A disc brake consists of a disc bolted to the wheel hub and a stationary housing called

caliper. The caliper is connected to some stationary part of the vehicle, like the axle casing or the
stub axle and is cast in two parts, each part containing a piston. In between each piston and the
disc, there is a friction pad held in position by retaining pins, spring plates etc. passages are
drilled in the caliper for the fluid to enter or leave each housing.

These passages are also connected to another one for bleeding. Each cylinder contains
rubber-sealing ring between the cylinder and piston. A schematic diagram is shown in the figure
(1).

. The disc brake is a wheel brake which slows rotation of the wheel by the friction caused
by pushing brake pads against a brake disc with a set of calipers. The brake disc (or rotor in
American English) is usually made of cast iron, but may in some cases be made of composites
such as reinforced carbon–carbon or ceramic matrix composites. This is connected to the wheel
and/or the axle. To stop the wheel, friction material in the form of brake pads, mounted on a
device called a brake caliper, is forced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically or
electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and attached wheel to
slow or stop. Brakes convert motion to heat, and if the brakes get too hot, they become less
effective, a phenomenon known as brake fade. Disc-style brakes development and use began in
England in the 1890s. The first caliper-type automobile disc brake was introduced by Frederick
William Lanchester in his Birmingham, UK factory in 1902 and used successfully on Lanchester
cars. Compared to drum brakes, disc brakes offer better stopping performance, because the disc
is more readily cooled. As a consequence discs are less prone to the “brake fade”; and disc
brakes recover more quickly from immersion (wet brakes are less effective). Most drum brake
designs have at least one leading shoe, which gives a servo effect. By contrast, a disc brake has
no self-servo effect and its braking force is always proportional to the pressure placed on the
brake pad by the braking system via any brake servo, braking pedal or lever, this tends to give
the driver better “feel” to avoid impending lockup. Drums are also prone to “bell mouthing”, and
trap worn lining material within the assembly, both causes of various braking problems.

13
 Figure (1) Disc Braking System of Two Wheeler

3.1.2 Brake Pads

Brake pads convert the kinetic energy of the vehicle into thermal energy because of the
friction. Brake caliper contains two brake pads with their friction surfaces facing the rotor.
When the brakes are applied using hydraulics or any other energy source, the caliper brings the
two pads together into the spinning rotor and rubs them to slow/stop the vehicle. When a brake
pad is heated when it gets contacted with a rotor, it transfers small amounts of friction material to
the disc, turning it dull gray. The brake pad and disc (both now with friction material), then
"stick" to each other, providing the friction that stops the vehicle.

In disc brake applications, there are usually two brake pads per disc rotor, held in place
and actuated by a caliper affixed to a wheel hub or suspension upright. Although almost all road-
going vehicles have only two brake pads per caliper, racing calipers utilize up to six pads, with
varying frictional properties in a staggered pattern for optimum performance. Depending on the
properties of the material, disc wear rates may vary. The brake pads must usually be replaced
regularly (depending on pad material), and most are equipped with a method of alerting the
driver when this needs to take place. Some are manufactured with a small central groove whose
eventual disappearance through wear indicates that the pad is nearing the end of its service life. s
14
wear causes the brakes to squeal audibly. Still others have a soft metal tab embedded in the pad
material that closes an electric circuit and lights a dashboard with a warning light when the brake
pad gets thin.

The different types of brake pads that are most commonly used can be found below.

1. Metallic pads – Now a days, metallic pads are commonly used in almost all the vehicles. A
unique blend of different metals creates metallic brake pads and they are affordable, durable
and gives good performance. They are best installed on small vehicles that don’t witness very
aggressive driving.

2. Organic pads – organic pads are made up of organic materials like rubber, glass and resin
which as the binding agent. Asbestos was used as a brake pad material in olden days beacuse
the material dissipates heat well. However, the dust created was dangerous to health and the
environment so it was replaced by more natural materials. compared to the metallic pads,
organic pads are light in weight and also produces less noise. They’re ideal for small vehicles
and vehicles that don’t see a lot of aggressive driving. The disadvantages of organic pads are
they are very soft, they wear out faster and also more dust is produced.

3. Ceramic pads – ceramic brake pads are recommended for high performance vehicles that
witness sharp turns, high speeds and frequent stops. Ceramic pads are the most expensive of
the brake pads that are available as a consequence of its high performance and this means that
they are usually found on performance or racing cars as their distinctive advantages are best
suited to these performance models.

3.3.1 Material used in brake pad

Some important characteristics that should be taken into account while selecting a
material for the disc brake:

a) The material should resist the brake fade at high temperatures.

b) The effects of water on brake fade (all brakes are designed to withstand at least temporary
exposure to water)

c) It should recover quickly from the increased temperature and moisture.

d) The material should be more reliable.

15
e) The ability of the material to provide smooth even contact with the rotor or drum (rather than
a material that breaks off in chunks or causes pits or dents).

Today, brake pad materials are classified as belonging to one of four principal categories,
as follows:

a) Non-metallic materials - These are made from a combination of various synthetic substances
bonded into a composite, principally in the form of cellulose, aramid, pan, and sintered glass.
They are gentle on rotors, but produce a fair amount of dust and have a short service life.

b) Semi-metallic materials - synthetics mixed with some proportion of flaked metals. These are
harder than non-metallic pads, and are more fade-resistant and longer lasting, but at the cost
of increased wear to the rotor/ drum which then must be replaced sooner. They also require
more force than non-metallic pads in order to generate braking torque.

c) Fully metallic materials - these pads are used only in racing vehicles, and are composed of
sintered steel without any synthetic additives. They are very long-lasting, but require even
more force to slow a vehicle and are extremely wearing on rotors. They also tend to be very
loud.

d) Ceramic materials - Composed of clay and porcelain bonded to copper flakes and filaments,
these are a good compromise between the durability of the metal pads and the grip and fade
resistance of the synthetic variety. Their principal drawback, however, is that unlike the
previous three types and despite the presence of the copper (which has a high thermal
conductivity), ceramic pads generally do not dissipate heat well, which can eventually cause
the pads or other components of the braking system to warp. However, because the ceramic
materials causes the braking sound to be elevated beyond that of human hearing, they are
exceptionally quiet.

16
3.2. Heat transference:

When the system and surroundings are at different temperatures, the Nature tries to reach
thermal equilibrium. According to the second law of thermodynamics, the thermal energy always
transfers from higher temperature systems to lower temperature systems.
The thermal energy can be transferred from one body to another by means of three basic heat
transport mechanisms: Conduction, Convection and Radiation.

3.2.1. Conduction:

Is the transference of heat through direct molecular communication, i.e. by physical contact
of the particles within a medium or between mediums. It takes place in gases, liquids and solids.
In conduction, there is no flow of any of the material mediums.

The governing equation for conduction is called the Fourier’s law of heat conduction and it
express that the heat flow per unit area is proportional to the normal temperature gradient, where
the proportionality constant is the thermal conductivity:

Where q is the heat flux perpendicular to a surface of area A, [W]; A is the surface area through
which the heat flow occurs, [m2] ; k is the thermal conductivity, [W/(mK)]; T is the temperature,
[K] or [°C]; and x is the perpendicular distance to the surface traveled by the heat flux.

3.2.2. Convection :

Convection is the heat transfer by mass motion of a fluid, when the heated fluid moves
away from the heat source. It combines conduction with the effect of a current of fluid that
moves its heated particles to cooler areas and replace them by cooler ones. The flow can be
either due to buoyancy forces (natural convection) or due to artificially induced currents (forced
convection).

The equation that represents convection comes from the Newton’s law of cooling and is of the
form:

17
 Where h is the convective heat transfer coefficient [W/ (m2K)]; T∞ is the temperature of the
cooling fluid; and Ts is the temperature of the surface of the body.

3.2.3. Radiation :

In general, radiation is energy in the form of waves or moving subatomic particles.

Among the radiation types, we are specifically interested in the Thermal radiation. Thermal
radiation is heat transfer by the emission of electromagnetic waves from the surface of an object
due to temperature differences which carry energy away from the emitting object.

The basic relationship governing radiation from hot objects is called the Stefan-Boltzmann law:

Where ε is the coefficient of emissivity (=1 for ideal radiator); σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann
constant of proportionality (5.669E-8 [W/(m2K4)]); A is the radiating surface area; T1 is the
temperature of the radiator; and T2 is the temperature of the surroundings.

3.3. Material properties to consider for disc brake manufacturing:

1. Coefficient of friction.
2. Wear rate.
3. Heat resistance.
4. Withstanding pressure.
5. Heat dissipation.
6. Thermal expansion.
7. Mechanical strength.
8. Moisture.

There have been two principal materials used for their production in recent years. Cast
Iron and Stainless Steel.

18
3.3.1 Cast Iron:

Cast iron is less expensive and gives very good friction coefficients but cast iron is fragile, it is
not compatible with many modern pad materials, particularly sintered pads, cast iron is heavy
and it also rusts. Grey cast iron discs can shatter and ductile cast iron is fragile, very fickle with
pads and in our experience can warp very easily. We distributed a range of discs made from
ductile cast iron for several years and had to return far too many that were warped. The answer
usually came back that the problem had occurred due to the use of inappropriate pads but the
truth is it happened far too often. Some companies still believe cast iron is the right material and
uses it despite of too many negatives and not enough positives.

3.3.2 Stainless Steel:

Stainless steel is little more expensive and has lot more advantages. It doesn’t rust, or at
least not to any great extent. It is very robust, it is compatible with almost all brake pads and
particularly to sintered brake pads. It is highly resistant to wear, it doesn’t shatter and it resists
heat very well. When it was first used the friction coefficients were not as good as cast iron and
this convinces some that cast iron is still the right material. But I asked an executive about it and
he said, that was true 30 years ago but the friction coefficients of stainless steel discs and sintered
pads went past cast iron around 20 years ago! As usual, for proof he pointed to the race results
and pointed out that with the exception of carbon discs in GP, every race bike fitted with Brembo
brakes for the last 20 years or so had used stainless steel discs. Since they are the winning brakes
in almost every major championship year in year out it is difficult to argue. The exact
specification they use has never been released but it is made especially for them.

Graph 2.1: Material analysis

19
3.4. Manufacturing process of disc brake

In modern days, the use of metal is vast and there are various methods of manufacturing a
product from only use of pure molten metal or from any other state of metal as well. When
considering the different methods of manufacturing, most popular methods that are used in large
industries are as follows:

i. Metal Casting
ii. Metal Cutting
iii. Metal Forming and shaping
iv. Fabrication and welding
The above mentioned are few that are used by industries to produce different products
that could make up a machine such as a vehicle, electronic components or other day to day
tools.

3.4.1. Different brake disc designs:

Figure2.2: Inclined row drilled disc.

Figure 2.3: Curved row of drilled disc.

20
Figure2.4: Crossed row of drilled disc.

Figure2.5: Sloted disc.

Figure2.6: Slot and drilled disc.

21
 Figure2.7: Inclined row of slotted disc.

Figure 2.8: Minimum alignment length for various pattern.

22
 4. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
4.1 Introduction to finite element method:

The finite element method is a powerful tool to obtain the numerical solution of wide
range of engineering problem. The method is general enough to handle any complex shape or
geometry, for any material under different boundary and loading conditions. The generality of
the finite element method fits the analysis requirement of today’s complex engineering systems
and designs where closed form solutions of governing equilibrium equations are usually not
available. In addition, it is an efficient design tool by which designers can perform parametric
design studies by considering various design cases, (different shapes, materials, loads, etc.) and
analyze them to choose the optimum design.

The method originated in the aerospace industry as a tool to study stress in a complex
airframe structures. It grows out of what was called the matrix analysis method used in aircraft
design. The method has gained increased popularity among both researchers and practitioners.
The basic concept of finite element method is that a body or structure may be divided into small
elements of finite dimensions called “finite elements”. The original body or the structure is then
considered, as an assemblage of these elements connected at a finite number of joints called
nodes or nodal points.

4.2.General procedure of finite element method:

The finite element method is a method of piecewise approximation in which the

structure or body is divided into small elements of finite dimensions called finite elements and
then the original body or the structure is considered as an assemblage of these elements
connected at finite number of joints called nodal points or nodes. Since the actual variation of
field variables like displacement, stress, temperature, pressure or velocity inside the continuum
are not known, the variation of the field variable inside a finite element can be approximated by a
simple function. These approximation functions called interpolation models are defined in terms
of the values of the field variables of the nodes. The nodal values of the field variable are
obtained by solving the field equations, which are generally in the form of matrix equations.

23
Once the nodal values are known, the approximating functions define the field variable
throughout the assemblage of elements.

The solutions of general continuum problems by the finite element method always follow
an orderly step-by-step process.

The step-by-step procedure for static structural problem can be stated as follows:

Step 1:- Description of Structure (Domain). The first step in the finite element method is to
divide the structure of solution region in to sub divisions or elements.

Step 2:- Selection of proper interpolation model. Since the displacement (field variable) solution
of a complex structure under any specified load conditions cannot be predicted exactly, we
assume some suitable solution, within an element to approximate the unknown solution. The
assumed solution must be simple and it should satisfy certain convergence requirements.

Step 3:- Derivation of element stiffness matrices (characteristic matrices) and load vectors. From
the assumed displacement model the stiffness matrix [K(e)] and the load vector P(e) of element
‘e’ are to be derived by using either equilibrium conditions or a suitable Variation principle.

Step 4:- Assemblage of element equations to obtain the equilibrium equations.

Since the structure is composed of several finite elements, the individual element
stiffness matrices and load vectors are to be assembled in a suitable manner and the overall
equilibrium equation has to be formulated as

[K]φ = P

Where [K] is called assembled stiffness matrix, Φ is called the vector of nodal
displacement and P is the vector or nodal force for the complete structure.

Step 5:- Solution of system equation to find nodal values of displacement (field variable). The
overall equilibrium equations have to be modified to account for the boundary conditions of the
problem. After the incorporation of the boundary conditions, the equilibrium equations can be
expressed as,

[K]φ = P

24
 For linear problems, the vector ‘φ’ can be solved very easily. But for non-linear
problems, the solution has to be obtained in a sequence of steps, each step involving the
modification of the stiffness matrix [K] and ‘φ’ or the load vector P.

Step 6:- Computation of element strains and stresses. From the known nodal displacements, if
required, the element strains and stresses can be computed by using the necessary equations of
solid or structural mechanics. In the above steps, the words indicated in brackets implement the
general FEM step-by-step procedure.

4.3. Convergence requirement:

The finite element method provides a numerical solution to a complex problem. It

may therefore be expected that the solution must converge to the exact formulation of the
structure. Hence as the mesh is made finer the solution should converge to the correct result and
this would be achieved if the following three conditions were satisfied by the assumed
displacement function.

1. The displacement function must be continuous within the element. Choosing polynomials for
the displacement model can easily satisfy this condition.
2. The displacement function must be capable of representing rigid body displacement of the
element. This is when the nodes are given such displacement corresponding to a rigid body
motion; the element should not experience and hence leads to zero nodal forces. The constant
terms in the polynomials used for displacement models would usually ensure this condition.
3. The displacement function must be capable of representing constant strain states within the
element. The reason for the requirement can be understood if we imagine the condition when
the body or structure is divided in to smaller and smaller elements. As these elements
approach infinitesimal size the strain in each element also approach constant strain states. For
one, two and three-dimensional elasticity problems the linear terms present in the polynomials
satisfy the requirement. However, in constant curvature instead of constant strains.

25
4.4. Advantages of FEM:

The properties of each element are evaluated separately, so an obvious advantage is that
we can incorporate different material properties for each element. Thus almost any degree of
non-homogeneity can be included. There is no restriction on to the shape of medium; hence
arbitrary and irregular shapes cause no difficulty like all numerical approximations FEM is based
on the concept of description. Nevertheless as either the variations or residual approach, the
technology recognizes the multidimensional continuous but also requires no separate
interpolation process to extend the approximate solution to every point with the continuum.

One of the important advantages of FEM is that it makes use of boundary conditions in
the form of assembled equations. This is relatively an easy process and requires no special
technology. Rather than requiring every trial solution to satisfy boundary conditions, one
prescribes the conditions after obtaining the algebraic equations for individual’s finite elements.

4.5.Limitations in FEM:

FEM reached high level of development as solution technology; however the method
yields realistic results only if coefficient or material parameters that describe basic phenomena
are available.

The most tedious aspects of use of FEM are basic process of sub-dividing the continuum
of generating error free input data for computer.

4.6. Applications of FEM:

The finite element method was developed originally for the analysis of aircraft structures.
However, the general nature of its theory makes it applicable to wide variety of boundary value
problem in engineering. A boundary value problem is one in which a solution is sought in
domain or region of a body subject to the satisfaction of prescribed boundary conditions.

Finite element method is the best tool in investigation of aircraft structures involving static
analysis of wings, structures of rockets and missiles, dynamic analysis, response to random loads
and periodic loads. In mechanical design, stress concentration problems, stress analysis of
pressure vessels, dynamic analysis of mechanical linkages can be effectively dealt using finite
element method.

26
 The specific application of the finite element method in the three major categories of
boundary value problems, namely equilibrium of steady state or time independent problems,
Eigen value problems, and propagation or transient problems. In the equilibrium problems steady
state displacement or stress distribution is found for a solid mechanics problem, temperature or
heat flux distribution in the case of heat transfer problem. Referring to Eigen value problems in
solid mechanics or structural problem, natural frequencies, buckling loads and mode shapes are
found, stability of laminar flows is found if it is a fluid mechanics problem and resonance
characteristics are obtained if it is an electrical circuit problem, while for the propagation or
transient problem, the response of the body under time varying force is found in the area of solid
mechanics.

Finite element method finds its application in the field of civil engineering in carrying out
the static analysis of trusses, frames and bridges. The dynamic analysis of the structure is to
obtain natural frequencies, modes and response of the structures to periodic loads. Nuclear
engineering also uses finite element method concept in the static and dynamic characterization of
its systems such as nuclear pressure vessels, containment structure and dynamic response of
reactor component containment structures. Even the Biomedical engineering applies finite
element method, for impact analysis of skulls. Finite element method can be applied to analysis
of excavation, underground openings and dynamic analysis of dam reservoir systems, which
come under Geo-mechanics.

27
 5. FEA SOFTWARE – ANSYS

5.1. Introduction to ANSYS Program:

Dr. John Swanson founded ANSYS. Inc. in 1970 with a vision to commercialize the
concept of computer simulated engineering, establishing himself as one of the pioneers of Finite
Element Analysis (FEA). ANSYS Inc. supports the ongoing development of innovative
technology and delivers flexible, enterprise wide engineering systems that enable companies to
solve the full range of analysis problem, maximizing their existing investments in software and
hardware. ANSYS Inc. continues its role as a technical innovator. It also supports a process-
centric approach to design and manufacturing, allowing the users to avoid expensive and time-
consuming “built and break” cycles. ANSYS analysis and simulation tools give customers ease-
of use, data compatibility, multi-platform support and coupled field multi-physics capabilities.

5.2. Evolution of ANSYS Program:

ANSYS has evolved into multipurpose design analysis software program, recognized
around the world for its many capabilities. Today the program is extremely powerful and easy to
use. Each release hosts new and enhanced capabilities that make the program more flexible,
more usable and faster. In this way ANSYS helps engineers meet the pressures and demands
modern product development environment.

5.3. Overview of the program:

The ANSYS program is flexible, robust design analysis and optimization package. The
software operates on major computers and operating systems, from PCs to workstations and to
super computers. ANSYS features file compatibility throughout the family of products and
across all platforms. ANSYS design data access enables user to import computer aided design
models in to ANSYS, eliminating repeated work. This ensures enterprise wide, flexible
engineering solution for all ANSYS user.

User Interface: Although the ANSYS program has extensive and complex capabilities, its
organization and user-friendly graphical user interface makes it easy to learn and use.

There are four graphical methods to instruct the ANSYS program:

1. Menus

2. Dialog Boxes
28
3. Tool bar

4. Direct input of commands.

Menus: Menus are groupings of related functions or operating the analysis program located in
individual windows. These include:

1. Utility menu
2. Main menu
3. Input window
4. Graphics window
5. Tool bar
6. Dialog boxes

Dialog boxes: Windows that present the users with choices for completing the operations or
specifying settings. These boxes prompt the user to input data or make decisions for a particular
function.

Tool bar: The tool bar represents a very efficient means for executing commands for the
ANSYS program because of its wide range of configurability. Regardless of how they are
specified, commands are ultimately used to supply all the data and control all program functions.

Output window: Records the ANSYS response to commands and functions

Graphics window: Represents the area for graphic displays such as model or graphically
represented results of an analysis. The user can adjust the size of the graphics window, reducing
or enlarging it to fit to personal preferences.

Input window: Provides an input area for typing ANSYS commands and displays program
prompt messages.

Main menu: Comprise the primary ANSYS functions, which are organized in pop-up side
menus, based on the progression of the program.

Utility menu: Contains ANSYS utility functions that are mapped here for access at any time
during an ANSYS session. These functions are executed through smooth, cascading pull down
menus that lead directly to an action or dialog box.

29
Processors: ANSYS functions are organized into two groups called processors. The ANSYS
program has one pre-processor, one solution processor; two post processors and several auxiliary
processors such as the design optimizer. The ANSYS preprocessor allows the user to create a
finite element model to specify options needed for a subsequent solution. The solution processor
is used to apply the loads and the boundary conditions and then determine the response of the
model to them. With the ANSYS post processors, the user retrieves and examines the solutions
results to evaluate how the model responded and to perform additional calculations of interest.

Database: The ANSYS program uses a single, centralized database for all model data and
solution results. Model data (including solid model and finite element model geometry, materials
etc.) are written to the database using the processor. Loads and solution results data are written
using the solutions processor. Post processing results data are written using the post processors.
Data written to the database while using one processor are therefore available as necessary in the
other processors.

File format: Files are used, when necessary, to pass the data from part of the program to another,
to store the program to the database, and to store the program output. These files include
database files, the results file, and the graphics file and so on.

5.4. Reducing the design and manufacturing costs using ANSYS (FEA):

The ANSYS program allows engineers to construct computer models or transfer CAD
models of structures, products, components, or systems, apply loads or other design performance
conditions and study physical responses such as stress levels, temperature distribution or the
impact of vector magnetic fields. In some environments, prototype testing is undesirable or
impossible. The ANSYS program has been used in several cases of this type including
biomechanical applications such as hi replacement intraocular lenses. Other representative
applications range from heavy equipment components, to an integrated circuit chip, to the bit-
holding system of a continuous coal-mining machine. ANSYS design optimization enables the
engineers to reduce the number of costly prototypes, tailor rigidity and flexibility to meet
objectives and find the proper balancing geometric modifications. Competitive companies look
for ways to produce the highest quality product at the lowest cost. ANSYS (FEA) can help
significantly by reducing the design and manufacturing costs and by giving engineers added
confidence in the products they design. FEA is most effective when used at the conceptual

30
design stage. It is also useful when used later in manufacturing process to verify the final design
before prototyping.

Program availability:

The ANSYS program operates on Pentium based PCs running on Wndows95 or

Windows NT and workstations and super computers primarily running on UNIX operating
system. ANSYS Inc. continually works with new hardware platforms and operating systems.

Analysis types available:

1. Structural static analysis.

2. Structural dynamic analysis.

3. Structural buckling analysis.

a) Linear buckling
b) Nonlinear buckling

4. Structural non linearity’s.

5. Static and dynamic kinematics analysis.

6. Thermal analysis.

7. Electromagnetic field analysis.

8. Electric field analysis

9. Fluid flow analysis

a) Computational fluid dynamics

b) Pipe flow

10. Coupled-field analysis

11. Piezoelectric analysis.

5.5. Procedure for ANSYS analysis:

Static analysis is used to determine the displacements, stresses, strains and forces in
structures or components due to loads that do not induce significant inertia and damping effects.
Steady loading in response conditions are assumed. The kinds of loading that can be applied in a

31
static analysis include externally applied forces and pressures, steady state inertial forces such as
gravity or rotational velocity imposed (non-zero) displacements, temperatures (for thermal
strain). A static analysis can be either linear or nonlinear. In our present work we consider linear
static analysis.

The procedure for static analysis consists of these main steps:

1. Building the model.

2. Obtaining the solution.

3. Reviewing the results.

5.6. Build the model:

Figure 5.1 Schematic Diagram of a Disc brake

In this step we specify the job name and analysis title use PREP7 to define the element
types, element real constants, material properties and model geometry element types both linear
and non-linear structural elements are allowed. The ANSYS element library contains over 80
different element types. A unique number and prefix identify each element type. E.g. BEAM 3,
PLANE 55, SOLID 45 and PIPE 16

32
5.7. Material properties:

Young’s modulus(EX) must be defined for a static analysis .If we plan to apply inertia
loads(such as gravity) we define mass properties such as density(DENS).Similarly if we plan to
apply thermal loads (temperatures) we define coefficient of thermal expansion(ALPX).

5.8 Obtain the solution:

In this step we define the analysis type and options, apply loads and initiate the finite element
solution. This involves three phases:

a) Pre – processor phase

b) Solution phase
c) Post-processor phase

5.8.1. Pre – Processor:

Preprocessor has been developed so that the same program is available on micro, mini,
super-mini and mainframe computer system. This slows easy transfer of models one system to
other. Preprocessor is an interactive model builder to prepare the FE (finite element) model and
input data. The solution phase utilizes the input data developed by the preprocessor, and prepares
the solution according to the problem definition. It creates input files to the temperature etc., on
the screen in the form of contours.

5.8.1.1. Geometrical definitions:

There are four different geometric entities in preprocessor namely key points, lines, areas
and volumes. These entities can be used to obtain the geometric representation of the structure.
All the entities are independent of other and have unique identification labels.

5.8.1.2. Model generations:

Two different methods are used to generate a model:

a) Direct generation.
b) Solid modeling

With solid modeling we can describe the geometric boundaries of the model, establish
controls over the size and desired shape of the elements and then instruct ANSYS program to
generate all the nodes and elements automatically. By contrast, with the direct generation

33
method, we determine the location of every node and size, shape and connectivity of every
element prior to defining these entities in the ANSYS model. Although, some automatic data
generation is possible (by using commands such as FILL, NGEN, EGEN etc.) the direct
generation method essentially a hands on numerical method that requires us to keep track of all
the node numbers as we develop the finite element mesh. This detailed book keeping can become
difficult for large models, giving scope for modeling errors. Solid modeling is usually more
powerful and versatile than direct generation and is commonly preferred method of generating a
model.

5.8.1.3. Mesh generation:

In the finite element analysis the basic concept is to analyze the structure, which is an
assemblage of discrete pieces called elements, which are connected, together at a finite number
of points called Nodes. Loading boundary conditions are then applied to these elements and
nodes. A network of these elements is known as Mesh.

5.8.1.4. Finite element generation:

The maximum amount of time in a finite element analysis is spent on generating elements
and nodal data. Preprocessor allows the user to generate nodes and elements automatically at the
same time allowing control over size and number of elements. There are various types of
elements that can be mapped or generated on various geometric entities.

The elements developed by various automatic element generation capabilities of

preprocessor can be checked element characteristics that may need to be verified before the finite
element analysis for connectivity, distortion-index, etc. Generally, automatic mesh generating
capabilities of preprocessor are used rather than defining the nodes individually. If required,
nodes can be defined easily by defining the allocations or by translating the existing nodes. Also
one can plot, delete, or search nodes.

5.8.1.5. Boundary conditions and loading:

After completion of the finite element model it has to constrain and load has to be
applied to the model. User can define constraints and loads in various ways. All constraints and
loads are assigned set 1D. This helps the user to keep track of load cases.

34
5.8.1.6. Model display:

During the construction and verification stages of the model it may be necessary to view
it from different angles. It is useful to rotate the model with respect to the global system and
view it from different angles. Preprocessor offers this capability. By windowing feature
preprocessor allows the user to enlarge a specific area of the model for clarity and details.
Preprocessor also provides features like smoothness, scaling, regions, active set, etc. for efficient
model viewing and editing.

5.8.1.7. Material definitions:

All elements are defined by nodes, which have only their location defined. In the case of
plate and shell elements there is no indication of thickness. This thickness can be given as
element property. Property tables for a particular property set 1-D have to be input. Different
types of elements have different properties for e.g. Beams: Cross sectional area, moment of
inertia etc. Shells: Thickness Springs: Stiffness Solids: None

The user also needs to define material properties of the elements. For linear static analysis,
modules of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio need to be provided. For heat transfer, coefficient of
thermal expansion, densities etc. are required. They can be given to the elements by the material
property set to 1-D.

5.8.2. Solution:

The solution phase deals with the solution of the problem according to the problem
definitions. All the tedious work of formulating and assembling of matrices are done by the
computer and finally displacements and stress values are given as output. Some of the
capabilities of the ANSYS are linear static analysis, non-linear static analysis, transient dynamic
analysis, etc.

5.8.3. Post – Processor:

It is a powerful user-friendly post-processing program using interactive color graphics. It

has extensive plotting features for displaying the results obtained from the finite element
analysis. One picture of the analysis results (i.e. the results in a visual form) can often reveal in
seconds what would take an engineer hour to asses from a numerical output, say in tabular form.
The engineer may also see the important aspects of the results that could be easily missed in a

35
stack of numerical data. Employing state of art image enhancement techniques, facilities viewing
of:

a) Contours of stresses, displacements, temperatures, etc.

b) Deform geometric plots
c) Animated deformed shapes
d) Time-history plots
e) Solid sectioning
f) Hidden line plot
g) Light source shaded plot
h) Boundary line plot etc.

The entire range of post processing options of different types of analysis can be accessed through
the command/ menu mode there by giving the user added flexibility and convenience.

36
 6. DISC BRAKE CALCULATIONS:

6.1. Assumptions:

1. The analysis is done by taking the distribution of the braking torque between the front wheel
and rear wheel.
2. Brakes is applied on the front wheel only.
3. The analysis is based on pure thermal loading. The analysis does not determine the life of the
disc brake.
4. Only ambient air-cooling is taken in to account and no forced convection is taken.
5. The kinetic energy of the vehicle is lost through the brake discs i.e. no heat loss between the
tyres and the road surface and the deceleration is uniform.
6. The disc brake model used is of homogenous material.
7. The thermal conductivity of the material used for the analysis is uniform throughout.
8. The specific heat of the material used is constant throughout and does not change with the
temperature. 9. Heat flux on each front wheel is applied on one side of the disc only.
6.2. CALCULATION FOR INPUT PARAMETERS:

In the aspect of the accident prevention, the braking performance of vehicles has been a
critical issue. The rotor model heat flux is calculated for the vehicle moving with a velocity
27.77 m/s (100kmph) and the following is the calculation

Procedure:

Data:

1) Mass of the vehicle = 132 kg

2) Initial velocity (u) = 27.77 m/s (100 kmph)

3) Vehicle speed at the end of the braking application (v) = 0 m/s

4) Brake rotor diameter = 0.262 m

5) staic front axle load =(γ)=0.3
total motor cycle load

6) Percentage of kinetic energy that disc absorbs (90%) k=0.9

7) Acceleration due to gravity g =9.81m/s2

8) Coefficient of friction for dry pavement μ=0.45.

37
Diameter of the rotor disc- 241mm
Rotor disc material- cast iron and stainless steel
Coefficient of friction (µ)- stainless steel - 0.5, cast iron - 0.5
Maximum temperature - 350o c, Maximum pressure- 1Mpa

Tangential force between the brake pad and rotor:

FTRI= normal force between brake pad and rotor
µ = coefficient of friction = 0.5
A = pad brake area = 0.0067 m2
FTRI = µ.FRI ----------- EQ(1)
FRI = (Pmax /2)×A --------EQ(2)
FTRI = µ.FRI
FTRI = 0.5 × 0.5 × 1E6 × 0.0067 = 1675N
Tangential force between the pad and rotor is equal to FTRI because of the same normal force
and material.
Brake torque Tb = FT.R
FT is the normal forces on the disc brake = 1675N
R is the radius of the rotor
Tb = FT.R
= 1675 × (120× 10e-3) = 201NM
BRAKE DISTANCE:
Work done = FT ----------EQ(4)
FT = normal forces on the disc brake.
X = distance travelled by vehicle before coming to rest.
kinetic energy = mv2./2 -----------EQ(5)
where, m = mass of the vehicle
v = velocity of the vehicle
comparing EQ(4) and EQ(5)
FT.X = mv2./2
V = 100 kmph = 27.77 m/s
mass = 132kg
38
 X = mv2/ 2FT

= 132 × 27.772/ (2 × 1675)

= 30.38m

THERMAL CALCULATIONS:
Heat generated through braking:

Heat generated in rotor (J/S)

Q = m. CP . ∆T ---------------EQ(6)
Heat flux (W/M2)
Heat flux = Q/A

MASS OF THE DISC STAINLESS STEEL CAST IRON

MODEL 1 1.3kg 1.2kg
MODEL 2 1.26kg 1.18kg
MODEL 3 1.36kg 1.22kg

STAINLESS STEEL CALCULATIONS:

MODEL 1 CALCULATIONS:
Heat generated in rotor (J/S)
Q = m. CP . ∆T ---------------EQ(6)

Heat flux (W/M2)

Heat flux = Q/A
m = mass of the disc = 1.3kg
∆T = Temperature difference = 15oc
A = 0.06328 m2
Specific heat = 320 J/kg k

Q = m. CP . ∆T = 1.3 × 320 × 15 = 6240J

Heat flux = (heat generated/sec)/ Area of the disc
= (6232/5)/ 0.06328 = 19696 W/m2
39
 Thermal Gradient = Heat flux / Thermal conductivity
= 19696 / 36 = 547.12 k/m
MODEL 2 CALCULATIONS:
Heat generated in rotor (J/S)
Q = m. CP . ∆T ---------------EQ(6)

Heat flux (W/M2)

Heat flux = Q/A
m = mass of the disc = 1.26kg
∆T = Temperature difference = 15oc
A = 0.05892 m2
Specific heat = 320 J/kg k

Q = m. CP . ∆T = 1.26 × 320 × 15 = 6048J

Heat flux = (heat generated/sec)/ Area of the disc
= (6048/5)/ 0.05892 = 20529 W/m2

Thermal Gradient = Heat flux / Thermal conductivity

= 20529 / 36 = 570.26 k/m

MODEL 3 CALCULATIONS:
Heat generated in rotor (J/S)
Q = m. CP . ∆T ---------------EQ(6)

Heat flux (W/M2)

Heat flux = Q/A
m = mass of the disc = 1.36kg
∆T = Temperature difference = 15oc
A = 0.06628 m2
Specific heat = 320 J/kg k
Q = m. CP . ∆T = 1.36 × 320 × 15 = 6048J
Heat flux = (heat generated/sec)/ Area of the disc
= (6528/5)/ 0.06628 = 19698 W/m2
40
 Thermal Gradient = Heat flux / Thermal conductivity
= 19698 / 36 = 547.17 k/m
CAST IRON CALCULATIONS:
MODEL 1 CALCULATIONS:
Heat generated in rotor (J/S)
Q = m. CP . ∆T ---------------EQ(6)

Heat flux (W/M2)

Heat flux = Q/A
m = mass of the disc = 1.2kg
∆T = Temperature difference = 15oc
A = 0.06328 m2
Specific heat = 380 J/kg k

Q = m. CP . ∆T = 1.2 × 380 × 15 = 6840J

Heat flux = (heat generated/sec)/ Area of the disc
= (6840/5)/ 0.06328 = 21618 W/m2

Thermal Gradient = Heat flux / Thermal conductivity

= 21618 / 50 = 432.36 k/m

MODEL 2 CALCULATIONS:
Heat generated in rotor (J/S)
Q = m. CP . ∆T ---------------EQ(6)

Heat flux (W/M2)

Heat flux = Q/A
m = mass of the disc = 1.18kg
∆T = Temperature difference = 15oc
A = 0.05892 m2
Specific heat = 380 J/kg k
Q = m. CP . ∆T = 1.18 × 380 × 15 = 6726J
Heat flux = (heat generated/sec)/ Area of the disc
41
 = (6726/5)/ 0.05892 = 22830 W/m2
Thermal Gradient = Heat flux / Thermal conductivity
= 22830 / 50 = 456.61 k/m

MODEL 3 CALCULATIONS:
Heat generated in rotor (J/S)
Q = m. CP . ∆T ---------------EQ(6)

Heat flux (W/M2)

Heat flux = Q/A
m = mass of the disc = 1.22kg
∆T = Temperature difference = 15oc
A = 0.06628 m2
Specific heat = 380 J/kg k

Q = m. CP . ∆T = 1.22 × 380 × 15 = 6954J

Heat flux = (heat generated/sec)/ Area of the disc
= (6954/5)/ 0.06628 = 20983 W/m2

Thermal Gradient = Heat flux / Thermal conductivity

= 20983 / 50 = 419.67 k/m

42
 A

6.3. ANALYTICAL TEMPERATURE RISE CALCULATIONS:

The contact area between the pads and disc of brake components, heat is generated due to
friction. For calculation of heat generation at the interface of these two sliding bodies, two
methods are suggested on the basis of “law of conservation of energy which states that the
kinetic energy of the vehicle during motion is equal to the dissipated heat after vehicle stop”. The
material properties and parameters adopted in the calculations are as shown in table.

Table.6.2: Material Properties for Stainless Steel and Cast Iron

Material Properties Stainless Steel (Model I) Cast Iron (Model II)

Thermal conductivity(w/m k) 36 50

Density , ρ (kg/m3) 7100 6600

Specific heat , c (J/Kg ϲ ) 320 380

Thermal expansion , α (10-6 / 0.12 0.16

k)

Elastic modulus, E (GPa) 210 110

Coefficient of friction, μ 0.5 0.5

Film co-efficient h(w/km2 ) 240 280

Operation conditions

Angular velocity,( rad /s) 50 50

Braking Time Sec 5 6

Hydraulic pressure, P (M pa) 1 1

43
7. FEM MODELS OF BRAKE DISC WITH MESHING

Model 1:

Figure 7.1: Meshing of Model 1

Sizing

Relevance Center Fine

Element Size Default

Initial Size Seed Active Assembly

Smoothing Medium

Transition Fast

Span Angle Center Coarse

Minimum Edge Length 2.5e-004 m

Statistics

Nodes 53771

Elements 29243

44
 Model 2:

Figure 7.2: Meshing of Model 2

Sizing

Relevance Center Fine

Element Size Default

Initial Size Seed Active Assembly

Smoothing Medium

Transition Fast

Span Angle Center Coarse

Minimum Edge Length 8.5106e-005 m

Statistics

Nodes 52632

Elements 28833

45
 Model 3:

Figure7.3: Meshing of Model 3

Sizing

Relevance Center Fine

Element Size Default

Initial Size Seed Active Assembly

Smoothing Medium

Transition Fast

Span Angle Center Coarse

Minimum Edge Length 8.5106e-005 m

Statistics

Nodes 54667

Elements 30092

Mesh Metric None

46
 8. RESULTS
8.1. Stainless Steel: Model No. 1

Figure8.1: Temperature distribution plot for SS Model No. 1

Figure8.2: Heat flux plot SS Model No. 1

47
 Model No. 2:

Figure8.3: Temperature distribution plot SS Model No. 2

Figure8.4: Heat flux plot SS Model No. 2

48
 Model No. 3:

Figure8.5: Temperature distribution plot SS Model No. 3

Figure8.6: Heat flux plot SS Model No. 3

49
8.2. Cast iron: Model No. 1

Figure8.7: Temperature distribution plot CI Model No. 1

Figure8.8: Heat flux plot CI Model No. 1

50
 Model No. 2

Figure8.9: Temperature distribution plot CI Model No. 2

Figure8.10: Heat flux plot CI Model No. 2

51
 Model No. 3

Figure8.11: Temperature distribution plot CI Model No. 3

Figure8.12: Heat flux plot CI Model No. 3

52
 9. DISCUSSION

From the figures, given above, we can summarize the results in the following manner: -

Table no. 9.1 Maximum and minimum Temperature Distribution

Temperature Distribution
Results
(oC)

Material Stainless Steel Cast Iron

Min Max Min Max

Model No.1 100 285.03 86.425 140.25

Model No.2 80 381.17 80 160.24

Model no.3 80 267.72 80 144.23

Table no. 9.2 Maximum and minimum Total Heat Flux

Total Heat Flux

Results
(W/m2)

Material Stainless Steel Cast Iron

Min Max Min Max

Model No.1 1557.1 1.48×105 545.7 1.53×105

Model No.2 398.14 2.01×105 461.88 2.39×105

Model no.3 491.38 1.52×105 568.75 1.70×105

53
 10. CONCLUSION

Based on the study of various design patterns of disc brakes using different materials, we
have noticed that the temperature rise is maximum in stainless steel when compared to cast iron.
Hence, on the basis of thermal analysis, cast iron is the best preferable material for
manufacturing disc brake. However cast iron disc brake suffers a drawback of getting corroded
when it comes in contact with moisture and hence it cannot be used in two wheeler and thus we
prefer stainless steel.

Heat dissipation from disc brake also depends on the type of design pattern used. The
different design patterns studied are:-

A) Model No. 1- With less no. of circular holes.

B) Model No. 2- With kidney shaped holes.
C) Model No. 3- With more no. of circular holes.

Among the above models best heat dissipation is observed for model 2 consisting kidney
shaped holes and made of cast iron.

54
 REFERENCE

1. “Brakes and Dynamometer”-Theory of Machine by R.S. Khurmi & J.K. Gupta-732.

2. “Heat Transfer”- D.S. Pavaskar & S.H. Chaudhari.
3. “Thermal analysis guide”-
http://orange.engr.ucdavis.edu/Documentation12.0/120/ans_the.pdf
4. “Disc Brake” - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc_brake
5. “Structural and Thermal Analysis of rotor disc
brake”-http://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/9554608.pdf

55