of rail users. For this category of passengers Railways have introduced the

facility of Computerised Unreserved Ticketing System. It was initially provided at 10 stations

of Delhi area in the first stage as a pilot project on 15 August 2002. Another 13 stations of

Delhi area were provided with UTS counters in the second stage on 2nd Oct, 2002.

Indian Railway is constantly looking for new ideas to simplify and streamline procedures for

the convenience of passengers. In this endeavor they have introduced several path breaking

technologies on the Railway system over the years.

6.5 Interactive Voice Response System (IVRS)

Interactive Voice Response (IVR) is a software application that accepts a combination of voice

telephone input and touch-tone keypad selection and provides appropriate responses in the form

of voice, fax, callback, e-mail and perhaps other media. IVR is usually part of a larger

application that includes database access.

Interactive Voice Response (IVR) systems allow callers to get access to information without

human intervention. Thus callers hear a pleasant and cheerful voice 24-hours a day, 7 days a
Page 59
year without any attendant human fatigue. Since even the cost of the call is borne by the caller,

apart from the one-time installation cost, there is no running expense for the company who

deploys the IVR systems. Another advantage to the company is that it would otherwise be

impossible to handle high loads of callers, both in terms of time, and the cost of the large

number of individuals that it would require.

Interactive Voice Response Features

• Simple to use Graphical System Design Interface

• Multiple telephone line support both on Analog and Digital

• Advanced call screening and call switching options

• Can be integrated with any type of database. Playback data retrieved from database

• Text to Speech

• Call Transfer to other extensions, optionally announcing the Caller ID, allowing the 


recipient to accept or decline the call

• Full logging of callers' details and all the selections made during the call

• Multi-Language support (English /Hindi)

• DNIS: (Dialed number identification service)

• ANI: (Automatic Number Identification) 


Page 60
 CONCLUSION

Indian Railways, as an organization is a very vast center of telecommunication in itself. Today

the telecommunicating world is getting its roots, grabbing the new era more firmly. We think

that our training was an success and we think that Indian Railways was an excellent training

institute for inquisitive emerging engineers. In Indian Railways, training is given to engineering

aspirant desiring to secure future in the dynamic world of Telecommunication.

The main achievements of the training at Indian Railways are that we got familiar with the

latest technologies and principles of networking. The main achievement could be said to get

knowledge about recent technologies of LAN. We got experience as to how to organize the

things. After the completion of the training we consider ourselves capable of facing any other

challenge of that type. The training at Indian Railways cultivated the zeal of inquisitiveness and

the excitement to know more than more about this field in limited duration.

Page 61
 References

1. Optical fibres, cables and system ITU-T Manual 2009

2. Centre for Railway Information Systems, INDIAN RAILWAYS, DELHI

3. On ―LOCAL AREA NETWORKǁ

4. Fundamentals of Photonics Bahaa E. A. Saleh, Malvin Carl Teich

5. Signalling and Telecommunication in Indian Railways Report No. PA 26 of 200809 


(Railways)

6. Fiber Optic Telecommunication Nick Massa Springfield Technical Community College 


Springfield, Massachusetts

7. Fiber-Optic Technology, cornings

8. E I M S - Interactive Voice Response System, Redox Technologies

9. Chapter 11, Introduction to DSL Technology, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10. Introduction to the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH), Calyptech

11. Wikipedia

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