PREFABICATION

Prefabrication is the practice of assembling components of a structure in a factory

or other manufacturing site and transporting complete assembles to the construction site
where the structure is to be located.
Prefabricated building is the completely assembled and erected building of which
the structural parts consist of prefabricated individual units or assemblies using ordinary
or controlled materials.

Principles: (aims)
1) To effect economy in cost
2) To improve in quality as the components can be manufactured under controlled
conditions.
3) To speed up construction since no curing is necessary.
4) To use locally available materials with required characteristics.
5) To use the materials which possess their innate characteristics like light weight,
easy workability, thermal insulation and combustibility etc.

Need for prefabrication

1. Prefabricated structures are used for sites which are not suitable for normal
construction method such as hilly region and also when normal construction
materials are not easily available.
2. PFS facilities can also be created at near a site as is done to make concrete blocks
used in plane of conventional knick.
3. Structures which are used repeatedly and can be standardized such as mass
housing storage sheds, godowns, shelter, bus stand security cabins, site offices,
fool over bridges road bridges. Tubular structures, concrete building blocks etc.,
are prefabricated structures

Uses of prefabrication
1. The most widely used form of prefabrication building and civil
engineering is the use of prefabrication concrete & prefabricated steel
sections in structures where a particular part or form is repeated many
times.
2. Pouring concrete sections in a factory brings the advantages of being able
to re-use moulds and the concrete can be mixed on the spot without having
to be transported to and pumped wet on a congested construction site.
3. Prefabricating steel sections reduces on-site cutting and welding costs as
well as the associated hazards.
4. Prefabrication techniques are used in the construction of apartment blocks
and housing developments with repeated housing units.
5. The technique is also used in office blocks, warehouses and factory
buildings.
6. Prefabricated steel and glass section are widely used for the exterior of
large buildings.
7. Prefabricated bridge elements and systems offer bridge designers &
contractors significant advantages in terms of construction time safety
environmental impact constructability and cost.
8. Prefabrication can also help minimize the impact on transfer from bridge
building.
9. Radio towers for mobile phone and other services often consist of multiple
prefabricated sections.
10. Prefabricated has become widely used in the assembly of aircraft and
space craft with component such as wings and fuselage sections often
being manufactured in different countries or states from the final assembly
site.

Advantage of prefabrication
Self supporting readymade components are used so the need for formwork
shuttering and scaffolding is greatly reduced. 
Construction time is reduced and buildings are completed sooner allowing on
earlier return of the capital invested. 
On-site construction and congestion is minimized. 
Quality control can be easier in a factory assembly line setting than a construction
site setting. 
Prefabrication can be located where skilled labour, power materials space and
overheads are lower. 
Time spent in bad weather or hazardous environments at the construction site is
minimized 
Materials for scaffolding is stored partly or in full and used 
Availability of precise structure and expect workmanship. 
Work time is reduced. 
Fewer expansion joints are required. 
Interruptions in connecting can be omitted. 
Work is done with a better technology. 
Less workers are needed. 
Members can be used again. 

Disadvantages of prefabrication
Careful handling of prefabricated components such as concrete panels or steel and
glass panels is required. 
Attention has to be paid to the strength and corrosion-resistance of the joining of
prefabricated sections to avoid failure of the joint 
Similarly leaks can form at joints in prefabricated components. 
Transportation costs may be higher for voluminous prefabricated sections than for
the materials of which they are made which can often be packed more efficiently. 
Large prefabricated structures require heavy-duty cranes & precision
measurement and handling to place in position. 
Large groups of buildings from the same type of prefabricated elements tend to
look drab and monotonous. Local Jobs are lost.
Precast construction method over conventional in situ
method

Materials used:
Prefabricated building materials are used for buildings that are manufactured off site and shipped
later to assemble at the final location some of the commonly used prefabricated building. The
materials used in the prefabricated components are many.
The modern trend is to use concrete steel, treated wood, aluminium cellular concrete, light
weight concrete, ceramic products etc. While choosing the materials for prefabrication the
following special characteristics are to be considered.
Light weight for easy handling and transport and to economic an sections and
sizes of foundations 
Thermal insulation property 
Easy workability 
Durability in all weather conditions 
Non combustibility 
Economy in cost 
Sound insulation 
Characteristics of materials
Easy availability
Light weight for easy handling and transport and to economies on sections and
seizes of foundations. 
Thermal insulation property 
Easy workability 
Durability to all weather conditions 
Non combustibility 
Economy in cost 
Materials : aluminum, steel, wood, fiberglass and
concrete
Prefabricated metal buildings use galvanized steel and galvalume as the chief materials for
building. Galvalume is a form of steel coated with aluminium zinc. This is to protect the building
against corruption rust and fire. It also provides a study and protective covering to the
prefabricated building. Almost all the components of a metal building such as beams, frames
columns wall & roofs are made of steel. Most fabricated military buildings use steel or
aluminium frames.
[Synthetic materials are used for the walls & roofs. To provide enhanced security a
combination of both metal and cloth materials are used plastic flooring materials can be
quickly assembled and are very durable]
Prefabricated building materials used for small prefabricated buildings are steel, wood, fibre
glass plastic or aluminium materials. These materials are cheaper than regular brick and concrete
buildings. Materials like steel, fibre glass, wood and aluminium are used as prefabricated
building materials for sports buildings. These materials provide flexibility and are preferred for
making structures and accessories like stands and seats for stadium and gyms.
For making low cost houses prefabricated materials like straw bale, Ferro cement consists
of a cement matrix reinforced with a mesh of closely spaced iron rods or wires. In this
type of construction the techniques used are simple & quick.
Using prefabricated material one can make durable, water and fire resistant and cheap
prefabricated buildings Most of the prefabricated building materials are eco-friendly &
affordable.

MODULAR COORDINATION
The modular coordination is defined as the basic module is in adopted the size of
which is selected for general application to building and its components. The value of the
basic module chosen is 100 mm for maximum flexibility and convenience. The symbol
used for basic module is M
1M = 100mm

The purposes
of modular coordination are
i. To reduce the variety of component size produced
ii. To allow the building designer greater.

Objective of modular coordination:

The principal object of modular coordinate is to assist the building design construction
professional building industry and its associated manufacturing industries by
standardization in such a way that building components fit with each other with other
components and with building assembly on site thereby improving the economics of
building.

Modules
Modules are a standard unit of size used to coordinate the dimensions of buildings and
components. They are of two types:
1. Multi modules
2. Basic modules
Multi modules
Multi modules are standardized selected whole multiples of the basic module different
single T beam has resulted the beam to fall 2 basement down. The beam just placed for
connection.
Basic module
The fundamental module used in modular coordination the size of which is selected for
general application to buildings and components

Modular Grid
A rectangular coordinate reference system in which the distance between consecutive
lines is the basic module or a multimodule. This multimodule may differ for each of the
two dimensions of the grid.
Type of Modular Grid
There are different types of grid patterns which are used to locate the positions and
dimensions of building spaces components are
Elements in building design
Continuous grid 
Superimposed grid 
Displacement of grid (or) Tartan grids 
Interrupted grids as neutral zones. 
Continuous grid
Where all dimensions in either direction are based on one increment only.
Superimposed grids
When the modulur grid of 100 mm increment is superimposed on a multi-modulur
grid.
Displacement of grid or tartan grids
Where there is a homogenous and repetitive relation between at least two basic
increments.
Eg:- 1M +2M (or) 3/2 M + 3M
Interrupted grids (or) neutral zones
Where there are non modular interruptions of grids neutral zones are created to
cope with the economics of building design.

REFER
https://www.slideshare.net/sreestr18/prefabrication-and-modular-coordination
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

BASIC CONCEPT , MATERIAL, TYPES, ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Definition of Prestress:
Prestress is defined as a method of applying pre-compression to control the stresses resulting due to
external loads below the neutral axis of the beam tension developed due to external load which is
more than the permissible limits of the plain concrete. The pre-compression applied (may be axial or
eccentric) will induce the compressive stress below the neutral axis or as a whole of the beam c/s.
Resulting either no tension or compression.
Basic Concept
Prestressed concrete is basically concrete in which internal stresses of a suitable magnitude and
distribution are introduced so that the stresses resulting from the external loads are counteracted to a
desired degree.
Terminology
1. Tendon: A stretched element used in a concrete member of structure to impart prestress to the
concrete.
2. Anchorage: A device generally used to enable the tendon to impart and maintain prestress in
concrete.
3. Pretensioning: A method of prestressing concrete in which the tendons are tensioned before the
concrete is placed. In this method, the concrete is introduced by bond between steel & concrete.
4. Post-tensioning: A method of prestressing concrete by tensioning the tendons against hardened
concrete. In this method, the prestress is imparted to concrete by bearing.

Materials for prestress concrete members:

1. Cement: Ordinary Portland cement
2. Steel:- High tensile steel , tendons , strands or cables
(a) Plain hard-drawn steel wire
(b) Cold drawn indented wire
(c) High tensile steel wire bar
(d) Uncoated stress relived strand
3. Water: water content should be as low as possible.
Concrete: Prestress concrete requires concrete, which has a high compressive strength reasonably
early age with comparatively higher tensile strength than ordinary concrete.
Higher the grade of concrete higher the bond strength which is vital in pretensioned concrete, Also
higher bearing strength which is vital in post-tensioned concrete. Further creep & shrinkage losses
are minimum with high-grade concrete.
Generally minimum M30 grade concrete is used for post-tensioned & M40 grade concrete is used for
pretensioned members.
Advantage of Prestressed Concrete
1. The use of high strength concrete and steel in prestressed members results in lighter and
slender members than is possible with RC members.
2. In fully prestressed members the member is free from tensile stresses under working loads,
thus whole of the section is effective.
3. In prestressed members, dead loads may be counter-balanced by eccentric prestressing.
4. Prestressed concrete member posses better resistance to shear forces due to effect of
compressive stresses presence or eccentric cable profile.
 5. Use of high strength concrete and freedom from cracks, contribute to improve durability under
aggressive environmental conditions.
6. Long span structures are possible so that saving in weight is significant & thus it will be
economic.
7. Factory products are possible.
8. Prestressed members are tested before use.
9. Prestressed concrete structure deflects appreciably before ultimate failure, thus giving ample
warning before collapse.
10. Fatigue strength is better due to small variations in prestressing steel, recommended to
dynamically loaded structures.

Disadvantages of Prestressed Concrete

1. The availability of experienced builders is scanty.
2. Initial equipment cost is very high.
3. Availability of experienced engineers is scanty.
4. Prestressed sections are brittle
5. Prestressed concrete sections are less fire resistant.

Classifications and Types

Prestressed concrete structures can be classified in a number of ways depending upon the feature of
designs and constructions.
1. Pre-tensioning: In which the tendons are tensioned before the concrete is placed, tendons are
temporarily anchored and tensioned and the prestress is transferred to the concrete after it is
hardened.
2. Post-tensioning: In which the tendon is tensioned after concrete has hardened. Tendons are placed
in sheathing at suitable places in the member before casting and later after hardening of concrete.
The various methods by which pre-compression are imparted to concrete are classified as follows:
1. Generation of compressive force between the structural elements and its abutments using flat
jack.
2. Development of hoop compression in cylindrically shaped structures by circumferential wire
binding.
3. Use of longitudinally tensioned steel embedded in concrete or housed in ducts.
4. Use of principle of distortion of a statically indeterminate structure either by displacement or
by rotation of one part relative to the remainder.
5. Use of deflected structural steel sections embedded in concrete until the hardening of the latter.
6. Development of limited tension in steel and compression in concrete by using expanding
cements.

The most widely used method for prestressing of structural concrete elements is longitudinal
tensioning of steel by different tensioning devices. Prestressing by the application of direct forces
between abutments is generally used for arches and pavements, while flat jacks are invariably used to
impart the desired forces.
Tensioning Devices
The various types devices used for tensioning steel are grouped under four principal categories, viz.
1. Mechanical devices: The mechanical devices generally used include weights with or without
lever transmission, geared transmission in conjunction with pulley blocks, screw jacks with
or without gear devices and wire-winding machines. These devices are employed mainly for
prestressing structural concrete components produced on a mass scale in factory.
 2. Hydraulic devices: These are simplest means for producing large prestressing force,
extensively used as tensioning devices.
3. Electrical devices: The wires are electrically heated and anchored before placing concrete in
the mould. This method is often referred to as thermo-prestressing and used for tensioning of
steel wires and deformed bars.
4. Chemical devices: Expanding cements are used and the degree of expansion is controlled by
varying the curing condition. Since the expansive action of cement while setting is restrained,
it induces tensile forces in tendons and compressive stresses in concrete.

Prestressing System:
1. Pretensioning system:
In the pre-tensioning systems, the tendons are first tensioned between rigid anchor-blocks cast on
the ground or in a column or unit –mould types pretensioning bed, prior to the casting of
concrete in the mould. The tendons comprising individual wires or strands are stretched with
constant eccentricity or a variable eccentricity with tendon anchorage at one end and jacks at
the other. With the forms in place, the concrete is cast around the stressed tendon.
2. Post-tensioned system:
In post-tensioning the concrete unit are first cast by incorporating ducts or grooves to house the
tendons. When the concrete attains sufficient strength, the high-tensile wires are tensioned by means
of jack bearing on the end of the face of the member and anchored by wedge or nuts. The forces are
transmitted to the concrete by means of end anchorage and, when the cable is curved, through the
radial pressure between the cable and the duct. The space between the tendons and the duct is
generally grouted after the tensioning operation.
Most of the commercially patented prestressing systems are based on the following principle of
anchoring the tendons:
1. Wedge action producing a frictional grip on the wire.
2. Direct bearing from the rivet or bolt heads formed at the end of the wire.
3. Looping the wire around the concrete.

Differnces of PrestressedConcrteOver Reinforced Concrete:

1. In prestress concrete member steel plays active role. The stress in steel prevails whether external
load is there or not. But in R.C.C., steel plays a passive role. The stress in steel in R.C.C
members depends upon the external loads. i.e., no external load, no stress in steel.
2. In prestress concrete the stresses in steel is almost constant where as in R.C.C the stress in steel is
variable with the lever arm.
3. Prestress concrete has more shear resistance, where as shear resistance of R.C.C is less.
4. In prestress concrete members, deflections are less because the eccentric prestressing force will
induce couple which will cause upward deflections, where as in R.C.C., deflections are more.
5. In prestress concrete fatigue resistance is more compare to R.C.C. because in R.C.C. stress in steel
is external load dependent where as in P.S.C member it is load independent.
6. Prestress concrete is more durable as high grade of concrete is used which are more dense in
nature. R.C.C. is less durable.
7. In prestress concrete dimensions are less because external stresses are counterbalance by the
internal stress induced by prestress. Therefore reactions on column & footing are less as a whole
the quantity of concrete is reduced by 30% and steel reduced by about 60 to 70%. R.C.C. is
uneconomical for long span because in R.C.C. dimension of sections are large requiring more
concrete & steel. Moreover as self-weight increases more reactions acted on columns & footings,
which requires higher sizes.

Comparative Study: Pretension Vs Post- Post-tensioned member

tensioned Member Pretension member
1. In pretensionedprestress concrete, steel is 1. Concreting is done first then wires are
tensioned prior to that of concrete. It is released tensioned and anchored at ends. The stress
once the concrete is placed and hardened. The transfer is by end bearing not by bond.
stresses are transferred all along the wire by
means of bond.
2. Suitable for short span and precast products 2. Suitable for long span bridges
like sleepers, electric poles on mass production.
3. In pretensioning the cables are basically 3. The post tensioning cables can be aligned in
straight and horizontal. Placing them in curved any manner to suit the B.M.D due to external
or inclined position is difficult. However the load system. Therefore it is more economical
wire’s can be kept with eccentrically. Since particularly for long span bridges. The curved or
cables can not be aligned similar to B.M.D. inclined cables can have vertical component at
structural advantages are less compare to that of
ends. These components will reduce the design
post-tensioned. shear force. Hence post-tensioned beams are
superior to pretensioned beams both from
flexural and shear resistances point.
4. Prestress losses are more compare to that of 4. Losses are less compare to pre-tensioned
post-tensioned concrete. concrete

LOSSES IN PRESTRESS
The initial prestressing concrete undergoes a gradual reduction with time from the stages of transfer
due to various causes. This is generally defined as total “Loss of Prestress”. The various losses are
explained below:

Types of losses in prestress

Pretensioning

1. Elastic deformation of concrete

2. Relaxation of stress in steel
3. Shrinkage of concrete
4. Creep of concrete
Post-tensioning
1. No loss due to elastic deformation if all wires are simultaneously tensioned. If the
wires are successively tensioned, there will be loss of prestress due to elastic
deformation of concrete.
2. Relaxation of stress in steel
3. Shrinkage of concrete
4. Creep of concrete
5. Friction
6. Anchorage slip
Loss due to elastic deformation of the concrete
The loss of prestress due to deformation of concrete depends on the modular ratio & the average
stress in concrete at the level of steel.
Loss due to shrinkage of concrete
Factors affecting the shrinkage in concrete
1. The loss due to shrinkage of concrete results in shortening of tensioned wires & hence
contributes to the loss of stress.
2. The shrinkage of concrete is influenced by the type of cement, aggregate & the method of
curing used.
3. Use of high strength concrete with low water cement ratio results in reduction in shrinkage and
consequent loss of prestress.
4. The primary cause of drying shrinkage is the progressive loss of water from concrete.
5. The rate of shrinkage is higher at the surface of the member.
6. The differential shrinkage between the interior surfaces of large member may result in strain
gradients leading to surface cracking.
Loss due to creep of concrete
The sustained prestress in the concrete of a prestress member results in creep of concrete which is
effectively reduces the stress in high tensile steel. The loss of stress in steel due to creep of concrete
can be estimated if the magnitude of ultimate creep strain or creep-coefficient is known.
Loss of stress due to friction
The magnitude of loss of stress due to friction is of following types: -
a. Loss due to curvature effect, which depends upon the tendon form or alignment, which
generally follows a curved profile along the length of the beam.
b. Loss of stress due to wobble effect, which depends upon the local deviations in the alignment
of the cable. The wobble or wave effect is the result of accidental or unavoidable
misalignment, since ducts or sheaths cannot be perfectly located to follow a predetermined
profile throughout the length of beam.
EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT STRUCTURES

GENERAL PRINCIPLES
(i) Structures should not be brittle or collapse suddenly. Rather, they should be tough, able to deflect or deform a
considerable amount.
(ii) Resisting elements, such as bracing shear walls, must be provided evenly throughout the building, in both
directions side-to-side, as well as top to bottom.
(iii) All elements, such as walls and the roof, should be tied together so as to act as an integrated unit during
earthquake shaking, transferring forces across connections and preventing separation.
(iv) The building must be well connected to a good foundation and the earth. Wet, soft soils should be avoided, and
the foundation must be well tied together, as well as tied to the wall. Where soft soils cannot be avoided, special
strengthening must be provided.
(v) Care must be taken that all materials used are of good quality, and are protected from rain, sun, insects and other
weakening actions, so that their strength lasts.
(vi) Unreinforced earth and masonry have no reliable strength in tension, and are brittle in compression. Generally,
they must be suitably reinforced by steel or wood.

CATEGORIES OF BUILDINGS
For categorizing the buildings with the purpose of achieving seismic resistance at economical cost three parameters
turns out to be significant:
(i) Seismic intensity zone where the building is located.
(ii) How important the building is and
(iii) How stiff is the foundation soil
A combination of these parameters will determine the extent of appropriate seismic strengthening of the building.

SEISMIC ZONES
In most countries, the macro level seismic zones are defined on the basis of seismic intensity scales in this guide, we
shall refer to seismic zones:-
ZONE A:- Risk of widespread collapse and destruction
ZONE B:-Risk of collapse and heavy damage
ZONE C:-Risk of minor damage

IMPORTANCE OF BUILDING
The importance of the building should be a factor in grading it for strengthening purposes and the following
buildings are suggested as specially important.
IMPORTANT- Hospitals, clinics, communication buildings, fire and police stations, water supply facilities,
cinemas, meeting halls, schools, cultural treasures such as museums, monuments and temples etc.
ORDINARY:-Housing, hostels, offices, warehouses, factories etc.

BEARING CAPACITY OF FOUNDATION SOIL

Three soil types are considered here:-

Firm: Those soils which have an allowable bearing capacity of more than 10 t/m2
SOFT: those soils which have an allowable bearing capacity less than or equal to 10 t/m2
WEAK: Those soils which are liable to large differential settlement or liquefaction during earthquake
Buildings can not be constructed on firm and soft soils but it will be dangerous to build them on weak soils. Hence
appropriate soil investigations should be carried out to establish the allowable bearing capacity and nature of soil.

CHOICE OF SITE
The choice of site for building from the seismic point of view is mainly concerned with the stability of the ground.
The following are important:
1) Stability of slope: hill side slopes liable to slide during an earthquake should be avoided and only stable slopes
should be chosen to locate the building. Also it will be preferable to have several blocks on terraces than have one
large block with footings at very different elevations. A site subject to the danger of rock falls has to be avoided.
2) Very loose sand or sensitive clays:-These two types of soils are liable to be destroyed by the earthquake so much
as to lose their original structure and thereby undergo compaction. This would result in Large unequal settlement
and damage the building. If the loose cohesions soils are saturated with water they are apt to lose their shear
resistance altogether during shaking and become liquefied.

REQUIREMENTS OF STRUCTURAL SAFETY

(i) A pre standing wall must be difficult to achieve in un-reinforced masonry in zone A. Therefore all partitions
inside the buildings must be held on the sides as well as top. Parapets must be reinforced and held to the main
structural slabs of frames.
(ii) Horizontal reinforcement in walls is required for transferring their own out of plane inertia load horizontally to
shear walls.
(iii) The walls must be effectively tied together to avoid separation at vertical joints due to ground shaking.
(iv) Shear walls must be present along both axes of building.
(v) A shear wall must be capable of resisting all horizontal forces due to its own mass and those transmitted to it.
(vi) Roof or floor elements must be tied together and be capable of exhibiting diaphragm action.
(vii) Trusses must be anchored to the supporting walls and have an arrangement for transferring their inertia force to
end walls.

CONCEPTS OF DUCTILITY, DEFORMABILITY AND DAMAGEABILITY

1. DUCTILITY-Formally, ductility refers to the ratio of the displacement just prior to ultimate displacement or
collapse to the displacement at first damage or yield . Some materials are inherently ductile such as steel, wrought
iron and wood. Other materials are not ductile such as cast iron.
2. DEFORMABILITY:-Ability of a structure to displace or deform substantial amounts without collapsing. Besides
inherently relying on ductility of materials and components, deformability requires that structures be well
proportioned, regular and well tied together so that excessive stress concentration are avoided and avoided and
forces are capable of being transmitted from one component to another even through large deformations.
3. DAMAGEABILITY:-Damageability is also a desirable quality for construction and refers to the ability of a
structure to undergo substantial damages, without partial or total collapses.

CONCEPT OF ISOLATION
For reduction of coefficient of friction between the structures and its foundation, one suggested technique is to place
two layers of good quality plastic between the structures and its foundation so that the plastic layers may slide over
each other.
FOUNDATIONS
For the purpose of making a building truly earthquake resistant, it will be necessary to chose an appropriate
foundation type for it .since loads from typical low height buildings will be light, providing the required bearing area
will not usually be a problem. The depth of footing in the soil should go below the zone of deep freezing in cold
countries and below the level of shrinkage cracks in clayey soils.
FIRM SOIL
In firm soil conditions, any type of footing can be used. It should be of course have a firm base of lime or cement
concrete with requisite width over which the construction of the footing may start. It will be desirable to connect the
individual reinforced concrete column footings in zone A by means of RC beams just below plinth level intersecting
at right angles.
SOFT SOIL-
In soft soil, it will be desirable to use a plinth band in all walls and where necessary to connect the individual
column footings by means of plinth beams suggested above. It may be mentioned that continuous reinforced
concrete footings are considered to be most effective from earthquake considerations as well as to avoid differential
settlements under normal vertical loads. These should ordinarily be provided continuously under all the walls.
Continuous footings should be reinforced both in the top and bottom faces, width of the footing should be wide
enough to make the contact pressures uniform and the depth of footing should be below lowest level of weathering.
GENERAL PLANNING AND DESIGN ASPECTS

Plan of building
(i) Symmetry: The building as a whole or its various blocks should be kept symmetrical about both the axes.
A symmetry leads to torsion during earthquakes and is dangerous, Symmetry is also desirable in the placing and
sizing of door and window openings, as far as possible.

(ii) Regularity: Simple rectangular shapes, behave better in an earthquake than shapes with many projections.
Torsional effects of ground motion are pronounced in long narrow rectangular blocks. Therefore, it is desirable to
restrict the length of a block to three times its width. If longer lengths are required two separate blocks with
sufficient separation in between should be provided.
(iii) Separation of Blocks: Separation of a large building into several blocks may be required so as to obtain
symmetry and regularity of each block.
For preventing hammering or pounding damage between blocks a physical separation of 3 to 4 cm throughout the
height above the plinth level will be adequate as well as practical for upto 3 storeyed buildings.
The separation section can be treated just like expansion joint or it may be filled or covered with a weak material
which would easily crush and crumble during earthquake shaking. Such separation may be considered in larger
buildings since it may not be convenient in small buildings.
(iv) Simplicity: Ornamentation involving large cornices, vertical or horizontal cantilever projections, facia stones
and the like are dangerous and undesirable from a seismic viewpoint. Simplicity is the best approach. Where
ornamentation is insisted upon, it must be reinforced with steel, which should be properly em- bedded or tied into
the main structure of the building.
Note: If designed, a seismic coefficient about 5 times the coefficient used for designing the main structure should be
used for cantilever ornamentation.
(v) Enclosed Area: A small building enclosure with properly interconnected walls acts like a rigid box since the
earthquake strength which long walls derive from transverse walls increases as their length decreases.
(vi) Separate Buildings for Different Functions: In view of the difference in importance of hospitals, schools,
assembly halls, residences, communication and security buildings, etc., it may be economical to plan separate
blocks for different functions so as to affect economy in strengthening costs.