https://electricalnotes.wordpress.

com/2012/05/04/zig-zag-connection-of-transformer/

The Zigzag Connection:

 The zigzag connection is also called the interconnected star connection. This connection has some
of the features of the Y and the ∆ connections, combining the advantages of both.
 The zigzag transformer contains six coils on three cores. The first coil on each core is connected
contrariwise to the second coil on the next core. The second coils are then all tied together to form
the neutral and the phases are connected to the primary coils. Each phase, therefore, couples with
each other phase and the voltages cancel out. As such, there would be negligible current through
the neutral pole and it can be connected to ground
 One coil is the outer coil and the other is the inner coil. Each coil has the same number of windings
turns (Turns ratio=1:1) but they are wound in opposite directions. The coils are connected as
follows:
 The outer coil of phase a1-a is connected to the inner coil of phase c2-N.
 The outer coil of phase b1-b is connected to the inner coil of phase a2-N.
 The outer coil of phase c1-c is connected to the inner coil of phase b2-N.
 The inner coils are connected together to form the neutral and our tied to ground
 The outer coils are connected to phases a1,b1,c1 of the existing delta system.

 If three currents, equal in magnitude and phase, are applied to the three terminals, the ampere-
turns of the a2-N winding cancel the ampere-turns of the b1-b winding, the ampere-turns of the
b2-N winding cancel the ampere turns of the c1-c winding, and the ampere-turns of the c2-N
winding cancel the ampere turns of the a1-a winding. Therefore, the transformer allows the three
in-phase currents to easily flow to neutral.
 If three currents, equal in magnitude but 120° out of phase with each other, are applied to the
three terminals, the ampere-turns in the windings cannot cancel and the transformer restricts the
current flow to the negligible level of magnetizing current. Therefore, the zigzag winding provides
an easy path for in-phase currents but does not allow the flow of currents that are 120°out of
phase with each other.
 Under normal system operation the outer and inner coil winding’s magnetic flux will cancel each
other and only negligible current will flow in the in the neutral of the zig –zag transformer.
 During a phase to ground fault the zig-zag transformer’s coils magnetic flux are no longer equal in
the faulted line. This allows zero sequence.
 If one phase, or more, faults to earth, the voltage applied to each phase of the transformer is no
longer in balance; fluxes in the windings no longer oppose. (Using symmetrical components, this is
Ia0 = Ib0 = Ic0.) Zero sequence (earth fault) current exists between the transformers’ neutral to the
faulting phase. Hence, the purpose of a zigzag transformer is to provide a return path for earth
faults on delta connected systems. With negligible current in the neutral under normal conditions,
 engineers typically elect to under size the transformer; a short time rating is applied. Ensure the
impedance is not too low for the desired fault limiting. Impedance can be added after the
secondary’s are summed (the 3Io path)
 The neutral formed by the zigzag connection is very stable. Therefore, this type of transformer, or
in some cases an auto transformer, lends itself very well for establishing a neutral for an
ungrounded 3 phase system.
 Many times this type of transformer or auto transformer will carry a fairly large rating, yet
physically be relatively small. This particularly applies in connection with grounding applications.
The reason for this small size in relation to the nameplate KVA rating is due to the fact that many
types of grounding auto transformers are rated for 2 seconds. This is based on the time to operate
an over current protection device such as a breaker. Zigzag transformers used to be employed to
enable size reductions in drive motor systems due to the stable wave form they present. Other
means are now more common, such as 6 phase star.

Advantages of Zig-Zag Transformer:

 The ∆ -zigzag connection provides the same advantages as the ∆-Y connection.
 Less Costly for grounding Purpose: It is typically the least costly than Y-D and Scott Transformer.
 Third harmonic suppression: The zigzag connection in power systems to trap triple harmonic (3rd,
9th, 15th, etc.) currents. Here, We install zigzag units near loads that produce large triple harmonic
currents. The windings trap the harmonic currents and prevent them from traveling upstream,
where they can produce undesirable effects.
 Ground current isolation: If we need a neutral for grounding or for supplying single-phase line to
neutral loads when working with a 3-wire, ungrounded power system, a zigzag connection may be
the better solution. Due to its composition, a zigzag transformer is more effective for grounding
purposes because it has less internal winding impedance going to the ground than when using a
Star type transformer.
 No Phase Displacement: There is no phase angle displacement between the primary and the
secondary circuits with this connection; therefore, the ∆-zigzag connection can be used in the same
manner as Y-Y and ∆- ∆ transformers without introducing any phase shifts in the circuits.

Application:
 An Earthing Reference: Occasionally engineers use a combination of YD and zigzag windings to
achieve a vector phase shift. For example, an electrical network may have a transmission network
of 220 kV/66 kV star/star transformers, with 66 kV/11 kV delta/star for the high voltage
distribution network. If a transformation is required directly between the 220 kV/11 kV network
the most obvious option is to use 220 kV/11 kV star/delta. The problem is that the 11 kV delta no
longer has an earth reference point. Installing a zigzag transformer near the secondary side of the
220 kV/11 kV transformer provides the required earth reference point.
 As a Grounding Transformer:The ability to provide a path for in-phase currents enables us to use
the zigzag connection as a grounding bank, which is one of the main applications for this
connection.
 We rarely use zigzag configurations for typical industrial or commercial use, because they are more
expensive to construct than conventional Star connected transformers. But zigzag connections are
useful in special applications where conventional transformer connections aren’t effective.
 D or Y / Zig-zag are used in unbalanced low voltage system – mostly with single phase appliances
https://myelectrical.com/notes/entryid/214/fault-calculation-per-unit-system

Fault Calculation - Per Unit System

By Steven McFadyen on March 27th, 2013

Symbol Definition

- per unit
method
current
base

- per unit
method
power base

- per unit
method
voltage
base

- per unit
method
admittance
base

- per unit
method
impedance
base

-
percentage
impedance
 - per unit
impedance

- actual
impedance

- per unit
base
impedance

Per unit fault calculations is a method whereby system impedances and quantities are
normalised across different voltage levels to a common base. By removing the impact of
varying voltages, the necessary calculations are simplified.
To use the per unit method, we normalise all the system impedances (and admittances)
within the network under consideration to a common base. These normalised impedances
are know as per unit impedances. Any per unit impedance will have the same value on both
the primary and secondary of a transformer and is independent of voltage level.
A network of per unit impedances can then be solved using standard network analysis (see
the example). From this fault level can be readily determined.
In applying the per unit method, the first step is to select an arbitrary voltage (V base) and
power (Pbase) base.
Tip: while the base power and voltage be any value, typically it would make sense to select
values related to the system under construction (for example 11 kV and 20 MVA may be
appropriate for a distribution type system)
Per Unit Method
Having selected a base power and voltage, the base per unit values of impedance,
admittance and current can be calculated from:
Per Single Three Phase
Unit Phase
Dividing a system element by it’s per-unit base value gives the per-unit value of the
element, for example

Some times per-unit values are available for a given base kV, but the problem being solved
is using a different base. In this instance it is possible to convert the unit:

Fault calculation problems typically deal wit power sources, generators, transformers and
system impedances. Per-unit values for these elements can be quickly derived from:

Element Per-Unit Value

Source
impedance

Generators

Transformers
Impedances

, where V is in kV

Example - calculating per unit values

Consider a system of source impedance 4.48 Ω connected to a 20 MVA transformer (11/0.4
kV) at 6% impedance. We want to find the fault level at the transformer secondary.
Selecting Pbase as 20 MVA and Vbase as 11 kV and using the above equations:

and

the Line-Neutral voltage on the secondary of the transformer is 0.4/√3 = 0.230 kV, giving:
Three Phase Fault Example

Three Phase Fault Example

Per unit analysis can be used to calculate system three phase fault levels and the current
distributions. To gain a better understanding, it is worth running through the typical steps
required to solve a fault calculation problem.
Given the system single line diagram, construct and simplify the per unit impedance
diagram.
The fault level at the point under consideration is given by:

Where Zpu, is the total impedance between the source and the fault.
Fault flow through parallel branches is given by the ratio of impedances. As illustrated this
can enable fault flows to be found through each branch.

Having calculated the fault flow in each branch, it is then relatively simple to find the current
distribution using:

where:
http://electricalacademia.com/electric-power/per-unit-calculation-per-unit-system-examples/

The per unit (PU or P.U.) method of calculation is often used as an aid in the analysis of electrical
systems that operate at different voltage levels. The determination of per unit values is not the end
objective of a study. Rather determined per unit values serve to assist in the calculation of other
system values. More specifically, the per unit method of calculation is often used in the calculation
of short circuit currents.

The PU system of calculations was more prevalent in the past years. However, the availability of
computer programs for system analysis has diminished to some extent the need for the PU system
of calculations. Nevertheless, a person involved with three-phase electrical power would be well
advised to understand the PU method, its mechanics, and how it is used.

The per unit method uses what are called base values. Selected values of parameters are compared
to selected base values and assigned per unit values. The PU numbers become unitless.

A PU value can readily be converted back to a voltage, power, or any other value as long as the base
value is known. Although the PU system could most likely be used for systems other than electrical
systems, it is probably used mostly with electrical values.

The PU system deals primarily with values of power, voltage, current, and impedance. Any two
variables are selected to be base values. The selection of two base values then fixes the other values.
A per unit quantity then becomes the ratio of a selected parameter to a selected base value.
Basically,

Per Unit = (Present value) ÷ (base value)

Per Unit values are sometimes expressed as a percentage rather than a ratio. For example, if the
base value of voltage had been selected as 13,800 V and the present value is 11,000 V, the value of
voltage per unit is

VPU = 11,000 ÷ 13,800 = 0.797 PU, or

VPU = 0.797 (100) = 79.7% PU

Often, nameplate values are taken as base values but this need not be the case. Some basic
relationships follow and are different for single-phase systems and three-phase systems.

Single Phase Per Unit System

Typically,
Pbase = 1 PU
Vbase = 1 PU
Let,
Qbase = reactive power
Sbase = apparent power
The remainder of the values may be derived from the normal relationships
S = IVP = S cos φQ = S sin φV = I⋅ZZ = R + jXIbase =SbaseVbase Zbase =VbaseIbase =V2baseSbaseYbas
e = 1ZbaseS = IVP = S cos φQ = S sin φV = I⋅ZZ = R + jXIbase =SbaseVbase Zbase =VbaseIbase =Vbase2
SbaseYbase = 1Zbase

Three Phase Per Unit System

In three-phase circuits, some relationships are defined differently from those used in single-phase
circuits. Specifically, for three-phase systems,
 Sbase=3–√Vbase.IbaseSbase=3Vbase.Ibase
Ibase=SbaseVbase×3–√Ibase=SbaseVbase×3

Zbase=VbaseIbase×3–√=V2baseSbaseZbase=VbaseIbase×3=Vbase2Sbase

Ybase=1ZbaseYbase=1Zbase

In general, the per unit values are determined as

Vpu=VVbaseIpu=IIbaseSpu=SSbasePpu=PPbaseZpu=ZZbaseYpu=YYbaseVpu=VVbaseIpu=IIbaseSpu=S
SbasePpu=PPbaseZpu=ZZbaseYpu=YYbase
To change base values, the following expression is used:
Zpu−new=Zpu−old×(Sbase−newSbase−old)(Vbase−oldVbase−new)2Zpu−new=Zpu−old×(Sbase−newS
base−old)(Vbase−oldVbase−new)2

Per Unit System Example of Three Phase System

Consider a three-phase transformer with a rating of 700 MVA and a secondary voltage of 145 kV.
Determine Ibase, Zbase, and Ybase.
There is no obligation to choose the transformer’s ratings as the base values, but it is an option.
Using the transformer’s rated values of apparent power and secondary voltage,
Sbase = 700 MVA
Vbase = 145 kV
The corresponding values of Ibase, Zbase, and Ybase are readily determined.
Ibase=SbaseVbase×3–√=700MVA145kV×3–√=2.78kAIbase=SbaseVbase×3=700MVA145kV×3=2.78kA

Zbase=VbaseIbase×3–√=145kV2.78kA×3–√=30.1ΩZbase=VbaseIbase×3=145kV2.78kA×3=30.1Ω

Ybase=130.1=0.0332SYbase=130.1=0.0332S

If, say, a secondary voltage of 130 kV is under consideration, then the per unit value of that voltage
is
V=VVbase=130kV145kV=0.89puV=VVbase=130kV145kV=0.89pu

Per Unit System Example 2

The single-line diagram of a three-phase system is shown in Fig. 1. Using the common base Sb = 50
MVA, draw the impedance diagram in per unit including the load impedance. The manufacturer’s
nominal ratings are given as follows:

FIGURE 1 Single-line diagram of Example 1.

The three-phase load at bus 4 absorbs 60 MVA at 0.75 power factor (lagging), and lines 1, 2, and 3
have the reactance of 40Ω, 32 Ω, and 30Ω, respectively.
Solution The system of Fig. 1 can be subdivided into different sections with different voltage levels
determined by the transformer turns ratios. A common power base of Sb=50MVASb=50MVA is
chosen for the system, but the voltage bases are selected separately for each voltage level:
Voltage base for buses 1, 2, and 3:Vb(1)=Vb(2)=Vb(3)=110kVVb(1)=Vb(2)=Vb(3)=110kV
Voltage base for bus 4: Vb(4)=11kVVb(4)=11kV
Per-unit reactances of the generators and transformers are
G1:XG1=0.2×5048=0.0208puG2:XG2=0.15×5025=0.3puT1:XT1=0.08×5050=0.08puT2:XT2=0.6×5030=
0.1puT3:XT3=0.1×5050=0.1puG1:XG1=0.2×5048=0.0208puG2:XG2=0.15×5025=0.3puT1:XT1=0.08×5
050=0.08puT2:XT2=0.6×5030=0.1puT3:XT3=0.1×5050=0.1pu

The impedance bases for lines 1, 2, and 3 are

Zb(L1)=Zb(L2)=Zb(L3)=(110)250=242ΩZb(L1)=Zb(L2)=Zb(L3)=(110)250=242Ω

The per-unit reactances of lines 1, 2, and 3 are

L1:XL1=40242=0.165puL2:XL2=32242=0.132puL3:XL3=30242=0.124puL1:XL1=40242=0.165puL2:XL2
=32242=0.132puL3:XL3=30242=0.124pu

The power factor of the load is cos cosφ=0.75cos⁡φ=0.75 lagging; thus, the complex power of the
load is SL=60∠cos−10.75=60∠41.41oMVASL=60∠cos−10.75=60∠41.41oMVA . Hence, the load
impedance in Ω is
ZLoad=V2S∗L=112(60∠41.41o)∗=11260∠−41.41o=2.02∠−41.41o=1.515+j1.336ΩZLoad=V2SL∗=112(6
0∠41.41o)∗=11260∠−41.41o=2.02∠−41.41o=1.515+j1.336Ω

The base impedance for the load is

Zb(bus4)=11250=2.42ΩZb(bus4)=11250=2.42Ω

The per-unit load impedance is

ZLoad=1.515+j1.3362.42=0.626+j0.552puZLoad=1.515+j1.3362.42=0.626+j0.552pu

The impedance diagram of the system with all reactances in PU is plotted in Fig. 2.
 FIGURE 2 Per-phase equivalent impedance diagram for the system shown in Fig. 1.
For either a single-phase system or a three-phase system, the per units become
Vpu=VVbaseIpu=IIbaseSpu=SSbaseZpu=ZZbaseVpu=VVbaseIpu=IIbaseSpu=SSbaseZpu=ZZbase
In all of these expressions, the numerator is a complex vector, whereas the denominator is a real
number. For base values, a value of Sbase = 50 or 100 MVA is often selected. For in-house electrical
systems, a base of Sbase = 10 MVA is more suitable as the VA values are generally smaller than the VA
of overland transmission lines. For transmission lines, 100 MVA is often used. Nevertheless, any
value of S may be used.
Advantages of PU System
There are many advantages to use the per-unit system in power network engineering as such
representation results in more correlated and meaningful data. Some of these advantages are
highlighted as follows:
1. Manufacturers usually provide equipment data with nameplate rating as a base.
2. The range for acceptable % or p.u. values can be easily fixed.
3. Especially useful in networks with multiple voltage levels interconnected through transformers.
4. PU impedance of the transformer is independent of the kV base.
5. Standard base conversion (scaling with MVA Base) formulae are available.
6. While the actual values of the impedances of power system equipment, expressed in ohms, may
vary over a wide range, depending on their rating, their per-unit values are restricted to a narrow
range whatever the rating may be.
7. Per-unit impedances of transformers are the same whether they are referred to the primary or
secondary side, which makes calculations much simpler in multiple voltage level power systems.
8. In equations to calculate power and voltage in three-phase systems, the factors 3–√3 and 3 are
eliminated using the PU system. This way, there is less chance of confusing line and phase voltages
as well as between single- and three-phase power systems.
9. The PU system is very useful for computer-performed calculations concerning steady-state and
dynamic analysis.
Per Unit System Summary
Modern power systems comprise several transmission lines interconnected in subsystems of
different voltage levels through various step-up or step-down transformers. However, this makes it
difficult to figure out the various voltage and power levels at different points in the network. To
overcome this problem, all the system quantities are converted into a uniform normalized platform
called per-unit.
The per-unit representation of physical values consists in expressing these values as fractions or
percentages of some representative bases of the same physical nature. In a per-unit system, each
system variable or quantity is normalized with respect to its own base value:
Xpu=XactualXbaseXpu=XactualXbase

Or
Xpu=XactualXbase×100Xpu=XactualXbase×100

Four base quantities, namely power, voltage, current, and impedance, are necessary for the full
description of a per-unit system. However, because they are interrelated, selecting base values for
any two of them determines the base values of the remaining two. Usually, power, Sb, and
voltage, Vb, are chosen as base values for computing the current, Ib, and impedance, Zb, bases:
Ib=Sb(3φ)3–√Vb(L−L)Ib=Sb(3φ)3Vb(L−L)

Zb=(Vb(L−L) in kV)2Sb(3φ) in MVAZb=(Vb(L−L) in kV)2Sb(3φ) in MVA

Generally, Sb(3Φ) is the three-phase apparent power base, which is the same for the entire network.
Vb(L-L) is the line-to-line base voltage, which is not constant for the entire network. It is a factor of
the transformer ratios. The nominal characteristics (ratings) of power transmission equipment, for
example, generators and transformers, are provided by manufacturers in percent or per-unit
quantities based on their own ratings. It is often convenient to express these values in a common
system basis.